Journal of Arabian Studies

Arabia, the Gulf, and the Red Sea

ISSN: 2153-4764 (Print) 2153-4780 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjab20

Contemporary Art and Global Identity in the

Arabian Peninsula and Azerbaijan

Lesley Gray

To cite this article: Lesley Gray (2017) Contemporary Art and Global Identity in the
Arabian Peninsula and Azerbaijan, Journal of Arabian Studies, 7:sup1, 65-83, DOI:
10.1080/21534764.2017.1356034

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/21534764.2017.1356034

Published online: 18 Sep 2017.

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Journal of Arabian Studies 7.S1 (August 2017), pp. 65–83
https://doi.org/10.1080/21534764.2017.1356034

Contemporary Art and Global Identity in the

Arabian Peninsula and Azerbaijan
LESLEY GRAY

Abstract: Contemporary art is used not only to communicate inclusivity in the larger global art
community, but also as the chosen medium for the emerging states of Qatar, the UAE, and
Azerbaijan to express their modern identity to a global audience. The media discourse
surrounding the burgeoning art scenes in the Gulf states and Azerbaijan is used to analyze
the impact of contemporary art and its connection to modern Gulf and Azerbaijani identity,
and the way in which identity is telegraphed through art to both international and local
audiences. The intersection of contemporary art, politics, and identity in the Gulf and
Azerbaijan suggests the need for new theoretical frameworks to analyze non-Western
modernities.
Keywords: Contemporary art, global identity, media discourse, Arabian Peninsula,
Azerbaijan, Qatar, UAE

1 Introduction
In the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries of Qatar and the United Arab Emirates (UAE),
the sustained rise of oil prices in the early 2000s changed the region’s political and cultural land-
scapes. Although often less visible than their powerful neighbor, Saudi Arabia, these countries
have emerged as regional and even global players in their own right, as evidenced by the way
in which they have chosen to invest the income from their abundant natural resources into build-
ing influence on a global scale. Both Qatar and the UAE have ruling elites who have implemented
development plans that focus on rapid urbanization, including a significant emphasis on the devel-
opment and promotion of the arts and museums. This development has, in turn, inspired other
regional countries to follow suit, most significantly Azerbaijan, situated on the Caspian Sea
and itself flush with petrodollars and a ruling family intent on bolstering Azerbaijan’s inter-
national reach.
This paper examines the way in which the development of cultural resources has been used by
the governments of Qatar and the United Arab Emirates to create a global image through inter-
national art and culture media, and the extent to which this development acts as an agent to
promote modernity on a global scale. It looks in particular at the use of contemporary art and
its liberal values as an agent of global inclusivity, and then analyzes this strategy through a
case study of Azerbaijan, a regional neighbor that has adopted a similar approach to cultural
development. Museums have long been agents of soft power, and continue to grow in importance
as cities become more global and seek to attract an international audience. Museums –– and con-
temporary art museums and organizations in particular –– have the potential to convey, simul-
taneously, both unique identity and global belonging. Inclusion in a global art movement, such

Lesley Gray is a doctoral candidate in Museum Studies at University College London Qatar, PO Box 25256,
Georgetown Building, Hamad bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar, lesley.gray.13@ucl.ac.uk.

© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

66 Lesley Gray

as contemporary art, conveys modernity in a subtle but prescient way –– to be part of the global
contemporary art world is to be part of the global elite. For countries emerging from the remnants
of twentieth-century imperial influence, investment in art and museums is one of the most direct
ways in which relevance and inclusion can be telegraphed to a global audience. If Western-style
modernity includes technological progress, human rights (humanism), and mediated global par-
ticipation, to what extent do Qatar, the UAE, and Azerbaijan accept Western modernity? Or do
these reflect a different framework?
The paper also focuses on discussions of contemporary art and modernity in a global context,
and how the idea of “Western” modernity, as expressed through contemporary art, is part of a
shared, aspirational global dialogue in which emerging economies seek inclusion through the
development of art and cultural institutions. It examines how these institutions are being developed
in the Arabian Peninsula –– with a particular focus on Qatar –– and in Azerbaijan, as a way in which
to use this dialogue to their own advantage. The success of this development is then considered
through a media discourse analysis, to determine if art and culture provide a dominant, alternative
narrative to criticisms of these places that often take place in Western media. Finally, the paper con-
siders whether modernity as telegraphed by contemporary art needs to be reframed to more accu-
rately reflect myriad, and specifically non-Western, contemporaneity.

2 Contemporary art and modernity

To contextualize the discussion, one that is actively debated across various disciplines and geo-
graphies, I ask: what exactly is contemporary art and what does it convey? Terry Smith, a prolific
art historian and critic mapped the institutional acceptance of the term “contemporary art” in the
1990s to describe art made in the latter part of the twentieth century, when universities, museums,
and auction houses began to use it as a signifier.1 He argued that the conditions under which art
was produced had changed, and thus contemporary art reflects this ideological shift,2 moving
from art produced in the linear tradition, following modern and conceptual art, to something
that resisted these categorizations. Instead, the term sought to reflect the immediacy of the
current global condition, or contemporaneity. In her survey Art & Today, art critic Eleanor Heart-
ney also located this shift in the 1990s, at a time when the preoccupation of art moved to more
immediate geopolitical concerns, eschewing “grand narratives”.3 However, as much as contem-
porary art rejects labels, through this rejection emerge features of contemporary art that make it
what it is (as much as what it is not). Heartney saw contemporary art’s influence in its array of
subjects, media, and contingencies, insofar as it was inclusive of identity, technology, globalism,
politics, and spirituality, to name but a few of the topics presented in her survey of contemporary
art.4
Similarly Smith, in his What is Contemporary Art?, set out to distill the definition of contem-
porary art which he described loosely as an expression of pure contemporaneity –– meaning that it
acknowledged both the global and local conditions under which it had arisen and its place in
relation to them.5 Both Smith and Heartney identified two major factors influencing contemporary
art theory –– namely, that of temporal tension and of ideological dispersion. In a 2010 issue of the
e-flux journal, entitled “What is Contemporary Art?”, contributors who included art critics,

