Proceedings of The 11th Tourism Outlook Conference, 2018

i
THE 11th TOURISM OUTLOOK CONFERENCE

Heritage Tourism beyond Borders and Civilizations
2-5 October 2018
ANADOLU UNIVERSITY
Eskişehir, Turkey
Conference Organizers and Academic Partners

Anadolu University, TURKEY
Faculty of Tourism
Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), MALAYSIA
Faculty of Hotel and Tourism Management, and Faculty of Law
Northern Arizona University, USA
Department of Geography, Planning and Recreation
International Geographical Union (IGU)
Commission on the Geography of Tourism, Leisure and Global Change
Editors
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gökçe YÜKSEK
Prof. Dr. Alan A. LEW
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nor’ain OTHMAN
Asst. Prof. Dr. İnci Oya COŞKUN
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Deniz KARAGÖZ
ISBN: 978-975-06-3095-8
Anadolu University Publications No. 3837

Faculty of Tourism Publications No. 1
December, 2018
ii
SUPPORTING INSTITUTIONS
T.R. Ministry of Culture and Tourism

T.R. Governorship of Eskişehir
Turkish Airlines Inc.
Eskişehir Chamber of Commerce
Municipality of Seyitgazi
Municipality of Sivrihisar
Municipality of İnönü
Municipality of Mihalıççık
Municipality of Han
TUREB
TÜRSAB
International Federation of SKAL Associations
KURAP
Anadolu University Folklore Research Centre
Abacı Konak Hotel
Ada Life Hotel Eskişehir
Büyük Hotel Eskişehir
Grand Çalı Hotel Bozüyük
İbis Hotel Eskişehir
İkbal Thermal Hotel&SPA
Modernity Hotel
Roof Garden Hotel
The Merlot Hotel
Active Tourism İstanbul
222 Tour
Şara Tour
Trakya Restaurant
Camzade
Başarsoft
Çağfen College
iii
HONOR COMMITTEE
T.R. Minister of Culture and Tourism

Mehmet Nuri ERSOY
T.R. Governor of Eskişehir

Özdemir ÇAKACAK
Rector of Anadolu University

Prof. Dr. Şafak Ertan ÇOMAKLI
CONFERENCE CHAIR
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gökçe YÜKSEK Anadolu University, Turkey
CONFERENCE CO-CHAIRS
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nor’ain OTHMAN Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia

Prof. Dr. Alan A. LEW Northern Arizona University, USA
iv
CONFERENCE SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
Prof. Dr. Abdullah SOYKAN, Balıkesir Univ.
Prof. Dr. Abdullah TANRISEVDİ, Adnan Menderes Univ.
Prof. Dr. Ali YILMAZ, Uşak Univ.
Prof. Dr. Avni Barış BARAZ, Anadolu Univ.
Prof. Dr. Bülent AÇMA, Anadolu Univ.
Prof. Dr. Celil ÇAKICI, Mersin Univ.
Prof. Dr. Cevdet AVCIKURT, Balıkesir Univ.
Prof. Dr. Cihan ÇOBANOĞLU Univ. of South Florida Sarasota-Manatee
Prof. Dr. Füsun BAYKAL, Ege Univ.
Prof. Dr. Füsun İSTANBULLU DİNÇER, İstanbul Univ.
Prof. Dr. Gözde EMEKLİ, Ege Univ.
Prof. Dr. Harun TUNÇEL, Bilecik Şeyh Edebali Univ.
Prof. Dr. Hasan KILIÇ, Doğu Akdeniz Univ.
Prof. Dr. İge PIRNAR, Yaşar Univ.
Prof. Dr. İrfan ARIKAN, IMC Univ.
Prof. Dr. İsmet AKOVA, İstanbul Univ.
Prof. Dr. Medet YOLAL, Anadolu Univ.
Prof. Dr. Mesut DOĞAN, İstanbul University
Prof. Dr. Muharrem TUNA, Gazi Univ.
Prof. Dr. Mustafa ÖZER, Anadolu University
Prof. Dr. Necdet HACIOĞLU, Balıkesir Univ.
Prof. Dr. Orhan AKOVA, İstanbul Univ.
Prof. Dr. Orhan İÇÖZ, Dokuz Eylül Univ.
Prof. Dr. Ozan BAHAR, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman Univ.
Prof. Dr. Özcan YAĞCI, Başkent Univ.
Prof. Dr. Salih KUŞLUVAN, İstanbul Medeniyet Univ.
Prof. Dr. Semra GÜNAY AKTAŞ, Anadolu Univ.
Prof. Dr. Sevgi Ayşe ÖZTÜRK, Anadolu Univ.
Prof. Dr. Sultan BAYSAN, Adnan Menderes Univ.
Prof. Dr. Umut AVCI, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman Univ.
Prof. Dr. Yeliz MERT KANTAR, Anadolu Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali ÖZTÜREN, Doğu Akdeniz Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Bayram ŞAHİN, Balıkesir Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Burhan KILIÇ, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Çağıl Hale ÖZEL, Anadolu Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Deniz KARAGÖZ, Anadolu Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Emrah ÖZKUL, Kocaeli Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Emre Ozan AKSÖZ, Anadolu Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Erkan ÖZATA, Anadolu Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Esin ÖZKAN, Ege Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gökçe YÜKSEK, Anadolu Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gökhan AYAZLAR, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hakan YILMAZ, Anadolu Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. İlhan USTA, Anadolu Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Lütfi ATAY, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Murat DOĞDUBAY, Balıkesir Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Norliza AMINUDIN, Univ. Teknologi MARA
v
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Norzuwana SUMARJAN, Univ. Teknologi MARA
Associate Prof. Dr. Oktay EMİR, Anadolu University
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Özlem KÖROĞLU, Balıkesir Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rıdvan KOZAK, Anadolu Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Salamiah A. JAMAL, Univ. Teknologi MARA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Selda UCA, Kocaeli Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Yetkin BULUT, Ondokuz Mayıs Univ.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Yusuf AYMANKUY, Balıkesir Univ.
Asst. Prof. Dr. Alev DÜNDAR ARIKAN, Anadolu Univ.
Asst. Prof. Dr. Ebru ZENCiR, Anadolu Univ.
Asst. Prof. Dr. İnci Oya COŞKUN, Anadolu Univ.
Asst. Prof. Dr. Pembe Gül ÇAKIR, Anadolu Univ.
Asst. Prof. Dr. Sibel ÖNÇEL, Anadolu Univ.
Lecturer Dr. Ahmad Esa ABDUL RAHMAN, Univ. Teknologi MARA
Lecturer Dr. Arni Abd. GANI, Univ. Teknologi MARA
Lecturer Dr. Aslinda Mohd SHAHRIL, Univ. Teknologi MARA
Lecturer Dr. Chemah Tamby CHIK, Univ. Teknologi MARA
Lecturer Dr. Duygu YETGIN, Anadolu Univ.
Lecturer Dr. Faiz Izwan ANUAR, Univ. Teknologi MARA
Lecturer Dr. Hassah WEE, Univ. Teknologi MARA
Lecturer Dr. Lovelyna Benedict JIPIU, Univ. Teknologi MARA
Lecturer Dr. Mazlina MAHADZAR, Univ. Teknologi MARA
Lecturer Dr. Mohd. Hafiz Mohd. HANAFIAH, Univ. Teknologi MARA
Lecturer Dr. Nor Asmalina ANUAR, Univ. Teknologi MARA
Research Asst. Dr. Mune MOĞOL SEVER, Anadolu Univ.
vi
ORGANIZATION COMMITTEE
Prof. Dr. Semra GÜNAY AKTAŞ Anadolu University
Doç. Dr. Gökçe YÜKSEK Anadolu University
Şennur AZADE Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism
Mustafa SERTTAŞ Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism
Hasan KALIN Municipality of Seyitgazi
Hamid YÜZÜGÜLLÜ Municipality of Sivrihisar
Kadir BOZKURT Municipality of İnönü
İsmail UYSAL Municipality of Mihalıççık
Erdal ŞANLI Municipality of Han
Prof. Dr. Medet YOLAL Anadolu University
Prof. Dr. YAŞAR SARI Eskişehir Osmangazi University
Doç. Dr. Çağıl Hale ÖZEL Anadolu University
Doç. Dr. Deniz KARAGÖZ Anadolu University
Doç. Dr. Emre Ozan AKSÖZ Anadolu University
Doç. Dr. Hakan YILMAZ Anadolu University
Doç. Dr. Hilmi Rafet YÜNCÜ Anadolu University
Doç. Dr. Rıdvan KOZAK Anadolu University
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Alev DÜNDAR ARIKAN Anadolu University
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Ebru ZENCİR Anadolu University
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Hakan SEZEREL Anadolu University
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi İnci Oya COŞKUN Anadolu University
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Pembe Gül ÇAKIR Anadolu University
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Sibel ÖNÇEL Anadolu University
Öğr. Gör. Dr. Duygu YETGİN Anadolu University
Öğr. Gör. Aysel YILMAZ Anadolu University
Öğr. Gör. Serkan OLGAÇ Anadolu University
Öğr. Gör. Şeyda YAYLA Anadolu University
Öğr. Gör. Ufuk ÇEVİK Anadolu University
Araş. Gör. Dr. Mune MOĞOL SEVER Anadolu University
Araş. Gör. Arzu TOKER Anadolu University
Araş. Gör. Barış ÇIVAK Anadolu University
Araş. Gör. Burak DÜZ Anadolu University
Araş. Gör. Burcu KAYA SAYARI Anadolu University
Araş. Gör. Cansev ÖZDEMİR Eskişehir Osmangazi University
Araş. Gör. Engin BAYRAKTAROĞLU Anadolu University
Araş. Gör. Fuat ÇİFTÇİ Anadolu University
Araş. Gör. Gözde TÜRKTARHAN Anadolu University
Araş. Gör. Merve ASMADİLİ Anadolu University
Araş. Gör. Merve ÖZGÜR GÖDE Anadolu University
Araş. Gör. Muhammed KAVAK Anadolu University
Araş. Gör. Orçun ATİLLA Anadolu University
Araş. Gör. Önder YAYLA Anadolu University
Araş. Gör. Pınar ŞENEL Anadolu University
Araş. Gör. Seda SÖKMEN Anadolu University
Araş. Gör. Sema EKİNCEK Anadolu University
Araş. Gör. Serhat AYDIN Anadolu University
Araş. Gör. Sezi AYDIN Anadolu University
vii
KEYNOTE SPEAKERS
Prof. Dr. C. Michael HALL University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Melanie K. SMITH Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
SPECIAL PRESENTATIONS
Prof. Dr. Alan A. LEW Northern Arizona University, USA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nor’ain OTHMAN Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
viii
PREFACE
Cultural and natural heritage are important sources of tourism that attracts curiosity for new
experiences. The UNESCO World Heritage Centre defines heritage as “our legacy from the past, what
we live with today, and what we pass on to future generations. Our cultural and natural heritages are
irreplaceable sources of life and inspiration”. Natural and cultural heritage sites, including scenic
landscapes and revitalized historic towns, are prized tourism assets that distinguish one destination
from another. These attractions are unique and fragile by nature, therefore it is essential for tourism
authorities and academicians to study how to benefit while protecting and preserving them in a
sustainable point of view. There are more than 1,000 natural and cultural sites inscribed on the World
Heritage List, the emphasis now is on ensuring each party of tourism embraces the value of tangible
and intangible heritage.
In this respect, the main theme of the 11th Tourism Outlook Conference, Eskişehir-Turkey was
determined as “Heritage Tourism: Beyond Borders and Civilizations” referring to the rich natural and
cultural heritage of Anatolia. The papers presented at the conference covered different aspects of
heritage in case of tourism. In addition many researchers contributed with their studies on managerial
and economic perspectives of the tourism industry.
The conference aimed to bring together the academicians and stakeholders of tourism from different
countries, so it was designed in this point of view. We hope every participant has found something to
work on and something to remember. We appreciate the support of our partners, with special thanks
to Prof. Dr. Michael C. Hall, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Melanie K. Smith, Prof. Dr. Alan A. Lew and Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Nor’ain Othman, Anadolu University and our supporting institutions. The whole organization was a
team effort so we couldn’t have accomplished this important mission without the organization
committee, our students and anonymous volunteers from the Anadolu University.
It was a pleasure to welcome you here. We hope to see you again at the next Tourism Outlook
Conference.
Best regards,
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gökçe YÜKSEK Prof. Dr. Semra GÜNAY AKTAŞ
Conference Chair Dean, Anadolu University, Faculty of Tourism
ix
CONFERENCE PROGRAM
OCTOBER 2, 2018 - TUESDAY
Sector Meeting 11:00

Venue : Anadolu University Atatürk Culture and Arts Center (AKM)
Stakeholder Panel 13:30

Moderator : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gökçe Yüksek (Anadolu University Faculty of Tourism
Panelists : Hediye Güral Gül (Turkish Tourism Investors Association)
Ali Bilir (Association of Turkish Travel Agencies)
Ahmet Zeki Apalı (Turkish Union of Tourist Guides)
Necip Boz (Turkish Hoteliers Federation)
Teoman Tosun (Turkish Private Aviation Enterprises Association)
Prof. Dr. Semra Günay Aktaş (Anadolu University Faculty of Tourism)
Welcome Reception 16:00

Venue : Anadolu University Aviation Park
OCTOBER 3, 2018 - WEDNESDAY

Inaugural Speeches 10:00 - 11:30
Keynote Presentations 11:30 - 12:30

Speakers : C. Michael Hall
Melanie K. Smith
Lunch 12:30 - 13:30

Venue : Anadolu University Faculty of Tourism
Session I 13:30 - 15:00

Hall : Yunus Emre, Nasreddin Hodja, Dorylaeum, Pessinus, Phrygia
Coffee Break 15:00 - 15:30
Session II 15:30 - 17:00

Special Presentations 17:30 - 18:30

Speakers : Norain Othman
Alan A. Lew
Hall : Phrygia
Gala Dinner 19:30

Venue : Trakya Restaurant
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OCTOBER 4, 2018 - THURSDAY
Conferecence Field Trip Full Day
Destinations: Sivrihisar
Seyitgazi
Phrygian Valley
İdrisyayla Village
08:30 Eskişehir (Departure)

10:30 Sivrihisar (Arrival)
12:00 - 13:00 Lunch
13:00 Sivrihisar (Departure)
14:30 Seyitgazi (Arrival)
17:00 Phrygian Valley (Departure)
18:30 İdrisyayla Village (Dinner & Macın Boiling Festival)
OCTOBER 5, 2018 - FRIDAY

Session III 09:00 - 10:30
Session IV 11:00 - 12:30

Lunch 12:30 - 13:30
Session V 13:30 - 15:00

Session VI 15:30 - 17:00

xi
SESSION I OCTOBER 3, 2018 13:30 - 15:00
Hall : YUNUS EMRE (Presentations will be held in Turkish)
Moderator : Mustafa Aksoy
7396 Zeynep Kahya, Çağıl Hale Özel

Determining the Motivations for Y Generation Individuals to Cook at Home: A Preliminary Study
HALL I
7631 Semra Günay Aktaş, Sema Ekincek

Investigation of Design Processes and Aesthetic Perceptions of Chefs
7671 Şeyma Sak, Ebru Zencir
A New Dessert to be Grown in Restaurant Menus: Halva Plate
7671 Deniz Orhun, Kutsi Akıllı
Gastrotourism according to the 24 Solar Terms Regimen
Hall : NASREDDIN HODJA (Presentations will be held in Turkish)

Moderator : Gözde Emekli
7340 Nazlı Gökçe, Erdoğan Kaya, Tuba Çengelci Köse
Field Trips in Social Studies Teacher Training Program in terms of Teaching Culture and Heritage Tourism
7341 Erdoğan Kaya, Tuba Çengelci Köse, Ömür Gürdoğan Bayır, Nazlı Gökçe
Tourism and Travel for Learning about Cultures: Experiences of Social Studies Pre-service Teachers
HALL II
7611 Özgür Oğuz

Legal Changes in Turkish Labor Law Reflected on Tourism Workers
13:30 - 15:00
7324 Mustafa Doğan, Sebahattin Emre Dilek, Gulriz Kozbe

The Effect of Interactive Applications on Visitors’ Experience: A Case of Gobeklitepe, Turkey
7671 Eda Elşan Atağan, Sultan Baysan, Ruken Akar Vural, Adil Adnan Öztürk
Perceptions of the Employees about Economic, Social and Environmental Effects of Kuşadası International Golf Resort
7607 Bilsen Bilgili, Emrah Özkul
From Sustainable Tourism to Sustainable Development… World Cultural Heritage Ebru/Marbling Art
Hall : DORYLAEUM (Presentations will be held in English)
Moderator : Melanie K. Smith
7333 Hongmei Zhang
The Effect of Assessment Bias of Environmental Quality and Consideration of Future Consequences on
HALL III
Tourist Environmental Behavior

7658 An-nisa’ M. Farid, Faten A. Muntasian, Nur A. F. İdris, Siti S. İsmail, Zuliah A. Hamid
The Implementation of Green Practices among Homestay Operators in Selangor, Malaysia
OCTOBER 3, 2018
7401 Emine Yılmaz, Nur Çelik, Funda Ön Esen, Salim Akçay

Adult-only vs. Child-friendly: A Research about Adult-only Hotels with the Case of Marmaris
7405 Emine Yılmaz, Ekin Enver Yılmaz, Sultan Ebru Ekici, Hüseyin Çeken
Cultural Heritage Sustainability with the Perspective of Local People: The Case of Historical Ayvalık Houses
Hall : PESSINUS (Presentations will be held in English)

Moderator : Nuray Özaslan
7315 Kudret Gül
The Role of Industry Museums in Promoting Industrial Heritage Tourism
HALL IV
7296 Yuliia Borovska, Hakan Yılmaz

Is Tourism Industry Ready for Crypto Currency: A Case of Eskişehir
7383 Kübra Aşan, Medet Yolal
Sustaining Cultural Routes: The Case of Cultural Routes Society
7685 Sezi Aydın, Çağıl Hale Özel
Determination of Undergraduate Students’ Alienation Levels: The Case of Anadolu University Tourism Faculty
Hall : PHRYGIA (Presentations will be held in English)

Moderator : Mohmed Razip Hassan
7384 Yasar Sarı, Rasa Pranskuniene, Cemile Ece, Efnan Ezenel
HALL V
Experiencing the Photos: The Case of ESOGU Tourism Camp

7306 Elmas Erdoğan, Parisa Göker
The Evaluation of Cultural Routes in the Frame of Cultural Tourism
7342 Tuba Cengelci Kose, Nazlı Gökçe, Ömür Gürdoğan Bayır
An Analysis of Turkish Social Studies Textbooks in terms of Cultural and Natural Heritage, and Tourism
7962 Norha Hanifah, Abu Bakar Webb, Rohani Binti Md Shah
Sustainable Heritage Tourism in Malaysia: A Legal Perspective
xii
SESSION II OCTOBER 3, 2018 15:30 - 17:00
Moderator : Muharrem Tuna
7392 Volkan Zoğal, Şevket Işık

Socio-Economic Effects of Tourism Urbanization: The Case of Antalya
HALL I
7385 Bahar Kaba, Gözde Emekli

Gender Issues in Tourism Research: Experiences of Solo Women Travelers (The Case of Turkey)
7682 Çetin Furkan Usun, Gözde Emekli
New Approaches to Turkey Tourism: Indian Weddings
7412 Seval Durmuş, Gözde Emekli
Different View on Tourism and Cultural Heritage: Evaluation of Rural Heritage in Ödemiş-Lübbey by Creative Tourism

Moderator : Sultan Baysan
7406 Nida Özbek, Nevin Turgut Gültekin
On Sustainable Tourism Management in the Hitit Road Development Corridor
7351 Senay Oğuztimur
HALL II
A Qualitative Method to Determine Problems in Tourism Sector: Focus Group Interviews

7367 B. Zafer Erdoğan, Bülent Aydın, Deniz Kırmızı
Which is the Moderator of Ethnocentrism: Country or Product Image
15:30 - 17:00
7409 Saadet Pınar Temizkan, Beybala Timur, Coşkun Ceviz

Tourism Graduates’ Career Status and Tourism Education Recommend Intentions
7430 Hilal Kahveci, Parisa Göker
The Evaluation of Tourism Potential of Bilecik City
Moderator : Ali Erbaş
7410 Melek Ordu
Agiasma’s Culture Assesment
7411 İlhan Sağ, Ferhat Devrim Zengul
Competition in Health Tourism and Healthcare Tourists’ Expenditure Characteristics’ in Turkey
HALL III
7530 Shamshor Mohd-zın, Norliza Aminudin, Salamiah A. Jamal, Hassnah Wee

Understanding of Islamic Hotel Concept through the Mudzakarah of Islamic Scholars
7574 Nor Ammelia Suhada Jamaluddin, Norain Othman, Norhaslinda Basri
OCTOBER 3, 2018
Investigate the Subjective Norm, Service Quality on Satisfaction and Revisit Intention to Cross Border Shopping
in Border Town Malaysia - Thailand

Moderator : Nor’Ain Othman
7613 Gözde Emekli
A Different View on City, Cultural Heritage and Local Goverment Relations in the Context of Postmodern Tourism Movements: Creative Cities
7973 Mohmed Razip Hassan, Nor’Ain Othman, Norliza Aminudin
HALL IV
Managers of Destination Management Organisations Behavioural Intention towards Crisis Planning in Malaysia
7762 Rohani Binti Md Shah
Antarctica: Managing Ecotourism in Sensitive Environments
7521 Özge Can Niyaz
Investigation of Rural Tourism Investments and Available Potential within IPARD in Canakkale Province

Moderator : C. Michael Hall
7661 Mengting Wang
Research on the Relationship between Revitalization Methods and Authenticity:
Perception based on Three Relic Parks of Tang Dynasty in Xi’an
HALL V
7366 Yueying He
How performativity Shapes Identity: The Case of Red Tourism in Jinggangshan, P. R. China
7686 Zauyani Zainal Mohamed Alias, Mohd Shayfuddin Moon
Sport Tourism Management Models: Opportunities versus Challenges in Malaysia
7305 Elmas Erdoğan, Parisa Göker
The Evaluation of Istanbul National Palace Gardens in the Frame of Cultural Tourism
6680 Nur Hidayah Abd Rahman, Hairul Nızam Ismail, Zainab Khalifah
Mapping the Sensory Values in the Core Zone Area of Melaka World Heritage Site
xiii
SESSION III OCTOBER 5, 2018 09:00 - 10:30
Moderator : Öcal Usta
7626 İbrahim Karaaslan, Hasan Ayaydın, Abdulkadir Barut
The Synergies between Human Development, Economic Growth, and Tourism within a Developing Country:
An Empirical Model for Turkey
7628 Merve Özgür Göde, Vedat Ekergil
HALL I
The Role of Accounting in the Improvement of Costs in Hotel Businesses’ Sustainability Report
7365 Ayşe Nur Canbolat, Dilek Erden Erbey
Tourism Management Planning Approach in Cultural Heritage Areas, Principles for Istanbul Historical Peninsula
8055 Ersin Yücel
Ecological Tourism Opportunities in Eskişehir

Moderator : Füsun Baykal
7623 Hatice Sarıaltın, Zuhal Erol
An Empirical Research on the Employment of Vocational Higher School Graduates in Hotel Enterprises
7379 Özge Bora, Füsun Baykal
HALL II
Evaluation of Alaçatı (Izmir / Turkey) Destination in aspect of Sustainable Tourism Indicators

09:00 - 10:30
7414 Hulisi Binbaşıoğlu, Aysun Tuna

Comparison of World Heritage Site Management Plans in terms of Tourism
7599 O. Can Yılmazdoğan, Cihan Seçilmiş
The Effect of Destination Attachment and It’s Antecedents on Destination Loyalty
7425 Emre Ozan Aksöz, Birgul Aydın, Begüm Önem
Analysing the Researches on Destination Life Cycle in SSCI Journals: A Meta Synthesis Study
Hall : DORYLAEUM (Presentations will be held in
Moderator English) : Gökçe Yüksek
7542 Barış Çıvak, Senem Besler
Labor Exploitation in Hotel Enterprises: Example of Eskisehir
7413 Ceren İşçi, Berrin Güzel, Emre Ataberk
HALL III
The Comparison of UNESCO Awareness and Support of Bergama and Selçuk Residents
7487 Irina Lobas
The Perception of Saint Nicholas by Italian, Russian and Turkish People in terms of Cultural Heritage
OCTOBER 5, 2018
7399 Efnan Ezenel, Cemile Ece, Yaşar Sarı

A Review on the Effect of Voluntary Tourism Activities to Rural Development
7353 Ayşe Okuyucu, Mehmet Somuncu
Assessment of the Differences in the Motivations of Visitors Using Urban Cultural Heritage Sites: Şeyh Edebali Tomb, Bilecik
Moderator : Nazlı Gökçe
7549 Hakan Sezerel, Özlem Güzel
Gendered Experiences: Exploring the Feminine and Masculine Characteristics of Bangkok
7638 Gülden Sandal Erzurumlu, F. Mertkan Tekinalp
HALL IV
Garden Culture and Tourism: Niğde Example

7790 Erdal Gümüş, Nikolas Zouros
How to Become a UNESCO Global Geopark in Turkey
7441 Barış Seyhan, Antoio Paolo Russo
The Evolution of Heritage Tourism Destinations in Protected Rural Areas

Moderator : Erdoğan Kaya
7661 Semra Günay Aktaş, Önder Yayla, Sema Ekincek
Cultural Landscapes of Aviation Park in terms of Visitors’ Viewpoint: Case of Eskisehir Aviation Museum
8074 Ferhan Kuyucak Şengül
Airport Public Private Implementations in Turkey: A Review of Current Situation
HALL V
8051 Ferhan Kuyucak Şengül

Business Model Innovation in the Airline Industry
8001 Nevin Yavuz, Serkan Olgaç, Semra Günay Aktaş, Yeliz Mert Kantar
Satisfaction Maps for the European Airports
8047 Yeliz Kantar, Serkan Olgaç, Nevin Yavuz, Semra Günay Aktaş
Modelling Overall Satisfaction in the European Airports
xiv
SESSION IV OCTOBER 5, 2018 11:00 - 12:30
Moderator : Ali Yılmaz
7338 Tuba Çengelci Köse, Nazlı Gökçe, Erdoğan Kaya

Social Studies Teachers’ Views about Values Education and Tourism
HALL I
7579 Ali Yılmaz, Seyfullah Gül

Historical Conservation and Tourism in Samsun City (Turkey)
7702 Nuray Özaslan
New Perspectives on the Protection of Industrial Heritage: Eskisehir

Moderator : Arife Karadağ
7809 Alev Dündar Arıkan, Hasan Hüseyin Çakıcı, Eren Altunbağ
The Place of Sherbet in Beverage Preferences of University Students
7584 Sema Ekincek, Merve Özgür Göde
HALL II
Evaluation of Participants’ Acquisitions of Food Competitions

11:00 - 12:30
7621 Setenay Sipahi, Sema Ekincek

The Use of Metaphors in the Interpretation of Taste Experience
7604 Sabri Çelik, Mustafa Sandıkçı, Hümeyra Töre Başat
Culinary Culture of Afyonkarahisar
7648 Mustafa Aksoy, Gülistan Sezgi, Kübra Özel
The Effect of Human Development Index on the Recognisability of the Country Cuisines
Moderator : Orhan İçöz
7738 Ebru Arslaner, Sıla Karacaoğlu, Ayşe Nevin Sert
An Evaluation on Community Based Tourism: The Case of Lavender Scented Village
7604 Sabri Çelik, Mustafa Sandıkçı, Hümeyra Töre Başat
HALL III

7560 Pınar Şenel, Sibel Önçel
Experiments for Hand Hygiene of Gastronomy Student: Anadolu University Sample
OCTOBER 5, 2018
7960 Zehra Gökce Sel, Mustafa Tepeci, Selim Kirova

Festival Organization through the Stakeholders’ Perspectives: Manisa Mesir Paste Festival
7348 Ayşe Okuyucu, Taner Kılıç
Tourists’ Characteristics in Attending Festivals and Events: A Study in Bilecik
Moderator : Yalçın Arslantürk
7760 İnci Oya Coşkun, Selim Yıldırım
Does the Increase in Tourism Demand Actually Increase Tourism Revenues in case of Turkey?
7389 Bahar Berberoğlu, Çağlar Karaduman
Contribution of Tourism to Economy in European Union and the Place of Turkey
HALL IV
7933 Bariş Memduh Eren, Korhan K. Gokmenoglu

The Role of International Tourism Activities on Energy Consumption: A Case Study of Turkey
7759 İnci Oya Coşkun, Burak Alparslan Eroğlu, Selim Yıldırım
Seasonal Dynamics of Turkish Inbound Tourism Demand Using Fractional Seasonal Variance Ratio (FSVR) Unit Root Test

Moderator : Alan A. Lew
7419 Aysun Tuna, Hulusi Binbaşıoğlu, Bilge Hatun Ay

Cittaslow in the Context of Sustainable Tourism and Historical Urban Landscape: Examples from Turkey
7402 Burcu Kaya Sayarı, Tuba Gün, Medet Yolal
HALL V
You Will Come Back When You Forget: Fear and Mobility to once Terrorised Sites
7574 Emre Ozan Aksöz, Furkan Hafif
A Research on the Determination of Preferences for Showrooming and Webrooming Behaviours in Holiday Purchase
7554 Burcin Hatipoglu, Yasemin Keskin, Şeyma Yetkil
Cultural Route Development and Management through Collaborative Efforts
xv
SESSION V OCTOBER 5, 2018 13:30 - 15:00
Moderator : Hakan Çalışkan
7646 Mehmet Tekin Koçkar, Hakan Çalışkan, Ali Ekber Ün, Cafer Yıldırım, Merve Ünlüoğlu
Impact of Traditional Equitation Shows to Tourism World Wide and Suggestions for Utilisingequestrian Tourism in Turkish Tourısm Sector
7651 Cafer Yıldırım
HALL I
Healthy Horses Features for Tourism with Horse Riding

7659 Ali Ekber Ün, Hakan Çalışkan, M. Tekin Koçkar, Cafer Yıldırım, Merve Ünlüoğlu
The Characteristics and Training of Horses to be used in Touristic Facilities
7781 Önder Yayla, Semra Günay Aktaş, Şeyda Yayla
Evaluation of Hunting Tourism in Turkey
The Positive Effects of Tourism with Horse Riding on Human Health
Moderator : Mithat Zeki Dinçer
7380 Füsun Baykal
Cultural Heritage and Cultural Routes: Samples from Turkey
7327 Arife Karadağ, Leman İncedere
Rising Values in Conservation of Urban Texture : Industrial Heritage
HALL II
7595 Gül Nur Demiral

13:30 - 15:00
Intangible Resources Myths and Legends: A Study on Tourism Promotion Brochures

7735 Betül Gelengül Ekimci
Consideration of Authenticity and Integrity in Cultural Heritage: Review of Heritage Conservations in Eskişehir
7408 Sezgi Gedik, Tolga Fahri Çakmak, Füsun İstanbullu Dinçer, Mithat Zeki Dinçer
Tourism in İstanbul; Past, Present and Future
Hall : DORYLAEUM (Presentations will be held in Turkish)
Moderator : Füsun İstanbullu Dinçer
6078 Ebubekir Karakoca, Levent Uncu, Hakan Kasapoğlu
The Formation of Harmankaya Canyon (Bilecik) and Evaluation of Its Ecotourism Potential
7285 Ali Erbaş, Gözde Güven Bozdağ
Lack of Destination Planning, Its Costs and Financial Effects on Business & Destination: A Destination Monster or Spiral
HALL III
7564 Seyfullah Gül

Natural Preservation and Recreational use Relationship in Urban Coastal Areas: Case of Samsun
7635 Esin Özkan, Nilgün Avcı, Selcen Seda Türksoy, Samet Can Curkan, Mehmet Alper Nisari
The Effects of Çesme and Chios Island Port Services on Visitor Satisfaction
OCTOBER 5, 2018
7789 Azade Özlem Çalık, Duygu Yetgin, Gülsel Çiftçi

Cultural Heritage of Ottoman Anatolia through the Eyes of Female Travelers
Hall : PESSINUS (Presentations will be held in
Moderator English) : Emre Ozan Aksöz
7645 Yalçın Arslantürk
Cultural Heritage: Viewed through Tourist Guides
7779 Merve Asmadili, Gökçe Yüksek
The Tourist Guides as Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism Interpreters: The Case of Odunpazarı
HALL IV
7382 Adam Siniecki, Ayşe Nilay Evcil