1
Smith, “The State of Art History: Contemporary Art”, The Art Bulletin 92.4 (2010), p. 366.
2
Ibid., p. 370.
3
Heartney, Art & Today (2008), pp. 8–9.
4
Ibid.
5
Smith, What Is Contemporary Art? (2009), pp. 5–8.
 Contemporary Art and Global Identity in the Arabian Peninsula and Azerbaijan 67

historians, and curators also tackled the task of defining contemporary art, only to find themselves
grappling with the same issues. How then did they define contemporary art? As set out in the
introduction, “to be contemporary is to be savvy, reactive, dynamic, aware, timely, in constant
motion, aware of fashion”,6 and to be contemporary, art needed to respond to, and be a part of,
these conditions. With all of this in mind, contemporary art then means being both a part of,
and reacting to, a shared global condition situated in the present.
Within the definitions loosely sketched out above, the art historical and theoretical literature
on the nature of contemporary art identifies two major global ruptures that signify the advent of
the contemporaneous global condition that gives contemporary art its currency today. The first
was the fall of Communism in 1989, and the shift from binary global interests in the form of
the Cold War-era’s social, political, and economic developments within the Soviet Union and
the United States and their proxies, along with the aftermath of the fall of European colonialism.7
The second flashpoint was the terrorist attacks in New York on 11 September 2001, and the sub-
sequent existential tension that has come to dominate the discourse.8 The global art scene turned
its focus to areas previously on the periphery, such as the Middle East, that it could no longer
ignore.9 As analyzed by curator and art historian Okwui Enwezor, one of the major features of
these two ruptures was that contemporary art was taken out of a linear historical trajectory,
which allowed for the flattening out of contemporary art and the horizontal spreading of signifi-
cance from the West to myriad global off-centers of contemporary art.10 More succinctly, Mikkel
Bolt Rasmussen describes the magnitude of this shift as the “movement from the highly tra-
ditional [modern] art exhibitions of the early 1990s with a preponderance of paintings by
middle-aged white men … to the globalisation-critical and post-colonial exhibitions of the late
1990s and 2000s.”11 Enwezor, in particular, has added anthropological and ethnographic frame-
works to the curation and theorization of contemporary art as part of this geographical expan-
sion,12 which has changed the way in which contemporary art is conceptualized by the literature.
While there has been a tendency to focus on First World (Western) and Third World (Global
South) as the major geographic signifiers within contemporary art, the Second World, or that of
post-Communist Russia and Eastern Europe, has not experienced the same kind of engagement
within the global contemporary art scene. Nancy Condee has interrogated the temporalization of
contemporary art through the lens of the post-Soviet “Second World”, still largely absent from
critical discussion in Western scholarship, despite the apparent decentering of the contemporary
art world.13 This idea of temporalization becomes crucial to understanding contemporary art in
the context of globalization, and the burgeoning decentered (from Western Europe and North

6
Aranda, Wood, and Vidokle, “What Is Contemporary Art? Issue Two”, e-flux journal 12 (2010).
7
Heartney, Art & Today (2008), p. 8; Rasmussen, “Scattered (Western Marxist-Style) Remarks About
Contemporary Art, Its Contradictions and Difficulties”, Third Text 25.2 (2011), p. 201.
8
Smith, “Introduction: The Contemporaneity Question”, Antinomies of Art and Culture: Modernity,
Postmodernity, and Contemporaneity, ed. Smith, Enwezor, and Condee (2008), p. 2.
9
Stiles and Selz, Theories and Documents of Contemporary Art: A Sourcebook of Artists’ Writings
(2012), p. 10.
10
Enwezor, “Modernity and Postcolonial Ambivalence”, South Atlantic Quarterly 109.3 (2010),
pp. 595–620.
11
Rasmussen, “Scattered (Western Marxist-Style) Remarks About Contemporary Art, Its Contradictions
and Difficulties”, Third Text 25.2 (2011), pp. 200–01.
12
Rutten and Dienderen, “‘What Is the Meaning of a Safety-Pin?’ Critical Literacies and the Ethno-
graphic Turn in Contemporary Art”, International Journal of Cultural Studies 16.5 (2013), pp. 507–20.
13
Condee, “From Emigration to E-Migration: Contemporaneity and the Former Second World”, Anti-
nomies of Art and Culture: Modernity, Postmodernity, and Contemporaneity, ed. Smith, Enwezor, and
Condee (2008), pp. 235–49.
68 Lesley Gray

America) global contemporary art scene. Art is now inextricably bound to globalization through
shared global media and capital, shaped by the flattening out of the public discourse through the
spread of, and greater access to, technology in the former Second World and the Global South.
Contemporary art is the way in which global actors, either individuals or institutions, can com-
municate with each other through a shared aesthetic language.
The global shift towards contemporary art has provided cultural access to the global elite on
an unprecedented scale. It is from this shifting of global aesthetics that discussions of modernity,
post-modernity, and contemporaneity have also taken a turn in Western academic literature. The
choice to analyze modernity as a theoretical category is due to the extent to which academic think-
ing is still wrapped up in the discussion of modernity –– whether discarding it for post-modernity
or rebranding it as contemporaneity. The literature acknowledges that modernity is both geo-
graphically and temporally uneven, and, as such, Western theoretical frameworks are in the
process of reassessing their relative applicability and inclusivity. The academic landscape of mod-
ernity focuses on both its material and philosophical manifestations; for many, modernity is a
product of Western capitalism and globalization. Despite Jean-François Lyotard’s influential
work, The Postmodern Condition: A Report On Knowledge, which declared the end of modernity
and loss of faith in the grand narratives of progress, science, and the nation-state,14 the concept of
modernity is still actively debated within the social sciences and the arts. As the Soviet Union
collapsed in the late 1980s, and with the creation of new geographies that emerged out of the dis-
solution, the question of the applicability of Western –– specifically, European and North Amer-
ican –– theoretical frameworks in these new countries became a subject of further analysis.
According to political theorist Fredric Jameson, the apparent resuscitation of modernist ideals
is part of post-modernity’s current philosophical recalibration in the face of what appears to be a
need to re-engage the tenets of modernity, a Western lifestyle brand still desired but not yet
attained by many, and not yet fully realized in itself.15 It is from this exclusivity that alternative
modernities emerge in an attempt to create a more inclusive theoretical framework.
The very nature of modernity –– that it is exclusive, aspirational, Western, and the product of
globalization –– has created the need to explore alternative forms that can include the myriad geo-
graphies that fall both ideologically and materially outside Western-style modernity. In his analy-
sis of contemporary art, Smith recast these concepts as “contemporaneity”, i.e., new global
formations of modernity and/or post-modernity that incorporate the immediacy of the global
picture but resist the need for universal applicability. Smith identified three main currents that
inform contemporaneity: globalization and its inherent drive for hegemony, increasing social
inequality and strife and resistance thereof, and the overwhelmingly mediated nature of contem-
porary life.16 Enwezor’s interpretation of modernity through the post-colonial lens also allows for
multeity, or a multiplicity of experiences and meanings. In Enwezor’s examinations of the con-
temporary art world, and particularly the post-colonial world, modernity is context-dependent
and contingent, with Western-style modernity unhelpful in non-Western geographies due to the
uneven nature of development; therefore he recasts modernity as multiple “modernities”, each
more suited to their individual context.17 In this he is echoed by Condee in her analysis of the
Second World (specifically post-Soviet) experience of modernity.18

14
Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. Bennington and Massumi
(1984), pp. 14–15.
15
Jameson, A Singular Modernity (2012), pp. 8.
16
Smith, What is Contemporary Art? (2009), pp. 5–6.
17
Enwezor, “Modernity and Postcolonial Ambivalence” (2010), pp. 609–14.
18
Condee, “From Emigration to E-Migration: Contemporaneity and the Former Second World” (2008),
pp. 235–49.
 Contemporary Art and Global Identity in the Arabian Peninsula and Azerbaijan 69

Art historians and critics Hans Belting and Andrea Buddensieg see a rejection of Western
modernity by non-Western artists through the lens of contemporary art practice as a fragmentation
of the exclusiveness of Western modernity, and a dismantling of the West’s cultural hegemony
and colonial legacy. As Belting and Buddensieg ask, “what happens to all those who were
never modern and could only assert the right of alternative modernities?”19 The very Western
nature of the discourse of modernity has also been critiqued by Dipesh Chakrabarty,20 who
astutely noted that the intellectual tradition so prevalent in this kind of inquiry today grew out
of a Western tradition that is self-referential, and the concept of multiple modernities is resistance
and reaction to this hegemony. What can be determined is that Western modernity as a framework
is contested, and alternative modernities have created space for further academic exploration of
the way in which globalization and Western-style progress, or the lack or rejection thereof, is
experienced in non-Western geographies.

3 Modernity and cultural development in the Arabian Peninsula

Contemporary art is thus a way in which modernity and contemporaneity can be conveyed to non-
Western European and North American locales that are seeking global recognition beyond econ-
omic or military alliances. Because of the elite nature of the global contemporary art scene, con-
temporary art, in practice, reflects local immediacy while still being part of a prestigious
international artistic dialogue. By focusing on local production –– something GCC nations and
Azerbaijan are beginning to do –– new modernities that are borne of the specific contemporaneity
of these places and are in dialogue with Western modernity, transmit legitimacy, belonging, and
global influence through their investments in cultural projects. However, while the oil-rich GCC
countries have balanced their strategic interests with their allies in the West, they have in many
ways remained resistant to Western-style social and economic reforms, despite mounting pressure
from their Western allies. Azerbaijan and the GCC states are both strategically important to
Europe and the USA, geopolitically and (along with their oil wealth) economically, and in
their current geopolitical influence share many similarities; indeed, Baku is often described as
the Caucasian Dubai.
To put this relationship in context, academic literature on the GCC states of Qatar and the
UAE focuses on the recent modernization of these countries in relation to oil and energy reserves,
along with the challenges of economic and social development. Art and cultural projects are used,
both at home and abroad, by the respective governments as a form of soft or “subtle” power to
enhance political legitimacy and relevance,21 in Qatar,22 Abu Dhabi,23 and Dubai,24 despite
fears of censorship in the arts. Western academics have highlighted a critical picture of develop-
ment in the Arabian Peninsula, especially when it comes to cultural development, as evidenced in
the essays published in The Gulf: High Culture/Hard Labor by the artists and academics involved

19
Belting and Buddensieg, “From Art World to Art Worlds”, The Global Contemporary and the Rise of
New Art Worlds, ed. Belting, Buddensieg, and Weibel (2013), p. 28.
20
Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference (2000).
21
Kamrava, Qatar: Small State, Big Politics (2013), pp. 46–68.
22
Fromherz, Qatar: A Modern History (2012), pp. 152; Al-Mulla, “Museums in Qatar: Creating
Narratives at a Time of Global Unease”, Reimagining Museums: Practice in the Arabian Peninsula, ed.
Erskine-Loftus (2013), pp. 160–203; Cooke, Tribal Modern: Branding New Nations in the Arab Gulf
(2014), pp. 79–84.
23
Wakefield, “Hybrid Heritage and Cosmopolitanism in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi”, Reimagining
Museums: Practice in the Arabian Peninsula, ed. Erskine-Loftus (2013), pp. 98–129.
24
Ali, Dubai: Gilded Cage (2010), pp. 73–4.
70 Lesley Gray

in Gulf Labor, the activist art organization.25 The book is highly critical of labor practices used in
the development of Abu Dhabi’s Saadiyat Island museum district, a top-down cultural project that
was designed to build prestige amongst the global elite by attracting international museum brands
such as the Louvre and Guggenheim.26 Gulf Labor itself was formed as a protest about the way in
which cultural institutions that were meant to be bastions of liberalism and egalitarianism had
been coopted into a national branding strategy that included projects allegedly using forced
labor. These are unethical acts that Gulf Labor believes go against the ethos of these institutions
and the artists who have their work in those collections.27 Despite many of its members having
been banned from entering the UAE, the group remains active in the region,28 and continues to
have a strained relationship with institutional leadership on the museum projects on Saadiyat
Island.29
Dubai does not have energy resources on the same scale as Abu Dhabi or Qatar, and thus has
focused on cultural and leisure tourism as an economic driver. Instead of building flagship insti-
tutions like the Museum of Islamic Art (MIA) in Doha or the Louvre or Guggenheim in Abu
Dhabi, Dubai (and its close neighbor Sharjah) has developed a robust gallery system that supports
the local Emirati and expatriate art communities. Dubai also has an art season, running annually
throughout the spring months –– including the globally-recognized art fair, Art Dubai, now in its
tenth year –– and attracting global elite to the city to purchase regional blue chip art.30 Dubai’s
ruling family has been a strong supporter of such initiatives. Many attribute the rise of the emi-
rate’s international stature to the political stability of Shaikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Mak-
toum’s rule,31 and a diversified economy that has allowed for rapid urban development and
modernization. While there is much criticism of this kind of cultural production, which is
regarded as “manufactured”, not indigenous, and therefore not meaningful (and potentially not
sustainable) without expatriate involvement,32 it is still a model replicated throughout the
region. Human rights concerns relating to expatriate labor are also acknowledged,33 along with
alleged corruption in Qatar’s bid for the 2022 FIFA World Cup.34 Dubai is frequently criticized
for its alleged history of money laundering and financial corruption, and many, including Chris-
topher Davidson, are skeptical of its financial reforms.35 Conversely, Jim Krane lauds Dubai’s
“intolerance for corruption” as a key factor in Western investment in the region.36 Further
literature on the Gulf discusses the problems inherent in the lack of government protection
for freedom of speech, which has led to a stifling of public social and political criticism
through “self-censorship”,37 or outright government censorship of the internet and local