Architecture’s Role in New Tourism Trends: Cases from Poland and Turkey
7672 Burak Düz
What Do Tourists Wonder About Turkey’s Cultural Heritage? A Study to Determine Frequently Asked Questions to Tour Guides
Hall :PP HRYGIA (Presentations will be held in English)

Moderator : Medet Yolal
7957 Mustafa Özer, Mustafa Kırca, İnci Oya Coşkun
Questioning Export-led and Tourism-led Growth Hypotheses on a Regional Basis: Case of Central Anatolian Region, Turkey
7357 Ran Ben Malka, Yaniv Poria
Is Your Heritage Site for Sale? How Much Does It Cost? Compensation for Elimination: An Innovative Tool
for Evaluating the Monetary Value of Heritage Sites
HALL V
6255 Mustafa Boz

Impacts of All Inclusive Package Tours on Local Enterprises: Antalya and Çanakkale Cases
xvi
SESSION VI OCTOBER 5, 2018 15:30 - 17:00
Moderator : Yaşar Sarı
7772 Önder Yayla, Şeyda Yayla
Tastes from Past to Present: Amasya Cuisine
7361 Dilek Erbey, Esra Salt
HALL I
The Role of Tourism in Sustainability of Intangible Cultural Heritage, Principles for Istanbul
7954 Eşref Ay
A Qualiative Study on Folk Dance Trainers’ Evaluation of Folk Dance at the Perspective of Tourism
7652 Duran Cankül, Yılmaz Sever
Assessing the Quality of Gastronomy Education: Turkey Case
7593 Vedat Ekergil , Merve Özgür Göde
Determination of Activities of Food and Beverage Businesses in Activity Based Costing

Moderator : Murat Doğdubay
7594 Cihan Seçilmiş, Barış Yılmaz
Investigation of the Relationship between Travel Agencies Employee’s Cyberloafing Behaviors and Work Motivation
7798 Aybegüm Güngördü Belbağ
HALL II
A Qualitative Study on the Branding Potential of the Turkish City “Bartın”

7602 Mehmet Han Ergüven, Aysel Yılmaz
15:30 - 17:00
More than a Museum: Museum Cluster

7777 Önder Yayla, Şeyda Yayla, İsmail Konuk
Road Map for the use of Turkish Drinks in Gastronomy Tourism
7625 İbrahim Karaaslan, Hasan Ayaydın, Abdulkadir Barut
Does Tourism Degrade Environmental Quality? A Study of E-7 Countries
Moderator : İrfan Arıkan
7797 Alev Dündar Arıkan, Irfan Arıkan
Importance of Food Paradox, Food Equinox and Food Detox for the Local Food Culture
HALL III
Traditional Cuisine and its Spatial Effects: The Immigrant Experience; Case Study of Idrisyayla Village
7424 Berrin Güzel, Ceren İşçi
Gastronomy Tourism in the Eye of the Local People: Bergama Case
7609 Guliz Coskun
OCTOBER 5, 2018
Analyzing the Influence of Impulsiveness and Attitude on Local Food Purchase Intention of Tourists

Moderator : Atila Yüksel
7583 İsmail Ege, Selahattin Polat, Ali Yılmaz
An Example of Tourism Potential of Karstik Heritage: Man Rocks (Göller Summer Resort Area-Kozan-Adana)
6253 Mustafa Boz
HALL IV
Myths and Legends in Destination Tourism Marketing: The Story of Hero and Leander - Canakkale, Turkey
7363 Majd Tayara, Hakan Yılmaz
The Gamification of Learning Cultural Heritage: Architecting a Scenario
7756 Gökben Demirci, Hilmi Rafet Yüncü
Tourism for Everybody, Accessible Tourism: The Case of Eskişehir
Hall : HRYGIA (Presentations will be held in English) :

P
Moderator Cevdet Avcıkurt
7388 Elif Şenel, Cemile Ece, Efnan Ezenel, Yaşar Sarı
A Conceptual Study on Accessible Ecorecreation
7393 Ufuk Cevik, Semra Gunay Aktaş
HALL V
Effects of Participating in Diaspora Tourism of Circassians Living in Turkey on their Place Attachment
7603 Selin Kama
Hyperreality Concepts in Tourism and Recreation
xvii
CONTENTS
ABSTRACTS
PAPER NO. AUTHORS TITLE PAGE

Ebubekir Karakoca, Levent Geomorphology of Harmankaya Canyon (Bilecik) and 1
6078
Uncu, Hakan Kasapoğlu Evaluation of Its Ecotourism Potential
Myths and Legends in Destination Tourism Marketing: The 2
6253 Mustafa Boz
Story of Hero and Leander - Çanakkale, Turkey
Impacts of All Inclusive Package Tours on Local Enterprises: 3
6255 Mustafa Boz
Antalya and Canakkale Cases
Nur Hidayah Abd Rahman,
Mapping the Sensory Values in the Core Zone Area of 4
6680 Hairul Nizam İsmail,
Melaka World Heritage Site
Zainab Khalifah
Ali Erbaş, Gözde Güven Lack of Destination Planning, Its Costs and Financial Effects 5
7285
Bozdağ on Business & Destination - A Destination Monster or Spiral
Yuliia Borovska, Hakan Is Tourism Industry Ready for Crypto Currency: A Case of 6
7296
Yılmaz Eskişehir
Elmas Erdoğan, Parisa The Evaluation of Istanbul National Palaces in the Frame of 7
7305
Göker Sustainable Cultural Tourism
Elmas Erdoğan, Parisa The Evaluation of Cultural Routes in the Frame of Cultural 8
7306
Göker Tourism
The Role of Industry Museums in Promoting Industrial 9
7315 Kudret Gül
Heritage Tourism
Mustafa Doğan,
The Effect of Interactive Applications on Visitors’ Experience: 10
7324 Sebahattin Emre Dilek,
A Case of Göbeklitepe, Turkey
Gulriz Kozbe
Arife Karadağ, Leman Rising Values in Conservation of Urban Texture: Industrial 11
7327
İncedere Heritage
The Effect of Assessment Bias of Environmental Quality and
7333 Hongmei Zhang Consideration of Future Consequences on Tourist 12
Environmental Behavior
Tuba Çengelci Köse, Nazlı Social Studies Teachers’ Views about Values Education and 13
7338
Gökçe, Erdoğan Kaya Tourism
Nazlı Gökçe, Erdoğan Field Trips in Social Studies Teacher Training Program in 14
7340
Kaya, Tuba Çengelci Köse Terms of Teaching Culture and Heritage Tourism
Erdoğan Kaya, Tuba
Çengelci Köse, Ömür Tourism and Travel for Learning about Cultures: Experiences 15
7341
Gürdoğan Bayır, Nazlı of Social Studies Pre-service Teachers
Gökçe
Tuba Çengelci Köse, Nazlı
An Analysis of Turkish Social Studies Textbooks in terms of 16
7342 Gökçe, Ömür Gürdoğan
Cultural and Natural Heritage, and Tourism
Bayır
Tourists’ Characteristics in Attending Festivals and Events: A 17
7348 Ayşe Okuyucu, Taner Kılıç
Study in Bilecik
A Qualitative Method to Determine Problems in Tourism 18
7351 Şenay Oğuztimur
Sector: Focus Group Interviews
Assessment of the Differences in the Motivations of Visitors
Ayşe Okuyucu, Mehmet 19
7353 Using Urban Cultural Heritage Sites: Şeyh Edebali Tomb,
Somuncu
Bilecik
xviii
Is Your Heritage Site For Sale? How Much Does It Cost?

Ran Ben Malka, Yaniv 20
7357 Compensation for Elimination: An Innovative Tool for
Poria
Evaluating the Monetary Value of Heritage Sites
The Role of Tourism in Sustainability of Intangible Cultural 21
7361 Dilek Erbey, Esra Salt
Heritage, Principles for Istanbul
Majd Tayara, Hakan The Gamification of Learning Cultural Heritage: Architecting 22
7363
Yılmaz a Scenario
Ayşe Nur Canbolat, Dilek Tourism Management Planning Approach in Cultural 23
7365
Erden Erbey Heritage Areas, Principles for Istanbul Historical Peninsula
How Performativity Shapes Identity: The Case of Red 24
7366 Yueying He
Tourism in Jinggangshan, P. R. China
B. Zafer Erdoğan, Bülent Which is The Moderator of Ethnocentrism: Country or 25
7367
Aydın, Deniz Kırmızı Product Image
Evaluation of Alaçati (Izmir/Turkey) Destination In Aspect of 26
7379 Özge Bora, Füsun Baykal
Sustainable Tourism Indicators
7380 Füsun Baykal Cultural Heritage and Cultural Routes: Samples from Turkey 27
Adam Siniecki, Ayşe Nilay Architecture’s Role in New Tourism Trends: Cases from 28
7382
Evcil Poland and Turkey
Sustaining Cultural Routes: The Case of Cultural Routes 29
7383 Kübra Aşan, Medet Yolal
Society
Yaşar Sarı, Rasa
7384 Pranskuniene, Cemile Ece, Experiencing the Photos: The Case of ESOGU Tourism Camp 31
Efnan Ezenel
Gender Issues in Tourism Research: Experiences of Solo 32
7385 Bahar Kaba, Gözde Emekli
Women Travelers (The Case of Turkey)
Elif Şenel, Cemile Ece, 33
7388 A Conceptual Study on Accessible Eco-Recreation
Efnan Ezenel, Yaşar Sarı
Bahar Berberoğlu, Çağlar Contribution of Tourism to Economy in European Union and 34
7389
Karaduman the Place of Turkey
Socio-Economic Effects of Tourism Urbanization: The Case of 35
7392 Volkan Zoğal, Şevket Işık
Antalya
Ufuk Çevik, Semra Günay Effects of Participating in Diaspora Tourism of Circassians 36
7393
Aktaş Living in Turkey on Their Place Attachment
Zeynep Kahya, Çağıl Hale Determining the Motivations for Y Generation Individuals to 37
7396
Özel Cook at Home: A Preliminary Study
Efnan Ezenel, Cemile Ece, A Review on the Effect of Voluntary Tourism Activities to 38
7399
Yaşar Sarı Rural Development
Emine Yılmaz, Nur Çelik,
Adult-Only vs Child-Friendly: A Research about Adult-Only 39
7401 Funda Ön Esen, Salim
Hotels with The Case of Marmaris
Akçay
Burcu Kaya sayarı, Tuba You Will Come Back When You Forget: Fear and Mobility to 40
7402
Gün, Medet Yolal Once Terrorized Sites
Emine Yılmaz, Ekin Enver
Cultural Heritage Sustainability with the Perspective of Local 41
7405 Yılmaz, Sultan Ebru Ekici,
People: The Case of Historical Ayvalık Houses
Hüseyin Çeken
Nida Özbek, Nevin Turgut On Sustainable Tourism Management in the Hitit Road 42
7406
Gültekin Development Corridor
xix
Sezgi Gedik, Tolga Fahri

7408 Çakmak, Füsun İstanbullu Tourism in Istanbul; Past, Present and Future 43
Dinçer, Mithat Zeki Dinçer
Saadet Pınar Temizkan,
Tourism Graduates’ Career Status and Tourism Education 44
7409 Beybala Timur, Coşkun
Recommend Intentions
Ceviz
7410 Melek Ordu Agiasma's Culture Assessment 45
İlhan Sağ, Ferhat Devrim Competition in Health Tourism and Healthcare Tourists' 46
7411
Zengül Expenditure Characteristics’ in Turkey
A Different View on Tourism and Cultural Heritage:
Seval Durmuş, Gözde 47
7412 Evaluation of Rural Heritage in Ödemiş-Lübbey by Creative
Emekli
Tourism
Ceren İşçi, Berrin Güzel, The Comparison of UNESCO Awareness and Support of 48
7413
Emre Ataberk Bergama and Selçuk Residents
Hulisi Binbaşıoğlu, Aysun Comparison of World Heritage Site Management Plans in 49
7414
Tuna Terms of Tourism
Aysun Tuna, Hulusi
Cittaslow in the Context of Sustainable Tourism and 50
7419 Binbaşıoğlu, Bilge Hatun
Historical Urban Landscape: Examples from Turkey
Ay
Gastronomy Tourism in the Eye of the Local People: 51
7424 Berrin Güzel, Ceren İşçi
Bergama Case
Emre Ozan Aksöz, Birgül Analysing the Researches on Destination Life Cycle in SSCI 52
7425
Aydın, Begüm Önem Journals: A Meta Synthesis Study
A Research on the Determination of Preferences for
Emre Ozan Aksöz, Furkan 53
7426 Showrooming and Webrooming Behaviours in Vacation
Hafif
Purchase
7430 Hilal Kahveci, Parisa Göker The Evaluation of Tourism Potential of Bilecik City, Turkey 54
Barış Seyhan, Antonio The Evolution of Heritage Tourism Destinations in Protected 55

7441
Paolo Russo Rural Areas
The Perception of Saint Nicholas by Italian, Russian and 56
7487 Irina Lobas,Nalan Kızıltan
Turkish People in Terms of Cultural Heritage
Investigation of Rural Tourism Investments and Available 57
7521 Özge Can Niyaz
Potential within Ipard in Çanakkale Province
Shamshor Mohd-zin,
Norliza Aminudin, Understanding of Islamic Hotel Concept through the 58
7530
Salamiah A. Jamal, Mudzakarah of Islamic Scholars
Hassnah Wee
7542 Barış Çıvak, Senem Besler Labor Exploitation in Hotel Enterprises: Example of Eskişehir 59
Hakan Sezerel, Özlem Gendered Experiences: Exploring the Feminine and 60

7549
Güzel Masculine Characteristics of Bangkok
Burçin Hatipoğlu, Yasemin Cultural Route Development and Management through 62
7554
Keskin, Şeyma Yetkil Collaborative Efforts
Hand Hygiene Experience of Gastronomy Students: Case of 63
7560 Pınar Şenel, Sibel Önçel
Anadolu University
Nor Ammelia Suhada
Investigate the Subjective Norms, Service Quality on
Jamaluddin, Norain 64
7574 Satisfaction and Revisit Intention to Cross Border Shopping
Othman, Norhaslinda
in Border Town Malaysia-Thailand
Basri
7579 Ali Yılmaz, Seyfullah Gül Historical Conservation and Tourism in Samsun City (Turkey) 65
xx
İsmail Ege, Selahattin An Example of Tourism Potential of Karstic Heritage: Man 66

7583
Polat, Ali Yılmaz Rocks (Göller Summer Resort Area-Kozan-Adana)
Sema Ekincek, Merve 67
7584 Evaluation of Participants' Acquisitions of Food Competitions
Özgür Göde
Fatih Koç, Mehmet Emin Examining Effects of Service Quality and Hotel Image on
7589 Akkılıç, Volkan Özbek, Customer Satisfaction from the Perspective of Consumption 68
Ümit Alnıaçık, İlbey Varol Motivations
Vedat Ekergil, Merve Determination of Activities of Food and Beverage Businesses 70
7593
Özgür Göde in Activity Based Costing
An Investigatıon of the Relationship between Travel
Cihan Seçilmiş, Barış 71
7594 Agencies Employee’s Cyberloafing Behaviors and Work
Yılmaz
Motivation
Intangible Resources Myths and Legends: A Study on 72
7595 Gül Nur Demiral
Tourism Promotion Brochures
Aybegüm Güngördü A Qualitative Study on the Branding Potential of the Turkish 73
7598
Belbağ City “Bartın”
O. Can Yılmazdoğan, The Effect of Destination Attachment and It's Antecedents 74
7599
Cihan Seçilmiş on Destination Loyalty
Mehmet Han Ergüven, 75
7602 More Than a Museum: Museum Cluster
Aysel Yılmaz
7603 Selin Kama Hyperreality Concepts in Tourism and Recreation 76
Sabri Çelik, Mustafa

7604 Sandıkçı, Hümeyra Töre Culinary Culture of Afyonkarahisar 77
Başat
Bilsen Bilgili, Emrah Özkul, From Sustainable Tourism to Sustainable Development… 78
7607
Selda Uca World Cultural Heritage Ebru/Marbling Art
Analyzing the Influence of Impulsiveness and Attitude on 79
7609 Güliz Coşkun
Local Food Purchase intention of Tourists
Legal Changes in Turkish Labor Law Reflected on Tourism 80
7611 Özgür Oğuz
Workers
A Different View on City, Cultural Heritage and Local
7613 Gözde Emekli Government Relations in the Context of Postmodern 81
Tourism Movements: Creative Cities
Setenay Sipahi, Sema The Use of Metaphors in the Interpretation of Taste 83
7621
Ekincek Experience
An Empirical Research on the Employment of Vocational 84
7623 Hatice Sarıaltın, Zuhal Erol
Higher School Graduates in Hotel Enterprises
İbrahim Karaaslan, Hasan Does Tourism Degrade Environmental Quality? A Study of E- 85
7625
ayaydın, Abdulkadir Barut 7 Countries
The Synergies between Human Development, Economic
İbrahim Karaaslan, Hasan 86
7626 Growth, and Tourism within a Developing Country: An
ayaydın, Abdulkadir Barut
Empirical Model for Turkey
Merve Özgür Göde, Vedat The Role of Accounting in the Improvement of Costs in Hotel 87
7628
Ekergil Businesses' Sustainability Report
Semra Günay Aktaş, Sema Investigation of Design Processes in Gastronomy and Chef’s 88
7631
Ekincek Evaluation Criteria for Food Presentation
Esin Özkan, Nilgün Avcı,
Selcen Seda Türksoy, The Effects of Cesme and Chios Island Port Services on 89
7635
Samet Can Curkan, Visitor Satisfaction
Mehmet Alper Nisari
xxi
The Positive Effects of Tourism with Horse Riding on Human 90

Health
Gülden Sandal Erzurumlu, 91
7638 Garden Culture and Tourism; Niğde Example
F. Mertkan Tekinalp
7645 Yalçın Arslantürk Cultural Heritage: Viewed Through Tourist Guides 92
Mehmet Tekin Koçkar,

Impact of Traditional Equitation Shows to Tourism World
Hakan Çalışkan, Ali Ekber 93
7646 Wide and Suggestions for Utilizing Equestrian Tourism in
Ün, Cafer Yıldırım, Merve
Turkish Tourism Sector
Ünlüoğlu
Mustafa Aksoy, Gülistan The Effect of Human Development Index on the 94
7648
Sezgi, Kübra Özel Recognisability of the Country Cuisines
Cafer Yıldırım, Hakan
Calışkan , Ali Ekber Ün , 95
7651 Healthy Horses Features for Tourism with Horse Riding
Tekin Koçkar, Merve
Koyunbakan
Duran Cankül, Yılmaz 96
7652 Assessing the Quality of Gastronomy Education: Turkey Case
Sever
Eda Elşan Atağan, Sultan
Perceptions of the Employees about Economic, Social and 97
7655 Baysan, Ruken Akar Vural,
Environmental Effects of Kuşadası International Golf Resort
Adil Adnan Öztürk
An-nisa' M. Farid, Faten A.
Muntasian, Nur A.F. Idris, The Implementation of Green Practices among Homestay 98
7658
Siti S. İsmail, Zuliah A Operators in Selangor, Malaysia
Hamid
Ali Ekber Ün, Hakan
Çalışkan, Mehmet Tekin The Characteristics and Training of Horses to Be Used In 100
7659
Koçkar, Cafer Yıldırım, Touristic Facilities
Merve Ünlüoğlu
Research on the Relationship between Revitalization
7661 Mengting Wang Methods and Authenticity Perception—based on Three Relic 101
Parks of Tang Dynasty in Xi’an
A New Dessert to Be Grown in Restaurant Menus: Halva 102
7671 Şeyma Sak, Ebru Zencir
Plate
What Do Tourists Wonder about Turkey’s Cultural Heritage?
7672 Burak Düz A Study to Determine Frequently Asked Questions to Tour 103
Guides
Çetin Furkan Usun, Gözde 104
7682 New Approaches to Turkey Tourism: Indian Weddings
Emekli
Determination of Undergraduate Students’ Alienation 105
7685 Sezi Aydın, Çağıl Hale Özel
Levels: The Case of Anadolu University Tourism Faculty
Zauyani Zainal Mohamed
Sport Tourism Management Models: Opportunities versus 106
7686 Alias, Mohd Shayfuddin
Challenges in Malaysia
Moon
New Perspectives on the Protection of Industrial Heritage: 107
7702 Nuray Özaslan
Eskisehir
Consideration of Authenticity and Integrity in Cultural 108
Heritage: Review of Heritage Conservations in Eskişehir
Traditional Cuisine and Its Spatial Effects: The Immigrant 109
Experience; Case Study of İdrisyayla Village
Ebru Arslaner, Sıla
An Evaluation on Community Based Tourism: Lavender 110
7738 Karacaoğlu, Ayşe Nevin
Scented Village Example
Sert
xxii
Gökben Demirci, Hilmi Tourism for Everybody, Accessible Tourism; the Case of 111
7756
Rafet Yüncü Eskişehir
İnci Oya Coşkun, Burak Seasonal Dynamics of Turkish Inbound Tourism Demand
7759 Alparslan Eroğlu, Selim Using Fractional Seasonal Variance Ratio (FSVR) Unit Root 112
Yıldırım Test
İnci Oya Coşkun, Selim Does the Increase in Tourism Demand Actually Increase 113
7760
Yıldırım Tourism Revenues in case of Turkey?
7762 Rohani Binti Md Shah Antarctica: Managing Ecotourism in Sensitive Environments 114
7772 Önder Yayla, Şeyda Yayla Tastes from Past to Present: Amasya Cuisine 115
Önder Yayla, Şeyda Yayla, Road Map for the Use of Turkish Drinks in Gastronomy 116
7777
İsmail Konuk Tourism
Merve Asmadili, Gökçe The Tourist Guides as Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism 117
7779
Yüksek Interpreters: The Case of Odunpazarı
Önder Yayla, Semra 118
7781 Evaluation of Hunting Tourism in Turkey
Günay Aktaş, Şeyda Yayla
Azade Özlem Çalık, Duygu Cultural Heritage of Ottoman Anatolia through the Eyes of 119
7789
Yetgin, Gülsel Çiftçi Female Travelers
Erdal Gümüş, Nikolas 120
7790 How to Become a UNESCO Global Geopark in Turkey?
Zouros
Semra Günay Aktaş,
Cultural Landscapes of Aviation Park In Terms of Visitors’ 121
7792 Önder Yayla, Sema
Viewpoint: Case of Eskisehir Aviation Museum
Ekincek
Alev Dündar Arıkan, İrfan Importance of Food Paradox, Food Equinox and Food Detox 122
7797
Arıkan for the Local Food Culture
Alev Dündar Arıkan,
The Place of Sherbet in Beverage Preferences of University 123
7809 Hasan Hüseyin Çakıcı,
Students
Eren Altunbağ
Barış Memduh Eren, The Role of International Tourism Activities on Energy 124
7933
Korhan K. Gökmenoğlu Consumption: A Case Study of Turkey
A Qualitative Study on Folk Dance Traıners' Evaluation of 125
7954 Eşref Ay
Folk Dance at the Perspective of Tourism
Mustafa Özer, Mustafa Questioning Export-led and Tourism-led Growth Hypotheses 126
7957
Kırca, İnci Oya Coşkun on a Regional Basis: Case of Central Anatolian Region, Turkey
Hakan Yılmaz, İnci Oya A Static Panel Data Analysis of Golf Tourism Demand from 14 127
7958
Coşkun, Mustafa Kırca Top Tourism Markets for Belek, Turkey
Zehra Gökçe Sel, Mustafa Organizing a Festival with Stakeholder Perspectives: Manisa 128
7960
Tepeci, Selim Kirova Mesir Paste and Folkdance Festival
Norha Hanifah, Abu Bakar
Sustainable Heritage Tourism in Malaysia: A Legal 129
7962 Webb, Rıhani Binti Md
Perspective
Shah
7972 Deniz Orhun, Kutsi Akıllı Gastrotourism According to the 24 Solar Terms Regimen 130
Mohmed Razip Hassan,

Managers of Destination Management Organizations 131
7973 Norain Othman, Norliza
Behavioral Intention towards Crisis Planning in Malaysia
Aminudin
Nevin Yavuz, Serkan
8001 Olgaç, Semra Günay Satisfaction Maps for the European Airports 132
Aktaş, Yeliz Mert Kantar
xxiii
Yeliz Kantar, Serkan Olgaç,

8047 Nevin Yavuz, Semra Modelling Overall Satisfaction in the European Airports 133
Günay Aktaş
8051 Ferhan Kuyucak Şengür Business Model Innovation in the Airline Industry 134
8055 Ersin Yücel Ecological Tourism Opportunities in Eskişehir 135
Airport Public Private Implementations in Turkey: A Review 136

8074 Ferhan Kuyucak Şengür
of Current Situation
FULL PAPERS
PAPER NO. AUTHORS TITLE PAGE
Nur Hidayah Abd
Mapping the sensory values in the Core Zone Area of Melaka
6680 Rahman, Hairul Nizam 138
World Heritage Site
İsmail, Zainab Khalifah
Yuliia Borovska, Hakan Is tourism industry ready for crypto currency: A case of
7296 147
Yılmaz Eskişehir
Elmas Erdoğan, Parisa The evaluation of Istanbul National Palace Gardens in the
7305 160
Göker frame of cultural tourism
Elmas Erdoğan, Parisa The evaluation of cultural routes in the frame of cultural
7306 174
Göker tourism
Arife Karadağ, Leman Rising values in conservation of urban texture: Industrial
7327 194
İncedere heritage
Tuba Çengelci Köse,
Social studies teachers' views about values education and
7338 Nazlı Gökçe, Erdoğan 202
tourism
Kaya
Nazlı Gökçe, Erdoğan
Field trips in social studies teacher training program in terms
7340 Kaya, Tuba Çengelci 209
of teaching culture and heritage tourism
Köse
Erdoğan Kaya, Tuba
Çengelci Köse, Ömür Tourism and travel for learning about cultures: Experiences of
7341 217
Gürdoğan Bayır, Nazlı social studies pre-service teachers
Gökçe
Tuba Çengelci Köse,
An analysis of Turkish social studies textbooks in terms of
7342 Nazlı Gökçe, Ömür 225
cultural and natural heritage and tourism
Gürdoğan Bayır
A qualitative method to determine problems in tourism
7351 Şenay Oğuztimur 236
sector: Focus group interviews
Majd Tayara, Hakan The gamification of learning cultural heritage: Architecting a
7363 246
Yılmaz scenario
B. Zafer Erdoğan, Bülent Which is the moderator of ethnocentrism: Country or product
7367 258
Aydın, Deniz Kırmızı image
Özge Bora, Füsun Evaluation of Alaçatı (İzmir/Turkey) destination in aspect of
7379 272
Baykal sustainable tourism indicators
Elif Şenel, Cemile Ece,
7388 A ceonceptual study on accessible ecorecreation 284
Efnan Ezenel, Yaşar Sarı
xxiv
Bahar Berberoğlu, Contribution of tourism to economy in European Union and

7389 290
Çağlar Karaduman the place of Turkey
Zeynep Kahya, Çağıl Determining the motivations for Y generation individuals to
7396 299
Hale Özel cook at home: A Preliminary Study
Efnan Ezenel, Cemile A review on the effect of voluntary tourism activities to rural
7399 309
Ece, Yaşar Sarı development
Emine Yılmaz, Nur Çelik,
Adult-only vs. Child-friendly: A research about adult-only
7401 Funda Ön Esen, Salim 315
hotels with the case of Marmaris
Akçay
Emine Yılmaz, Ekin
Enver Yılmaz, Sultan Cultural heritage sustainability with the perspective of local
7405 324
Ebru Ekici, Hüseyin people: The case of historical Ayvalık houses
Çeken
Nida Özbek, Nevin On sustainable tourism management in the Hitit Road
7406 332
Turgut Gültekin development corridor
Sezgi Gedik, Tolga Fahri
Çakmak, Füsun
7408 Tourism in İstanbul: Past, present and future 342
İstanbullu Dinçer,
Mithat Zeki Dinçer
Aysun Tuna, Hulusi
Cittaslow in the context of sustainable tourism and historical
7419 Binbaşıoğlu, Bilge Hatun 347
urban landscape: Examples from turkey
Ay
Emre Ozan Aksöz, Birgül Analysing the researches on destination life cycle in SSCI
7425 362
Aydın, Begüm Önem journals: A meta synthesis study
Hilal Kahveci, Parisa
7430 The evaluation of tourism potential of Bilecik city 279
Göker
Irina Lobas,Nalan The perception of Saint Nicholas by Italian, Russian and
7487 390
Kızıltan Turkish people in terms of cultural heritage
Shamshor Mohd-zin,
Norliza Aminudin, Understanding of Islamic hotel comcept through the
7530 402
Salamiah A. Jamal, Mudzakarah of Islamic scholars
Hassnah Wee
Experiments of hand hygiene of gastronomy student: Anadolu
7560 Pınar Şenel, Sibel Önçel 414
University example
7579 Ali Yılmaz, Seyfullah Gül Historical conservation and tourism in Samsun City (Turkey) 422
İsmail Ege, Selahattin An example of tourism potential of karstik heritage: Man
7583 429
Polat, Ali Yılmaz Rocks (Giller Summer Resort Area-Koza-Adana)
Sema Ekincek, Merve
7584 Evaluation of participants' acquisition of food competitions 437
Özgür Göde
Vedat Ekergil, Merve Determination of activities of food and beverage businesses in
7593 445
Özgür Göde activity based costing
Cihan Seçilmiş, Barış Investigation of the relationship between travel agencies
7594 450
Yılmaz employee's cyberloafing behaviors and work motivation
Aybegüm Güngördü A qualitative study on the branding potential of the Turkish
7598 456
Belbağ City "Bartın"
7603 Selin Kama Hyperreality concepts in tourism and recreation 464
xxv
Legal changes in Turkish labor law reflected on tourism