25
Ross (ed.), The Gulf: High Culture/Hard Labor (2015).
26
Anon., “About Saadiyat Cultural District”, Saadiyat Cultural District Abu Dhabi website (2012).
27
Ross, “Leveraging the Brand: A History of Gulf Labor”, The Gulf: High Culture/Hard Labor, ed.
Ross (2015), pp. 13–35.
28
Ibid., 32.
29
Anon., “Guggenheim Ends Discussions with Gulf Labor Artist Coalition”, E-Flux Conversations,
Apr. 17, 2016.
30
Anon., “Art Dubai: 10 Years and Going Strong”, The Abraaj Group, 1 Mar. 2016.
31
Davidson, Dubai: The Vulnerability of Success (2008), p. 4.
32
Ali, Dubai: Gilded Cage (2010), p. 72; Krane, City of Gold: Dubai and the Dream of Capitalism
(2010), p. 305.
33
Davidson, Dubai: The Vulnerability of Success (2008), pp. 282–4; Ali, Dubai: Gilded Cage (2010),
pp. 81–109; Fromherz, Qatar: A Modern History (2012), p. 122; Cooke, Tribal Modern: Branding New
Nations in the Arab Gulf (2014), pp. 23–7.
34
Fromherz, Qatar: A Modern History (2012), p. 22.
35
Davidson, Dubai: The Vulnerability of Success (2008), pp. 285–89.
36
Krane, City of Gold: Dubai and the Dream of Capitalism (2010), p. 308.
37
Ali, Dubai: Gilded Cage (2010), pp. 60–2.
 Contemporary Art and Global Identity in the Arabian Peninsula and Azerbaijan 71

press.38 Oil and gas wealth have also brought Qatar political influence either through involvement
in peace talks related to the Arab uprisings and other regional conflicts,39 despite the lack of
democracy and political participation at home.40 Still, the Gulf states remain a relatively success-
ful model for Arab social and political stability and economic prosperity,41 and continue to lead
the discursive framework of Arabian development.

4 Qatar in focus
As global oil prices began to rise at the beginning of the twenty-first century for an extended
time, oil-rich nation-states flush with cash entered a period of rapid urban and cultural develop-
ment. In Qatar, this period began with the rule of His Highness Shaikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al
Thani, who assumed the position of Emir of Qatar in 1995 and implemented a vast plan of infra-
structure and urban development. As part of this national project, Qatar Foundation was formed
in 1995 to develop the knowledge economy of the country. It has since invited US and European
universities and institutions to operate campuses in a bespoke district called Education City, the
public face of which is Her Highness Shaikha Moza bint Nasser, the former first lady and
mother of the current emir. Qatar Foundation also engages in and supports partnerships with
other local cultural institutions and has funded the Qatar Philharmonic Orchestra and charity
organization Reach Out to Asia, among many other such projects.42 Following this initiative
to develop the human capital of the country, Qatar Museums Authority (now Qatar
Museums) was established by His Highness Shaikh Hamad in 2005;43 the emir’s daughter,
Her Excellency Shaikha Al Mayassa bint Hamad Al Thani was appointed head of the authority
in 2009, which allowed for a direct, top-down development of the nation’s cultural insti-
tutions.44 As part of Qatar Museums Authority’s scope, it directed the development of the
Museum of Islamic Art, the flagship museum of Qatar’s cultural project and one of the most
celebrated museums in the region, along with the redesign of the National Museum of Qatar,
set to open in the coming years, and the development of Mathaf: Arab Museum of Modern
Art, which houses the region’s only collection of modern and contemporary art from the
Arab world.
Modern art has a rich history in the Arab world and particularly in the Gulf, both as a site of
production –– in the case of the UAE, home to prolific artists Hassan Sharif and Mohammed
Kazem –– and in patronage, as in the case of Qatar, which is home to a large expatriate artist com-
munity hailing from the region, including many modern artists from Iraq. While heritage
museums and modern art have been incorporated into the cultural life of Qatar, contemporary
art has largely been imported through the form of exhibitions. In addition to the aforementioned
institutions, the Al Riwaq gallery, situated along Doha’s Corniche and on the grounds of the
Museum of Islamic Art, hosts huge survey shows of contemporary art luminaries such as

38
Davidson, Dubai: The Vulnerability of Success (2008), pp. 214–18; Davidson, Abu Dhabi: Oil and
Beyond (2011), pp. 158–62.
39
Cooke, Tribal Modern: Branding New Nations in the Arab Gulf (2014), p. 168; Fromherz, Qatar: A
Modern History (2012), pp. 88–90; Kamrava, Qatar: Small State, Big Politics (2013), pp. 93–6.
40
Fromherz, Qatar: A Modern History (2012), pp. 127–8; Kamrava, Qatar: Small State, Big Politics
(2013), pp. 126–9.
41
Krane, City of Gold: Dubai and the Dream of Capitalism (2010), pp. 308, 311–14.
42
Anon., “Vision, Mission”, Qatar Foundation website (2017); Anon., “QF Entities”, Qatar Foun-
dation website, 2017.
43
Al-Mulla, “Museums in Qatar: Creating Narratives at a Time of Global Unease” (2013), p. 161.
44
Ibid., 162.
72 Lesley Gray

Damien Hirst and Takashi Murakami, and has also hosted group shows of Brazilian, Qatari, and
Chinese contemporary art.
These museums have garnered a considerable amount of interest in the international press due
to their enormous budgets and ambitious architecture, as will be discussed later in this paper,
attracting both praise and criticism. This attention is part of a larger strategy of Qatar’s national
branding, which creates an interface through which to connect with the larger international com-
munity, ostensibly to create a favorable view of the country as open and liberal in the minds of
influential journalists and critics.45 It is a key method through which Qatar’s elite telegraph mod-
ernity to both their local population and to the global elite in the Western European and North
American cities frequented by well-heeled Qataris such as London, Paris, and New York,46
using art as a medium. As stated in Mohamed A. J. Althani’s analysis in The Arab Spring and
the Gulf States: Time to Embrace Change, “the elite of the GCC countries can now associate
with the global elite in terms of their lifestyle and influence based on their investments in infra-
structure, cultural icons and financial institutions”.47 While the elite from the Gulf already have a
major presence in these European capitals through real estate and economic interests, art provides
a connection to the cultural values of these places that mere financial investments cannot. In par-
ticular, Qatar has used contemporary art projects to gain global recognition, although locally it has
sometimes been a subject of controversy. Contemporary art, in particular, is well suited to com-
municate Qatar’s global significance; it resists periodization and represents immediacy, and so
does not require a local aesthetic tradition to signify relevance and inclusion in the global art
world. Since 2009, Qatar Museums has commissioned or installed artworks by luminaries such
as Damien Hirst, Louise Bourgeois, Sarah Lucas, and Marc Quinn, along with emerging stars
like Subodh Gupta and calligraffiti artist El Seed.48 In 2014, Qatar Museums Authority rebranded
itself as Qatar Museums as a way to recast itself as a “cultural instigator” as opposed to a govern-
ment authority.49 This transformation took place in the midst of a larger restructuring of govern-
ment budgets that occurred after the ascension of His Highness Shaikh Tamim bin Hamad al
Thani to the position of emir. This reflected a change in the financial priorities of the state in
advance of the upcoming 2022 World Cup, which requires a vast amount of capital to support
the required infrastructure and sports venues. This need to redirect the majority of state
funding towards infrastructure at a time of lower energy prices and decreased state revenues,
has meant that many cultural projects have been reprioritized.
As a result of this reprioritization, cultural development has been redirected towards growing
the local contemporary art scene with the Qatar Museums’ inception of the Fire Station’s “artist in
residence” program in 2015.50 Other plans continue to develop for the establishment of a contem-
porary art museum on Doha’s Corniche, the Art Mill, the subject of ambitious international design
competitions.51 Support of emerging contemporary artists could provide the bridge between local
resistance to some of the foreignness of contemporary art, and could increase local buy-in for sup-
porting the contemporary art scene. There is no gallery system within the country to promote the
careers of budding artists –– in part because of the top-down nature of the cultural scene as con-
trolled by Qatar Museums and the high cost of business licenses for independent venues. As such,

45
Gray, Qatar: Politics and the Challenges of Development (2013), pp. 159–63.
46
Ibid., p. 176.
47
Althani, The Arab Spring and the Gulf States: Time to Embrace Change (2012), p. 33.
48
Anon., “Public Art: Culture Everywhere”, Qatar Museums website (2016).
49
Scott, “Qatar Museums Authority Announces Re-Branding Amid Layoff Uncertainty”, Doha News,
11 May 2014.
50
Anon., “Fire Station Artist in Residence”, Qatar Museums website (2016).
51
Stevens, “High Profile Names on Longlist for Doha Art Mill in Qatar”, Designboom, 17 Aug. 2015.
 Contemporary Art and Global Identity in the Arabian Peninsula and Azerbaijan 73

there are few opportunities for artists to show their work aside from social media. Beyond the Fire
Station, the majority of the current investment in arts and culture still goes to the large flagship
institutions and international exhibitions.
Because of the high-profile nature of these infrastructure and cultural projects, Qatar suffers
from a complicated international image when it comes to corruption, especially in relation to its
successful bid for the 2022 World Cup, which has been accompanied by accusations of vote
buying to secure the event,52 along with calls to curb labor violations associated with the coun-
try’s rapid development.53 While art is still a dominant method of engaging with the global elite,
the recent shift of focus away from the immediate development and support of many of the
planned institutions in favor of focusing resources on athletic venues calls into question the ulti-
mate sustainability of this new art scene without government patronage. As the current art insti-
tutions were all developed as top-down initiatives, their dominance has not provided much space
for competing grassroots initiatives, potentially stifling alternative voices and impeding the
organic growth of the local art scene. It remains to be seen if recent programs such as the Fire
Station’s “artist in residence” will bear fruit in the long term, and if the more humanistic
values synonymous with the rhetoric of contemporary art –– global engagement, criticality,
reflexivity –– have indeed been influential in how Qataris see their own modernity within their
culture and the global sphere.

5 Azerbaijan in focus
In a manner similar to Qatar and the United Arab Emirates, Azerbaijan has been using its new-
found wealth and prestige to institute an expansive program of urban and cultural development,
most widely seen in the capital Baku. With the disintegration of the Soviet Union and its sub-
sequent independence from the Soviet system in 1991, Azerbaijan has taken control of its oil
wealth and instituted an aggressive program of cultural development focusing on contemporary
art. Located at the crossroads of the Caucasus and Eurasia, at once both European and Asian,
Azerbaijan, a country of 9.4 million inhabitants, has been conquered or influenced by almost
every adjacent ancient civilization and regional imperial power.54 Post-Soviet Azerbaijan has
been largely shaped by the rule of President Heydar Aliyev, who was the former leader of
Soviet Azerbaijan, a high-ranking official for the Soviet Committee for State Security (KGB)
and, at one point, a deputy prime minister of the Soviet Union.55 After a brief period of tumul-
tuous rule after the fall of the Soviet government in 1991,56 Aliyev was elected president in
1993 with the support of the Russian government.57 By consolidating power and implementing
what has been described as authoritarian rule,58 continuing to this day,59 Heydar Aliyev presided
over much needed stability and development after Soviet independence.60 During this time,

52
Nordland, “Corruption Claims Cast Cloud on Qatar’s World Cup Bid”, New York Times, 9 June 2014.
53
For a comprehensive collection of investigative articles on labor practices in Qatar, visit: Anon.,
“Modern-Day Slavery in Focus + Qatar”, The Guardian, 18 Mar. 2017.
54
Anon., “Azerbaijan”, The World Bank (2017); Alstadt, The Azerbaijani Turks: Power and Identity
Under Russian Rule (1992), pp. 1–8; Bolukbasi, Azerbaijan: A Political History (2011), pp. 19–25.
55
Cornell, Azerbaijan since Independence (2011), p. 42.
56
Ibid., p. 59.
57
Ibid., pp. 78–9.
58
Filetti, “Religiosity in the South Caucasus: Searching for an Underlying Logic of Religion’s Impact on
Political Attitudes”, Southeast European and Black Sea Studies 14.2 (2014), p. 220.
59
Mirzayev, “Islamists in Azerbaijan: How Dangerous Are They?”, Euxeinos: Governance and Culture
in the Black Sea Region 9 (2013), p. 13.
60
Cornell, Azerbaijan since Independence (2010), p. 93.
74 Lesley Gray

regional territorial and ethnic tensions came to a head with the Nagorno-Karabakh war with
neighboring Armenia in the early 1990s, which left over 25,000 people dead; Armenia still pre-
sently occupies Nagorno-Karabakh. This was a heavy loss to Azerbaijani cultural identity because
of the historic importance of the region to the nation.61 As recently as April 2016 there has been a
dramatic increase of tensions between the two countries, with ceasefire violations and renewed
border skirmishes with deadly consequences, emphasizing the need for the continued assertion
of Azerbaijani identity within the global community.62
Heydar Aliyev’s legacy is marked by his oversight of the ceasefire with Armenia in 1994,63
and his negotiation of an international oil deal, nicknamed the “contract of the century”, and the
founding of the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republic (SOCAR) in 1994,64 which strategi-
cally oriented Azerbaijan away from Russia and allowed for independent foreign policy. After his
death in 2003, Aliyev’s son, Ilham Aliyev, an academic and oil executive for SOCAR, assumed
the presidency.65 He has used the country’s energy wealth to develop Azerbaijan’s international
image through government funding or sponsorship of ambitious cultural projects by cultivating
“soft power”, or a way of influencing and attracting support using non-political means, especially
cultural engagement. 66
Art has always been part of Azerbaijani culture, and the country has been historically impor-
tant as a center for carpet weaving,67 Islamic architecture, and art in the form of Persian miniature
painting and Soviet-style socialist realism.68 However, Azerbaijan’s current cultural strategy
focuses on contemporary art and, with that, engagement of the larger global contemporary art
world. President Ilham Aliyev has supported the flow of government capital into cultural projects,
the most prestigious of which are run by members of his family –– a structure similar to that of
Qatar’s cultural institutions. Within the past decade, with President Ilham Aliyev’s support, Azer-
baijan has built Baku’s Museum of Modern Art, founded by Vice President and First Lady of
Azerbaijan Mehriban Aliyeva;69 refurbished the Azerbaijani State Art Museum;70 created the
Heydar Aliyev Foundation for cultural development, with Mehriban Aliyeva as president and
her daughter Leyla Aliyeva as vice-president;71 built the Heydar Aliyev Center; established a
new Carpet Museum;72 and supported the creation and growth of the smaller contemporary art
institution Yarat Contemporary Art Organization and its commercial wing Yay Gallery, both
founded by Ilham Aliyev’s niece –– on his wife’s side –– Aida Mahmudova,73 and supported
by Mehriban Aliyeva.74 To put this into a larger regional context, it is very similar to the cultural
expansion that is also underway in the Arabian Peninsula states of Qatar and the United Arab