7611 Özgür Oğuz 473
workers
Merve Özgür Göde, The role of accounting in the improvement of costs in hotel
7628 480
Vedat Ekergil businesses' sustainability report
Semra Günay Aktaş, Investigation of Design Processes and Aesthetic Perceptions of
7631 488
Sema Ekincek Chefs
The positive effects of tourism with horse riding on human
7636 Cafer Yıldırım 495
health
Mehmet Tekin Koçkar,
Hakan Çalışkan, Ali Impact of traditional equitation shows to tourism world wide
7646 Ekber Ün, Cafer and suggestions for utilising equestrian tourism in Turkish 502
Yıldırım, Merve tourism sector
Ünlüoğlu
Ali Ekber Ün, Hakan
Çalışkan, Mehmet Tekin The characteristics and training of horses to be used in
7659 516
Koçkar, Cafer Yıldırım, touristic facilities
Merve Ünlüoğlu
What do tourists wonder about Turkey's cultural heritage? A
7672 Burak Düz 526
study to determine frequently asked questions to tour guides
Çetin Furkan Usun,
7682 New approaches to Turkey tourism: Indian weddings 538
Gözde Emekli
Sezi Aydın, Çağıl Hale Determination of Undergraduate Students' alienation levels:
7685 550
Özel The case of Anadolu University Tourism Faculty
Ebru Arslaner, Sıla
An evaluation on community based tourism: the case of
7738 Karacaoğlu, Ayşe Nevin 562
Lavender Scented Village
Sert
Önder Yayla, Şeyda
7772 Tastes from past to present: Amasya cuisine 574
Yayla
Önder Yayla, Şeyda
7777 Road map for the use of Turkish drinks in gastronomy tourism 580
Yayla, İsmail Konuk
Önder Yayla, Semra
7781 Günay Aktaş, Şeyda Evaluation of Hunting Tourism İn Turkey 588
Yayla
Semra Günay Aktaş,
Cultural landscapes of aviation park in terms of visitors'
7792 Önder Yayla, Sema 597
viewpoint: Case of Eskişehir Aviation Museum
Ekincek
Alev Dündar Arıkan,
The place of Sherbet in beverage preferences of university
7809 Hasan Hüseyin Çakıcı, 604
students
Eren Altunbağ
Nevin Yavuz, Serkan
8001 Olgaç, Semra Günay Satisfaction maps for the European Airports 614
Aktaş, Yeliz Mert Kantar
Yeliz Kantar, Serkan
8047 Olgaç, Nevin Yavuz, Modelling Overall Satisfaction in the European Airports 624
Semra Günay Aktaş
Airport public private implementations in Turkey: A review of
8074 Ferhan Kuyucak Şengür 631
current situation
xxvi
ABSTRACTS
6078
Geomorphology of Harmankaya Canyon (Bilecik) and Evaluation of Its Ecotourism Potential
Ebubekir Karakoca
Bilecik Şey Edebali University
Bilecik, Turkey
ebubekir.karakoca@bilecik.edu.tr
Levent Uncu
Bilecik, Turkey
Hakan Kasapoğlu
Bilecik, Turkey
Abstract
Harmankaya Canyon is located within boundaries of Karahasanlar settlement that connects to
Yenipazar district and Harmanköy settlement that connects to Inhisar districts in east of the city
center of Bilecik. In 2012, The Harmankaya Canyon, which is approximately 3 km long and 650-700 m
deep, was declared a nature protection area named as ‘Harmankaya Canyon Nature Park’ by the
Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs in order to inherit to the future generation in the manner of
different natural recreational demands as planned, sustainable and protection-utilization balance.
The study aims to put geomorphological characteristics of Harmankaya Canyon with its formation
and evaluate ecotourism potential of the area. For that reason, DEM (Digital Elevation Model)
database was created with ArcGIS 10.5 by using 1/25.000 scaled topographical maps. Then,
morphometric analyzes such as Vf (Ratio of valley – floor width to valley height) and SL (Stream
length – gradient index) was applied to the canyon by using the database and the results was
grounded with field studies. On the other hand, SWOT analysis (Strenghts, Weaknesses,
Oppurtunities, Threats) was applied in the determination of ecotourism potential of the canyon.
Harmankaya Canyon, which is opened by Harmanköy Stream one of tributary of Sakarya River, has
been formed by fluvial process that were controlled by lithological, tectonics and climatic factors.
Besides faults and rising movements, that was formed under compression regime which was
effective in the Neo-tectonics period in the region, karstification events, which were developed
under more humid climate conditions than today, also played an important role in the formation of
the canyon that was opened within limestones aged Mesozoic (Middle Jura – Lower Cretaceous).
Thanks to its geomorphological features, Harmankaya Canyon Nature Park offers both sport activities
such as canyoning, rock climbing, mountain climbing, paragliding, trekking and social ones such as
photography. Tourism incomes of Bilecik will also be positively affected by the fact that these
resources, that combining the different types of activities, are together with inherited to next
generations by considering the balance between protection and utilization, providing population’s
increasing need for the natural recreation areas and the increase the natural consciousness in the
region. In conclusion, SWOT analysis, which was used for determination of ecotourism potential of
the canyon, showed that canyon has more powerful sides and opportunities than weak ones and
threats.
Keywords: Bilecik, Harmankaya Canyon, morphometric analysis, ecotourism, sustainable tourism,

SWOT analysis
1
6253
Myths and Legends in Destination Tourism Marketing: The Story of Hero and Leander - Çanakkale,
Turkey
Mustafa Boz
Tourism Faculty, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University
Çanakkale, Turkey
m.b.istanbul@gmail.com
Abstract
Today, tourism sector is changing. Tourists are more demanding. They wish to have new experiences,
to better known other cultures. On the other side, host communities try to create new tourism
products to meet new touristical demand and to be able to compete with other destinations. Within
this perspective, cultural tourism is one of the most developing types of tourism. As a part of cultural
heritage, myths and legends, add value to the tourist experience, increase attractiveness of
destinations and have been promoted in destination marketing.In this sense, the first part of the
paper underlines the role and importance that myths and legends can attract and welcome tourists
offering them memorable experiences. In the second part of the paper “The Story of Hero and
Leander - Çanakkale, Turkey” is examined as a case study.
Keywords: Myths and legends, destination marketing, hero and leander, cultural heritage, heritage
tourism
2
6255
Impacts of All Inclusive Package Tours on Local Enterprises: Antalya and Canakkale Cases
Mustafa Boz
Associate Professor
Tourism Faculty, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University
Çanakkale, Turkey
m.b.istanbul@gmail.com
Abstract
Tourism industry is one of the largest industries in the world. It is particularly important for
underdeveloped and developing countries. It creates employment opportunities, foreign currency,
development opportunities etc. All-inclusive package tours (AIPTs) are the fastest growing segment
of mass tourism, and have positive and negative impacts for tourists, tours operators,
accommodation establishments, local businesses and host communities. This article consists of
mainly two parts: In the first part, negative impacts of all-inclusive system for local businesses were
emphasized by examples from some host countries through review of the literature. In the second
part, a face to face survey was conducted with local tradesmen in Antalya and Canakkale provinces in
2013 to reveal perceptions and attitudes of local tradesmen about the impacts of all-inclusive
package tours on the local businesses. Antalya is the most tourist receiving province in Turkey and
all- inclusive system is implemented heavily. In Canakkale, tourism is a newly developing industry,
and identified as one of the target sectors. It is possible to make comparison between these
provinces due to their different characteristics. At the end of the survey, it is revealed that there are
significant differences between perception and attitudes of local tradesmen who live in Antalya and
Canakkale.
Keywords: All-inclusive package tours, impacts of tourism, local business, host community, tourism
marketing
3
6680
Mapping the Sensory Values in the Core Zone Area of Melaka World Heritage Site
Nur Hidayah Abd Rahman

Lecturer
Department of Tourism Planning and Hospitality Management, Kulliyyah Languages and
Management,
International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM),
Pagoh, Muar, Johor Darul Takzim, Malaysia
nhidayahabdrahman363@gmail.com
Hairul Nizam Ismail

Senior Lecturer
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Built Environment,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM),
Skudai, Johor Darul Takzim, Malaysia
b-hairul@utm.my
Zainab Khalifah
Professor
Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Management,
m-zainab@utm.my
Abstract
The influence of sensory experience in generating positive tourist experience has emerged to be a
cutting-edge trend in studies pertaining to geography and marketing in tourism, particularly in terms
of tourism sense-making. The literature has projected absence of the fundamental comprehension
related to the formation of ‘tourist space’ via tourist consumption and valuation towards available
cultural heritage attractions based on their sensory experience. Critical shift in the objectivism
approach from the light of valuing sensory experience has motivated the exploration of survey
mapping method in this study. Hence, this study employed the survey mapping method derived from
the landscape planning approach, in which a guide map was designed for international tourists to
value each attraction during their visit at the Core Zone Area of Melaka World Heritage Site. The data
gathered from 268 respondents were classified into five sensory mappings that reflected the
concentration of sensory values of visual, gustatory, auditory, olfactory, and tactile perceptions.
Visualisation of sensory mapping had been based on the classification of positive, moderate, and
negative sensory values. The outcomes from these sensory mappings signify the notion of ‘tourist
space’ or ‘honey pot’ among tourists based on their sensory experiences in the Core Zone area of
Melaka World Heritage Site. This exploration of the survey mapping method has contributed to a
critical discussion on the methodological approach, whereby most studies concerning sensory
experience are dominated by the qualitative approach. Therefore, the study results could strengthen
the management and planning by highlighting the significance of sensory quality in conserving and
preserving momentous cultural heritage attractions.
Keywords: Melaka World Heritage Site, sense-making, sensory mapping, sensory values, sensuous
geography
4
7285
Lack of Destination Planning, Its Costs and Financial Effects on Business & Destination - A
Destination Monster or Spiral
Gözde Güven Bozdağ

Tourism Faculty, Eskisehir Osmangazi University
Eskisehir, Turkey
sahragozdeguven@gmail.com
Ali Erbaş
Eskisehir, Turkey
aerbas@ogu.edu.tr
Abstract
The destination is a geographical area with all the services and infrastructure that tourists go to stay.
The persons change places and visit the destination to realize the tourism event. For this reason,
destination (destination) is the basic element of the tourism system. However, when such important
and basic destinations for tourism are not properly planned, the position deserved by tourism in
terms of demand cannot be achieved and is not sustainable. Various analyzes and interpretations are
made about their destination. Among them, Geographer Butler has an important place in the
summer. Butler speaks of having a certain life of destination by comparing the destination
(destination) to a product and the parcels that they pass through to the product life cycle. However,
every destination has a special place to resemble others. For this reason, there must be endless
lifetimes of destination. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate that the destination is not in a
state of death, as Butler says, but that the destination can go bankrupt if not planned. In this respect,
when the continuous planning proposed by Tiyader is made, the destinations will be maintained
forever.
Keywords: Destination planning, cost control, destination spiral, Tiyader
5
7296
Is Tourism Industry Ready for Crypto Currency: A Case of Eskişehir
Yuliia Borovska
Master Student
Graduate School of Social Sciences, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
y_borovska@anadolu.edu.tr
Hakan Yılmaz
Associate Professor
Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
hyilmaz5@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
Every day our world is becoming more and more digital and the technologies are developed with
incredible speed. One of a result of these developments is crypto currency. Crypto currency is a
currency that uses cryptography at its core (the science of encryption). Nowadays all the crypto
currencies that are represented on the market were first introduced in 2008 by a person or a group
of people named Satoshi Nakamoto. Since the crypto currency is a new financial instrument, the
possibility of using crypto currency is getting debate in the tourism industry. The purpose of this work
is to understand whether the tourist industry is ready for crypto currency and whether it will be able
to accept the crypto currency as a new payment method. In this article, deep interview method is
employed in order to reveal tourism managers attitudes and perceptions towards crypto currency
usage in tourism. The implementation was accomplished within the scope of the 8 hotel and 2 tourist
agencies in Eskisehir, Turkey. The data were collected through face-to-face interviews during the
period May 16-17, 2018. Findings show that the tourism industry refused to be ready to introduce
crypto currency as a method of payment for tourist services.
Keywords: Crypto currency, alternative payment method, tourism management, Eskişehir
6
7305
The Evaluation of Istanbul National Palaces in the Frame of Sustainable Cultural Tourism
Elmas Erdoğan
Faculty of Agriculture, Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University
Bilecik, Turkey
Parisa Göker
Faculty of Fine Arts and Design, Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University
Bilecik, Turkey
parisa.goker@bilecik.edu.tr
Abstract
Cultural tourism indicates travel for cultural environment sightseeing including landscapes, the visual
and performing arts, and unique (local) lifestyles, values, customs, incidents in addition to other
means of creative and inter-cultural exchange processes. The significance of cultural tourism is based
on several reasons; having positive economic and social effects generating and strengthening identity
and aiding to built an image and protection of the cultural and historical heritage. Besides, it helps
the establishment of harmony and understanding among people by using culture as an instrument,
reinforcing culture and helps the renewal of tourism. Cultural tourism is a tool in a way in the
protection of the cultural and historical heritage. Tourism offers ways to sustain the customs and
provides finances for the preservation of heritage and improve visitor appreciation therefore
contributes greatly to culture and historical heritage. Sustainability is the entire activities carried out
to preserve natural resources as fulfilling the needs of today as well as leaving a sound environment
for the future generations. Therefore, tourism and sustainability interact with each other in the
preservation of cultural environment. Historical palace gardens, reflecting cultural features of
civilization that they belong to, also give information about the life styles of the people living in those
sites, cultural values and building techniques of the period. Garden culture, based on human-nature
relationships, has been modified and improved by geographic, historical, socio-economical, cultural
and living conditions of the era. Palaces served as living sites of state administration and sultans and
have become structures to reflect the art and architectural context of a civilization due to its specific
structures. Historical and cultural properties are touristic attraction sources for all nations. Cultural
values vital for tourism activities. Furthermore, they play a critical role for destination selections of
the tourists to spend their holiday. In this context, cultural heritage is the main sources of tourism,
which is one of the most important sectors of the world in terms of cultural interaction and
economy. Historical palace gardens and sites are subject to numerous influences due to various
reasons in time. Today, these influences emerge as tools of preservation of cultural assets due to
changes originating from actual needs. Interest in history and culture create pressure on historical
monuments and sites depending on tourism activities. Considering tourism with its economic gains, it
can be accepted positively in general. Moreover, impacts of tourism on palace gardens and sites,
hosting hundreds of thousands of visitors each year, can be ignored. The aim of this study was to
emphasize the significance of cultural properties of monuments as well as Ottoman Period Palace
Gardens, with its international cultural heritage values for national and international visitors. At the
first stage national palaces that are situated in Istanbul were introduced, then their problems and
protentional originating from tourism activities were discussed and at the final stage, suggestions
were developed to achieve sustainability of national palaces of Istanbul including Topkapi Palace,
Dolmabahçe Palace, Beylerbeyi Palace, Yildiz Palace and their unique gardens based on the principles
of conservation and landscape design as far as sustainable cultural tourism is concerned.
Keywords: Cultural tourism, national palaces, national palace gardens, cultural landscapes,
sustainability
7
7306
The Evaluation of Cultural Routes in the Frame of Cultural Tourism
Elmas Erdoğan
Bilecik, Turkey
Parisa Göker
Bilecik, Turkey
Abstract
The cultural routes are the unique constructions of the respective assets and values of the cultural
heritage within the designated geographical area. The major components striking the balance on the
routes of culture can be summarized under the topics of tangible and intangible cultural inheritance
elements and natural formations. As specified in the Regulation on Routes of Culture published by
ICOMOS in 2008, the cultural routes can be seen in various geographies, thus differentiating by the
history, symbolic characteristics, functions, forms, social environments and economic values from
each other. When examined thoroughly, the cultural routes involve the historical towns, traditional
life style, ancient settlements, monumental buildings of various civilization, natural environment and
wild life depending on the main theme, function and scope of the cultural routes either of local,
regional or national scale is an accession corridor, which is created in today’s World or actually used
within a certain period in the history, bearing the cultural or natural inheritance elements on it, thus
coming into prominence thanks to this inheritance, as well as having the capacity to be improved
with such objectives as conservation, rural and tourism development.
In this declaration, the effects of natural and cultural assets on sustainable cultural tourism are going
to be analyzed within 16 routes of culture that are registered by the Turkish Routes of Culture Union
that are located in Turkey, including Lycia Road, St. Paul Road, Evliya Çelebi Road, Caria Road,
Kaçkarlar National Park Hiking Trail, Frig Road, Prophet Abraham Road, Via Egnatia Road, Hittite
Road, Kızılırmak Basin Gastronomy Road, Ağrı Mountain, Küre Mountains National Hiking Trail Route,
İstiklal Road, Sarıkamış Walks, Istanbul as between two seas and Yenice Forest Roads..
Keywords: Cultural route, cultural tourism, natural and cultural landscapes, historical roads,
sustainable tourism
8
7315
The Role of Industry Museums in Promoting Industrial Heritage Tourism
Kudret Gül
Balıkesir University
Balıkesir, Turkey
kgul@balıkesir.edu.tr
Melike Gül
Balıkesir University
Balıkesir, Turkey
Abstract
Museums are one of the most functional organizations to transfer the cultural and moral values of
societies to future generations. The aim of study is to determine the promoting effect of an industry
museum on cultural change and heritage tourism in Balıkesir/Turkey. Research data will be collected
by interview technique using semi-structured information form. Face-to-face interview with a private
industry museum official will be held on July 2018. It is assumed that industry museum follows the
strategies of establishing good communication with educational institutions, attracting local media,
using social media, attracting local government’s cooperation, organizing temporary exhibitions with
different themes, and being visible in cultural and artistic activities in order to increase promoting
effect of the museum. It is also considered that industry museum has significant effect on improving
awareness about cultural change and industrial heritage.
Keywords: Industry museum, cultural change, industrial heritage tourism
9
7324
The Effect of Interactive Applications on Visitors’ Experience: A Case of Göbeklitepe, Turkey
Mustafa Doğan
Assistant Professor
School of Tourism & Hotel Management, Batman University
Batman, Turkey
mustafadoganmustafa@gmail.com
S. Emre Dilek
Assistant Professor
School of Tourism & Hotel Management, Batman University
Batman, Turkey
s.emre.d@hotmail.com
Gulriz Kozbe
Professor
Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Department of Art History, Batman University
Batman, Turkey
gkozbe@yahoo.com
Abstract
The need for preservation and flexible exploration of historical artifacts generated increasing interest
in using digital technologies in the cultural heritage context. This paper presents user interaction
applications of a recent digital cultural heritage conservation and exploration project concerning one
of the most famous heritage site “Gobeklitepe” in Turkey that is the oldest known human-made
religious structure and added to UNESCO’s World Heritage List by year 2018 is 15 km away of
northeast of the town Sanlıurfa. The project aims at enriching the visitor experience through modern
digital technologies. Main modules include 3D scanning of the artifacts, information screen and
mobile interaction with Augmented Reality (AR). AR has been developed to provide information
about destinations and attractions. Because of the development of AR, tourists using AR can gain
valuable experience without a tourist guide.
There two aims of this study: 1) is to describe acceptance of a new technology such as AR and visiting
intention for visitors who use AR at a heritage destination, 2) to measure tourists’ experiences of
visiting historic sites. For this purpose, two scales were used to data collect. In accordance with first
aim of the study, the scale used by Chung, Han & Joun (2015) which is to explain visitors’ acceptance
of AR based on the TAM. Secondly, Lee & Smith’s (2015) multiple-item scale was used to measure
tourists’ experiences of visiting historic sites and museums. There are three dimensions in the first
scale as perceived usefulness (5 items), perceived ease of use (4 items) and visit intention (2 items).
On the other hand, the second scale involves natively 19 items under six dimensions. However, 9
items were used under three dimensions; entertainment (2 items), education & cultural identity (4
items), visit intention (3 items) in accordance with the purpose of study. The findings offer important
practical implications for historic sites and museums in relation to AR and experiential marketing.
Moreover, the findings explain why tourist use AR application and its influence to the intention to
visit destination.
Keywords: Heritage sites, interactive applications, visitor experience, Göbeklitepe, Turkey
10
7327
Rising Values in Conservation of Urban Texture: Industrial Heritage
Arife Karadağ
Associate Professor
Department of Human and Economic Geography, Ege University
İzmir, Turkey.
karadagarife@gmail.com
Leman İncedere
PhD student
İzmir, Turkey
lemanincedere@hotmail.com
Abstract
Industrial sites and buildings are essential indicators of the socio-economic past of a country together
with their mechanical equipment that performs the production and the structures in which they are
located. Especially upon the rapid urbanization movements experienced in the aftermath of the
Second World War, one was confronted with deep transformations which contributed to the
disappearance of a large number of industrial assets known as industrial heritage. Urban growth
mostly led to the disappearance of the physical representation of the former ways of life that were a
crucial part of the sociocultural structure. Old industrial sites are of importance in that they are both
the eyewitnesses of and the driving force for an important period of the history of humanity.
Handing the industrial heritage down to future generations depends on preserving the original
identities of old buildings, along with introducing them to the urban life with an appropriate function.
The studies for the adaptive reuse of those old industrial buildings which lost their function through
the decisions taken in an unplanned and unconscious fashion may cause further destruction.
Therefore, the convenience of old buildings for the pattern and demands of the city is essential in the
restructuring process. This study aims to reveal the importance of the industrial heritage sites and
buildings – which have been important components of the city since ancient periods – for the
physical and socio-economic development of the city.
Keywords: Industrial heritage, urban memory, deindustrialization, historical&cultural identities,

Turkey
11
7333
The Effect of Assessment Bias of Environmental Quality and Consideration of Future Consequences
on Tourist Environmental Behavior
Hongmei Zhang
Shanghai Normal University
hongmei@shnu.edu.cn
Abstract
This study investigated if temporal and spatial bias exist when tourists assessed the environmental
quality of their residential place, destination and country level in present and future (20 years later).
Then the effects of assessment bias and consideration of future consequences on tourist
environmental behavior (including behavior in destination and general behavior). Temporal optimism
was found in future environmental quality assessment for all three spatial levels. Spatial optimism
was found when comparing residential place, destination with country level respectively, but spatial
pessimism was found when comparing residential place with destination. While assessment bias was
not associated with tourist pro-environmental behavior, consideration of future consequences and
absolute environmental quality assessment significantly influenced tourist pro-environmental
behavior. Furthermore, the general pro-environmental behavior of tourists had significant effect on
their specific-site pro-environmental behavior.
Keywords: Comparative optimism, environmental quality assessment, consideration of future

consequences, tourist destination, tourist pro-environmental behavior
12
7338
Social Studies Teachers’ Views about Values Education and Tourism
Tuba Çengelci Köse

Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
tubacengelci@anadolu.edu.tr
Nazlı Gökçe
Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
nazliu@anadolu.edu.tr
Erdoğan Kaya
Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Values are the principles, standards, and thoughts which guide behavior, and represent required
qualifications of individual and society. Individuals learn basic social and cultural values in their
family. Then values education continues in the environment, community, and the educational
institutions. Social studies course plays a significant role in values education in primary and
secondary schools. Values education is needed in all parts of the society, and business life. However,
tourism directly focuses on people interaction, and communication. Therefore, it can be said that
values education helps people learn and be aware of important values in tourism. This study aims at
investigating social studies teachers’ views’ about values education and tourism. This descriptive
study was carried out through survey model. An open ended questionnaire was used to obtain data.
The sampling of the study was randomly constructed. 92 social studies teachers participated in the
study from different geographical regions of Turkey. In the analysis of the data, descriptive analysis
was used. Results of the study showed that values such as hospitality, honesty, tolerance, justice, and
respect were important for tourism according to teachers. Teachers thought that values education is
very important for tourism, and values should be taught to the students in the social studies course.
They suggested some teaching activities to improve values education connected with the tourism
subject.
Keywords: Values education, tourism, social studies, teacher
13
7340
Field Trips in Social Studies Teacher Training Program in Terms of Teaching Culture and Heritage
Tourism
Nazlı Gökçe
Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Erdoğan Kaya
Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey

Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Tourism is seen as an important alternative for solving economic problems. In this regard, education
contributes to the create an awareness regarding tourism. In the education process, social studies
which is an interdisciplinary course including social sciences such as geography, history, anthropolgy,
economy, and tourism has a significant role in teaching about culture and heritage. In the social
studies course subjects related natural, historical, and cultural heritage are taught, and field tirps are
organized. Therefore, investigating pre-service teachers experiences regarding field trips may be
useful for the further studies. Purpose of this study is to understand contributions of field trips in
terms of teaching culture and heritage tourism to the pre-service teachers in social studies teacher
training program. Qualitative research approach was used in the study. Participants of the study
were 40 pre-service teachers enrolled in social studies teacher training program. Field trips was
organized to teach about culture and heritage tourism values in 2015-2016 instruction year around
the city of Eskisehir. At the end of the field tripsi an open-ended questionnaire was applied to the
pre-service teachers. Content analysis was used in the study. The analyses were done by two
different researchers for reliability of the study. Results of the study showed that field trips were
effective in terms of teaching natural, historical, cultural, and touristic values; improving
communication skills of pre-service teachers; and having good time. Moreover, suggestions were put
forth about problems regarding organizing field trips.
Keywords: Field trips, social studies, culture and heritage tourism, pre-service teachers
14
7341
Tourism and Travel for Learning about Cultures: Experiences of Social Studies Pre-service Teachers
Erdoğan Kaya
Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey

Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Ömür Gürdoğan Bayır

Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Nazlı Gökçe
Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Culture and Heritage is one of the learning domains in the Social Studies Education Program in
Turkey from 4th to 7th grades. In the Social Studies course, the study of culture examines the socially
transmitted beliefs, values, behaviors, traditions and way of life of a group of people. It also includes
literature, music, arts and artifacts, and foods. It can be claimed that culture is a significant part of
the Social Studies Program. In this regard, travel offers opportunities for learning about other times,
places, and people in terms of learning outside the classroom. This study aims at understanding
social studies pre-service teachers’ perspective on travel for learning about cultures through their
own experiences. As a qualitative research approach phenomenology design was used to conduct
this study. The participants of the study were 10 social studies pre-service teachers who were
enrolled in social studies teacher education program at a faculty of education in Eskişehir, Turkey.
Individual and semi-structured interviews were conducted to obtain information about the questions
of the study. Inductive analysis approach was used in the study to analyze obtained data. Findings of
the study showed that pre-service teachers usually travel for learning about different cultures, and
would like to see historical and natural places. The participants stated that tourism plays a significant
role in introducing culture to the other societies. Moreover, they emphasized that issues such as
sensitivity to cultural heritage should be thought to the next generation through education.
Keywords: Culture, learning, travel, pre-service teacher
15
7342
An Analysis of Turkish Social Studies Textbooks in terms of Cultural and Natural Heritage, and
Tourism

Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Nazlı Gökçe
Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey

Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Social studies is a part of school curriculum concerned with the study of functioning of society and
the social relationships based on social sciences such as history, geography, , economics, psychology
sociology, and anthropology. Both historical events, current events, and future are included in the
social studies course. In this regard social studies course play a crucial role in introducing new
generation cultural and natural heritage in primary and secondary schools. Also, tourism helps
societies present their own cultural and natural heritage to the other countries. Therefore, issues
about cultural and natural heritage, and importance of tourism should be taught in the social studies
course. Purpose of this study is to analyze 5th grade Turkish Social Studies Textbook in terms of
cultural and natural heritage and tourism. Documentary analysis technique, one of the qualitative
research methods, was used in this study, and the data were analyzed with content analysis. The
results of the study revealed that issues related cultural and natural heritage, and tourism were
mostly took place in the learning domains of “Culture and Heritage”, “Production, Distribution, and
Consumption”, and “Global Connections” in the 5th grade social studies textbook. Suggestions were
put forth in light of the findings.
Keywords: Social studies, textbook, tourism, cultural heritage, natural heritage
16
7348
Tourists’ Characteristics in Attending Festivals and Events: A Study in Bilecik
Ayşe Okuyucu
Assistant Professor
Department of Geography, The Faculty Of Sciences And Arts, Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University
Bilecik, Turkey
ayse.okuyucu@bilecik.edu.tr
Taner Kılıç
Assistant Professor
Bilecik, Turkey
taner.kilic@bilecik.edu.tr
Abstract
Festivals are an important component in the attractiveness and image of destinations. Understanding
the socio-demographic characteristics of visitors is an important factor to attract visitor to the
destination and building an effective marketing strategy. For this reason, in this study, it is aimed to
determine the characteristics of the visitors who participated in the Commemorating Ertugrul Ghazi
and Sögüt Festival. The study also investigated the reasons for attendance at the festival. A two-way
questionnaire was developed to determine the characteristics and motivations of visitors. A
questionnaire was applied to 112 participants who accepted the meeting during the 736th
Commemorating Ertugrul Ghazi and Sögüt Festival on 08-09-10 September 2017. The surveys were
conducted using an easy sampling method and face to face interview technique. Mostly men are
participate to the festival. The average age of participants is 43 to the festival. According to the
results of factor analysis, to participation festival influence four major motivational factors. These
include escape/desire for achievement, novelty/uniqueness seeking, historical and cultural
exploration/learning, and institutional factors. t-test and ANOVA test were used to find out
differences in motives according to socio-demographic characteristics. The results showed
statistically significant differences between variables such as gender, number of visits to the
festivities, age and educational level and various motives.
Keywords: festival, visitor, motivation, Sögüt, Bilecik, Turkey
17
7351
A Qualitative Method to Determine Problems in Tourism Sector: Focus Group Interviews
Senay Oğuztimur
Associate Professor
Department of City and Regional Planning, Yildiz Technical University.
İstanbul, Turkey
soguz@yildiz.edu.tr
Abstract
As being one of the most fragile sector; while planning tourism, planners have to fully understand the
reasons of problems and develop solutions sensitively. In that scope, it is observed that, focus group
interview technique has gained acceptance as a qualitative research method. There is increasing
acknowledgement of the value of qualitative research approaches in social sciences. More recently,
focus group methodology has gained considerable popularity as an alternative means of gathering
qualitative data in the study of social sciences. Three successful focus group experience during the
process of İstanbul Tourism Master Plan is subjected in article. A group of academician were
responsible for the Master Plan and organized focus groups. The first part in article consists of the
literature survey regarding with focus group interviews. The definitions, data analysis approaches,
the ways of planning/organizing groups are mentioned. Second part focuses on a sample study for
İstanbul Tourism Sector. The details of three focus group organization as a significant part of İstanbul
Tourism Master Plan, analysis of focus group data and basic comparative findings of these three
group interviews are presented. As a result, focus group participants’ contribution to İstanbul
Tourism Master Plan is comparatively presented in terms of identifying problems and developing
solutions.
Keywords: Qualitative research, focus group, tourism, Istanbul, tourism master plan
18
7353
Assessment of the Differences in the Motivations of Visitors Using Urban Cultural Heritage Sites:
Şeyh Edebali Tomb, Bilecik
Ayşe Okuyucu
Assistant Professor
Bilecik, Turkey
ayse.okuyucu@bilecik.edu.tr
Mehmet Somuncu
Professor
Department of Geography, Faculty of Languages, History and Geography, Ankara University
Ankara, Turkey
somuncu@ankara.edu.tr
Abstract
Cultural heritage sites are the main touristic areas. These areas are visited by different local, national
and international groups for different purposes. Each visitor group has different expectation from the
heritage site and purpose of using. Residents are often considered to be more worthy users of the
heritage resources. However, the recreational use of heritage resources by local residents is often
neglected at heritage sites. Research on heritage sites has focused on impacts on residents and their
perceptions of tourism. On the other hand, the use of heritage sites for recreational purposes by
local people has not been sufficiently researched. For this reason, in this study, it is aimed to
determine that using pattern of the Şeyh Edebali Tomb by local people. This site was chosen in part
for convenience as well as because it is a place that is used by both tourists and local residents.
Qualitative research method was used in the study. Weekday and weekend usage of the area was
observed at June 2018. The interview was conducted with ten participants who service provider in
the site and local visitor. Unstructured interview technique was used in the study. Şeyh Edebali Tomb
are shared by local residents and other residents. Determining the using motivation of the local
people will contribute to future planning and field management issues.
Keywords: Heritage, recreation, Şeyh Edebali, Bilecik, Türkiye
19
7357
Is Your Heritage Site For Sale? How Much Does It Cost? Compensation for Elimination: An
Innovative Tool for Evaluating the Monetary Value of Heritage Sites
Ran Ben Malka

Sapir College
Israel
ranben78@gmail.com
Yaniv Poria
Ben-Gurion University of The Negev
Israel
Abstract
Can we place a monetary value on heritage sites? What kind of goods are heritage sites? Viewing a
heritage site as a commodity and evaluating it as such provides a new and efficient perspective for
policymaking and act as a guideline for governments, which often are the main – and substantial –
funding source for heritage sites, whether by subsidizing the costs or running it, investing in its
restoration and renovation, or both. Such studies often use the WTP (Willingness to Pay) techniques
to evaluate the monetary value of heritage sites adopting nonmarket valuation methods (e.g., CVM
or CM). Such valuation methods, which typically aim to assess the total economic value including
both use value (e.g., willingness to visit) and nonuse value (e.g., bequeath demand, “option
demand”). This theoretical study has two major contributions: i) in line with the experientially based
approach, a typology of heritage sites is suggested highlighting the link between the site and the
individual as critical to the conceptualization of heritage site as a goods and measuring its monetary
value. Such valuation would be composed of the sites’ economic attributes (e.g., its rareness,
whether it is original or a substitute goods), the benefits assigned to it, as well as its attributes as a
tourist attraction. ii) The current study challenges the previous epistemological framework adopted
to value heritage sites, and offers an innovative tool, Compensation for Elimination, as better
reflecting the monetary value of heritage sites. This tool serves to quantify the monetary value of
heritage sites as a social artifact and commodity, so that management decision can be based, on
financial as well as emotional considerations. This study contributes to the management of heritage
sites and the conceptualization of heritage as a social artifact highlighting its crucial importance in
contemporary society.
Keywords: Heritage sites, valuation methods, economic value, incalculable value
20
7361
The Role of Tourism in Sustainability of Intangible Cultural Heritage, Principles for Istanbul
Dilek Erden Erbey

Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University
erden@msgsu.edu.tr
Esra Salt
Abstract
Tourism is one of the most important sectors that stimulate the development of cities in terms of
space and economy, provide their development and contribute to the promotion of the international
scene. Along with globalization, there are many changes in the tourism sector as well as many other
sectors in the world. Unplanned settlement and excessive capacity utilization resulting from mass
tourism have had negative effects on cities. For this reason, new tourism alternatives have started to
be developed in the context of the sustainable tourism concept in order to reduce negative effects
on cities. New tourism trends in the world are developing in the direction of history, health, nature,
culture and rural tourism depending on changing request. Alternative tourism types serve much
more for the purpose of sustainable tourism than mass tourism. Sustainable tourism can be
expressed as preserving and sustaining regional and local attractions as a source. In this respect,
cultural heritage values have great potential for the sustainable tourism. People produce culture and
these cultures differ depending on time and geography. When time is added to human actions as a
separate factor, the concept of antagonistic inheritance comes out. After a certain period of time
over the actions, what remains a legacy. Cultural heritage is a group of resources that distinguish the
day-to-day values, beliefs, knowledge, and traditions as an expression and reflection. The cultures
are witnesses to the next generations of themselves, the dates of their emergence. In this respect,
the protection of cultural heritage means the protection of the past of the societies. Thus, the
sustainability of cultural diversity can be ensured. Culture, which is a sum of man's production,
includes tangible and non-tangible aspects. The article will explore the reciprocal impact of the
intangible cultural heritage with the tourism sector. The intangible cultural heritage is a cultural
memory born of the need to protect everything that humanity has contributed, experienced, and
daily delivered to nature since its existence. Traditional handicrafts are an element of the cultural
heritage that manifests itself with such features as common identity, emotion, and sense of
belonging, and the cultural memory formed by the codes of this heritage. Istanbul city was covered
in the article. Istanbul's own handicrafts, traditional production and cuisine and so on. the elements
of intangible cultural heritage have been examined in support of the historical architectural
background and suggestions have been made in order to increase the tourism potential of the city by
ensuring the sustainability of the values of intangible cultural heritage.
Keywords: Intangible Cultural Heritage, Tourism, Istanbul, Sustainability
21
7363
The Gamification of Learning Cultural Heritage: Architecting a Scenario
Majd Tayara
Master Student
Department of Tourism Management, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
majd.tayyara@gmail.com
Hakan Yılmaz
Associate Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Gamification has gained a growing interest in the tourism literature and it has pervaded many
applications in the tourism industry including museums. The main purpose of this research is to use
the concept of gamification as a tool to enhance visitors’ attraction. This research paper examines
the concepts of heritage and gamification first and then, highlights the role of gamification and
museums in preserving and educating the cultural heritage. In order to create a gamified learning
experience of the cultural heritage, this paper attempt to develop a scenario of a puzzle game for the
Eti Archaeological Museum (EAM) using scenario analysis as a qualitative methodology. For this
purpose, the required information was collected by visits held in the museum. Furthermore, to
facilitate the creation of the story of the respective game the scenario was developed in a strategic
and systematic way. Finally, we propose a novel way to enhance the visitors’ experience, potential
visitors’ attraction and their learning experience by suggesting the application of the puzzle game in
the EAM through the context of the developed scenario. In addition to this, suggestions are given for
further studies.
Keywords: Gamification, cultural heritage, museum, scenario
22
7365
Tourism Management Planning Approach in Cultural Heritage Areas, Principles for Istanbul
Historical Peninsula
Ayşe Nur Canbolat

Amasya University
Amasya, Turkey
canbolataysenur@gmail.com
Dilek Erden Erbey

Istanbul, Turkey
Abstract
Cultural heritage sites and tourism cannot be addressed separately and produce positive and / or negative
effects on each other. Although the traditional conservative approach considers the activities as risk
factors which create pressure, it is well known that the economic dimension of protection cannot be
ignored in contemporary conservation approaches and tourism is an important source of protection.
Cultural tourism, which stands out in the cultural heritage areas, can have effects on physical, social,
cultural and political issues as well as economic influences. On the other hand, the negative effects of
tourism and the inability to manage the area can threaten the continuity of cultural heritage. Cultural
heritage areas exposed to intensive tourism are exposed to problems such as worn out cultural assets and
environmental degradation. Unplanned development, inability to control the number of visitors and the
intense pressure on cultural heritage sites poses risks such as the deterioration of cultural texture.
Therefore, tourism management plans are being applied to regulate the development of tourism activities
in the cultural heritage areas together with urban conservation. At the core of the approach to tourism
management planning is the concept of a plan based on the preservation of cultural heritage areas in
accordance with the higher-scaled plans, participation-oriented, which can be revised according to
changing conditions, and on the basis of transfer to the future. With the development of the tourism
management planning approach, the goal of the development of tourism and urban conservation will be
attained together. With the tourism management plan, historical environment and cultural heritage areas
will be protected, cultural continuity will be ensured, the balance of sustentation-usage-preservation will
be redressed, in order to provide urban protection, a means of providing economic contribution will be
obtained, sustainable, conservation-oriented, tourism management, supervision and control in a way that
does not harm the historical environment, increasing awareness and awareness of local people and users
about cultural heritage, urban protection and tourism will be provided, cultural characteristics of the area
will be foreground, The balance will be redressed between the area is not exposed to intense pressure
and the visitors are satisfied with the area. The principles that tourism management plans should adopt
are generally as follows; the main objective in the management of cultural heritage areas is to preserve
and to transmit superior universal values to future generations; the most effective method of managing
tourism in cultural heritage areas is management plans; management plans should describe not only the
protection of areas but also how to protect the area, what needs to be done to raise awareness, and the
necessary training programs; the main purpose of tourism management plans is to define how tourism
will be a tool to protect cultural heritage; tourism management plans should have principles that will
guide conservation and tourism development in the same way and in a harmony; cooperation and
participation should be provided; holistic approach should be adopted; management plans are a type of
plan that defines the future model of the area instead of the physical decisions of the area. Within the
scope of this study, the principles of the tourism management plan which can be regarded as a significant
deficiency in Istanbul Historical Peninsula, which is included in the World Heritage List and the
management plan has been created, will be discussed.
Keywords: Cultural heritage, urban conservation, tourism, management plan, Istanbul historical peninsula
23
7366
How Performativity Shapes Identity: The Case of Red Tourism in Jinggangshan, P. R. China
Yueying He
Graduate
School of Tourism Management, Sun Yat-Sen University
China
heyy@mail2.sysu.edu.cn
Xiaoming, Zhang
Associate Professor
School of Tourism Management, Sun Yat-Sen University
China
zhangxm3@mail.sysu.edu.cn
Abstract
Tourism is often used politically for its capacity to infuse ideas and values, especially heritage
tourism. In contemporary China, Red tourism is such a form of communist heritage tourism which
aims to educate visitors and cultivate a sense of patriotism and thus hence political identity. But to
what extend red tourism impact the tourist identity and how does it happen remain under-studied.
This paper presents an empirical study based at Jinggangshan, where the first revolutionary base was
established by Chinese Communist Party (CCP), and now Jinggangshan Scenic Area has become one
of the most influential red tourism destinations promoted by the government. Thus, this paper
focuses on tourists’ perception of red tourism and how does the perception is obtained, inspired by
Judith Bulter’s performativity theory and extending it in the context of the red tourism in China, this
research try to deconstruct tourists’ identity within the context of red tourism and figure out how the
identity is constructed by the provider and internalized by the consumer. This paper adopts a
qualitative research method, including semi-structured interviews and participated observation. Data
collection conducted in Jinggangshan Scenic Area during May 2018 and 54 visitors were interviewed,
generated more than 40000 words transcript, 310 photos and two clips of videos.
Firstly, I draw on Judith Bulter’s gender performativity theory which proposes that practices
engender identity. By looking at the relationship between the performative practices with identity, I
found that it is possible that identity in terms of politics can be shaped by performativity in the same
way. Accordingly, the tourists’ performance and performativity are scrutinized and then their
identities are analyzed. Second, the identity construction mechanism is identified through research
the tour arrangements and the deployment of the heritage site which design the tourists’
performance. The finding illustrates that the political identity obtained in the Jinggangshan Scenic
Area contains two facets: national identity and party identity, and in most cases, visitor combines
those two identities together. Besides, the result also shows that the tourists’ political identity is
mediated by generation identity within the red tourism context, which extends the performativity
theory on time scale. Judith Bulter just mentions that the individual agency can resist stylized
performance informed by the authority, however the study presents that the extent to which tourists
accept informed identity is different as located in different generations. In other words, the social
structure also plays a part in the resistance.
Keywords: Performativity, tourist identity, red tourism
24
7367
Which is The Moderator of Ethnocentrism: Country or Product Image
B. Zafer Erdoğan
Professor
Department of Marketing, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Bülent Aydın
Eskişehir, Turkey
baydin1986@gmail.com
Deniz Kırmızı
Department of International Business, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to test the effect of the ethnocentrism on country image and product image.
Besides, it aims to determine from which one of these variables product and country image is
moderator for ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism known to have negative effects on the country and
product image. Therefore, it is important to determine the variable that will decrease negative effect.
Quantitative methods were used in the research. The theoretical framework was established and the
research model was developed. Scales were determined and a questionnaire was created for the
model test. In terms of measurement, country image scale, country product image scale and the
CETSCALE were used. Data was collected via developed questionnaire in Eskisehir city center with
convenience sampling technique. Explanatory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis were performed on
data collected from 400 people by face to face interviews. SPSS and AMOS programs were used for
analysis. Hypotheses were tested with SPSS PROCESS software. According to the findings, while
ethnocentric tendency on consumer affects country image negatively, it doesn’t affect the product
image. In the effect of ethnocentrism on the image of the country, although the general image of the
products of the country has a positive moderator effect, it is not statistically significant. Yet country
image has a significant moderator between ethnocentrism and product image. It was determined
that the level of education used as a control variable affected only the first model significantly and
positively.
Keywords: Country image, product image, ethnocentrism, France, tourism
25
7379
Evaluation of Alaçati (Izmir/Turkey) Destination In Aspect of Sustainable Tourism Indicators
Özge Bora
Graduate School of Social Science, Ege University
Izmir, Turkey
ozgeparasiz@gmail.com
Füsun Baykal
Ege University
Izmir, Turkey
fusunsoykan@ege.edu.tr
Abstract
The most developed county of tourism capacity in Izmir is Çeşme. As a district of Çeşme, Alaçatı has
become a rapidly growing destination in the last two decades. This popularization of Alaçatı, its
natural and cultural riches, its proximity to Izmir and proximity to Çeşme played the most important
roles. However, the setting up of an excessive number of operators (hotel-hostel, restaurant,
shopping units) in this small settlement center, which took the first steps of touristic life cycle
quickly, caused some problems, especially noise. The subject of this declaration is; according to the
WTO's sustainable tourism indicators, to examine Alaçatı’s current situation of tourism. Proceeding;
according to Alaçatı tourism and sustainable tourism indicators, Alaçatı's level of adaptation has been
defined as what should be done in order to develop Alaçatı tourism according to sustainable tourism
indicators. Goal is to evaluate the emerging results from a critical point of view. In the study six
interview actors were interviewed within the scope of sixteen questions with verbal interview
technique. Interviewing, one of the most frequently used data collection methods in qualitative
research; has made it easy to access profound knowledge for Alaçatı. Opinions were transferred to
this work with descriptive comments. If we make a generalization according to the findings, it is also
true that Alaçatı has some positive developments in terms of sustainable tourism indicators, but
there are also risks that can lead to various problems in the future.
Keywords: Sustainable tourism, indicator, actor, interview, Alaçatı
26
7380
Cultural Heritage and Cultural Routes: Samples from Turkey
Füsun Baykal
Ege University
Izmir, Turkey
fusunsoykan@ege.edu.tr
Abstract
Some cultural heritage values are used in tourism in-situ or ex-situ. From local to universal, from past
to today, archeological sites, sacred places, historical structures, domestic architecture, monuments,
traditional celebrations etc. are transformed into touristic products for cultural heritage tourism. One
of these products are cultural routes. Cultural route is spatial phenomenon as a corridor of
transportation, travel and exploration. It is an inter-cultural dialogue, a means of sharing the cultural
heritage, a means of developing an integration and cooperation with cultural traces. Cultural routes
are historically existing transportation routes as well as they might be re-planned at the present time.
While cultural landscapes offer unique attractiveness, the use of these routes via tourism contributes
to the recognition, utilization, conservation. Also, a route is source of power in socio-economic
development for rural settlements. Cultural routes in Turkey have an identity of nature, culture or a
mix of them. The first ever planned route is Likya Route (1999). Thematic and regional development
corridors (olive, religion, winter, silk road, highland, Western Black Sea of Turkey, Thrace) are
specified in 2007 within the context of Turkish Tourism Strategy 2023. The routes have started to
draw interest after the Association of Cultural Routes was established in 2012. A plenty of routes
have been prepared with the initiatives of governorates, development agencies, local governments,
NGOs, chambers of industry and trade. The aim of this study is to show the relationship between
cultural heritage, tourism and cultural routes and to interpret the regional dispersions by grouping
the cultural routes in Turkey. The method of this qualitative research relies on the description and
data analysis. One of the initial findings of the research is the fact that the importance attributed to
Turkish cultural routes has been gradually increasing. Another finding is the fact that brand products
and local cuisine culture have been articulated to historical and religion-themed routes. Besides, it
can be said that the routes have the potential to develop highly in every geographical region, which
would influentially support tourism and development.
Keywords: Attractiveness, route, theme, region, tourism, development, conservation, Turkey
27
7382
Architecture’s Role in New Tourism Trends: Cases from Poland and Turkey
Adam Siniecki
Poznan University of Technology
Poland
Ayşe Nilay Evcil

Beykent University
Istanbul, Turkey
anevcil@gmail.com
Abstract
The search for new recreation spaces and the development of new forms of tourism is not something
new in the tourist industry. However, from the beginning of the 21st century, it can be noted that
atypical forms of tourism are gaining in popularity. The first harbingers of new tourist trends appear
which on the one hand do not require a long stay. These offers are more geared to shock, tourist
interest over the course of several days. This is partly due to the increased availability of offers and
services, but also from greater customer wealth. This new trends is related both with contemporary
modern buildings designed by famous architects and recently renovated old buildings with modern
design elements. Specialized trips are organized to visit these buildings. This new form of tourism is
an example of modern branding of a city. Architecture with this new form of tourism becomes an
important element of city planning. The article presents new forms of tourism in Poland and Turkey,
which can be used to protect the cultural heritage of both countries and will discuss how city
branding can support cultural tourism sustainability.
Keywords: Architecture tourism, city branding, heritage tourism, Poland, Turkey
28
7383
Sustaining Cultural Routes: The Case of Cultural Routes Society
Kübra Aşan
Sinop University
Sinop, Turkey
kubra.asan@hotmail.com
Medet Yolal
Professor
Faculty of Tourism, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
myolal@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
In Turkey, there are 21 thematic and long-run cultural trails designed to showcase religious, trade
and migration roads that were developed and used by different civilizations in the course of time.
Also labelled as cultural routes, these trails stand as the infrastructure necessary for a variety of
recreational activities while covering a range of historical and cultural beauties and scenery of Asia
Minor. In the long run, preservation and sustainability of these routes are crucial for increasing the
economic benefits in the local economy and consequently well-being of the residents and visitors.
This requires a collaborative approach that includes both the government and non-governmental
bodies. In this regard, the Cultural Routes Society is a leading non-governmental organization that
aims to discover new routes, protect and promote the existing ones. Therefore, the paper aims to
examine the efforts of the Cultural Routes Society. A qualitative approach is employed and semi-
structured interviews are conducted with the managers, walking group leaders, local entrepreneurs
and local guides. Moreover, webpage and publications of the society are examined. The results of the
study reveals that varying models are used to sustain these cultural routes such as developing
partnerships with tracking and mountaineering societies, collaboration with the local businesses and
guides and using online networks. Common characteristic of these models is found to be their relying
on voluntariness. Moreover, the models change from route to route, and in some cases more than
one model is employed. However, it is difficult to determine the best model in sustaining the cultural
routes. It is seen that the social and human capital of the site is an important determinant in
achieving the goals. The continuity and sustainability of the routes can be achieved by fostering the
voluntary efforts and developing accessible social networks. In Turkey, there are 21 thematic and
long-run cultural trails designed to showcase religious, trade and migration roads that were
developed and used by different civilizations in the course of time. Also labelled as cultural routes,
these trails stand as the infrastructure necessary for a variety of recreational activities while covering
a range of historical and cultural beauties and scenery of Asia Minor. In the long run, preservation
and sustainability of these routes are crucial for increasing the economic benefits in the local
economy and consequently well-being of the residents and visitors. This requires a collaborative
approach that includes both the government and non-governmental bodies. In this regard, the
Cultural Routes Society is a leading non-governmental organization that aims to discover new routes,
protect and promote the existing ones. Therefore, the paper aims to examine the efforts of the
Cultural Routes Society. A qualitative approach is employed and semi-structured interviews are
conducted with the managers, walking group leaders, local entrepreneurs and local guides.
Moreover, webpage and publications of the society are examined. The results of the study reveals
that varying models are used to sustain these cultural routes such as developing partnerships with
tracking and mountaineering societies, collaboration with the local businesses and guides and using
online networks. Common characteristic of these models is found to be their relying on
voluntariness. Moreover, the models change from route to route, and in some cases more than one
29
model is employed. However, it is difficult to determine the best model in sustaining the cultural
routes. It is seen that the social and human capital of the site is an important determinant in
achieving the goals. The continuity and sustainability of the routes can be achieved by fostering the
voluntary efforts and developing accessible social networks.
Keywords: sustainability, best practices, cultural routes, trails, trekking, Turkey
30
7384
Experiencing the Photos: The Case of ESOGU Tourism Camp
Yaşar Sarı
Eskişehir, Turkey
Rasa Pranskuniene
Aleksandras Stulginskis University
rasa.pranskuniene@asu.lt
Cemile Ece
Eskişehir, Turkey
Efnan Ezenel
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
In the dynamic period of sustainable development, insufficient interaction of nature, culture and
tourism is observed. Deepening our tourism experiences in nowadays local tourism is still the
challenge, thus, the GT research on the case of ESOGU tourism camp experiences is significant for
further development of local tourism. The aim of this study is to generate the grounded theory which
would reveal the main concern of interactive processes in the context on the case of ESOGU tourism
camp experiences and would explain how this main concern is being resolved. The strategy of classic
grounded theory (GT), selected for research, provides the possibility to researcher to look at the little
researched phenomenon from inside without formulating the hypothesis and without any pre-
insights, i.e., to “emerge” the theory, which reveals the main concern and explains how it is resolved,
by conceptualizing the authentic experiences of research participants. Following B. Glaser's (2001)
statement “all is data”, to conduct the research, the research on the case of ESOGU tourism camp is
chosen. For this study the experiences expressed in the process of photo making and discussing the
photo experiences are chosen. The data collection methods (photos, interviews, observation,
informal conversations, comments), and application of procedures of classic grounded theory will
help to reveal the main concern, emerging during the experiences of the case ESOGU tourism camp.
Following the rules of classic GT, this research is carried out as a cyclical process, where both data
collection and data analysis are implemented together, i.e., at the same time data is collected, data
analysis is made, memos are written up, it is conceptualized and returned to data collection again
until theoretical saturation achieved and GT formed. The formed GT could be significant for further
development of local tourism and sustainable development.
Keywords: Experiences, tourism, photos, sustainable development, grounded theory
31
7385
Gender Issues in Tourism Research: Experiences of Solo Women Travelers (The Case of Turkey)
Bahar Kaba
Social Sciences Institute, Ege University
İzmir, Turkey
baharkaba@outlook.com
Gözde Emekli
Department of Geography, Ege University
Izmir, Turkey
gozde.emekli@ege.edu.tr
Abstract
Globalization and postmodern structures, change of socio-cultural lifestyle, developing tourism-
technology relations, narrowing world, quick/easy and low-cost destinations, increased tourism
experiences have made into solo travel an important part of the tourism market. Increased interest
in solo or independent travel is named as a new tourism trend that reflects a broad and global
phenomenon (Wilson and Harris, 2006:162). Also "women” within the solo travelers have become an
important part of the world tourism market (Bond, 1997; Wilson and Little, 2005; Pereira and Silva,
2018). Women increasingly prefer to travel alone rather than traveling with family, friends, husband
or tours. This has provided a basis for the examination of the subject in various disciplines such as
geography, tourism and accommodation, tourism, sports and hotel management in international
literature. But there was no study related to solo women travelers in the national literature. In this
context, the research focuses on women, who travel solo both in relation to changing socio-political
conditions and desire for challenge, independence, meeting new people-cultures and their
experience, and aim to contribute the national literature through “solo women travelers”.
“What are motivated them for traveling alone”, “what solo travel means for them”, “what benefits
solo travel provides for them”, “what kind of constraints they encounter before and during their solo
travel”, and “how they cope with these constraints” are among the questions that were asked in the
research. For this purpose, a qualitative research process was designed and in-depth interview was
conducted with 15 participants through an interview form. The participants were selected by
purposive and snowball sampling methods. Participants were included in the sample provided that
have travelled solo more than one both in domestic and foreign country and have lived in turkey. It is
among the first findings that many factors have influenced women's preferring to travel alone,
especially search for "freedom", "independence" and "self-discovery".
Keywords: Gender, tourism, solo travel, solo women travelers
32
7388
A Conceptual Study on Accessible Eco-Recreation
Elif Şenel
Eskisehir Osmangazi University
Eskişehir, Turkey
eozelmas@hotmail.com
Cemile Ece
Eskişehir, Turkey
Efnan Ezenel
Eskişehir, Turkey
Yaşar Sarı
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Difficulties in work and normal life in recent times, tiredness and stress have led individuals to
natural outdoor areas in the city or outside the city where recreational activities can take place. For
this reason, the demand for nature-based recreational tourism activities has increased. Day-to-day or
long-term ecotourism activities have contributed to the sustainability of rural development and
natural habitats by increasing their share in tourism and creating significant investment areas. The
recreation element has an important place in the concept of ecotourism as well as in relation with
other tourism types. This is the concept of ecorecreation, which is carried out in ecological areas,
which does not harm the integrity of nature in any way and contributes to the conservation,
development, development and support of natural areas. Ecorecreation activities provide important
contributions especially to small settlements such as villages and towns which are close to natural
areas. The participant involved in such activities is called ecorecreationist. Ecorecreationists benefit
from a wide range of sports and recreational activities such as camping, trekking, climbing, scouting,
etc., which are made in natural areas. However, the fact that the activities are outdoors, the fact that
the sports and activities are carried out under difficult conditions, the difficulty of access to the
region makes participation in ecorecreation activities difficult. Particularly for disadvantaged groups
and people to participate in such activities, it seems impossible to take part in such activities. From
this point of view, the concept of accessibility is important for reaching the centers and activities of
the ecorecreation sites, using the fields and taking the active part in the tourism for the
disadvantaged groups. In this research, it is aimed to examine ecorecreation activities with a concept
of accessibility from a holistic point of view.
Keywords: Ecotourism, ecorecreation, accessiblity
33
7389
Contribution of Tourism to Economy in European Union and the Place of Turkey
Bahar Berberoğlu
Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Çağlar Karaduman
Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
caglarkaraduman@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
Tourism sector and tourism expenditures are of high importance for every country and it can be good
support for them, especially the ones with higher current account deficits. In this study, European
Union countries as well as the candidates were investigated through cluster analysis using data on
International Tourist arrivals, International tourism inbound receipts, Tourism and travel industry in
GDP and Tourism and travel industry in employment. Findings show that the upper cluster was
consisted of Spain and France. Meanwhile the second best cluster was of Italy, England, Germany
and Turkey. Coming after, Greece, Croatia, Poland, Holland, Austria and Hungary. Other countries
were found to be belonging to the bottom cluster. The position of Turkey in the clusters can be
interpreted as pretty good. Further, the position of her is the best among the candidates. According
to discriminant analysis the clusters were seperated at a high level of 94.1% and the lengths were
normally distributed.
Keywords: European Union, cluster analysis, discriminant analysis
34
7392
Socio-Economic Effects of Tourism Urbanization: The Case of Antalya
Volkan Zoğal
Ege University
İzmir, Turkey
volkan.zogal@ege.edu.tr
Şevket Işık
Ege University
İzmir, Turkey
Abstract
Significant changes occurred in the reasons and spatial distribution of urbanization, which showed a
rapid increase after 1950 in Turkey. In the early periods of urbanization, migrations from the rural
areas to the urban areas with the influence of socio-economic conditions was the main reason for
urbanization. With the increase of the regional inequalities and the transformation of migration from
city to city after 1980, new centers with different gravitational forces have emerged. While some of
these new cities are the result of industrialization the same as before, some are the result of new
universities that have been established. Tourism is another factor accelerating urbanization in Turkey
due to the structure that affects many sectors after 1980. The aim of this study is to examine the
concept of "tourism urbanization" or “touristic urbanization” as an urbanization model and analyze it
empirically in the case of Antalya which is located on the Mediterranean coast of Turkey. Antalya is
the urban area where mass coastal tourism most rapidly developed since the mid-80s. Diverse
impacts of the tourism industry such as social, economic, cultural and spatial, are highly visible in
Antalya. Statistics on population growth rate, immigration, labour force, registered foreign
population, foreign property ownership, tourist numbers and tourism facilities were employed in
order to distinguish the dynamics of urbanization in Antalya from the other big cities of Turkey.
The findings indicate that the process of tourism-related urbanization in Antalya has similarities with
the other studies in the literature. The changing economic structure in Antalya based on tourism in
the 1980s was accompanied by a rapid growth both in the population and in the labour force. The
increase rate of the Antalya population between 1985 and 2015 was 257 percent, raking the top
among the other big cities of Turkey including İstanbul, Ankara, İzmir, Kocaeli, Bursa and Tekirdağ.
During the same period (1985-2015), the greatest increase in the percentage of the out-born
population was observed in Antalya. Another effect of the tourism industry is on the number of the
foreign population settling in Antalya. In 2016, the number of foreign population with a residence or
work permit has exceeded 60,000. The percentage of the foreign population in Antalya is the highest
(2.6 percent) among the province of Turkey. Between 1980 and 2000, the labour force in the
economic sectors directly or indirectly related to tourism increased 524 percent, leaving all the other
provinces behind. The highest increase in the proportion of those employed in the sectors that could
be associated with tourism services such as "wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels",
"transportation, communication and storage" and “construction” was also in Antalya. The proportion
of those employed in the mentioned areas in Antalya increased from 11% in 1980 to 27% in 2000.
Keywords: Tourism urbanization, touristic urbanization, Antalya, Turkey
35
7393
Effects of Participating in Diaspora Tourism of Circassians Living in Turkey on Their Place
Attachment
Ufuk Çevik
Instructor
Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management
Anadolu University, Turkey
ufukcevik@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
This study is carrying out as a doctoral dissertation in Social Sciences Institutes, Department of
Tourism Management, under the title of “Determining the Effects on Place Attachment of Circassians
Living in Turkey by Involvement to Diaspora Tourism”. Besides researches about the involvement of
people who live in diaspora to the diaspora tourism are few it was compelled to make studies in this
field. When studies about migration and tourism were examined, motivation of the individuals and
groups participating in diaspora tourism which offers a basic foundation and the complex structure of
diaspora tourism demonstrated us that it would be inadequate if it was examined only within the
boundaries of tourism literature. As because family immigration histories of the individuals’ live in
diaspora, place attachments and distinct cultural identities of these people entail an interdisciplinary
endeavor in terms of understanding effects and outcomes of the diaspora tourism participation.
That was why effects on place attachment participating in diaspora tourism of Circassian individuals
living in Turkey towards homeland, which their ancestors had been come from, was tried to be
revealed in this study by carrying out it with including topics mentioned above and examing deeply
their cultural identities. In this study we applied 30 semi-structured interviews by sticking to the
snowball method. In these interviews, the migration histories of the families which individuals belong
to, individual identities, place attachments, homeland visits and effects of these visits were tried to
be determined. In this way, with the information obtained under the qualitative research, both the
Circassian individuals' participation of Circassians living in Turkey in diaspora tourism among where
their ancestors had been come from, and effects of their participation in diaspora tourism on their
cultural identities and place attachment were examined. Between the 20th and 29th of May 2018 we
participate to a diaspora tourist group from Turkey which visited Circassian homeland, city of Nalcik
located in Kabardino-Balkaria. In this trip, we stayed all time with the group and conducted in-depth
observations to understand feelings and behaviours of Circassian diaspora tourists. Previous
literature portrays diaspora tourists as homogeneous and suggests that home return travel
engenders broadly similar impacts on the individual. This study revealed diasporic communities were
quite diverse and complex. Different Circassian diaspora tourist were identified from those each
having distinct travel motives, experiences and feelings, migration backgrounds, cultural identities
and place attachments. The consequences of diaspora tourism particularly in terms of place
attachment and cultural identity were further discussed, as home return travel induces positive,
neutral and negative reactions.
Keywords: Diaspora tourism, Circassians, Place attachment, tourism and cultural identity
36
7396
Determining the Motivations for Y Generation Individuals to Cook at Home: A Preliminary Study
Zeynep Kahya
Graduate Student
Tourism Management Program, Social Sciences Institute, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
zkahya@anadolu.edu.tr
Çağıl Hale Özel

Associate Professor
Department of Tourism Management, Tourism Faculty, Anadolu University,
Eskişehir, Turkey
chkayar@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
The changing consumer tendencies, preferences and wishes of the postmodern era get meaning in
the food and beverage sector as well as in other sectors. Today, when the consumers want to
maintain a healthy lifestyle, the food and beverage sector has turned to healthy, organic, natural
products. Do-it-yourself, IKEA influence, hobby culture and prosumer culture concepts such as
cooking at home have found themselves in the context of postmodern behaviors. Even though eating
outside in today's society is a common behavior, it is seen that postmodern consumer draws a profile
that is more informed, engaged in returning to the past and wants to produce and consume
himself/herself. In the postmodern period, with the consumers forming a more informed and
researcher profile, it is inevitable that out-of-home eating behavior is considered unhealthy and
consumers are more oriented towards home-eating behavior. It can be deduced that eating at home
will take the place of eating outside in the future since we are living in the communication age where
individuals are conscious, egocentric, and have prosumer characteristics. However, it is understood
that there is not a sufficient number of relevant literature in Turkey which will bring the subject to an
understandable level. In a small number of studies on home cooking, it has been tried to determine
what the motivations of home cooking are. This study has a qualitative design. Semi-structured
questionnaires created with expert opinions will be used to collect data. In the scope of the study,
individual interviews will be held with the individuals in the Y Generation and questions about the
behavior of eating at home will be directed. The main question that needs to be addressed in the
study is how Y Generation individuals lead to cooking at home. Since the individuals of Y Generation
are now conscious and inquisitive consumers who cover a large part of working life as of nowadays,
individuals of this generation were selected. In other words, it was assumed that Y was a generation
who became willing to eat at home with this increase in consciousness. In the scope of the study, in-
depth interviews will be made with a number of individuals that enable the data to reach the
saturation point and the obtained data will be deciphered and subject to content analysis. By this
means, it will be possible to have information about what are the factors that make Y-Generation eat
at home. This is the main contribution of this study to the literature. It is also believed that findings
of this study may provide important clues about the new consumer trends in the food and beverage
industry.
Keywords: Postmodern consumer, eating outside, cooking at home, Y generation
37
7399
A Review on the Effect of Voluntary Tourism Activities to Rural Development
Efnan Ezenel
Eskişehir, Turkey
efnan_ezenel@hotmail.com
Cemile Ece
Eskişehir, Turkey
Yaşar Sarı
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Cities have become centres where the economic development exists who get massive immigration
with the increasing speed of production, industrialization and technological development. As an
excepted result, the reduction of employment in rural areas and the increased migration cause that
these areas lose their importance and the reduction of agricultural activities there. So that volunteer
tourism within the themes such as eco tourism, rural tourism, agro tourism have begun to reveal
new tourism activities together. In this sense, new touristic activities within the scope of volunteer
tourism which has been preferred by young travellers in recent years, has become more common in
ecological and rural areas. Volunteers can both recognise a new culture and participate in agricultural
and cultural activities that belong to that locality by means of volunteer tourism. This participation
leads to cultural interaction and the recognition of that culture naturally by another culture. As
voluntary tourism activities take place in these rural areas, the attraction to these areas are starting
to increase thus economic impact gains a positive momentum. Rural areas which are very important
for the agriculture will be examined within the scope of the volunteer tourism activities which have
impact on rural development in this study in order to emphasize that rural areas have an important
role in the economy of the country.
In this context, the data which will be obtained from the interviews of 12 participants who
participated in the project “A Solution Development by Rural Tourism Approach for Employment
Problem in Agriculture: The Model of Inönü “ of the ESOGU RURAL CAMP during 1 month will be
analysed via discourse analysis..
38
7401
Adult-Only vs Child-Friendly: A Research about Adult-Only Hotels with The Case of Marmaris
Emine Yılmaz
Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University
Muğla, Turkey
emineyola@hotmail.com
Nur Çelik
Muğla, Turkey
Funda Ön Esen
Muğla, Turkey
Salim Akçay
Muğla, Turkey
Abstract
Many tourism businesses have begun to serve child-focused products, services and activities with the
widespreading of family tourism. On the contrary, the existence of tourists who do not have any
children or do not want or stand the child-focused activities has caused some family issues in tourism
sector. This situation has led some tourism businesses to differentiation and diversify their tourism
products. In this context, adult-only concept has emerged as a new tourism product in line with these
developments. Starting from this, the aim of this study is determined as to gain information about
the accommodation businesses serving in the adult-only concept and to show how the adult-only
concept was applied by these businesses. This study was prepared with qualitative method and
interview technique was used as data collection tool from executive manageres. The area of the
study is Marmaris where is a tourism town in Muğla province. Findings were subjected to content
analysis. Research results show that the concept of adult-only hotel emerges with the aim of
specialization, product differentiation, inadequate physical conditions, providing quality service,
reducing costs.
Keywords: Adult-only concept, family issues, tourism product, tourism product diversification.
39
7402
You Will Come Back When You Forget: Fear and Mobility to Once Terrorized Sites
Burcu Kaya Sayarı