61
Tokluoglu, “The Political Discourse of the Azerbaijani Elite on the Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict
(1991–2009)”, Europe-Asia Studies 63.7 (2011), pp. 1223–52.
62
Anon., “Dozens Killed in Nagorno-Karabakh Clashes”, Al Jazeera, 3 Apr. 2016.
63
Cornell, Azerbaijan since Independence (2011), p. 89.
64
De Waal, The Caucasus: An Introduction (2010), p. 172.
65
Ibid.
66
Nye, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (2004), pp. 8–11.
67
Anon., “The Development of Carpet Weaving in Azerbaijan”, Azerbaijan (2017).
68
Anon., “The Development of the Fine Arts in Ancient Times and Middle Ages”, Heydar Aliyev Foun-
dation website, n.d.
69
Anon., “Tarix [History]”, Museum of Modern Art Baku website (2010).
70
Anon., “President Ilham Aliyev Reopens Azerbaijan State Museum of Arts”, Azer Tac [Azerbaijan
State News Agency], 25 Sept. 2009.
71
Anon., “Structure of the Foundation”, Heydar Aliyev Foundation website (2017).
72
Orujova, “New Carpet Museum Opens in Baku”, Azernews, 27 Aug. 2014.
73
Anon., “Overview”, Yarat: Contemporary Art Space, n.d.; Adam, “Pioneers of the Caspian”, Finan-
cial Times, 5 Oct. 2012.
74
Anon., “Supporters”, Yarat: Contemporary Art Space, n.d.
 Contemporary Art and Global Identity in the Arabian Peninsula and Azerbaijan 75

Emirates, creating a more nuanced picture for the rise of contemporary art in new nations funding
their modern identity through energy wealth.
It is through the theoretical lens of modernity, contemporaneity, and art, that emergent
themes within Qatar, the UAE, and Azerbaijan’s development can be assessed. Petrodollars
and partnerships with Western oil companies have allowed Azerbaijan to pursue Dubai-style
rapid urban development.75 Indeed, Dubai is often used as a model for Baku. Recent urban
development in Azerbaijan has also been driven in part by Azerbaijan’s hosting of the 2012
Eurovision Song Contest (ESC). This was considered one of the most significant events in
the construction of Azerbaijan’s contemporary identity because it served as a platform to show-
case Azerbaijan to the Western world, which is similar to the strategies employed by both Qatar
and the UAE as venues for international events, such as the 2022 World Cup in Qatar, and the
2020 World Expo in Dubai. Hosting these global competitions typically includes guaranteed
participation, and inclusion in such prestigious, competitive spectacles supports the growing
international profile of these emerging countries. However, in the international media coverage
of the ESC, Azerbaijan faced continued criticism from the European Union for its autocratic
leanings,76 much like the sustained criticism faced in the GCC over labor practices. To
analyze the current role of contemporary art in Azerbaijan and the way in which Qatar and
UAE-style cultural development is being replicated elsewhere, media discourse analysis is
used to evaluate contemporary art as a feature of Azerbaijan’s emerging, elite global image
alongside that of Qatar and the UAE.

6 Cultural development and the international media

The international media discourse surrounding Qatar, the UAE, and Azerbaijan, and their respect-
ive contemporary art scenes during the very active years leading up to the 2015 slump in oil
prices, is a useful tool to examine key themes in the media representation of Azerbaijan and
the GCC states. I analyze some of the English-language media, focusing the discussion on the
foreign media portrayal of Qatar and the UAE as energy-rich countries using their wealth to
fund art and cultural projects. I then contextualize this information with an examination of the
same material for Azerbaijan to determine the extent to which a common discourse is emerging
around countries with a similar economic profile within the region. Media discourse analysis
evaluates how the use of a specific language is as important as the subject of discussion since “dis-
courses not only represent the world as it is (or rather is seen to be), they are also projective, ima-
ginaries, representing possible worlds which are different from the actual world, and tied in to
projects to change the world in particular directions”.77 As discourses are social constructions,
the media as an institution has the authority to both create and subvert authorized or official dis-
course, by creating a “consensus approach to history, smoothing over conflict and social differ-
ence”.78 The extent to which the authorized discourse dominates media coverage of Qatar, the
UAE, and Azerbaijan is analyzed alongside the key themes.
The modernity of countries such as Qatar and Azerbaijan is one that is actively explored, fil-
tered, and constructed by the global news media, which has created a specific type of discourse

75
Rasizade, “Azerbaijan’s Prospects in Nagorno-Karabakh”, Mediterranean Quarterly 22.3 (2011),
pp. 72–94; Ismayilov, “State, Identity, and the Politics of Music: Eurovision and Nation-Building in Azer-
baijan”, Nationalities Papers: The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity 40.6 (2012), pp. 833–51.
76
Ibid., p. 838.
77
Fairclough, Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research (2003), p. 124.
78
Waterton, Smith, and Campbell, “The Utility of Discourse Analysis to Heritage Studies: The Burra
Charter and Social Inclusion”, International Journal of Heritage Studies 12.4 (2006), p. 339.
76 Lesley Gray