Research Assistant
Eskisehir, Turkey
burcukaya142@anadolu.edu.tr
Tuba Gün
Research Assistant
Faculty of Humanities, Department of Sociology, Anadolu University
Eskisehir, Turkey
tubagun@anadolu.edu.tr
Medet Yolal
Professor
Eskisehir, Turkey
myolal@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
People live in a mobile world and this mobility has long been a significant concern for the
researchers. Mobility shifts the academic attention from the narrative of stasis and fixed territories
to movement and interconnection (Glick Schiller and Salazar, 2013, pp. 185-186). These agendas also
led new research methods and strategies to capture the global transformations through a lens of
‘shared critique of methodological nationalism’ (Beck, 2007, p. 286). However, the flow which
Appadurai (1996), Castells (1996) and Bauman (2000, 2002, 2007) point out, does not proceed
without frictions as Tsing (2005) argues. Friction elements such as economic processes, climate-
related disasters and political conflicts, trigger mobile populations and hybrid resident tourists
(Mavric and Urry, 2009, p. 649) or block transnational movements. This paper aims to scrutiny terror
attacks in Istanbul, Turkey as a case of the friction that terrorism creates in mobility movements by
the use of netnography and the secondary data in the light of the relation between memory and
place. Findings of the study are discussed within the context of mobility movements, methodological
nationalism, and the Beck’s conceptualisation of globalization of risk. Further, findings show that it is
not only the terror attacks which shape the mobility between places or block these movements but
also cultural and social memory, stereotypes and cultural differences. The paper ends with a
discussion of friction elements which should be considered in the examination of tourism mobilities.
Keywords: mobility, place, memory, risk society, fear of terror, Turkey.
40
7405
Cultural Heritage Sustainability with the Perspective of Local People: The Case of Historical Ayvalık
Houses
Emine Yılmaz
Muğla, Turkey
Ekin Enver Yılmaz

Muğla, Turkey
Sultan Ebru Ekici

Muğla, Turkey
Hüseyin Çeken
Muğla, Turkey
Abstract
Although the origins of culture go a long way back when compared to tourism, culture and tourism
are directly related with each other. All tangible and intangible cultural heritage values are the basis
of tourism supply as cultural attractions. For this reason, cultural values are extremely important in
the increase of tourism demand for any region. Therefore, these cultural values which are inherited
from different civilizations must be protected with a sustainable perspective. In the absence of
sustainability, these mysterious attractions will soon disappear. In this context, the study aimed to
explore the sustainability of cultural heritage values from the public point of view. The area of the
work was determined as Ayvalık houses remaining from the Greeks and considered as important
cultural heritage values. The sample of the research is the people living in historical Ayvalık houses.
This study was prepared with qualitative method and interview technique was used as data
collection tool. As a result, it is found that it is forbidden to make any amendments other than minor
modifications in order to preserve the characteristics of the historic houses. There are serious
sanctions in case of changes in houses; but the inspections are inadequate. In addition, it has been
determined that people have to sell their homes despite their desire because of the cost of caring for
the houses. Also it was revealed that since the summer residents who bought houses outside Ayvalık
neglected to care for the whole year, the houses were severely damaged and eventually left to the
fate of themselves.
Keywords: Cultural heritage, historical Ayvalık houses, sustainability
41
7406
On Sustainable Tourism Management in the Hitit Road Development Corridor
Nida Özbek
BM Aktif Mimarlik
tnidaaa@gmail.com
Nevin Turgut Gültekin

Gazi Üniversitesi
Ankara, Turkey
Abstract
Cultural routes are communication networks that are classified as land, water, or some other type of
physical destination, with cultural and historical functionality, bearing their own dynamics and
showing the compatibility/contrast of these dynamics with nature. These are routes that live and
survive among countries, regions, or continents, where multidimensional ideas, knowledge and
values are constantly and reciprocally exchanged. These cultural roots of this quality are evaluated
within the scope of thematic areas determined by UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization) in 2010 and taken to the World Heritage List with the aim of providing
sustainability. Cultural routes used for different purposes (military, commercial, religious etc.) in the
past are important destinations for tourism today. The recognition of these destinations in the
tourism market is ensured by the themes determined by the attributes of the values on the route.
However, with the gains from the tourism-oriented use of cultural values, various vital factors such as
the immovable cultural heritage and the sustainability of the eigenvalues of the local people are
often neglated. Cultural routes in Turkey are defined as "development corridors" and efforts are paid
for these routes to be available in tourism. Since the Hittite Development Corridor, which is focused
on the ancient capital Hattusha, is not yet an attractive destination for popular or consumption
tourism, there is a hope to maintain a conservation-use balance managed by a sustainable
conservation and tourism approach. For this purpose, in this report, the constraints / possibilities will
be determined according to the sustainable tourism principles on the Hittite Road and the principles
to guide the management plan will be determined. Thus, "outstanding universal value" of this route
will be defined and the quality of the culture route characteristics will have been evaluated.
Keywords: Cultural heritage, cultural route, sustainable tourism, management, hitit road
42
7408
Tourism in Istanbul; Past, Present and Future
Sezgi Gedik
Vocational School of Social Sciences, Istanbul University
Istanbul, Turkey
Tolga Fahri Çakmak

Tourism and Travel Services, Istanbul University
Istanbul, Turkey
Füsun İstanbullu Dinçer

Faculty of Economics, Istanbul University
Istanbul, Turkey
Mithat Zeki Dinçer

Faculty of Economics, Istanbul University
Istanbul, Turkey
Abstract
İstanbul is one of the most important cities of Turkey, in terms of tourism. With its cultural values,
geographical features and its development in the field of finance, it attracted and visited by local and
foreign tourists for years. However, with the terrorist incidents, crises and actions that have lived in
recent years, Istanbul has suffered a considerable loss in terms of tourism. Numerous reservations
and programs have been canceled, security warnings have been issued, tourism occupancy rates
have fallen and emergency plans have been developed. Positive developments have started since
2016. The aim of this study is to reveal the changes and developments that have taken place in
Istanbul tourism especially in the last 10 years and to present suggestions for future years. Within
this scope, 35 people, including public and non-governmental organizations and private sector
representatives, were interviewed individually and 15 people were contacted by mail and a total of
50 people were reached. The information obtained as a result of the talks and the statistical data are
presented in the study, and proposals for the next five years are presented in an approach that
enables the sustainable development of Istanbul tourism.
Keywords: Istanbul, crisis, tourism development
43
7409
Tourism Graduates’ Career Status and Tourism Education Recommend Intentions
S. Pınar Temizkan
Assoc. Prof.
Tourism Faculty, Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department
Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Turkey
pinartemizkan@hotmail.com
Beybala Timur
Research Assistant
Tourism Faculty, Travel Management and Tourism Guide Department
Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Turkey
beybalatimur@gmail.com
Coşkun Ceviz
coskunceviz@hotmail.com
Abstract
Despite the technological developments, human factor can not be ignored in tourism which is a
highly labour-intensive sector. And tourist satisfaction from goods and services can only be provided
by qualified employees. Every year hundereds of tourism students graduate from schools. However,
most of the graduates do not work in the sector at all or leave sector in first couple of years. This
situation leads the waste of funds and investments on tourism education and employment of
unqualified workforce in sector. Having knowledge about tourism graduates’ career status, reason to
leave the sector and tourism education recommend intentions plays a critical role on solving these
problems. Thus, study aims to determine the current career status, reason to leave the sector and
tourism education recommend intention of tourism graduates. Data is gathered from 695 tourism
graduate participants through survey method and analyzed in accordance with the aim of study.
Results indicate that many of tourism graduates do not work in sector at all, half of the ones who
work in sector leave in first couple of years. The main reasons to leave the sector are heavy work
conditions, low salary and long working hours and shift system. Finally, a huge part of tourism
graduates do not recommend tourism education to their relatives including the ones who currently
work in tourism sector.
Keywords: Tourism education, career, recommend intention
44
7410
Agiasma's Culture Assessment
Melek Ordu
Graduate Student
Department of Conservation and Management of Cultural Heritage
Fatih Sultan Mehmet University
ordu.melek@outlook.com
Mine Esmer
Assistant professor
Fatih Sultan Mehmet University
Abstract
At all time, water has been the same impact for all human being that is the essence of the source of
life. In ancient Greece also tells us that Aristotle's proposal of "Water is the source, principle, nature,
or matter of everything" is a divine creation power. The belief of renaissance by sinking into the
water which has been ongoing since the Pagan culture, sacred bathing ceremonies has been
performed to bring bless for God's statues. By Catholics until the 20th century, this was continued in
Christianity with the ritual of immersing a sculpture of Jesus or a statue of Virgin Mary on the water
to rain. St. John describes baptism with attributing sanctity to water as a spiritual welfare, the
forgiveness of sins and the salvation of the spirit as a sacredness, not a physical disability. Agiasma
(holy spring of orthodox greeks), also referred to as the "sacred place", is the water cult of the Greek
Orthodox. Sometimes there are in the orchard, sometimes with dedicated to each different saint and
ave. However, these places are not only places of Orthodox, but also places frequented by Muslim
people and visited with healing purposes. Agiasma water are drunk for healing purposes. Some
Agiasma are constant addresses for some diseases. For example, it is believed that the Aya Dimitri
Agiasma in Kurucesme are good for children who are paralyzed or unable to speak and for the ache
of heart and legs, Balıklı Agiasma is. When someone who has afruition in Agiasma comes back with
oil, brooms or dusters for the lamps. In some places, also a little baby, keyring-style things are
brought. It can be said that the prevalent practices relieve people from the mystical standpoint.
Balıklı Agiasma in Zeytinburnu district is one of these. The building was a few hundred meters away
from what was known as "Porta Selymbria" due to its proximity to the gate that opened to the Silivri
side of Istanbul in the historical process. Later on, this door will also be referred to as "Porta Pigi", at
certain times, in the church. The original name of the church is "Zoodokhos Pigi", which means "the
source from which life is bestowed". The Russians call it "Jivonosnago Istochina Baluklu". We learn
from the memoirs of A. Koptev, who traveled to Jerusalem in 1887 that the Russian pilgrims came to
Istanbul, as well as the castles such as Hagia Sophia, Kariye and Zeyrek. If we need to associate the
Agiasma culture and the miraculous power of the water with "Faith Tourism", we need to maintain
the miraculous direction that Christians and all other Semitic religions have attributed to the water,
as well as the sustainability of the forgotten flora cult.
Keywords: Agiasma, Agiasma culture, faith, tourism
45
7411
Competition in Health Tourism and Healthcare Tourists' Expenditure Characteristics’ in Turkey
Ilhan Sag
PhD. Candidate
Graduate School of Social Sciences, Department of Marketing,
University of Anadolu, Eskisehir, Turkey
ilhansag@anadolu.edu.tr
Ferhat D. Zengul
Assistant Professor
Department of Health Services Administration,
University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA
ferhat@uab.edu
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to determine the health tourists’ expenditure characteristics in the light
of its relationship with treatment type, gender, religions and country origins. The data for this
empirical study was collected from 288 patients (response rate 82%) in Turkey all of whom being
health tourists from various countries. Due to this missing values in patient responses 172 surveys
are used for the final analyses with a response rate of 50%. Descriptive statistics and Chi-Square tests
were utilized for analyses. According to analyses;
• Among the 172 health tourist received treatment from Turkish hospitals 19,8 % (34 patients)
received treatments for aesthetic appearance, 41,3% (71 patients) apply for Treatments for
aesthetic appearance, %31,5’i (54 patients) apply for Operational (Surgical) Treatments, 7,6’i
(13 patients) apply for Emergency-Polyclinic-Check-up Applications. As the level of education
increases, Turkish citizens think that development of health tourism negatively affect the
economy in Turkey.
• Emergency-Polyclinic-Check-up Applications is the lowest treatment type with 7.6%. It is
understood that the healthcare tourists visit Turkey especially for medical care with planned
trip. Health tourism patients spend the most for "Treatments for aesthetic appearance" and
medical tourist apple for aesthetic appearance treatments.
• Turkish health care system is open and accessible for all the Religion groups. And the
important point is non-Muslim Patients spent more than the Muslims.
• Country Origins affect the health tourism patient’ Expenditure.
• Expenditures amount change according to patients’ gender.
Significant differences were found among Expenditures amount and Treatment Types, gender,
religions and country origins. These finding suggest that differences among health tourists’
expenditure characteristics contributed to the understand health tourism’ place in the economy and
highlighted for health care managers for to create new strategic road map for their marketing
strategies for healthcare tourism industry that is highly competitive globally.
There are limitation of this study such as time and financial inadequacy, individual’s unwillingness to
participate in the survey, data being limited to six city in Turkey.
Keywords: Competition, health tourism, expenditure
46
7412
A Different View on Tourism and Cultural Heritage: Evaluation of Rural Heritage in Ödemiş-Lübbey
by Creative Tourism
Seval Durmuş
Ege University
Izmir, Turkey
sevaldurmus.144@gmail.com
Gözde Emekli
Izmir, Turkey
Abstract
The concept of cultural heritage; what remains from the past, is extraordinary, challenging,
everything to be proud of and to be passed on to future generations. An important part of the
cultural heritage items that can sustain its presence until today is existing in rural areas. Tangible and
intangible cultural heritages, such as traditional architecture, traditions and customs, handicrafts,
kitchens and the like, which persist in their presence in rural areas, are called rural heritage and
together with the changing trends in tourism create a strong attraction and competitive power.
Today's postmodern forms of structuring are changing tourism and tourist expectations, especially
cultural heritage-tourism relations, which is a research field, and cause some transformations in
cultural tourism. Postmodern cultural tourists are more likely to go beyond being a sight collector in
their destination, to experience culture or locality, to be a part of the ratio, and to develop and
perform themselves. As a result of this transformation, interest in non-tangible cultural heritage in
cultural tourism is increasing and new approaches such as creative tourism are developing. Creative
tourism, defined by Richards and Raymond as a part of cultural tourism or as a reaction to this
tourism; is a type of is sustainable tourism that is presented with creative experiences, when
practical seminars are used and authentic experiences are experienced" (Raymond, 2007: 146). In
this respect, the heritage inherited by the rural areas in the creative tourism approach will be able to
sustain its existence by providing tourism and will support the rural development within the
postmodern tourism period by providing the tourist with a significant tourism attraction. The aim of
the work is to draw attention to creative tourism, which is seen today as the tourism approach of the
present and future, and the new attractions that are brought to the countryside, while the number of
tourists who are participating in cultural tourism increases with expectation of postmodern tourists.
Within this scope, Lübbey village (Çamyayla neighbourhood) in Ödemiş district of Izmir province was
chosen as research area. The village of Lübbey, also called region of swashbuckler, though is a unique
village where the tangible and intangible cultural heritage of concrete can be sustained, it is a village
that began to emigrate for various reasons after the 1980s and is now abandoned. However,
Lübbey's traditional settlement texture and the traditional architectural remains in the village still
need to be preserved. Lübbey village, mosque, coffee shop, a trade structure and a village room and
45 house has been declared as "2. group with the status of immovable an urban protected area
cultural property ". Natural and cultural geographical view resembling film studios is another finding
that needs attention for Lübbey. For this reason, it will be tried to draw attention to the evaluation of
Lübbey's traditional architectural and historical culture through tourism, protection, creativity and
evaluation. The research is an original work in that creative tourism and changing tourism trends in
the development of rural areas through tourism are proving a concrete example of increasing the
attractiveness of rural areas. The data obtained by using in-depth interview method from qualitative
research methods-will be analysed by content analysis and interpreted.
Keywords: Cultural tourism, creative tourism, cultural heritage, rural heritage, Ödemiş-Lübbey
47
7413
The Comparison of UNESCO Awareness and Support of Bergama and Selçuk Residents
Ceren İşçi
Ege University Bergama Vocational School
İzmir, Turkey
ceren.isci@hotmail.com
Berrin Güzel
Assoc. Prof.
Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Tourism
Aydın, Turkey
Emre Ataberk
Ege University Bergama Vocational School
İzmir, Turkey
Abstract
Besides being an important attraction for tourists, cultural heritages create positive impacts such as
forming a positive image and improve the environment when planned properly. Protection and
deliver to future generations of heritages is a concern of many shareholders and among these,
residents of the city have the highest responsibility. Residents’ attitudes towards the protection,
support and awareness of heritages is crucial for the sustainability of them.
The current study includes residents of Bergama and Selçuk where two important UNESCO World
Heritage sites are located. The aim of the study is to reveal and compare these city’s awareness and
support levels of UNESCO heritage sites. To obtain data, questionnaire technique is used and 841
residents participated to the survey. According to the results, in both sites the levels of awareness
high and there is a statistically difference among these cities, considering the support to UNESCO
heritage sites.
Keywords: UNESCO, heritage, awareness, support, residents
48
7414
Comparison of World Heritage Site Management Plans in Terms of Tourism
Hulisi Binbaşıoğlu
PhD Research Assistant
Tourism and Hotel Managemet, Malatya Turgut Özal University
Malatya, Turkey
hulusi.binbasioglu@inonu.edu.tr
Aysun Tuna
Assistant Professor
Department of Landscape Architecture, İnönü University
Malatya, Turkey
aysun.tuna@inonu.edu.tr
Abstract
World Heritage Sites (WHSs) are very important properties for destinations to attract tourists.
According to the definition of the UNESCO, World Heritage Sites (WHSs) are basically categorised into
three types: natural, cultural and mixed (cultural and natural). So far, the WHL has registered 1092
heritage sites (845 cultural, 209 natural and 38 mixed sites) belonging to 167 different countries
(UNESCO, 2018). Turkey also has 18 world heritage sites (16 cultural, and 2 mixed sites). Countries
should prepare the management plan to apply for their property to be a UNESCO World Heritage
Site. If a nominated property has an effective management plan and a description of the potential
Outstanding Universal Value of their property, it greatly increases the nominated property’s chances
of success (UNESCO, 2011). This paper aims to discuss the management plans of UNESCO World
Heritage Sites of Turkey in terms of tourism. In particular, 18 world heritage sites of Turkey will be
studied in the frame of management, policy, economic and environmental issues of tourism in the
management plans. This paper will examine how the tourism locates in management plans of
UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The current study will be designed based on a qualitative method by
employing document analysis. It is expected that the results of this study help the nominated
properties to meet the selection criteria in the light of tourism.
Keywords: UNESCO, world heritage sites, tourism, management plan
49
7419
Cittaslow in the Context of Sustainable Tourism and Historical Urban Landscape: Examples from
Turkey
Aysun Tuna
Assistant Professor
Battalgazi, Malatya, Türkiye
Hulisi Binbaşıoğlu
Assistant Professor
Department of Tourism and Hotel Management, Malatya Turgut Özal University
Kale, Malatya, Türkiye
hulusi.binbasioglu@ozal.edu.tr
Bilge Hatun Ay
Graduate Student
bilgehatunay01@gmail.com
Abstract
Historical urban landscapes encompass the social and cultural practices of the built environment and
the communities that interact with them, as well as the values and meanings community attached to
the built environment. In this context, historical urban landscapes are the sources of information that
have been shaped and developed by the societies with the tangible and intangible characteristics
that extend to today. Now, these sources of information are at risk in terms of concepts such as rapid
urbanization and industrialization. This issue necessitates the development of strategies for the
preservation of historic urban landscapes. Cittaslow movement is nowadays on the agenda of the
world as an alternative to the negative effects of rapidly operating cities, where people live in a very
fast pace, and consume more than they produce as a result of the globalization. The purpose of
Cittaslow basically offers an alternative and quality lifestyle to the communities by resisting the loss
of identity in the cities the post-globalization era where uncontrolled growth, uniformity of the
lifestyle of the society and the loss of cultural values and the resulting unidentified identity.
Therefore, the Cittaslow has the similar aims with the sustainable tourism approach that is based on
the approach of protecting and developing natural and cultural landscape resource values of the
region where it exists economically, ecologically and environment-friendly. In this paper, the tools
and action plans outlined in the UNESCO Historical Urban Landscape Approach recommendation are
examined and the 14 residential sites participating in the Cittaslow network will be studied.
Qualitative analysis method will be employed in this study. Practices made on the basis of data
received from the relevant local administrations of Cittaslow will be examined in the context of
historic urban landscape approach tools. Present situations have been primarily stated to carry out
the Cittaslow criteria in the settlements involved in the union of Cittaslow in Turkey in this paper.
After membership, the projects developed by local administrations within the scope of Cittaslow
movement, have been evaluated in the intersection of sustainable tourism and historical urban
landscape, and the influences of the implementations on Cittaslow have been set forth.
Keywords: Sustainable tourism, historical urban landscape, cittaslow
50
7424
Gastronomy Tourism in the Eye of the Local People: Bergama Case
Berrin Güzel
Associate Professor
Department of Food and Beverage Management, Aydın Adnan Menderes University
Kuşadası, Aydın, Turkey
berringuzel@hotmail.com
Ceren İşçi
Lecturer
Department of Tourism Management, Ege University, Bergama Vocational School
Bergama, İzmir, Turkey
ceren.isci@hotmail.com
Abstract
Food is not only a need but also a motivation to participate a tourism activity which is an important
part of travelling. It creates new and different experiences, though memories and is a source for
enjoyment. As tourism shifted to a post-Fordist approach, gastronomy tourism can be considered as
one of the new tourism types. Regarding gastronomical issues, every country has its own and unique
gastronomic customs. Among gastronomy, local food is both the custom of the country and an iconic
product about a specific region. Although it is limited to a geographical term, it covers the local
ingredients. Local food can be thought as a symbol of the destination or a complex product that is
totally specific to a destination. Considering the “local” food issue, tourists may go for a “local food”
if they want to experience the culture. The aim of the study is to explain the local gastronomic
specifications of Bergama, how it is promoted to tourists and food festivals. But most importantly
the advantages and disadvantages of Bergama local food. A qualitative research method is aimed
and to obtain data interviews are made with the locals. 54 local people participated the survey.
According to the results, Bergama has a high potential to promote itself as a new gastronomic
destination.
Keywords: Gastronomy tourism, local food, Bergama
51
7425
Analysing the Researches on Destination Life Cycle in SSCI Journals: A Meta Synthesis Study
Birgül Aydın
PhD Candidate
Department of Tourism Management, Institution of Social Science, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
birgulaydin@anadolu.edu.tr
Begüm Önem
Postgraduate Student
Eskişehir, Turkey
begumonem00@gmail.com
Emre Ozan Aksöz

Associate Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
ozana@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
The aim of this research is to analyze the 25 researches on the "destination life cycle" using the
meta-synthesis method and to determine the trend in the destination life cycle is. In this context, 25
researches published between 1990 and 2015, when research on the destination life cycle began to
be intensively undertaken, were analyzed. The meta-synthesis inclusion criteria were selected in the
selection of studies. These criteria are; the research should be accessible, and the full text of the
study should be available; the research problem, method, data collection techniques, analysis of
data, findings and results should be expressed clearly and in written form; the research should be
carried out between 1990 and 2015; studies should consist of articles; the research sample should
represent a destination which is located in abroad; studies should be published in SSCI journals. The
purpose and research questions of study to ensure validity and reliability in study have been clearly
expressed. The data obtained in the study were evaluated in terms of the objectives, the sample, the
method, the data collection tool, and the findings in the study regarding the destination life cycle.
The obtained data are interpreted through frequency and tables. It was determined that the research
data was collected via "interview technique" and "interview questions". As a result of the findings, it
was determined that "overnight rates", "duration of stay" and "number of tourists" were utilized in
terms of determining the destination stage in life cycle model. Findings indicate that the destination
life cycle model can be used to demonstrate the tourism development process and the model is
applicable in terms of life cycle. In addition, it has been determined that various internal and external
factors influence the tourism development. These factors are; transportation, accessibility, image,
planning, local government, security, natural disasters, global warming, floating exchange rate, crisis
and war. It has been determined that new market searches, promotional activities, product
diversification and differentiation strategies can be implemented in order to ensure tourism
sustainability in destinations and to prevent destinations from becoming stagnant.
Keywords: Destination, life cycle, SSCI journals, meta-synthesis
52
7426
A Research on the Determination of Preferences for Showrooming and Webrooming Behaviours in
Vacation Purchase
Emre Ozan Aksöz

Associate Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
Furkan Hafif
Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Consumers experience a shift in preference between shopping channels based on online shopping or
traditional shopping from stores due to financial, psychological, safety and performance risks. The
disadvantages of these two shopping types have led to two different multi-channel shopping
behaviors. These are Showrooming, which refers to online purchasing after obtaining information
from a store, and Webrooming, where consumers buy from a store after getting information online.
The aim of this study is to reveal the Showrooming or Webrooming intentions of consumers, the
reasons for their preferences and the demographic characteristics of such consumers when
purchasing vacations. This study is important for tourism companies to improve effective and
efficient marketing strategies in line with the obtained data as well as to contribute to the relevant
literature. The data was obtained by conducting a face-to-face survey with 282 people who reside in
Eskişehir and were selected by means of a convenience sampling method. 241 of the collected
surveys were considered valid. The analyses revealed that consumers mostly preferred getting
information from the Internet before buying services for touristic tours (n=153), accommodation
(n=172), air tickets (n=182) and transfers (n=124), and were more inclined to Webrooming behavior
while purchasing a vacation. Tourism companies are recommended to develop effective marketing
strategies aimed at multi-channel purchasing behaviors as consumers us different channels for
obtaining information on touristic services and purchasing.
Keywords: Showrooming, webrooming, vacation purchase
53
7430
The Evaluation of Tourism Potential of Bilecik City, Turkey
Hilal Kahveci
Assistant Professor
Department of İnterior Architecture and Environmental Design, Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University
Bilecik, Turkey
hilalakkaya_61@hotmail.com
Parısa Göker
Assistant Professor
Department of İnterior Architecture and Environmental Design, Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University
Bilecik, Turkey
Abstract
Historical cities are areas of material and spiritual values that convey the traditions, customs, culture,
understanding of art and thought of today's society to the future generations. Bilecik city is a
settlement where the Ottoman Empire was established, has important cultural heritage in which the
historical remains are located, and these values are transmitted to the future. There are many
archaeological and historical monuments within the borders of the province. Most of the historical
and cultural assets in Bilecik consist of mosques, mausoleums, hans, baths, examples of civil
arhitecture, almshaouse and similar structures or from structural residues. Interest in the city
increased because due to being the first important castle (city) to be conquered by Osman Gazi and
presence of the Seyh Edebali Türbesi, It is among the cities to be visited and seen by people. In
addition, Bilecik city has become a rapidly developing center of population, due to its being both a
mining area and a transition zone between Thrace and Anatolia. Bilecik city has also valuable
elements in terms of natural environmental resources. Natural vegetation, urban forests, ponds and
recreational areas, along with improving urban ecosystem, provide recreational opportunities for the
local people and visitors. In this context, the historical, cultural and natural areas in Bilecik city have
been determined and examined in terms of tourism potential by making use of on-site observation,
photography, data collection from related institutions and SWOT analysis methods. As a result, it is
seen that Bilecik city is open to tourism-oriented developments in terms of both historical, cultural
structure and natural elements which have in and around the city center. In addition, Bilecik city
increases its tourism potential with its accessibility and transit zone while offering advantages to
domestic and foreign tourists. To have this potential reach larger masses and increase the
recognition of the city, it is deemed as a must by the authorized institutions to ensure protection-
utilization balance, while raising the bar on the awareness of local people, conducting the urban
planning approaching holistically to historical textures and urban elements.
Keywords: Bilecik city, historical cities, historical and natural tourism elements, Turkey
54
7441
The Evolution of Heritage Tourism Destinations in Protected Rural Areas
Barış Seyhan
Research Assistant
Department of Tour Guiding, Anadolu University-Research Group ‘Territorial Analysis and Tourism
Studies’, University Rovira i Virgili
Eskişehir, Turkey-Vila-Seca, Spain
bseyhan@anadolu.edu.tr
Antonio Paolo Russo

Associate Professor
University Rovira i Virgili, Research Group ‘Territorial Analysis and Tourism Studies’.
Vila-Seca, Spain
antonio.russo@urv.cat
Abstract
The path metaphor has been frequently employed to analyze the long-term dynamics of a tourism
region especially from evolutionary economic geography (EEG) perspective. The moments as the key
components of the process previously have been explained (Sanz- Ibáñez et.al., 2016) based on
identifying the change from pre-moment scape to post-moment scape by following a flow from
capital, knowledge, culture, labour to demand markets. However, destinations that have unique
conditions such as heritage tourism destinations (HTD) are staging particular moments and evolution
path due to protection, conservation, carrying capacity and governance concerns in a specific legal
framework. This research aims to make contribution to understanding of evolution of HTDs by
adapting the “moments” concept to tourismification process of protected and conserved areas. The
paper briefly sets out a conceptual framework on development of HTDs in spite of counter-
discourses and the role of protection and conservation violence in the evolution process and effects
on development of a HTD. Also the relationship between triggers and impacts in a protected
environment and effects of the conflict between tourism development and governance are discussed
in detail. To set an example to phenomenon, a both archaeological and natural protected heritage
destination that is located in a rural area -as in the case with many Mediterranean HTDs- Olympos
ancient city in Antalya/Turkey has been chosen as the case study.
Keywords: Evolutionary economic geography, heritage tourism destinations, tourismification,

moments concept, Olympos/Turkey
55
7487
The Perception of Saint Nicholas by Italian, Russian and Turkish People in Terms of Cultural
Heritage
Irina Lobas
OMU-CMU
Russia
irina-191@hotmail.com
Nalan Kiziltan
Associate Professor
OMU Faculty of Education Head of the English Language Education
OMU School of Foreign Languages Director
Ondokuz Mayıs University
Samsun, Turkey
kiziltannalan9@gmail.com
Abstract
The study discusses the level of perception of Saint Nicholas by people with different cultures from
Italy, Russia and Turkey. The study aims to determine the cultural awareness of nationally different
people and its potential impact on creating sustainable tourism destinations based on Saint Nicholas’
cultural heritage. The perception of Saint Nicholas by culturally different people has been
determined according to their nationality and gender. Therefore, a questionnaire of 20 questions has
been given to 100 people in total living in Russia, Turkey and Italy. Findings of the study have
indicated that the image of Saint Nicholas should be promoted to the population of areas with Saint’s
heritage sites. Cultural and historical reasons are indicated as the most motivating for participants to
learn more about Saint Nicholas and heritage sites related to him. The results of the study should be
taken into consideration of local administrations of areas with Saint Nicholas’ heritage sites to
choose the right directions in promoting programs.
Keywords: Saint Nicholas, sustainable tourism, heritage tourism, cultural awareness, pilgrimage
56
7521
Investigation of Rural Tourism Investments and Available Potential within Ipard in Çanakkale
Province
Özge Can Niyaz

Assistant Professor
Department of Agricultural Economics, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University
Çanakkale, Turkey
ozgecanniyaz@gmail.com
Abstract
Çanakkale is an important Bosphorus city with European and Asian lands. Besides its strategic
location, it has a high tourism potential with its historical values and the natural beauties. Çanakkale
has also an intensive agricultural production activity. For these reasons Çanakkale is very convenient
both in terms of rural and tourism activities. So, Çanakkale has an important rural tourism potential.
There are important funds with the aim of promoting rural development under the name of
Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance (IPARD), which has been under the scope of European Union
harmonization process. One of the areas of interest of these funds is rural tourism. In this context,
there are investments that have been supported and carried out in rural tourism in Çanakkale
province in recent years. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the potential for rural tourism
investments and future potential rural tourism investments in Çanakkale, an important tourism and
agriculture city. The study is a literature study from secondary sources.
Keywords: Rural tourism, invesment, potential, Çanakkale, Turkey
57
7530
Understanding of Islamic Hotel Concept through the Mudzakarah of Islamic Scholars
Shamshor Mohd-Zın
Universiti Teknologi Mara
Malaysia
mr.shamshor@gmail.com
Norliza Aminudin
Univeristi Teknologi Mara
Malaysia
Salamiah A. Jamal
Malaysia
Hassnah Wee
Malaysia
Abstract
In spite of the interchangeable uses of the terms such as Sharia, Islamic, Halal and Muslim friendly,
there is still no clear and consistent use of terminology among destinations which resulting in
numerous organization glitches. Numbers of studies have been done to investigate Islamic hotel
concept (IHC) attributes, practices and challenges. Howbeit, not many of these studies were done
accordingly to the Islamic scholars’ perspectives. The study attempted to establish an understanding
of Islamic hotel concepts through the Mudzakarah (discussion/convocation) of Islamic scholars
(Ulama’). Methodology: Qualitative research methodology had been chosen to gain a comprehensive
understanding by interviewing five Sunni Muslim jurisprudence Islamic scholars. This research
concludes that there are important components of Islamic hotel concept which are a separation of
gender, emphasis on halal and public awareness. Islamic scholars interviewed in this study were five
Sunni Islamic school lecturers expertizing in Islamic Jurisprudence (fiqh) practising madhab Shafie’.
Hence, this study has not interviewed other mazhabs’ Islamic scholars’ point of view or other Islamic
figures from various Islamic organizations. This study enriches the existing literature on IHC by
underlining the components governing IHC as described by Islamic scholars and therefore, could be
used as a guideline for many parties. This study provides more insight into a field little explored. It
encourages other researchers to study in-depth about IHC development as in fact, the study on IHC is
rather fundamental. The current study contributes to the existing body of knowledge by providing a
comprehensive review of the components and Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) guidelines underlying
Islamic hotel concept while previous literature focuses on the attributes and requirements.
Keywords: Islamic hotel concept, Mudzakarah, islamic scholars
58
7542
Labor Exploitation in Hotel Enterprises: Example of Eskişehir
Baris Çıvak
Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
bariscivak@anadolu.edu.tr
Senem Besler
Professor
Department of Business, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
sbesler@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
Whether they live a communal life or live in today’s capitalist order, humans have to work in order to
live. However, communities that people form to survive, evolved into various orders with complex
relationships of domination and exploitation. Labor has gone through stages in this process; from
primitive labor to slavery labor, and then to the modern labor of our era. Following the industrial
revolution, great changes occurred in the relations of production, and human’s potential labor has
been included in the production process more and more at every turn. While bodily (physical) labor
and intellectual (mental) labor were used in the production process at the beginning, feelings and
even faith were seen as a source and used afterwards (Güngör Delen, 2017:13). With reference to
the assumption that labor exploitation exists in every business in the capitalist order, the purpose of
this research is to find out how labor exploitation in hotel businesses in Eskişehir occurs through
control, consent and oppression mechanisms. For that purpose, qualitative research method was
used in the research and face-to-face interviews were held with the participants. Data were gathered
from the workers of two-, three-, four- and five-star hotels in Eskişehir. In order to get in-depth
answers for the purpose of the research, 20 semi-structured questions were prepared. In this
research, interview texts were analyzed via content analysis method. NVivo 11 program was utilized
in the analysis of interview texts. According to the gathered findings, labor exploitation is classified
within the framework of absence of basic rights, control, consent and repression mechanisms. As a
result, it is seen that labor exploitation occurs at a high level in hotel businesses.
Keywords: Labor exploitation, labor process theory, tourism industry, hotels
59
7549
Gendered Experiences: Exploring the Feminine and Masculine Characteristics of Bangkok
Hakan Sezerel
Assistant Professor
Eskisehir, Turkey
hakansezerel@anadolu.edu.tr
Özlem Güzel
Associate Professor
Department of Tourism Management, Akdeniz University
Antalya, Turkey
ozlemmguzel@hotmail.com
Abstract
The aim of this study is to discover the tourists’ perceptions of masculine or feminine components
through their experiences, affecting the sense of place. The problem of the study is to ascertain the
sense of place phenomenon in the context of the masculine or feminine perceptions. In order to find
the answer to the research question and to achieve the aim of the study, the following research
questions have been utilized; Q1: Is Bangkok perceived as masculine or feminine? Q2: Which
attributes are there in the minds of the participants related to masculinity or femininity? Q3: Which
metaphors are being used by tourists to describe the city? Q4: Are the metaphors related to the
masculine or feminine perceptions? In order to answer these questions, the phenomenological
approach was used as research design in this study within the context of the qualitative research.
This approach describes the experiences of the individuals in relation to a phenomenon as defined by
the participants and for this design, the interview method is being advised as the most appropriate
data gathering method. In the study, an open-ended questionnaire was prepared to identify the part
of the participants' experience of Bangkok, and the questionnaire was filled with face to face
interview. The research was being held in July of 2017 and in total 54 interviews were provided.
Content analysis was conducted in data analysis. Firstly, the data was filled on the excel program and
then the data on the excel form was analyzed by Nvivo 11 pro program. In the analyzes, codes were
created for each participant's opinion and these codes were themed according to the masculine,
feminine and/or neutral categories. Each theme was evaluated together with metaphors and the
results were reported. The findings of the research are summarized as follows: 1. From participants’
perceptions, 34 are defined as feminine, 5 are defined as neutral and 15 are defined as masculine. 2.
Within the definitions of masculine, feminine and neutral, the codes of colorful and entertainment
have been the intersect of three categories. It is colorless for masculine, colorful for feminine, and
color for neutral. The common point of the three categories is that Bangkok is a funny place. It has
been encountered with the definition of atmosphere for these three categories. Therefore, the
atmospheric quality differs within the masculine, feminine or neutral senses. 3. The common points
of feminine and masculine perceptions are "freedom", "Chaos", "Culture", and "Population".
However, it is seen that these headings have been perceived in different ways in feminine and
masculine categories. For example, while chaos is a positive creative situation for feminine, it is an
ambiguous condition for the masculine. As for freedom, while women describe the respectful
environment and feel as comfortable, it states an environment providing the privileges peculiar men.
4. The coding schemes are grouped under three themes in three gender categories. These are
tourism, culture and nature for feminine; tourism and culture for masculine; and culture for neutral.
The common theme for the three categories is the gendered culture. 5. In the metaphor analysis,
the prominent metaphor was the jungle for masculine, and 3 participants state the reasons for this
metaphor as the city is being large, being easy to get lost, having similar streets, and structures.
60
Three participants in the feminine categories use the cat as a metaphor. “That's why the city knows
how to relax”; “the city is soft but strong”, and “it is not being there to please you. Two participants
who perceived the city as neutral used the traffic and paradise metaphors. In these metaphors, it is
stated that the city has a vivid and diverse cultural layer. 6. The brief of the research findings are
presented in Table 1, Figure 1, Figure 2 and Figure 3.
Keywords: Gendered experiences, sense of place, bangkok, place attachment, culture
61
7554
Cultural Route Development and Management through Collaborative Efforts
Burçin Hatipoğlu
Assistant Professor
Sustainable Tourism Management, Boğaziçi University
İstanbul, Turkey
burcin.hatipoglu@boun.edu.tr
Yasemin Keskin
Boğaziçi University
İstanbul, Turkey
Şeyma Yetkil
Boğaziçi University
İstanbul, Turkey
Abstract
The paper reports on the extent of collaboration by different stakeholders during the development
and management stages of a cultural route in Turkey. Using Wood and Gray’s (1991) theoretical
framework on stakeholder collaboration, the data was collected via face-to-face and telephone
interviews with 28 key stakeholders during December 2016-April 2017. Taking Evliya Çelebi Route as
a best case example, the study displays the collaborative efforts of the conveners, emphasizing
critical issues during the stages of planning and management. The study makes suggestions for
futures studies in relation to governance of cultural routes.
Keywords: Stakeholder collaboration, cultural route, heritage management, sustainable tourism,

Evliya Çelebi, Turkey
62
7560
Hand Hygiene Experience of Gastronomy Students: Case of Anadolu University
Pınar Şenel
Research Assistant
Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
pinargoksu@anadolu.edu.tr
Sibel Önçel
Assistant Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
sguler@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
The increase in food based illnesses and poisonings in the world has also led to an increase in the
intake of food. Today, when safe and hygienic food laws and practices are increasing, hand hygiene is
the mainstay of personnel hygiene, a stage of food safety. The aim of the study is to examine the
hand hygiene experience of gastronomy and culinary arts students who will be responsible for food
and beverage and food and beverage businesses in the future. In this context, research type was
identified as phenomenology from qualitative researches and research place was chosen as Anadolu
University. Purposive sampling method was used in the research and the collected data were
analyzed by descriptive analysis. As a result, the findings show that participants' knowledge and
behavior towards hand hygiene was inadequate and in the direction of the findings some proposes
were offered to food and beverage sector and institution provide education on food and beverage.
Keywords: Hygiene, food safety, food hygiene, hand hygiene
63
7574
Investigate the Subjective Norms, Service Quality on Satisfaction and Revisit Intention to Cross
Border Shopping in Border Town Malaysia-Thailand
Nor Ammelia Suhada Jamaluddin

Universiti Teknologi Mara UITM
Selangor, Malaysia
ammeliasue92@yahoo.com
Norain Othman
Selangor, Malaysia
Norhaslinda Basrı
Selangor, Malaysia
Abstract
Cross-border tourism can be modeled from the Neo-classical economics theoretical demand
framework based on an individual tourist/consumer visiting neighboring countries with the purpose
of directly consuming goods and services which are cheaper in that country and/ or are unavailable
in the country of origin. The number of tourists that visit to border town increases yearly. The
objective of this study is to investigate the relationship of subjective norm, service quality on
satisfaction and revisit intention to cross-border shopping in border town Malaysia - Thailand. The
border areas between Thailand and Malaysia are dynamic in terms of cross border activities. The
data collection was conducted at Padang Besar near the border at the state of Perlis, Malaysia and
Thailand. A total of 400 questionnaires were distributed to tourists that visited Padang Besar and
only 390 questionnaires can be used for data analysis. The data was analyzed using 'Statistical
Package for Social Science' SPSS version 21. The finding shows that subjective norm and service
quality are able to influence tourist satisfaction to revisit intention. The study can conclude that the
subjective norm, service quality and satisfaction are positively significant in relationship with cross
border shopping. The study further fill the gap of the literature review in which the subjective norm
and service quality shows a high satisfaction that lead to the revisit intention to cross border
shopping at border town of Malaysia - Thailand.
Keywords: Border tourism, shopping activities, subjective norm, service quality, satisfaction, revisit
intention.
64
7579
Historical Conservation and Tourism in Samsun City (Turkey)
Ali Yılmaz
Professor
Human Geography, Uşak University
Uşak, Turkey
ali.yilmaz@usak.edu.tr
Seyfullah Gül
Assistant Professor
Department of Tourist Guiding, Ondokuz Mayıs University
Samsun, Turkey
seyfullah.gul@omu.edu.tr
Abstract
This study discusses the conservation of historical buildings and places and the significance of these
in terms of tourism within the modern development process of Samsun city. The purpose of the
study is to discuss the conservation of the historical structure inheritance that has survived so far, the
inclusion of these to the modern life of the city to create attractions in the city tourism and to make
suggestions on these issues Samsun city has a long historical and cultural past as an old settlement
along the coastline of Black Sea. However, as a result of the rapid urbanization and modernization
movements after 1950, a great part of historical and cultural assets of the city’s past was destroyed.
A great part of the existing historical inheritance in the city is in Kale district which forms the core of
the city. Daily population mobility and increase in rent due to intense use of places, which
corresponds to central work area today, creates a great pressure on historical structures. Especially
in the past, permissions for multi-storey buildings in this part of the city caused the destruction of
historical structures. Works about the conservation of historical assets in the city have started
recently. Buildings and places which are important in terms of the historical and cultural identity of
the city should be conserved within the sustainable development of the city. In addition to
developing the feeling of identity and awareness of history, conserving historical legacy will also
make great contributions to city tourism. Recently, the restoration and inclusion of some historical
buildings to modern life of the city has increased the attraction of the city in terms of tourism in
addition to its significant contribution to the identity and nostalgia of the city.
Keywords: Historical conservation, Samsun city, urban conservation, tourism
65
7583
An Example of Tourism Potential of Karstic Heritage: Man Rocks (Göller Summer Resort Area-
Kozan-Adana)
İsmail Ege
Assistant Professor
Physical Geography, Uşak University
Uşak, Turkey
ismail.ege@usak.edu.tr
Selahattin Polat
Assistant Professor
Physical Geography, Uşak University
Uşak, Turkey
spolat@usak.edu.tr
Ali Yılmaz
Professor
Human Geography, Uşak University
Uşak, Turkey
Abstract
Karstic areas are getting more and more attractive every day with their visual characteristics they
have in terms of tourism. In particular, caves, karstic tunnels and bridges, travertines are mainly
karstic tourist attractions. Recently man rocks from karstic runiform landforms have become a major
tourist attraction. These landforms which are developed on the Miocene conglomerates are rare
karstic structures. Karstic landforms, which are described as man rocks on the Göller plateau in the
western part of the Eastern Taurus Mountains, are located in the Adana District of the
Mediterranean Region, north-east of Kozan District (50 km from Kozan District), and have great
potential for tourism. Rapid karstification and physical decomposition of conglomeratic limestones at
sea level at the height of 930-2230 m are the resultant landforms. The lapies, runiforms, sinkholes,
caverns formed on the conglomerates are of interest in terms of tourism. These figures, which are
subject to different myths and stories by the people of the region, are visited by Kadirli, Kozan and
Adana, which are very hot in the summer, and by the people who are on the plateau for the highland
activities. The area where these figures are located is also the subject of activities such as mountain
climbing, paragliding, camping, trekking, festival. These landforms of karstic heritage are damaged by
anthropogenic influences (housing, transport, agriculture, livestock, etc.), depending on the activities
of the plateau. The purpose of this work is to draw attention to this karstic heritage, including
elements of cultural heritage, to ensure that it is assessed in the context of sustainable tourism and
to provide suggestions for preservation.
Keywords: Karstic landforms, conglomerate, man rocks, karstic heritage
66
7584
Evaluation of Participants' Acquisitions of Food Competitions
Sema Ekincek
Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
semaekincek@anadolu.edu.tr
Merve Özgür Göde

Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
merveozgurgode@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
Food competitions organized by institutions and organizations have an important place in
gastronomy activities. Food competitions provide that the creation of unique flavors in terms of
gastronomy, and the emergence of young talents. At the same time, gastronomic students are able
to express themselves, to hear their names in the field, and to communicate with people in the
gastronomy. In this respect, food competitions are important tools that contribute to participation in
many ways. When the literature is examined, it is seen that there is a significant lack of this issue. The
aim of this work is to show the acquisitions that the food competitions provide for the participants.
For this purpose, the answer to the question "What are the acquisitions of participants for food
competitions"? Qualitative research methods were used in the study. Face-to-face interviews were
conducted with participants participating in the contest through a semi-structured questionnaire.
Descriptive analysis was performed with the data obtained at the end of the interview. As a result of
the study it was seen that the participants had gains in terms of social, cultural, motivational and
creativity. It also turned out to be a positive contribution to the competitors' careers.
Keywords: Gastronomy, food competitions, acquisitions, International İstanbul Gastronomy Festival
67
7589
Examining Effects of Service Quality and Hotel Image on Customer Satisfaction from the
Perspective of Consumption Motivations
Fatih Koç
Associate Professor
Foreign Trade and European Union, Kocaeli University
İzmit, Kocaeli, Turkey
fatihkoc2004@gmail.com
Volkan Özbek
Assistant Professor
International Trade, Balıkesir University
Burhaniye, Balıkesir, Turkey
vozbek@balikesir.edu.tr
M. Emin Akkılıç
Professor
International Trade, Balıkesir University
Burhaniye, Balıkesir, Turkey
eakkilic@balikesir.edu.tr
Ümit Alnıaçık
Associate Professor
Business Department, Kocaeli University
İzmit, Kocaeli, Turkey
ualniacik@kocaeli.edu.tr
İlbey Varol
Lecturer
Tourism and Hotel Administration, Yalova University
Armutlu, Yalova, Turkey
İlbey.vrl@gmail.com
Abstract
Consumption motives are one of important factors affecting consumer behaviors. In reviewing the
literature in this context, hedonic and utilitarian motives have come into prominence. These
concepts are addressed in many different areas. In tourism, various studies addressing these
concepts have been conducted. In these studies, it has been expressed that tourism is closer to
hedonism because of its structure. However, tourism is composed of different subtypes such as
health and thermal tourism. In various studies, it has been suggested that these types are related to
utilitarian motives. Many studies in literature have indicated that quality and image are influential in
the formation of customer satisfaction. Homer (2008), who deals with this relationship in the context
of consumption motives, has expressed that people who act with hedonic motive care about image
and people who act with utilitarian motive care about quality. From this point of view, in this study,
the idea that hotel image is more effective on formation of satisfaction for consumers acting with
hedonic motive and hotel service quality is more effective on formation of satisfaction for consumers
acting with utilitarian motive has been addressed. In research stage, primarily, it was determined
that which tourism type has associated with hedonic or utilitarian motives for consumers. Therefore,
firstly, tourism types that Turkey offers were determined by examining Ministry of Culture and
Tourism web site. The obtained information is transferred to a questionnaire form. Then, a survey
68
was conducted with 100 people who purchased a holiday before. The result of this preliminary
survey shows that sea-sand-sun tourism is associated with hedonic motive and thermal tourism is
associated with utilitarian motive. Secondly, In Turkey, most preferred three destinations for thermal
and sea-sand-sun tourisms types was determined with a different survey. As a result of the analysis,
respectively, Afyon, Gönen, and Kızılcahamam destinations were determined for thermal tourism.
For sea-sand-sun tourism, respectively, Çeşme, Bodrum, and Antalya destinations were selected by
respondents. In last stage of the research, the survey was conducted with the customers staying at
hotels in the selected destinations. In the destinations for thermal tourism (utilitarian motive) 531
and for the sea-sand-sun tourism destinations (hedonic motive) 676 people were interviewed face to
face. People participating in the survey were selected by convenience sampling method. In order to
test the hypotheses, various analyses methods were used. Initially, confirmatory factor analysis was
used to determine the factor structures of the scales. The analyses revealed that scales of hotel
image, hotel service quality, and customer satisfaction variables have one dimension. Reliability and
validity of the scales were determined. In order to identify effects of hotel service quality and hotel
image on customer satisfaction, path analysis was performed by using AMOS structural equation
modeling program. The analysis was performed separately according to the thermal and sea-sand-
sun tourism destinations and the results were compared. Results of the analysis have revealed that
hotel service quality and hotel image have positive effects on satisfaction in both different
destinations. In thermal tourism destinations, with very little difference, hotel service quality has
affected satisfaction more than image. Likewise, with very little difference, hotel image has affected
satisfaction more than hotel service quality in sea-sand-sun tourism.
Keywords: Consumption motives, hotel service quality, hotel image, customer satisfaction, tourism
69
7593
Determination of Activities of Food and Beverage Businesses in Activity Based Costing
Vedat Ekergil
Associate Professor
Distance Learning, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
vekergil@anadolu.edu.tr
Merve Özgür Göde

Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
In order for businesses to survive in an intensely competitive environment, it is important to
calculate their costs in a way that is reasonably priced, as well as to increase their sales. In this point,
they may prefer modern cost management accounting approaches instead of traditional cost
accounting approaches in the calculation of business costs. The purpose of this work is to determine
the action steps and activities that occur in the design stages of the activity-based costing system,
one of the contemporary cost management approaches. In this way, activities for cost centers that
will help to calculate costs in a more realistic manner for food and beverage businesses will be put
forward. This study was designed as an observational case study. In such studies, the primary data
collection technique is participant observation. In order to determine the activities according to the
activity-based costing method, the first class was chosen as a wedding cocktail in a restaurant. The
investigator made observations by pre-cocktail, after cocktail time and after cocktail. Thus, activities
and process steps were observed and noted according to the activity-based costing system in the
cocktail where the application was made. Subsequently, the obtained data was presented to the
business manager and approved. Menu of eight items was prepared at the cocktail and 240 people
were served. As a result of the work, five main activities for cocktail have emerged. These; making
the contract with the customer, cocktail preparation, kitchen preparation, cocktail time and after
cocktail. There are six transactions in the contract with the customer, 17 transactions in cocktail
preparation phase, five transactions in kitchen preparation, four transactions in cocktail time and
four transactions after cocktail.
Keywords: Contemporary cost management, activity based costing, food and beverage business,
cocktail, case study, Eskişehir
70
7594
An Investigatıon of the Relationship between Travel Agencies Employee’s Cyberloafing Behaviors
and Work Motivation
Cihan Seçilmiş
Associate Professor
Department of Tourism Management, Eskişehir Osmangazi Unıversity
Eskişehir, Turkey
cihansecilmis@gmail.com
Barış Yılmaz
Student
Tourism and Hotel Management, Eskişehir Osmangazi University
Eskişehir, Turkey
byy_peace@hotmail.com
Abstract
The internet, which has an important place in the lives of people in today's conditions, is an
indispensable part of business life, causing the business to not run without internet connection at
work. When evaluated in this context, the relation between cyberloafing behaviors and work
motivation which are the result of internet usage at workplace of travel agency employees was
investigated. The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between cyberloafing
behaviors and job motivation of the travel agencies employee’s in Eskişehir. In the study,
cyberloafing is considered as one dimension and work motivation is evaluated by management style,
salary and rewarding, security, team work and self-development sub-dimensions. The scope of the
study consists of all the employees employed in all the travel agencies in Eskişehir. A complete
inventory was carried out in the study as access to the whole scope was possible. Questionnaire
technique was used in the study as an instrument for data collection in the study. Data were
conducted with 205 employees at the travel agencies and 196 of them which were found to be
appropriate for the study was submitted to statistical analysis for reliability analysis, t-test, factor
analysis and correlation analysis. According to the finding of this study, there is significant and
positive relationship between cyberloafing behavior of travel agencies employees and salary and
rewarding and self-development as sub-dimension of job motivation.
Keywords: Cyberloafing, job motivation, travel agency, internet
71
7595
Intangible Resources Myths and Legends: A Study on Tourism Promotion Brochures
Gül Nur Demiral

Research Assistant
Department of Tourism Management, Celal Bayar University
Manisa, Turkey
gulnurdemiral@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
The Anatolian lands which host many civilizations have a cultural heritage left over from these
civilizations. From this heritage has many resources that arrive at nowadays and myths and legends
are among the most important of them. Myths and legends are elements of oral culture which called
intangible cultural heritage. Myths are stories that help to perceive the universe and human nature.
Legends are related to people and their supernatural experiences. Myths and legends are inherited
from generation to generation, reflect the cultures of societies and serve as a bridge between the
past and present. Myths and legends can be associated with many disciplines such as anthropology,
sociology, archaeology, philology and philosophy. Another discipline that myths and legends are
associated with is tourism. There is a very important connection between myths and tourism. Myths
have some advantages in understanding tourism. For example they provide historical background
about a destination. Also, myths and legends are used to create tourist attraction in tourism with
storytelling. In this sense, myths and legends are mostly used by professional tourist guides in
tourism. While tourist guides give information about the region to the tourists who participate in the
tours, they mention in their stories myths and legends in order to attract tourist's attention. Myths
and legends, however, are not only used to enrich the narratives of tourist guides, but also take place
in tourism promotion brochures. This study aims to examine analyse prepared tourism promotion
brochures in Turkey which use for the introduction of touristic destinations and to reveal which
subjects they concentrated on. For this purpose qualitative research methods were used in this study
and tourism promotion brochures which prepared for tourist destinations were analyzed by
document analysis method. The collected data were examined with content analysis. As a result of
the study, it was seen that legends were used as symbols for some destinations. It is very important
to use myths and legends in tourism promotion brochures to attract tourists to destinations.
Keywords: Cultural heritage, myths, legends, tourism brochures
72
7598
A Qualitative Study on the Branding Potential of the Turkish City “Bartın”
Aybegüm Güngördü Belbağ

Research Assistant
Production Management and Marketing, Bartın University
Bartın, Turkey
aybegum.gungordu@gmail.com
Abstract
Cities should increase their competitiveness while positioning themselves in the right place of the
people’s minds. Competitiveness of cities includes the effort to attract more visitors, financial
investments, companies, residents and workers. When the city’s name is mentioned, the first things
that come to minds constitute the city’s brand. The purpose of this study is to examine the branding
potential of the Turkish city “Bartın (Parthenios in ancient times)”. Data was collected from 18
participants. Dimensions of the city brand hexagon (in particular, presence, potential, people, place,
pulse, prerequisites) are used in the study. Using qualitative method, the study found that Amasra, a
sub-province of Bartın has got ahead of Bartın. Even though Bartın has many traditional, cultural and
historical aspects, consumers are not aware of them due to the lack of sufficient promotion and
infrastructure problems. Other sub-provinces such as Çakraz, Kurucaşile, Inkumu along with the
center of Bartın has to be renovated for satisfying the needs of consumers. Furthermore, educational
and job opportunities should be increased. City is seen attractive due to its nature and the sea.
Festivals should be diversified and promoted. Residents of the city are seen unfriendly for younger
visitors.
Keywords: City branding, Turkey, Bartın, qualitative study, Anholt-Gfk Roper city brands index
73
7599
The Effect of Destination Attachment and It's Antecedents on Destination Loyalty
O. Can Yılmazdoğan
Assistant Professor
Department of Tourism Management, Eskisehir Osmangazi University
Eskisehir, Turkey
cyilmazdogan@ogu.edu.tr
Cihan Seçilmiş
Associate Professor
Department of Tourism Management, Eskisehir Osmangazi University
Eskisehir, Turkey
csecilmis@ogu.edu.tr
Abstract
The aim of the research was to investigate the relationship between destination attractiveness,
satisfaction, attachment and destination loyalty from an integrated point of view. For this purpose,
the relevant literature has been examined and a model has been developed. In order to test the
developed model, domestic tourists who visited Eskişehir between April and May 2017 were reached
by convenience sampling method and a face-to-face survey was conducted with 400 people who
accepted to fill the questionnaire. 11 questionnaires that were found to be missing or incorrectly
filled were not included in the analysis and 389 questionnaires were evaluated. The collected data
were analyzed through SPSS 22.0 and LISREL 8.80 programs. After the analysis, the developed model
was tested and statistically significant and positive correlations were found between the variables of
destination attractiveness, satisfaction, attachment and destination loyalty. These relations indicate;
the perceived attractiveness of the destination, satisfaction and the sense of attachment developed
for the destination, affect the loyalty of the tourists to the destination. According to research
findings; in the relations between attachment and its antecedents, attachment is the most effective
driving force for destination loyalty. It has been observed that the satisfaction and perceived
attractiveness are also influential on the destination loyalty. In addition to these associations,
satisfaction and destination attachment affect destination loyalty directly and indirectly. One of the
most important theoretical contributions of this study is to propose a model in which these relations
are empirically confirmed by considering the premises and the relations between these premises
which have an important place in the formation of loyalty in a single model. This research defines the
antecedents which have an important place in the formation of loyalty and attachment of tourists.
Also, the direct and indirect effects of these antecedents on the formation of loyalty are revealed. A
series of proposals are presented in the direction of these effects.
Keywords: Eskişehir, destination attractiveness, satisfaction, attachment, destination loyalty,

structural equation modeling
74
7602
More Than a Museum: Museum Cluster
Mehmet Han Ergüven

Associate Professor
Department of Tourism Management, Kırıkkale University
Kırıkkale, Turkey
erguven@klu.edu.tr
Aysel Yılmaz
Instructor
Department of Tourism Guiding, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
aysely@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
Being perceived as a magical word, the term “clustering” has become industrially prominent, and
reached a wide range of use from viniculture facilities to museums. Found within the context of
museums in many different regions from North America to the Far East, the clusterings have become
popular under various names and concepts especially in Europe. For instance, we see various
applications under different names, such as museum island, museum coast, museum area, museum
mill, museum quarter, and museum mountain, etc. The museums, which are significant factors of
urban tourism, a sub-type of special interest tourism, are one of the competitive factors on national,
regional, and local basis, and they are positioned in the market as strong elements through
clusterings. The purpose of this study is to reveal some major museum clustering examples
particularly in Germany and Austria with analysis of primary and secondary data through document
analysis technique. Then the next step will be to determine the essentials of a potential museum
clustering in creating a sustainable cultural destination in Eskişehir, based on existing examples, and
to contribute to the creation of future route map on this matter. At the end of this research, it is
found that museum clusterings are successfully implemented in Germany and Austria. It is predicted
that these clusters will become more competitive by highlighting the elements, such as meaning,
content, functionality, design, and technology. It is believed that Eskişehir may be the home for the
first museum clustering in Turkey by following these successful examples.
Keywords: Museum, clustering, museum cluster, Germany, Austria, Eskişehir
75
7603
Hyperreality Concepts in Tourism and Recreation
Selin Kama
Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
kamaselin@gmail.com
Abstract
Today, along with the change in consumption patterns, societies are oriented towards more active
and more innovative products and services that touch more to their emotions. With this orientation
the touristic paradigm of sunbathing by the sea left its place to new elements and activities with
excursion, struggle, and even risk, which have become the tourist paradigm of tourism, for tourist
destinations. In this context, destinations and various businesses, have highlighted the hyper realities
and they have built up from the beginning to the end of the experience with an integrative approach.
Hyperreality is a balance element and even the main element of tourism in today's conditions. The
main purpose of this study is to carry out an in-depth research on hyperreality and related concepts.
The data were compiled by using secondary sources in the study. Therefore, in addition to hyper
realism, concepts such as simulation, simulacrum, images, enhanced reality and phantasmagoria are
discussed in the context of data which is obtained from previous studies. These consepts are also
discussed in terms of Universal Studios theme park.
Keywords: Reallity, hyper reallity, augmented reality and simulation
76
7604
Sabri Çelik
Associate Professor
Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Afyon Kocatepe University
Afyon, Turkey
sabri_celik@yahoo.com
Mustafa Sandıkçı
Associate Professor
Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Afyon Kocatepe University
Afyon, Turkey
sandikcimustafa@hotmail.com
Hümeyra Töre Başat