when highlighting information about these nations. Discourse in this case can be defined, through
language and text, “as an element of social life which is closely interconnected with other
elements”,79 or as discussed by Alan Bryman, knowledge creation through “a particular set of
linguistic categories relating to an object and the ways of depicting it [that] frame the way we
comprehend the object”.80 Therefore, discourse, as an agent of knowledge creation, can be
seen as an actor in the construction of identity, power, and myriad relationships between insti-
tutions and various constituencies. This is the “causal power of discourse –– the conditions
under which particular ways of construing reality in a document [newspaper article or blog
post] … may have constructive, transformative effects on reality”.81 Through this theoretical fra-
mework, the international popular news media and its relationship to the global image of moder-
nity in Qatar, the UAE, and Azerbaijan, can be assessed to draw out similar themes. This media
discourse analysis focuses on Azerbaijan and attempts to determine the extent to which the Gulf
states provide a model for cultural development and “soft power”, either by explicit or implicit
associations.
For Azerbaijan, one of the most significant media events in recent years was its 2011 win of
the Eurovision Song Contest (ESC), which mandated that the next event be hosted in 2012 in
Baku. The ESC helped to both strengthen Azerbaijan’s European identity and to initiate vast
changes to Baku’s cultural and urban infrastructure,82 making it more tourist-friendly.
However, it also directly affected thousands of Bakuvians, whose homes and neighborhoods
were demolished to accommodate the development needed for the event.83 Along with the
opening of Azerbaijan for the ESC came increased attention, and both the accomplishments
and the setbacks faced by Azerbaijan and its government have been spotlighted by the inter-
national media. Analyzing this recent media coverage is one way to determine both how the inter-
national community sees Azerbaijan, and how the country has evolved over the past five years,
developing a media-savvy image.
Both political media and media on contemporary art/culture are analyzed and assessed in
Table I, which offers a breakdown of the most common themes used in both media. Political
media is defined in this context as established Western news media, such as the New York
Times and The Guardian, which cover Azerbaijan extensively, and are the most visible and
easily accessed publications when searching for this kind of information online. Art/culture
media includes art blogs, publications, and articles that deal specifically with Azerbaijan’s con-
temporary art scene. All article searches were conducted between April–August 2014 using the
internet browser Google, searching the words “Azerbaijan” and “art.” This analysis is not
meant to be exhaustive, but gives an indication of the kind of information easily accessible
online. Art exhibition reviews, of which there are many, were not included as they fall under
the category of art criticism. In total, thirty political news articles and twenty-five online art
and culture sources were analyzed for broad themes and distinctive vocabulary.
In an analysis of the language of political media discourse, Azerbaijan’s modern identity is
typically defined through the urban built environment of Baku, characterized by skyscrapers,
museums, and hotels, and the country’s ability to balance the East and the West in its own identity,
or as a regional political actor. Featuring prominently in the political media discourse and many of

79
Fairclough, Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research (2003), p. 3.
80
Bryman, Social Research Methods, 4th edn (2012), p. 528.
81
Fairclough, Critical Discourse Analysis: A Critical Study of Language, 2nd edn (2010), p. 452.
82
Ismayilov, “State, Identity, and the Politics of Music: Eurovision and Nation-Building in Azerbaijan”
(2012), pp. 833–51.
83
Anon., “Azerbaijan: Illegal Evictions Ahead of Eurovision”, Human Rights Watch website, 17 Feb.
2012.
 Contemporary Art and Global Identity in the Arabian Peninsula and Azerbaijan 77

Table I: Discourse analysis of key themes in political and art/culture media analyzing Azerbaijan
POLITICAL MEDIA ART/CULTURE MEDIA
THEME (30 ARTICLES) (25 ARTICLES)
Dubai 7 3
Oil Wealth/Petrostate, 22 12
Petrodollars
Eurovision 22 2
Human Rights, Repression, 29 7
Corruption
Glitz, Glamour 17 7
Art/Art Market 5 21
Tradition 9 7
Modern/Modernity 14 12
“East Meets West” 5 3
Religion (Secular) 9 1

the articles analyzed, Dubai features as the model for Baku, along with oil riches, glitz, glamor,
and gleam of Baku’s development. The discourse of modernity and glamor is indicative of a
shared trajectory of both Azerbaijan, specifically Baku, and the small nations of the Arabian
Peninsula. Dubai, Abu Dhabi, and Doha all share a similar media profile.
To provide context, a comparison of political media incorporates the cities in the Arabian
Peninsula that are part of this discourse. The data in Table II shows that the media discourse con-
tains discussions of the themes of energy wealth, art, and museums, along with human rights con-
cerns, similar to the discourse emerging about Azerbaijan. Table III shows Azerbaijan and the
GCC states side by side. These themes were chosen through searching articles for keywords
(listed below) that are used, or appear frequently, when describing modernity in both regions.
Both Azerbaijan and the Gulf states receive highly critical coverage regarding their lack of a
free press and personal freedoms. However, by comparison, it appears that Azerbaijan has
faced much more criticism in the press. Both Azerbaijan and the Gulf states receive attention
for their cultural achievements, and their employment of “starchitects”, a term for internationally
famous architects, to build their cultural venues. Both enjoy the accompanying press coverage,
although recent cultural developments on Saadiyat Island, which houses museums designed by

Table II: Political media discourse analysis of the Arabian Peninsula

THEMES POLITICAL MEDIA (37 ARTICLES)
Cities Mentioned Abu Dhabi (16), Doha (10), Dubai (8),
All of above with Sharjah (3)
Oil Wealth/Petrostate/Petrodollars 22
Human Rights, Repression, Corruption 21
Glitz, Glamour 23
Art/Art Market/Museums 22
Tradition 7
Modern/Modernity 11
“East Meets West” 1
Religion (Conservative/Muslim/Islam) 9
78 Lesley Gray

Table III: Both Azerbaijan and Arabian Peninsula discourse analysis of political media
POLITICAL MEDIA: POLITICAL MEDIA: ARABIAN
KEY THEMES AZERBAIJAN (30 ARTICLES) PENINSULA (37 ARTICLES)
Oil Rich/Petrostate/Petro dollars 22 22
Human Rights, Repression, 29 21
Corruption
Glitz, Glamour 17 23
Art/Art Market 5 22
Tradition 9 7
Modern/Modernity 14 11
“East Meets West” 5 1
Secular (Azerbaijan) 9 9
Conservative (Arabian
Peninsula)

Frank Gehry and Jean Nouvel in Abu Dhabi,84 have been criticized for abuse of workers much in
the same way that the Zaha Hadid-designed Heydar Aliyev Center in Baku, which hosts art exhi-
bitions and cultural events, has been criticized by the media for the evictions that took place to
clear the site.85 However, these kinds of developments continue to produce cultural capital and
global acclaim. In 2016, both Qatar and Azerbaijan were nominated for the Royal Institute of
British Architects (RIBA) inaugural international prize.86 These similarities between the two geo-
graphies reveal a pattern in the way in which they approach their own development, despite
pressure from the West to modify the way in which this development is realized.
According to the more critical international media coverage, some of the most salient features
of Azerbaijan’s modernity include lack of free speech, human rights concerns, and institutional
corruption. Three articles in particular discuss the dilemma of Azerbaijan’s simultaneous aspira-
tions of Western-style modernity, free expression and self-determination and the lack of free
speech and democracy, leaving this aspiration unfulfilled.87 Conversely, articles dealing with
art tend to focus specifically on contemporary art production as a feature of modern Azerbaijan
with little mention of the cultural context, with the exception of the issues associated with the con-
struction of the Heydar Aliyev Center.88 These two parallel discourses represent the changing
international media image of the country and the evolution of Azerbaijan’s international image
through the rise of contemporary art after the Eurovision contest.
Two media discourses relating to Azerbaijani modernity can be identified. The first focuses on
the modernization of the city and society, and often critiques government policies relating to the
development, or lack thereof, of the country, and the other relates specifically to artistic

84
Carrick and Batty, “In Abu Dhabi, They Call It Happiness Island. But for the Migrant Workers, It Is a
Place of Misery”, The Guardian, 21 Dec. 2013.
85
Abbasov, “Azerbaijan Counts Human Cost of Architecture”, The Guardian, 14 July 2014.
86
Griffiths, “RIBA International Prize: 30 Stunning Feats of Design Battle to Be the World’s Best Build-
ing”, CNN, 10 May 2016.
87
Herszenhorn, “Welcoming Eurovision - But Not the Scrutiny”, New York Times, 23 May 2012; Nig-
gemeier, “Azerbaijan’s Eurovision: Activists Hope Contest Will Improve Human Rights”, Spiegel Online, 8
Feb. 2012; Levine, “Big in Baku”, New York Times, 15 Aug. 2012.
88
Kishkovsky, “Zaha Hadid ‘Humbled’ by Baku Reception”, The Art Newspaper, 7 Nov. 2013; Clark,
“Zaha Hadid’s Prestigious Award for Building to Glory of Azerbaijan Dictator Criticized”, The Independent,
30 June 2014; Fairs, “Designs of the Year Prize ‘About Architecture Rather Than Politics’ Says Design
Museum Director”, Dezeen, 2 July 2014; Heathcote, “Design Award for Zaha Hadid Exposes Architects’
Moral Dilemma”, Financial Times, 30 June 2014; Wainwright, “Wave of Protest Over Zaha Hadid’s
Baku Prizewinner”, The Guardian, 30 June 2014.
 Contemporary Art and Global Identity in the Arabian Peninsula and Azerbaijan 79

production. The articles examined were written between 2009 and 2014, and can be divided tem-
porally: most articles published in the lead up to the ESC in May 2012 are critical of restrictions
on personal freedoms in the country, and those written after that time focus more on art and cul-
tural development, again, with the very recent exception of the criticisms of the Heydar Aliyev
Center. It can be inferred that after the ESC, focus moved away from political engagement
when the international spotlight on the country dimmed slightly, allowing for the emergence of
a new narrative on art and culture. Therefore, the political and art/culture media discourses can
be considered symbiotic; it can be argued that the focus on cultural development has indeed
created a positive discourse on Azerbaijan overall.
The discourse on Azerbaijani art is as much an exploration of the art scene as a response and
rebuttal to international criticism of Azerbaijan’s recent development. The discourse succeeds in
offering an alternative and compelling narrative, with art fulfilling its role as a tool of soft power
and diplomacy for Azerbaijan. In fact, twenty-nine of the political media sources mentioned gov-
ernment corruption, repression, and/or human rights concerns, while only two articles on Azer-
baijani art not related to the Heydar Aliyev Center controversy mention criticism of the
government.89 The relationship between art and politics is also revealed when delving deeper
into the online world of contemporary art and activism in Azerbaijan. As mentioned in a UK-
based art and activism website, “when it comes to determining which stories about Azerbaijan
get told, art is a key site of struggle”.90 Current articles on art activism are published by Azerbai-
jan’s opposition online newspaper, Azadliq, which operates under the threat of closure, and is
designed for a local audience so does not have effective international reach.91
The narrative of contemporary art development in Azerbaijan can now be seen as a dominant
discourse surrounding the nation in international media. It is in this shift that we can identify the
causal power of the art discourse –– it has created a reality in which contemporary art is one of the
dominant features of modern Azerbaijan in the media.

7 Conclusion
Using textual and media discourse analysis for both academic and popular media, this paper has
examined factors instrumental in the rise of contemporary art as part of a strategy of international
engagement in the Arabian Peninsula, and has looked at this strategy as a viable model for cultural
development and international engagement in the case of Azerbaijan. Through an analysis of the
academic literature on Azerbaijan within the context of other similar geographies in the energy
rich Gulf states, modernity in these locales has incorporated elements of Western-style economic
progress. The states have been propelled forward by oil wealth without a meaningful increase in
personal freedoms, for which they have drawn international criticism. How has the media shaped
the image of the Gulf states and Azerbaijan for an international audience? Through discourse
analysis of media coverage, broad themes regarding these regions can be identified, and the
change in discourse can be linked to increased material support of contemporary art and its func-
tion as a cultural ambassador for these countries. The funding of international exhibitions of con-
temporary art are designed to assert the Gulf states and Azerbaijan’s inclusion as part of the global
elite, and along with the international media interest in the contemporary art scene, has worked to

89
Adam, Pioneers of the Caspian”, Financial Times, 5 Oct. 2012; Conway, “The Emergence of Azer-
baijan’s Ancient Capital City, Baku”, Wall Street Journal, 13 Feb. 2014.
90
Hughes, “Support Political Art in Azerbaijan”, Platform London, 19 Dec. 2013.
91
Anon., “Organisations Call on International Solidarity with the Newspaper Azadliq”, Civil Rights
Defenders, 22 Nov. 2013.
80 Lesley Gray

generate global interest in both regions beyond that of politics and oil wealth. While the public
relations aspect of the contemporary art scene may be successful for the moment, it remains to
be seen if this is enough to sustain the creative output of the artists and the scene as a whole.
Finally, how does Azerbaijan, and specifically Baku, compare to other similar cities like
Doha, Abu Dhabi, and Dubai? A comparative analysis of Baku and Dubai regarding their devel-
opment and cultural achievements in contemporary art offers another mode of influence on the
international stage. Gulf cities like Dubai, Abu Dhabi, and Doha have all implemented a
similar model of development in relation to museums and the cultural sector, which have been
sponsored by royal or elite patronage, while largely dismissing international pressure for labor
reform and criticisms of restrictions on freedom of speech. Despite these issues posing a philoso-
phical and ideological challenge to Western-style democratic humanism, Azerbaijan and the small
emirates of the Gulf are able to maintain their position because of their energy wealth, which pro-
vides a certain level of autonomy, although the long-term effect of low energy prices could change
this dynamic. Contemporary art in these contexts then provides access to alternative spheres of
influence and, it can be argued, have in some cases redirected the conversation away from nega-
tive international media discourse critical of autocratic policies to refocus on international engage-
ment through the arts.
However, with recent developments in the United States’ evolving relationship with Iran and
dropping oil prices,92 it remains to be seen how committed these nations will be to contemporary
art development when falling revenues require the redistribution of state funds. To what extent
will this have an impact on the international image of these economies? Despite recent instability
in energy markets and regional geopolitics, alternative modernities in the Middle East and the
Caucasus demand new theoretical frameworks that acknowledge myriad cultures, histories, and
religions. As a more nuanced and globalized world gradually decenters from Western dominance,
new geographies, especially those with natural resources, will continue to influence the global
discourse. Contemporary art in these regions has the potential to reframe contemporaneity and
create new modalities that operate within their own sphere of influence, in conversation with,
but not dependent on or subservient to, Western ideology. Contemporary art is the medium
through which alternative, non-Western modernities will continue to emerge in these myriad geo-
graphies and, with time and continued financial support through energy wealth, dramatically
shape the future of the art world for years to come.

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