Assistant Professor
Tourism and Hospitality Management, Afyon Kocatepe University
Afyon, Turkey
humeyratore@gmail.com
Abstract
The aim of this study is doing some assessment about culinary culture of Afyonkarahisar to support
the evolution of the city to be a sustainable and international thermal tourism destination. For this
aim, a literature review was performed including keywords as competitive destination, culinary
culture and sustainable tourism. Afyonkarahisar, with the title of "Thermal Capital of Turkey" and its
culinary culture were investigated. In conclusion, main attraction of Afyonkarahisar is defined as
thermal tourism and rich culinary culture of the city was taken as a supporting factor. Suggestions
were offered to employ this rich culnary culture to support the city's evloution to be an international
thermal tourism destination.
Keywords: Afyonkarahisar, culinary culture, sustainable destination
77
7607
From Sustainable Tourism to Sustainable Development… World Cultural Heritage Ebru/Marbling
Art
Bilsen Bilgili
Associate Professor
Tourism and Hotel Management, Kocaeli University
Kartepe, Kocaeli, Turkey
bilsenbilgili@hotmail.com
Emrah Özkul
Associate Professor
Tourism and Hotel Management, Kocaeli University
emrahozkul@hotmail.com
SeldaUca
Associate Professor
Kocaeli University, Tourism and Hotel Management
seldauca@gmail.com
Abstract
With the developments in socio-economic, cultural and technological areas, there has been a
difference in the consumption behaviors of the consumers regarding the product and service in the
field of tourism industry. In tourism dynamism, sea, sand, sun understanding have been replaced by
alternative tourism products including nature, history and cultural values. In particular, the concept
of cultural tourism has emerged with the importance of preserving the cultural heritage of societies
and preserving the cultural heritage. Traditional handicrafts have a great importance in the Turkish
culture, which has a rich history and rich cultural values. Being one of the most traditional Turkish
arts, the sustainability of Ebru, a unique art that has been included in the list of UNESCO's cultural
heritage in 2014, has become increasingly important. Ebru is also known as “Painting on water”. It
can be made on many materials such as paper, textile, faience as decorative, personal or souvenir.
Therefore, it can be used in the production of a wide variety of touristic products that can take place
in the souvenir class. In this research, it is aimed to protect the cultural value of the art of Ebru, to
ensure the sustainability, to develop, to determine the requirements for the diversification and
marketing of the products to be produced and to develop strategy proposals for the solution of the
problems if any. In the research, the data obtained from the interviews with the marbling artists
were analyzed. According to the results of the analysis, strategies for the sustainability of marbling
art within the scope of cultural tourism were developed.
Keywords: Turkish Ebru/Marbling art, cultural heritage, sustainable development, touristic product
78
7609
Analyzing the Influence of Impulsiveness and Attitude on Local Food Purchase intention of Tourists
Guliz Coşkun
Research Assistant
Department of Tourism Management, Sakarya University
Sakarya, Turkey
cosku100907@yahoo.com
Abstract
Recent technological advances and the ease of online shopping have increased impulse purchasing
behavior among consumers. Impulse purchasing behavior has been receiving interest from
researchers for more than 50 years. However, majority of the studies focusing on impulse purchasing
behavior is limited to the daily life. During travel exposure to a new culture, marketing efforts of local
shops and restaurants and the vacation mood may lead tourists to make impulse purchases. Impulse
purchase occurs as a consequence of positive and negative emotions. Since food is a product
appealing to five senses and costs relatively less than other products, it is possible that the
impulsiveness of tourists will be a determinant in their food purchase intention and behavior. The
purpose of this study is to analyze the influence of impulsiveness on food purchase intention during
travel by incorporating it to the Theory of Reasoned Action. 380 questionnaires were collected from
tourist couples in coastal areas of South Carolina. SEM will be used as data analyses technique to test
direct and indirect effects of impulsiveness on the purchase intention. The results of this study will
contribute the body of literature by empirically testing the modified version of the Theory of
Reasoned Action with the inclusion of impulsiveness. Practical implications will be also discussed to
aid marketing plans of destination marketers.
Keywords: Impulsiveness, theory of reasoned action, local food
79
7611
Legal Changes in Turkish Labor Law Reflected on Tourism Workers
Özgür Oğuz
Assistant Professor
Department of Law, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
ooguz1@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
The latest legal amendments in Turkish labor law have naturally affected all working life and
therefore also tourism workers. Within the Turkish labor law system, mediation law has become
compulsory. it is now necessary for a tourism worker to complete the mediation phase before going
to the labor court. Business Law is a law where legal changes are frequent due to the fact that it is an
area that constantly develops and renews itself. Among the factors that cause this situation are the
effects of the developing technology on business relations, emerging new needs, case-law changes in
the judiciary, cancellation decisions of the Constitutional Court. The legal amendments made in the
field of Labor Law have recently been intensified with the enactment of the Labor Courts Law No.
7036. Significant changes were made in terms of labor law, in particular mandatory mediation
envisaged in the law and regulations for applications to the Social Security Institution; Under this law,
the Labor Law no. 4857 required the necessity of making new regulations in other labor laws.
Keywords: Tourism workers, mediation, labour, Law
80
7613
A Different View on City, Cultural Heritage and Local Government Relations in the Context of
Postmodern Tourism Movements: Creative Cities
Gözde Emekli
Professor
İzmir, Turkey
Abstract
Tourism, growing rapidly with increasing number of tourists and expenditures with strong economic
effects, is an important factor affected/affecting by/to the environment, technology, politics, society
and culture. Tourism, influenced by many facts that have emerged since the day it first times, has
experienced different paradigmal changes. Nowadays tourism, characterized by internet and
internet-based technologies and developing new and creative relations between local people and
tourists, brings to transition from modern tourism activities to postmodern tourism activities and
from classical-traditional tourism to new tourism network (network society-social media). Traditional
tourism-dissatisfaction relationship, working and leisure time balance, increasing conscious
consumption habits, desire for experience, story, biography, identity formation, social media identity,
and promotion of creative class-culture relation emerge as a factors of shaping consumer tendencies
and require to examine creativity-local government-tourism relations. Cities that are centers of
culture and commerce are trying to find answers to differentiated needs and to develop tourism in
the globalizing world. In the beginning, visitation is limited to taking photographs and buying
souvenirs from historical, artistic and natural attractions in the city center, today's tourists want to
understand the identity of the city and desire to live like a local. The functions of local governments
and local people are increasing in this new tourism (creative tourism) concept based on experience.
The creative tourism that emerges from tourism-creativity-culture-city relations, considered as the
third generation of tourism, forms the basis of postmodern tourism and is mostly developed in cities.
Especially postmodern cities are in tourism; it focuses on creative products-class-process-
environment-industries-sectors, and develops tourist designs to include cultural activities. Because
today, city tourism is moving away from the basic practices that it has and develops new internal
dynamics. For this reason in city tourism, it is important to make strategic decisions such as product
development, image formation, marketing, choosing an organization model, ensuring sustainability,
defining the roles of actors in the center and in the locality, participating in every stage of local
people and efficient use of resources. In this way, it is considered to reach that the goal of protecting
the welfare of the local people, natural and cultural heritage that forms the basis of integrated city
development policy and sustainability. In this study, it is aimed to show how the differentiations in
tourism affect cities and local administrations with theoretical and practical examples. Especially
cities whose functions has been changing, the social differences, the technologies that make the
distant closeness, the national-transnational conservation and planning approaches, the changing
practices and contents of tourism affect the tourism strategies of the local administrations will be
tried to be explained. Differentiated tourism phenomenon, the changes that cities and local
governments experienced during the periods are tried to be analyzed analytically. The evolution of
the postmodern tourism paradigm and city-tourism and local government relations has been
discussed through meta-analysis by utilizing existing national and international tourism literature in
the study. However, the dynamism of tourism and cities, affected by economic, technological,
political, scientific and social changes, cause some troubles and limitations in the construction of this
subject. Today tourism in the cities has far exceeded the protection of the natural and cultural
environment; the construction of museums and recreation areas, the restoration of historical
buildings and spaces, improvement of the substructure and superstructure possibilities of the city. In
81
particular, the technological developments, influencing to all forms of production and society, also
shape tourism in terms of supply and demand. While tourism is evolving, relations between city
tourism and local governments are also changing. Cities are also the basis of the global economy and
postmodern structures. Today, countries compete through their cities. Today, cities have gained a
structure that gives their visitors the opportunity to develop their own potential through active
participation. Local governments are among the most influential players among local stakeholders,
both as decision-makers and as practitioners in the sustainable tourism development process at
tourist destinations. In this context, local governments have significant responsibilities in the
development of tourism and in the furtherance of tourism. Local governments need to understand
the importance of tourism, to produce original projects and to provide cooperation and coordination
between the central and local.
Keywords: Postmodern tourism, city, culture, local governments, city tourism
82
7621
The Use of Metaphors in the Interpretation of Taste Experience
Setenay Sipahi
Research Assistant
Department of Ceramic Arts, Erciyes University
Kayseri, Turkey
setenaysipahi@erciyes.edu.tr
Sema Ekincek
Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
We use figurative meanings of the words extensively in a daily life, in a speech, in the expression of
thoughts and in our behaviors. This term, named metaphor, is known to be used by various
disciplines in the scientific world including gastronomy. The use of metaphors, which play an
important role in metaphysics, leads to the new ways of defining, interpreting and judging in the field
of gastronomy by pointing out the stimulators perceived by individuals. Gastronomy is a field of
science in addition to be a discipline, which enriches the role and the interpretation of art. Human
started to control nourishment after he started to live in settled communities. Then turned towards
Maslow's hierarchy of needs model where he addressed the needs of pleasure and creativity.
Gastronomy attracts public attention as it satisfies both physiological and social needs, it stimulates
the five senses simultaneously and it offers a unique aesthetic experience to the receiver related
with taste. In this study, it is aimed to examine the metaphors used in the field of gastronomy. As a
result of the study, it was revealed the person who interprets and defines a taste experience,
expresses what it looks like or what it represents with the help of various metaphors. In addition to
this, revealing how an aesthetic experience of taste is defined by metaphors thought to be a
contribution both for the literature of the field and for the enrichment of gastronomy as an art
discipline.
Keywords: Gastronomy, metaphor, taste experience, aesthetic, interpretation
83
7623
An Empirical Research on the Employment of Vocational Higher School Graduates in Hotel
Enterprises
Hatice Sarıaltın
Assistant Professor
Program of Accounting and Taxation, Sakarya University
Sakarya, Turkey
hsarialtin@sakarya.edu.tr
Zuhal Erol
Lecturer
Kırkpınar Tourism Vocational School, Sakarya University
Sakarya, Turkey
zerol@sakarya.edu.tr
Abstract
The studies investigating working preferences of higher education tourism students in the tourism
sector reveal that people who have studied tourism education tend not to work in the sector, even
they start working in the sector, and they leave the sector after a certain period. On the other hand,
hotels that fail to operate or reduce their staff in 2016 have difficulty finding intermediate staff to
hire, even if they try to establish their former staff. According to the human resources (HR) managers
of the hotels, more than 60.000 foreign personnel have been recruited for the 2018 summer season
throughout Antalya. While there are many tourism high schools, vocational higher schools (VHS) and
tourism faculties in the country, the fact that the hotels have to employ foreign personnel is the
problem of training, attracting and employing of qualified human resources beyond the problems of
seasonality, low wages, irregular working hours or working conditions. The purpose of this study is to
examine current HR positions in terms of employing VHS graduates in the 5-star hotels that are
found to be good practices in human resource management (HRM). By this study designed as an
exploratory illustrative case study, the answers of this research question are sought; “How should
Tourism and Hotel Management Programs of VHSs educate and train up employable graduates”?
Sub-questions developed to provide detailed data for the research question are below;
- What are the HR positions of the hotels for Tourism and Hotel Management Program graduates?
- What is the graduate profile that these positions are expected them to meet job/employee
requirements?
- In which positions are the VHS graduates currently employed?
- In which positions are foreign personnel and why are they employed?
- According to the hotel professionals, what curriculum should Tourism and Hotel Management
Programs implement, and How to implement it for the success of sustainable tourism?
In the study, purposive sampling method has been adopted to obtain in-depth information and rich
data, therefore institutionalized seven hotel enterprises operating in Antalya Province have been
chosen as a holistic multiple case pattern. In this context, data has been collecting through semi-
structured interviews with the HR, Housekeeping, Front Office and F&B managers of the case hotels
and the process continues. The obtained data will be grouped under research questions after being
read and corrected by researchers and then analyzed and simplified through descriptive and content
analysis. Findings about the employment issues of VHS graduates in the hotels will be summarized in
tables by analytical and interpretive approach within the scope of relationship between the
employment and vocational higher education in tourism sector.
Keywords: Hotel enterprises, vocational higher school, graduates, employment
84
7625
Does Tourism Degrade Environmental Quality? A Study of E-7 Countries
İbrahim Karaaslan
Research Assistant
Social Sciences Institute, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
ikaraaslan26@gmail.com
Hasan Ayaydın
Associate Professor
Department of Business Administration, Gümüşhane University
Gümüşhane, Turkey
hayaydin61@gumushane.edu.tr
Abdulkadir Barut
Lecturer
Program of Accounting and Taxation, Harran University
Şanlıurfa, Turkey
kadirbarut@harran.edu.tr
Abstract
The purpose of this study is; tourism, environmental quality and FDI relationship with panel data
models for E-7 countries. In the study, Cross Sectional Dependency test was performed so that
accurate model estimation can be performed and horizontal section dependency was determined in
the model. For this reason, considering horizontal section dependency; Westerlund panel
cointegration test and long-term relationship between variables, Emirmahmutoğlu and Köse
causality analysis and causality relation between variables. According to the findings of the analysis,
tourism and direct investments have increased the environmental pollution.
Keywords: Sustainable tourism, environmental quality, FDI inflows, E-7 country
85
7626
The Synergies between Human Development, Economic Growth, and Tourism within a Developing
Country: An Empirical Model for Turkey
Hasan Ayaydın
Associate Professor
Department of Business Administration, Gümüşhane University
hayaydin61@gumushane.edu.tr
Abdulkadir Barut
Lecturer
Program of Accounting and Taxation, Harran University
Şanlıurfa, Turkey
kadirbarut@harran.edu.tr
İbrahim Karaaslan
Research Assistant
Social Sciences Institute, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
ikaraaslan26@gmail.com
Fahrettin Pala
Lecturer
Gumushane University
fahrettinpala@gumushane.edu.tr
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between human development, economic
growth and tourism with econometric methods for Turkey. There are many studies that explain how
economic growth can affect the various dimensions of Human Development. In addition, additional
arguments have been produced to show that tourism can be a means of influencing human
development and economic growth. However, the literature on the relationship between human
development, economic growth and tourism has not matured sufficiently. In this study, first of all,
the long-term relationship between variables is Banarje et al. (2017) Fourier ADL Co-integration
analysis was investigated, and then Hatemi-J (2012) asymmetric causality analysis and causality
relationship between variables were investigated. The long-term relationship between human
development, economic growth and tourism has been determined according to the analysis results,
and a one-way causality between economic growth and tourism has been determined between
economic growth and tourism.
Keywords: Human development, economic growth, tourism, co-integration, causality
86
7628
The Role of Accounting in the Improvement of Costs in Hotel Businesses' Sustainability Report
Merve Özgür Göde

Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
Vedat Ekergil
Associate Professor
Open Education Faculty, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Businesses that are part of society have to fulfill their social and environmental responsibilities while
continuing their lives. Financial accounting, which deals only with the financial aspects of business
operations, is insufficient to achieve the benefits expected from the reporting. In addition, financial
reports are supported sustainability reports and to ensure that quality information is generated that
will enable managers to make the right decisions. Sustainability reports are being requested by
information users since hotel businesses are intimately involved in both the physical and social
environment. The sustainability report, which can be perceived as a change process has economic,
social and environmental dimensions. Sustainability reports provide accountable support for the
production of some information. For example, target costing, total quality management, product life
cycle use cost reduction and improvement in sustainability reports. Aim of the study determine how
to calculate the cost items used in corporate sustainability reporting, how to use the cost
management techniques in the calculation and how to show the costs of the report. For this purpose,
in the study, the standard costs and the actual costs of the cost items that the hotel management
aimed to save were compared and the new cost estimation proposal for the savings aimed to reach
with the target costing technique depending on the differences. Document analysis was carried out
in the study. The sustainability report, financial reports and quality control reports from a hotel
business have been examined in detail. As a result of the study, it was revealed that the savings
offered in the sustainability report were more only for Show and that these savings had to be made
according to reasonable cost improvements.
Keywords: Sustainability reporting, target costing, cost control, strategic cost management
87
7631
Investigation of Design Processes in Gastronomy and Chef’s Evaluation Criteria for Food
Presentation
Semra Günay Aktaş

Professor
Eskisehir, Turkey
semragunay@anadolu.edu.tr
Sema Ekincek
Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Gastronomy and culinary arts have become an area of prominence with food design, presentation
and aesthetics as well as food preparation and taste. Thus, the meal is an artistic and aesthetic
experiment that appeals to all senses. So much so that the existence of the relationship between
food, art and aesthetics has begun to find its place in contemporary art today. In the study, it was
aimed to show how the chefs create their original ideas under artist and chef identities, how they
design and how they evaluate presentation. The study was based on qualitative research methods
and conducted face-to-face interviews with expert chefs in the field of gastronomy. In this context,
semi-structured interview form was used in interviews with eight chefs. In the analysis of the data
obtained from the interviews, a descriptive analysis method was used. The criteria taken into
consideration by the chefs in evaluating the food presentations are those: hygiene, category
compatibility, flavor, authenticity, consistency (texture consistency and balance, flavor consistency
and balance, texture consistency and balance), material selection, theme selection, degree of
cooking, color harmony. As a result of the study, it is seen that they are affected from different styles
such as gothic and illusion and also from the plates seen before, nature and artworks in the design
process of the chefs.
Keywords: Gastronomy, culinary arts, design process, food presentation criteria, chefs
88
7635
The Effects of Cesme and Chios Island Port Services on Visitor Satisfaction
Esin Özkan
Associate Professor
Department of Travel Management, Ege University
Izmir, Turkey
esin.ozkan@ege.edu.tr
Nilgün Avcı
Associate Professor
Department of Hotel Management, Ege University
Izmir, Turkey
nilgun.avci@ege.edu.tr
Selcen Seda Türksoy

Lecturer
Izmir, Turkey
selcen.seda.turksoy@ege.edu.tr
Samet Can Curkan

Research Assistant
Izmir, Turkey
samet.can.curkan@ege.edu.tr
Mehmet Alper Nisari

Research Assistant
Department of Hotel Management, Ege University
Izmir, Turkey
mehmet.alper.nisari@ege.edu.tr
Abstract
The satisfaction of guests is one of the most important issues at service industry and can be defined
as the judgements of the individuals after the service experience the judgements on service affect
the purchasing decision and the recommendation they give the others as well. Many researchers has
been done in order to determine the importance of service quality on customer satisfaction. The aim
of this project is to find out the effect of ferry terminal service quality on customer satisfaction. Ferry
terminals are important in customer satisfaction as they form the first image of the destinations
visited by tourists. Due to that, it provides competitiveness to the destinations. In literature many
research has been done about the effect of airport terminals service quality on customer satisfaction
but the number of research done on ferry terminal customer satisfaction is limited. In this project, it
is aimed to investigate the effect of Cesme and Chios ferry terminal service quality on customer
satisfaction. In 2017, 140.811 of visited Chios island. The guests’ number of visitors to Cesme was
139.344. With the implication of simpler visa regulations, the number of passengers carried between
Chios and Cesme. Ferry terminals increased strongly. For this reason, questionnaires (service quality
and customer satisfaction scales together with demographic questions) were applied to passengers
at Chios and Cesme terminals between 2017 November and 2018 June. The data obtained was
analyzed by SPSS.
Keywords: customer satisfaction, Cesme, Chios, terminal services
89
7636
The Positive Effects of Tourism with Horse Riding on Human Health
Cafer Yıldırım
Lecturer
Program of Equine Studies, Eskişehir Osmangazi University
Eskişehir, Turkey
y.cafer@gmail.com
Abstract
Horses bring many benefits to the lives of those around them. They are both beautiful to watch and
of significant impact to the lives of many. They are a fun, enjoyable, different alternative to the
ordinary tourism style for those who need more physical activity in their lives. They are a morale
booster, a friend, and a teacher for those who are depressed, stressed, or lonely. Just because we no
longer depend on them as a means to an end, does not mean their meaning in our life has ended.
Horses still have an important health-related role to play in our everyday lives. People with physical
disabilities can benefit from riding as a low-impact sport that is gentler on their joints and offers an
enjoyable alternative to physical therapy in Tourism. There are many different types of riding, so
everyone can find the one that suits them. So the mental and psychical positive effects of tourism
with horse riding are take part important role on human health.
Keywords: Human, health, tourism, horse
90
7638
Garden Culture and Tourism; Niğde Example
Gülden Sandal Erzurumlu

Assistant Professor
Department of Landscape Architecture, Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University
Niğde, Turkey
gpeyzaj@gmail.com
Mertkan Fahrettin Tekinalp

Research Assistant
Department of Landscape Architecture, Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University
Niğde, Turkey
mtekinalp@ohu.edu.tr
Abstract
From the past to the present day, every society has adopted its own garden culture in the historical
process. Cultural houses in Niğde city, with the influence of various cultures are being transformed
into landscapes that impress people. This situation creates a focus point for domestic and foreign
tourists. Due to existence of many different cultures in time, the understanding of the garden
culture, which is composed of different cultures, comes up to daylight. In our research, it is aimed to
re-emphasize the importance of Niğde gardens and to determine its effect on tourism by
emphasizing the plants that symbolize our garden culture in the cultural houses existing in Niğde. It is
aimed to examine the definition of two opposing styles (classical style and natural style) which
emerged as a result of the garden culture and their historical development.
Keywords: Niğde, cultural house, landscape, tourism
91
7645
Cultural Heritage: Viewed Through Tourist Guides
Yalçın Arslantürk
Associate Professor
Department of Travel Management and Tour Guiding, Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli University
Ankara, Turkey
arslanturk@gazi.edu.tr
Abstract
The dynamic structure of tourism has brought about changes in the preferences of tourists alongside.
The traditional “sea, sand and sun” concept has been substituted with more interesting and engaging
alternative tourism experiences. One of the foremost of such experiences is cultural heritage
tourism, also considered cultural tourism. Thanks to the Venice Charter in 1964 and 1972
“Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage” in Paris, there
are general conservation guidelines and recommendations set by United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and International Council on Monuments and Sites
(ICOMOS). Within this scope, in Turkey, there were 3 cultural heritage assets registered by UNESCO
and as of 2018, this number reached to 17. Countries make use of the cultural heritage assets in
tourism activities in the best possible manner. The pursuit of different experiences has made cultural
tourism as the sought-after tourism alternative. It was in 2012 that tourist guiding became a legal
and mandatory element of tourism system and as cultural ambassadors, in enriching the experiences
tourists are seeking and in the appreciation of cultural heritage potential, there are crucial roles
tourist guides play. In this context, this paper sets out to evaluate cultural tourist and cultural
heritage tourism through the eyes of tourist guides. In a more specific context, such issues as
common characteristics of cultural tourists, awareness of assets registered in cultural heritage list,
sustainability, promotion and public-private sector cooperation make up the main themes of the
study. Adopting an interpretative approach, a “focus group” has been formed with experienced
tourist guides. The results of the study, on the whole, conclude that there is a need to improve the
sustainability, public-private sector cooperation and promotion. Within this respect, a set of
recommendations have been put forward.
Keywords: Cultural heritage tourism, cultural tourist, tourist guides, Turkey
92
7646
Impact of Traditional Equitation Shows to Tourism World Wide and Suggestions for Utilizing
Equestrian Tourism in Turkish Tourism Sector
Mehmet Tekin Koçkar

Lecturer
Mahmudiye Horse Riding Vocational School, Eskişehir Osmangazi University
Eskişehir, Turkey
mtkockar@gmail.com
Hakan Çalışkan
Assistant Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
hakan1923@gmail.com
Ali Ekber Ün
Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
sampiyonsuvari06@hotmail.com
Cafer Yıldırım
Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
y.cafer@gmail.com
Merve Ünlüoğlu
Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
mervekoyunbakan@hotmail.com
Abstract
Horse and horse-based activities are seen as a major income in many countries around the world
within the tourism sector. Especially traditional practices have a great contribution to the sector.
These practices can be classified as Horse festivals, Horse Riding Schools, Traditional Horse Riding
Shows and Equestrian Circuses. We can see that, these practices are not being executed in Turkey as
a touristic income yet. As a country, which has a thousands of years of equestrian culture, Turkey’s
experiences and traditional practices in this area, should be brought in to the tourism sector swiftly.
In this study, regarding to the classification above, World Wide applications will be mentioned and
some applications that can be utilized in Turkey will be suggested. Samples for these applications are
attached to this study via QR Code’s.
Keywords: Equestrian tourism, traditional equitation, equestrian, horse shows
93
7648
The Effect of Human Development Index on the Recognisability of the Country Cuisines
Mustafa Aksoy
Assistant Professor
Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli University
Ankara, Turkey
maksoygastronomi@gmail.com
Gülistan Sezgi
Ministry of National Education
Ankara, Turkey
Kübra Özel
Private Sector
Kütahya, Turkey
Abstract
Classification of countries' development levels according to various criteria is a widely used practice.
In this framework, new research has been conducted to measure the quality of life and various
human development indicators have been developed. One such index is the Human Development
Index, which is developed and popularized by the United Nations. The concept of development is
explained not only by economic performance but also by the quality of life. The main purpose of the
study is to determine whether there is a relationship between the high scores of the humanitarian
development index of a country and the recognition of the cuisine of that country. In this context,
investigating the recognisability of the cuisine of the countries which have higher scores in Human
Development Index will contribute to the developments in tourism sector in Turkey. This study will
also be a guideline for the objectives of stakeholders. For this purpose, 384 individuals living in
İstanbul were randomly sampled for a questionnaire method of research within 01-20 July 2018. The
findings were analyzed through statistical package program to determine whether there is a
statistically significant relationship between the higher scores of human development index and the
recognisability of the country cuisines. To this end, this study suggests that there is no correlation
between these two variables.
Keywords: Human development index, culinary culture, tourism, gastronomy
94
7651
Healthy Horses Features for Tourism with Horse Riding
Cafer Yıldırım
Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
y.cafer@gmail.com
Hakan Çalışkan
Assistant Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
hakan1923@gmail.com
Ali Ekber Ün
Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey

Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
mtkockar@gmail.com
Merve Ünlüoğlu
Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Horses bring many benefits to the lives of those around them. They are both beautiful to watch and of
significant impact to the lives of many. They are a fun, enjoyable, different alternative to the ordinary
tourism style for those who need more physical activity in their lives. They are a morale booster, a friend,
and a teacher for those who are depressed, stressed, or lonely. Just because we no longer depend on
them as a means to an end, does not mean their meaning in our life has ended. Horses still have an
important health-related role to play in our everyday lives. People with physical disabilities can benefit
from riding as a low-impact sport that is gentler on their joints and offers an enjoyable alternative to
physical therapy in a Tourism. There are many different types of riding, so everyone can find the one. The
most important issue is horse healthy for sustainable horse assisted tourism, sport and medical therapy.
This article outlines the status quo of scientific research both from a Veterinary and tourism point of view.
This interdisciplinary method of approach is based mainly on a state-of-the art review of the current
literature. Healthy horses would be important role for Tourism with horse riding. There are many
different literature that Show horse assisted activities contribute to positive effects on human health. The
important thing is these activities would be successful if implemented with healthy horses just as prevent
zoonotic diseases and mental stress. We suggest that tourism with horse riding would be positive effects
on human health with healthy horses.
Keywords: Human, health, tourism, horse
95
7652
Assessing the Quality of Gastronomy Education: Turkey Case
Duran Cankül
Assistant Professor
Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department, Eskisehir Osmangazi University
Eskisehir, Turkey
dcankul@ogu.edu.tr
Yılmaz Sever
Lecturer
Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department, Eskisehir Osmangazi University
Eskisehir, Turkey
ysever@ogu.edu.tr
Abstract
Gastronomy education in Turkey is given under the names of “food and beverage management” and
“gastronomy and culinary arts” in degree programs and “culinary” in associate degree programs. In
these sections where students are active in a significant part of the educational process, the physical
facilities, curriculum, lecturer, student and database dimensions are important in determining the
quality of education. In this research, it is aimed to evaluate the quality of gastronomy education at
the higher education level in Turkey. In this direction, it has been utilized from questionnaire method
for data collection. These questionnaires were sent all gastronomy lecturers and the students including
private universities in Turkey. 400 students and 102 academics a total of 502 questionnaires have
returned and taken into consideration. The obtained data were analyzed with SPSS packet program.
Analyzed results present very interesting findings about the quality of gastronomy education at higher
education level in Turkey. It is seen that the physical facilities, databases and applied curriculum
offered during the education in these sections do not satisfy both the academicians and the students
and are not sufficient. In addition, quality of gastronomy education scores show meaningful and
significant differences according to the type of university (state or foundation) trained and the degree
of education (culinary or gastronomy).
Keywords: Culinary, food and beverage management, gastronomy, gastronomy education, Turkey
96
7655
Perceptions of the Employees about Economic, Social and Environmental Effects of Kuşadası
International Golf Resort
Eda Elşan Atağan

Aydın Adnan Menderes University
Aydın, Turkey
Sultan Baysan
Professor
Department of Turkish and Social Sciences Education, Aydın Adnan Menderes University
Aydın, Turkey
sbaysan@adu.edu.tr
Ruken Akar Vural

Associate Professor
Department of Educational Sciences, Aydın Adnan Menderes University
Aydın, Turkey
rakarvural@gmail.com
Adil Adnan Öztürk

Assistant Professor
Department of Turkish and Social Sciences Education, Aydın Adnan Menderes University
Aydın, Turkey
adil_adnanozturk@hotmail.com
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to examine the perceptions of the employees of the Kuşadası
International Golf Resort and the economic, social and environmental effects of golf tourism. In
addition, considering the location of the Resort, the perceived effect of golf tourism, which forms an
alternative tourism activity, is examined. As in a qualitative design, employees' perceptions were
tried to be revealed by using semi-structured interview forms. The working group of the study is
composed of eight staff working in the Kuşadası International Golf. Maximum diversity sampling was
used from the purposeful sampling methods. As a result of the research, it was concluded that the
environment was perceived undamaged, the natural structure was preserved and that there was no
over irrigation. In addition, it was revealed that due to the resort being far from the local residential
area, therefore, no interaction held between the people/tourists who stay and the local people due
to the fact that the site is far located. Moreover, the employees also reported employment creation
effect of the resort, which is very similar in the tourism literature.
Keywords: Golf tourism, sport tourism, environmental, economic, social effects, sustainability
97
7658
The Implementation of Green Practices among Homestay Operators in Selangor, Malaysia
An-Nisa’ M. Farid
Undergraduate Student
Bachelor of Science (Hons.) Tourism Management,
Universiti Teknologi MARA,
Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
annisamohdfarid@yahoo.com
Faten A. Muntasian
fatenamyra95@gmail.com
Nur A. F. Idris
nurashikinfatin@gmail.com
Siti S. Ismail
Senior Lecturer
Department of Tourism Management,
sitis377@salam.uitm.edu.my
Zuliah A. Hamid
Senior Lecturer
Department of Tourism Management,
zulia954@salam.uitm.edu.my
Abstract
The homestay industry in Malaysia is one of the tourism niche markets that has been commercialized
from the early 1970s. Its development can be seen through the government support in providing
guidelines for homestay operators and management, funding, infrastructure development and
marketing and promotional activities. Selangor is one of the states in Malaysia that has received
much support from the federal and state government as well as agencies. According to the Ministry
of Tourism and Culture Malaysia (2017), the state has 454 homestay operators and received 44,971
tourists arrival from local and international. Hence, it is important to preserve the environment
surrounding the homestay operation to avoid degradation and modification. Based on the
requirement criteria in ASEAN Homestay Standard, homestay operators need to take responsibility
by performing activities that demonstrate their support towards green practices, which include
proper management in energy, waste and water aspects. This kind of management will support the
local community’s development and well-being. However, it has not gained widespread acceptance
among the operators, as there is lack of interest and commitment to manage the homestay
98
professionally, which has led to poor cleanliness, improper waste collection and inefficient use of
electricity and water. Thus, the objective of this study is to investigate the implementation of green
practice in energy, waste and water management among homestay operators in Selangor. The study
was conducted through quantitative method and questionnaire survey involving 122 homestay
operators. A descriptive analysis has been carried out and it was found that green practices were
moderately practiced by homestay operators in Selangor. Hence, there are rooms for improvement
in the homestay operation. The homestay operators’ behaviour can be improved to help conserve
the environment. Some of the suggestions are by creating awareness on how the homestay business
can affect the environment, provision of training for the homestay operators to create a better
understanding towards environmental sustainability and the need of government enforcement for
official guidelines on green practices and implementation among homestay operators.
Keywords: Homestay industry, homestay operators, green practices, energy management, waste
management, water management, environmental sustainability, sustainable tourism
99
7659
The Characteristics and Training of Horses to Be Used In Touristic Facilities
Ali Ekber Ün
Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
Hakan Çalışkan
Assistant Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
hakan1923@gmail.com

Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
mtkockar@gmail.com
Cafer Yıldırım
Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
y.cafer@gmail.com
Merve Ünlüoğlu
Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
The horses have an important position in human life from past to present. They have been living
together with human beings for thousands of years thanks to their physical and emotional qualities.
They are bold and agile, and at the same time, they are highly dependent on the rider when used
correctly and in the right jobs. The training of horses starts at birth. The instructor must comprehend
the nature of horses well. They live in organized hierarchical order in their natural life. People who
are interested in horses should know this order well. The horses used in many scopes throughout
history are also used in tourism today. Equestrian tourism seems to contribute to economies of many
countries. In this study, it will be discussed how to determine the characteristics of the horses to be
used in equestrian tourism and how to make the trips in a safe and healthy manner in equestrian
tourism. In addition, people who consider doing horseback tour guidance will be offered advice
about the tour horse selection and how horse training and care should be.
Keywords: Equestrian tourism, horse training, horseback tour guidance
100
7661
Research on the Relationship between Revitalization Methods and Authenticity Perception—based
on Three Relic Parks of Tang Dynasty in Xi’an
Mengting Wang
Department of Resource and Environmental Geography, Peking University
Beijing, China
sherrywang04@pku.edu.cn
Abstract
Cultural heritage has a dual cultural and economic attributes, also making it controversial in the
process of protection and utilization, which are practical problems encountered in particular heritage
revitalization especially for the historic cities in the process of urban planning and construction
development. Xi'an Qujiang New District builds a series of relic parks, as the core of the Tourism
Complex, to revitalize heritage and organize urban functions. This paper is based on the case study of
different types of relic parks, from the perspective on the perception of authenticity, through
literature research, field research, questionnaires and quantitative information processing, etc., the
relationship between revitalization methods and authenticity perception as well as other elements of
tourism which are influenced are studied, and try to explore and resolve its internal factors and
mechanisms, as the results of the factor analysis are explained by questionnaires and SPSS statistical
analysis, in order to recommend for sustainable tourism policy and contribute to the sustainability of
cultural heritage.
Keywords: Heritage revitalization, authenticity perception, Relic Park, cognition degree, satisfaction
degree, factor analysis
101
7671
A New Dessert to Be Grown in Restaurant Menus: Halva Plate
Şeyma Sak
seyma.sak@hotmail.com
Ebru Zencir
Assistant Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
ezencir@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
Turkish Cuisine is a rich culinary culture, which has a long history, is influenced by many cuisines and
carries traces of eating habits of different societies. In recent years, as women have started to take
up more space in work life, eating outside habits are increasing and eating habits at home are getting
less. This causes the value of traditional dishes to be lost, and many of them are not even known.
Therefore, consumption of snow halva, which is referred to with different names in different regions
in Turkey, decreases. The purpose of this study is to prepare a snow halva plate to be used in the
menus of the first class restaurants with sherbet and sabuni, which is a kind of halva consumed too
much in the Ottoman era. A two-stage pilot practice was conducted for this purpose. In the first
stage, the product was prepared by sweetening honey and fruit flavor without using sugar, it was
decided that eight applications were made in total and can be presented by taking expert opinions. In
the second stage, the product was tasted by the guests who came to the restaurant, and the
opinions of eighty-eight customers were taken with the survey that has open-ended and multiple-
choice questions. As a result, it is seen that if the problems during the service and the spice in the
sherbet are reduced, consumers will be satisfied with the consumption of the snow halva.
Keywords: Turkish cuisine, halva, restaurant menus
102
7672
What Do Tourists Wonder about Turkey’s Cultural Heritage? A Study to Determine Frequently
Asked Questions to Tour Guides
Burak Düz
Research Assistant
Department of Tourism Guidance, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
bduz@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
Tour guides are obliged to interpret for tourists in tours. During a tour, cultural heritage of a
destination composes a major part in tour guides’ interpretation. Having a good command of cultural
heritage, tour guides can enhance the experience of tourists and provide them with satisfaction.
Therefore, tour guides are supposed to know what tourists are curious about regarding cultural
heritage in a destination. This study aims to determine the questions tourists ask their tour guides in
Turkey regarding its cultural heritage. Using semi-structured, face-to-face interviews with tour
guides, the questions asked to tour guides will be extracted. A content analysis will be implemented
to explore the categories and the themes. Determining the frequently asked questions and the topics
that tourists are curious about regarding cultural heritage, tour guides will be able to form their
interpretation based upon the results of this study. Tour guiding education programs can be
reviewed and the efficiency of tour guides in terms of information and interpretation on cultural
heritage can be enhanced. Ultimately, all the efforts to improve tour guides’ informing and
interpreting roles will enhance the quality of tour guiding service and tourist satisfaction.
Keywords: Cultural heritage, tour guides, tourists, ınterpretation, tourist’s questions
103
7682
New Approaches to Turkey Tourism: Indian Weddings
Çetin Furkan Usun

Research Assistant
Department of Geography, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University
Hatay, Turkey
cfusun@mku.edu.tr
Gözde Emekli
Professor
İzmir, Turkey
Abstract
In recent years, the impact of globalization, the development of information and communication
technology, increased cultural interaction, postmodern movements and trends are causing the
search for different experiences by tourists leads to the emergence of new tourist attractions. One of
the alternative tourism types by postmodern tourism consumers who are in new quests is "wedding
tourism". Wedding tourism, whose purpose is to realize outside the countries, is defined as an
activity that includes transportation, accommodation, refreshments and entertainment. India is one
of the most preferred countries for wedding tourism in the world. The majority of weddings of rich
families in India take place in outside the countries, such as Indonesia and especially Thailand.
However, these countries have become tired destinations because Indian weddings have been
realized for 30 years. Indian weddings have been around for about 30 years, these countries.
Therefore, the Indians have sought an alternative destination. In recent years, Turkey has been one
of the most popular country for Indian weddings in terms of an alternative destination. Indian
families have focused on Turkey day by day thanks to its natural and cultural opportunities, diverse
shopping facilities, the quality of the hotel, suitable climate and its rich histories as well as. In
addition to this, another advantage of the Indian wedding tourism is that Turkey is located at the
intersection of Asian and European cultures. The aim of this study, which is evaluated as a new
approach of postmodern tourism, is to contribute to the tourism literature of our country as a
current study issue. For this purpose, Indian Weddings will be evaluated in Turkey scale by
performing literature review and benefiting from secondary data sources. Turkey's benefiting from
this growing trend is very important for our country. On the other hand, it is an important necessity
to solve problems such as direct flights and presentation so that our country get more share from the
market.
Keywords: New trends in tourism, postmodern tourism, wedding tourism, Indian weddings, Turkey
104
7685
Determination of Undergraduate Students’ Alienation Levels: The Case of Anadolu University
Tourism Faculty
Sezi Aydın
Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
seziaydin@anadolu.edu.tr
Çağıl Hale Özel

Associate Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Alienation may occur towards a person himself, society, workplace or the living environment. The
alienation of the individual is an issue that increasingly causes the alienation of the society. Education
constitutes one of the dimension of the alienation. It is crucial for both the literature and executers
to determine the alienation levels of students, to investigate the causes of alienation and enhance
possible solutions. In this context, a research was conducted during the fall semester of 2017-2018
academic year in order to determine the alienation levels of students studying in different
departments of Anadolu University Tourism Faculty. In this study, a quantitative approach was
performed and a descriptive research model was used. Student Alienation Scale was used as a data
collection tool and it was investigated whether students’ alienation levels differed according to
variables such as gender, department, and class and income level. In conclusion, it was found that
students experience moderate alienation in all sub dimension of alienation, namely powerlessness,
irregularity, isolation and meaninglessness. Results of this study may help Anadolu University
Tourism Faculty management to take precautions to prevent further alienations of students.
Keywords: Alienation, alienation in education, Anadolu University Faculty of Tourism
105
7686
Sport Tourism Management Models: Opportunities versus Challenges in Malaysia
Zauyani Zainal Mohamed Alias

Faculty of Hotel & Tourism Management
Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM), Puncak Alam Campus, Malaysia
zzml_1909@yahoo.com
Mohd Shayfuddin Moon

International Bussines School
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Skudai Johor, Malaysia
mohdshayfuddin@gmail.com
Norain Othman
Faculty of Hotel & Tourism Management
Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM), Puncak Alam Campus, Malaysia
norain568@salam.uitm.edu.my
Abstract
Sport tourism has been described as a partnership between the world’s largest social phenomenon
and the world’s biggest industry by several researchers. Sporting tourism event integrate several
kinds of resources that need to be managed in order to achieve efficiency and the sustainability of
the event. In modern times, sport-related travel has grown to become a multi-billion dollars business
and one of the fastest growing and most intriguing of modern day service industries. This study
responds to the lack of the research on development of sport tourism management’s model. The
objectives of this study are 1) to identify the needs of different sport tourist market segments and
differentiates the impact of the segments on economic development; 2) to propose the prioritize
investments in sports destinations by identifying ROI opportunities; 3) to gather information needed
to form public/private partnerships that can raise the capital needed to further enhance sports
destinations; 4) to present a moderated model of sport tourism event as an economic development
generator for particular destination. Consistent with a positivist methodology, a questionnaire will be
developed and test for data collection purposes and structural equation modeling and Nvivo will be
used to test the theoretical and competing models. The finding of this study will contribute to the
development of sport tourism industry especially in the state of Johor, Malaysia and related to the
growing recognition of the importance of sport tourism impacts in economy development.
Keywords: Sport, tourism, sport tourist, economic development, sport event management models
106
7702
New Perspectives on the Protection of Industrial Heritage: Eskisehir
Nuray Özaslan
Professor
Department of Architecture, Eskisehir Technical University
Eskişehir, Turkey
nozaslan@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
Increasing concern on the conservation of cultural heritage all over the world has many results on
economic, social and cultural aspects. On the other hand, globalization made easier people’s
communications, transportations and access to information of any kind. Cultural borders became
ambiguous. Global tourism helped to this new way of knowing and experiencing the other worlds. It
introduces the consumption culture of the post-modern era but also increased the awareness on the
cultural heritage and contribute to its conservation. Therefore, a strategy of managing cultural
heritage and tourism should consider the benefits of local community as well as the authenticity of
heritage itself. Tangible remains from the industrial past is considered representatives of the first
industrial age and should be protected as valuable evidences of civilization. Eskisehir, in central
Anatolia, has remarkable industrial heritage. In spite of increasing tourism potential of the town,
there is an upsetting neglect about the abandoned factories, machinery and industrial campuses.
This paper will discuss the significance of the industrial heritage for recognition of Eskisehir and its
potential for international cultural tourism. It will argue that conservation of tangible and intangible
cultural heritage needs a strategy with awareness of global context. It will focus on the need for new
perspectives for the cultural tourism, which help to understand the tourism not as a global consumer
but rather as a new way of knowing the common past and global awareness to common future.
Keywords: Industrial heritage, tourism, globalization, local, Eskisehir
107
7735
Consideration of Authenticity and Integrity in Cultural Heritage: Review of Heritage Conservations
in Eskişehir
Betül Ekimci
Assistant Professor
Architecture and Design Faculty, Eskişehir Technical University
Eskişehir, Turkey
bgekimci@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
In 2013, being a Cultural Capital of the Turkic World, and the Capital of UNESCO Intangible Culture
Heritage allowed Eskişehir city to retain and convey its sense of history and provided opportunities for
the conservation of heritage buildings in order to ensure their ongoing viability and preservation.
Studies under the leadership of Ministry of Culture and Tourism with participation and contributions
of the Governorship of Eskişehir, city institutions and organizations and related NGOs and scientists
were based on the conservation of significant heritage buildings in the city. With this process,
infrastructure projects have become one of the important priorities for Eskisehir, as it is in all the cities
that have been the capital of culture. Within the scope of related studies; implementations such as an
adaptive reuse of the historical Odunpazarı site, conserving the existing heritage buildings and allowing
redevelopment of the area were done. The opening of new museums or upgrading of existing ones
and the landscape arrangements have been carried out. Numerous scientific studies and researches
have been realized on the tangible and intangible cultural heritage of Eskisehir. Heritage conservation
have a numbers of potential cultural, social, environmental and economic benefits. At the same time
heritage conservation are one of the success indicators for the Cultural Capitals. Community heritage
resources are the tangible embodiments of historical, social and cultural values that give a community
its distinctive sense of place and time. In the ICOMOS Turkey Architectural Heritage Conservation
Charter (2013), authenticity and integrity, as two main concepts, are particularly emphasized both
the scale of the environmental or a single structure. The basic framework of cultural heritage studies
constitutes these concepts and sub-titles. In this study, cultural heritage conservation practices in
Eskisehir have been analyzed in terms of authenticity and integrity concepts, with a broad view of
participation in the process behind the years of being a Capital of Culture. The purpose of this paper is
to introduce Eskisehir’s cultural historic layers, foster cultural awareness and contribute to the
understanding continuum of the built environment from past to present to future day.
Keywords: Turkey-Eskişehir, capital of culture, cultural heritage, heritage conservation
108
7736
Traditional Cuisine and Its Spatial Effects: The Immigrant Experience; Case Study of İdrisyayla
Village
Betül Ekimci
Assistant Professor
Architecture and Design Faculty, Eskişehir Technical University
Eskişehir, Turkey
bgekimci@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
In a society, eating and drinking habits having part of traditional customs and practices influenced by
the environment in which developed by people are important. The methods of food processing,
storage and assessment carry various traditional qualifications evolving in different ways. These
qualities including several cultural dimensions changing over time are getting lost depending on the
development of industrial production. With this study, spatial reflections of culinary, the spatial and
social relationship of cooking to storing in the Eskişehir, Seyitgazi, and İdrisyayla household was
examined. İdrisyayla village is settlement of the immigrants who settled in Eskisehir with the waves
of immigration in the late 19th century from Rumelia. İdrisyayla village is an appealing settlement
with its impressive cultural landscape and unique identity of immigrants formerly from Balkan region.
İdrisyayla village protects its original residential character by the log-houses, adobe brick or rubble
stone structured houses, consisting of usually single-storey buildings organized with courtyard, which
have been built according to the slant rural land. İdrisyayla has enjoyed active public and
administrative support in pursuing intangible cultural heritage research project (2015), with the title
of "İdrisyayla Molasses Process" conducted by the Eskişehir Governorship, City Directorate of Culture
and Tourısm and Anadolu University. People are increasingly realizing the value of heritage and the
role it can play in preserving neighborhood character. In this study, the meaning of the social and
spatial characteristics of historical İdrisyayla cuisine, along with traditional dwellings have been
introduced. The material of this study constitute of surveying traditional buildings, observation,
photographic documentation and bibliographic research.
Keywords: Intangible cultural heritage, Traditional food system, spatial effects, Rumelia, migration-
immigrant, Eskişehir-Turkey
109
7738
An Evaluation on Community Based Tourism: Lavender Scented Village Example
Ebru Arslaner
Assistant Professor
Tourism Management Programme, Eskişehir Osmangazi University
Eskişehir, Turkey
earslaner@ogu.edu.tr
Sıla Karacaoğlu
Research Assistant
Karataş Tourism and Hotel Management College, Çukurova University
Adana, Turkey
skaracaoglu@cu.edu.tr
Ayşe Nevin Sert

Assistant Professor
Selçuk University, Beyşehir Ali Akkanat Vocational School
Abstract
Community-based tourism is a local development model aiming at both common participation of all
local people in the tourism activities carried out in a destination and to ensure that everyone benefits
equally. The increasing interest in community-based tourism has also raised the number of projects
undertaken in this regard. Lavender Scented Village project is one of the projects carried out within
this scope in Kuyucak Village of Isparta province. It is aimed to trigger the potential employment and
entrepreneurship in the region by providing product diversity of lavender produced in Kuyucak
Village with Lavender Scented village project. Thus, tourism in a rural area will be recreated and local
economy will be invigorated with the new tourism developments. In this study, it is aimed to
analysis the current situation of the Lavender Scented village project, to make some inferences
regarding the project and to guide the decision makers and other prospective projects in the next
steps of processes of the project. The data was obtained by face-to-face interviews with 13 local
residents and decision makers using the snowball sampling method in Kuyucak Village and evaluated
by SWOT analysis technique. Results indicate that the community-based in Kuyucak Village is still at
the beginning level. This is an important issue since the threats and opportunities are shedding light
on the period of maturity and guiding managerial sense.
Keywords: Community-based tourism, local people, local decision makers, local development,
Lavender Scented Village
110
7756
Tourism for Everybody, Accessible Tourism; the Case of Eskişehir
Gökben Demirci
Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
gonbend@anadolu.edu.tr
Hilmi Rafet Yüncü

Associate Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
hryuncu@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
Service, information, infrastructure, and transportation all of which have been designed according to
the rights of each individual has may mean that their rights are taken away if these possibilities are
not accessible. In such a case, municipalities are one of the most important designers in terms of
providing an ideal urban life by considering the requirements of each individual. Everyone desires to
be happy during touristic activities. It is possible with only the contemporary tourism approaches
that do not deprive the individual of the right he or she has. Individuals who need accessible tourism
can be defines as elders, children, pregnant women, strollers, partial and permanent disabled people,
and people who special requirements. In this study, the municipalities in Eskişehir (Metropolitan,
Tepebaşı, and Odunpazarı Municipalities) were evaluated in terms of accessible tourism. The concept
of accessibility is addressed at the point of information, transportation, and infrastructure service
accessibility. Qualitative research technique was used in the study. The data were collected using the
document analysis and interview technique. As a result of the descriptive analysis of the obtained
data, it is observed that the related municipalities in terms of accessible tourism are regular
applications in the areas of access to information, transportation, service, and infrastructure, but the
existing services are not sufficient. Especially; it has been determined that there is an urgent need
for the Guide to the Accessible City and awareness training for personnel working in the tourism
sector in particular. İt is considered that a Disabled Parliament to be established will benefit from the
positive implementation of disabled accessibility in the context of adapting to accessibility in tourism.
In this sense, it is thought that the steps to be taken in the field of accessibility in tourism can
broaden the tourism sector and the fusing role of tourism by meeting the needs of the individual
from all walks of life.
Keywords: Accessibility, accessible tourism, Eskişehir
111
7759
Seasonal Dynamics of Turkish Inbound Tourism Demand Using Fractional Seasonal Variance Ratio
(FSVR) Unit Root Test
İnci Oya Coşkun

Assistant Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
ioyazicilar@anadolu.edu.tr
Burak Alparslan Eroğlu

Assistant Professor
Faculty of Business, Bilgi University
İstanbul, Turkey
burak.eroglu@bilgi.edu.tr
Selim Yıldırım
Associate Professor
Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
selimy@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
Tourism has a significant economic role for growing economies. Hence, different dimensions of the
tourism industry such as demand, supply and related policies need in depth analysis. Turkish inbound
tourism demand shows structural seasonality and is affected by periodic crises arising from
economic, political or cyclical adverse circumstances. This fact shows that policymaking is an
indispensable element for the industry’s success. Two major factors in macro (at government level)
or micro (at firm or household level) policymaking are seasonality and stationarity. Seasonality is an
integral factor for tourism industry since a destination’s demand depends on the high-low season
cycle and created a pressure on the attractions during high season. Stationarity on the other hand
informs the policy maker on the response of tourism demand on any policy shock. This study tests
whether the demand in selected OECD member states’ demand for Turkey is stationary while taking
the seasonal structure of the series into consideration. This study employs a newly developed
fractional seasonal variance ratio (FSVR) unit root test and a relatively classical HEGY seasonal unit
root test to examine the seasonal stationarity and compare the results of these tests to identify their
suitability. The FSVR and the HEGY seasonal unit root tests are implemented on 32 OECD member
states due to data availability. The results mainly agree that the HEGY test has stronger tendency to
reject the null hypothesis of unit root in seasonally detrended series while reverse is true for
seasonally demeaned series. Finally, findings imply that the demand in the aforementioned 32
Turkish inbound tourism markets have tendency to be nonstationary. Conclusions and policy
recommendations are discussed.
Keywords: Seasonal unit root, FSVR unit root test, HEGY unit root test, inbound tourism demand,
Turkey
112
7760
Does the Increase in Tourism Demand Actually Increase Tourism Revenues in case of Turkey?
İnci Oya Coşkun

Assistant Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
Selim Yıldırım
Associate Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
selimy@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
Tourism income has a significant role especially for tourist receiving (destination) countries where
tourism is a major source of foreign exchange earnings. Foreign exchange earnings are directly
related with the tourist expenditure, therefore the effect of exchange rates on tourism demand is of
major concern. As one of the top tourism destinations in the world, Turkey is definitely a tourist
receiving country and tourism revenues is an important issue for the country’s economic welfare.
Accordingly, this study attempts to investigate the relationship between real exchange rates and
inbound tourists’ per capita average tourism expenses in addition to the relationship between real
exchange rates and the total number of inbound tourists. The main purpose is to investigate the
effect of an exchange rate shock on the tourism revenues and demand. Due to the dynamic structure
of the tourism series, continuous wavelet transform was used for the empirical analysis. Continuous
wavelet transform is compatible with non-stationary series without any need for a transformation
and handles periodic movements endogenously, such as seasonality and structural breaks. The
findings suggest that the relationship between real exchange rates and the number of inbound
tourists are generally weak, however when existent pro-cyclical. On the other hand, real exchange
rates and inbound tourists’ average tourism expenses per capita move counter-cyclically.
Consequently, depreciation of the Turkish Lira may increase the number of inbound tourists but it
certainly is not going to bring more income per tourist. The causes of this phenomenon and policy
suggestions are also discussed in the study.
Keywords: Inbound tourism demand, real exchange rates, continuous wavelet transform, Turkey
113
7762
Antarctica: Managing Ecotourism in Sensitive Environments
Rohani Mohd Shah

Associate Professor
Faculty of Law, Universiti Teknologi MARA
Selangor, Malaysia
rohanimohdshah@salam.uitm.edu.my
Abstract
Antarctica is a continent of 13,829,430 km2 covered by ice and only 44,890 km2 ice-free area for
easy walking. Officially it is the most remote, highest, coldest, driest, and windiest continent but it is
the fifth-largest Continent on Earth. Even though it has no indigenous or permanent habitants and no
local product to bring home for souvenirs still in 2007/2008 tourist visiting this “God-forsaken place”
exceeded 40,000. The attraction to Antarctica is its geographical location being the ultimate
destination for ecotourists. In 1998-1999 tourism season, the economic value of Antarctica tourism
excluding the international airfares was estimated only at USD 39,237,000, which is not good for
business. The three types of Antarctic tourism are the camping trips for naturalists, photographers
and journalists, the Ship-board visits (mainly by cruise ships) and the over-flights are costly. Of
course, the visitors gain a great appreciation of Antarctica’s global importance, pristine environment
non-other in the world; the first-hand visit to the research stations and appreciate nature wilderness
untouched by human activities. However, there are significant consequences from these short,
limited and costly visits. The littering, the taking of natural or significant items, the pollution, the
disease, the disturbance to breeding wildlife and the impact of landing sites. All the unplanned visits
to scientific bases, the waste from the cruise ships, the ship movement cause damage to the “slowly
growing moss beds”. Even worst is when “extreme” tourists get stranded, the rescues are expensive,
using the “Icebreakers” to save a life, the heroic act does destroy the environment for krill which is
affecting the food web indirectly impacting other species, damages are unseen to the naked eye. This
articles will look at several management strategies in respecting the “sensitive environment” as
determined by the Antarctica Treaty law; aim to support the limited and restricted ecotourism to
Antarctica.
Keywords: Antarctica, ecotourism, sustainable, management, strategies
114
7772
Tastes from Past to Present: Amasya Cuisine
Önder Yayla
Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
onderyayla@anadolu.edu.tr
Şeyda Yayla
Instructor
Eskişehir, Turkey
seydayayla@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
Turkey having different physical and human geographical features has one of the world's most
important cuisines. Due to these geographical differences, the materials and quantities that people
use during cooking vary from region to region. Consequently, each region has its own food culture.
Culinary culture of Amasya, which has very different characteristics due to its history, culture and
geography, is an important place for the development of gastronomic tourism in Turkey. In this
study, it was aimed to create a roadmap for Amasya to make a local food inventory for gastronomic
tourism and to be an important place in gastronomic tourism. In the study, the literature was
searched and interviews were made with the participants determined by sampling method and the
foods belonging to Amasya regional cuisine were determined, and a regional food inventory was
created. It has been found that Amasya, a rich kitchen in the research, is affected by past cultures
and the geography it hosts. In light of the results of the research, gastronomy elements have to be
added to the content of culture tours which are rich in local foods in Amasya.
Keywords: Amasya culture, sustainability in gastronomy, Turkish cuisine, gastronomy tourism
115
7777
Road Map for the Use of Turkish Drinks in Gastronomy Tourism
Önder Yayla
Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
Şeyda Yayla
Instructor
Eskişehir, Turkey
İsmail Konuk
Instructor
Eskişehir, Turkey
ikonuk@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
The Turkish cuisine, which is one of the world's greatest cuisines, is insufficient to use its values in
terms of drink variety. Especially foreign visitors do not know enough about drink variety in Turkey.
Also, it is limited to the experiences of foreign visitors. Drinks that play an important role in tourist
experience need to be used effectively in gastronomic tourism. In this context, the aim of the study is
to determine the perceptions of foreigners about Turkish drinks, and to emphasize the importance of
matching the drink inventory of Turkish cuisine with traditional dishes. Within the scope of the
research, thoughts about Turkish drinks on Turkish restaurants on Tripadvisor.com are determined
by content analysis. Afterward, Turkish drinks were taken out of the literature and the expert opinion
was taken to match with the Turkish foods. With this study, it is found that Turkish cuisine and drinks
occupy an important place for Turkish cuisine, but foreigners cannot be reminded often enough
about these drinks and visitors; due to the bad experiences, they develop negative attitudes against
Turkish drinks. As a result of the research, geographically marked Turkish drinks and meals were
paired and a roadmap was drawn for further studies.
Keywords: Turkish drinks, drinks in gastronomy tourism, road map for drinks, Turkish cuisine
116
7779
The Tourist Guides as Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism Interpreters: The Case of Odunpazarı
Merve Asmadili
Research Assistant
Eskisehir, Turkey
mervekalyoncu@anadolu.edu.tr
Gökçe Yüksek
Associate Professor
Eskisehir, Turkey
gozer@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
Odunpazarı is known with the old houses that constitute good examples of the civil architecture. The
front sides facing the street have bay windows and consoles. The houses generally comprise a sofa
(hall) and other rooms surrounding it. They are planned as two parts, i.e. the ground floor allocated
for service and the upper floor designed as the living space. The corner room on the front side of
houses, with windows on two sides, is larger and more important than others. In Odunpazarı district,
there are some other houses that constitute good examples of integration with the historical
structure and loyalty to the old architecture. These houses were built on the basis of the models of
the historical Odunpazarı houses. Tourist guide as an interpreter plays an important role linking the
destination and tourists. What is meant by ‘interpretation’? Originally defined by Tilden (1957),
interpretation is an educational activity aimed at revealing meanings and relationships to people
about the places they visit and the things they see and do there. (Weiler and Ham, 2000; Ham and
Weiler, 2002), Interpretation lies at the heart and soul of what any good tour guide can and should
be doing, whether guiding visitors on land or on water; whether on foot, using non-motorized forms
of travel, vehicle-based tours and whether the company or tour is labelled as ecotourism or is part of
an adventure, cultural, or heritage product, attraction or resort programme (Weiler and Ham, 2000;
Ham and Weiler, 2002). While interpretive tour guiding is very important, interpretation is not face-
to-face communication on guided tours. Interpretation is used by tour operators as well as by
resorts, lodges, attractions, theme parks, museums, parks, zoos, visitor centers, and so on. Many of
these use interpretive media in an effort to enhance visitors’ understanding and appreciation of the
environments being visited and the various natural and cultural phenomena experienced. The tourist
guides are also the representative of sustainability. The aim of this study is to identify the role of
tourist guides as interpreters for sustainable tourism in Odunpazarı District. In this qualitative study,
data were obtained from in-depth interviews. The tourism resources of the Odunpazarı district have
been identified and compiled from secondary sources. In the light of the obtained data, "SWOT
Analysis" was made by evaluating the present situation of Odunpazarı District. In-depth interviews
were conducted with the tourist guides of Eskişehir. The data obtained from guides were analyzed
and evaluated with the MAXQDA 12 program. The results of this study is that the tourist guides play
a crucial interpretative role and transferring accurate information to supply sustainable tourism of
Eskişehir.
Keywords: Sustainable tourism, cultural heritage, interpretation, the tourist guides of Eskişehir,
Odunpazarı district, Eskişehir
117
7781
Evaluation of Hunting Tourism in Turkey
Önder Yayla
Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
Semra Günay Aktaş

Professor
Eskisehir, Turkey
Şeyda Yayla
Instructor
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Turkish tourism is concentrated in coastal bands in general, unfortunately, it has a sea-sand-sun-
focused appearance. It is important for the future of Turkish tourism that the coastal area and the
intensified tourism to be concentrated in different destinations and low season. Among alternative
tourism types, hunting tourism has an important potential for diversification of Turkish tourism. The
purpose of the study is to determine the spatial distribution of species that are allowed to hunt. In
addition, it has been assessed in which regions the animal species allowed to be hunted and the
superiority of the upper structures in these regions for tourism in this study. Six species of animals
allowed for hunting in 2018-2019 were identified within the scope of the research. As a result of the
research, it is obvious that the destinations determined for hunting tourism have been significantly
improved compared to previous years, but there are still planning problems in these destinations.
Keywords: Hunting tourism, alternative tourism, tourism planning
118
7789
Cultural Heritage of Ottoman Anatolia through the Eyes of Female Travelers
Azade Özlem Çalık

Lecturer
Beypazarı Vocational School, Ankara University
Ankara, Turkey
doglu@ankara.edu.tr
Duygu Yetgin
Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
dyetgin@anadolu.edu.tr
Gülsel Çiftçi
Associate Professor
Tourism and Hotel Management, Trakya University
Edirne, Turkey
gulselciftci@trakya.edu.tr
Abstract
First female travelers in history began to appear after 18th century. These women, many of whom
were noble, well-educated, independent, and wealthy Europeans, traveled around the world and
wrote their own memoirs, and some of them happened to pass by Anatolia. In its period of
regression, the Ottoman Empire ruled Anatolia in this century. Anatolia has been home to many
civilizations, cultures, and beliefs for centuries, and the region holds various tangible and intangible
cultural heritages that have reached to present day. Cultural heritage comprises the physical
artworks and all other non-physical cultures and values remaining from the previous civilizations.
These narrations contain information about the people and settlements of the Ottoman Empire,
which was an exotic and closed society unbeknownst to the Western civilization. Since female
travelers could enter in places such as Harem, where male visitors were strictly forbidden, these
narrations provide information about the general structure of the imperial palace and the society.
They also provide information about the original conditions of the artworks that disappeared in
depths of history, and the cultural assets that survived to the present day. Besides providing an
insight into the past, these data also serve as useful resources for today’s historians, researchers, and
tour guides. In consideration of these aspects, it is anticipated that these cultural heritage narrations
of female travelers will make a difference for the tour guides of special interest groups. Within this
context, the travel notes of Lady Montagu (1689-1762), Mary Adelaide Walker (1820-….), and Lady
Elizabeth Craven (1750-1828) were analyzed. The purpose of this study is to examine the
perspectives of these women about the cultural heritage in Anatolia in the Ottoman Era. The
literature review was carried out by using memoirs published as books, letters, and some visual
documents, such as oil paintings of these traveler women.
Keywords: Traveler, female traveler, cultural heritage, Anatolia
119
7790
How to Become a UNESCO Global Geopark in Turkey?
Erdal Gümüş
Department of GIS & Geopark Research Center, Manisa Celal Bayar University
Manisa, Turkey
erdal.gumus@cbu.edu.tr
Nicolas Zouros
Geography Department, Aegean University & Lesvos UNESCO Global Geopark
Lesvos, Greece
nzour@aegean.gr
Abstract
Geopark concept is the new nature protection paradigm of the 21st century. Geopark concept come
up to existence with the establishment of the European Geoparks Network in 2000 and adopted to
UNESCO IGGP program in 2015 gaining worldwide recognition. By the year 2018 there are 140
Geoparks within 38 centuries globally. Turkey hosts a rich geological and geomorphological diversity
however Kula Geopark is the first and only in Turkey since its establishment in 2013. Since 2015
Geopark application process is coordinated by the UNESCO General Directorate which requires
precise and elaborate documentation of technical and official issues. Poor understanding of the
Geopark application process is the main reason unsuccessful Geopark attempts except from the Kula.
All initiatives wishing to become a UNESCO Geoparks should pay great attention to the application
dossier which is also an excellent guidebook. The Geopark application dossier consists of two parts.
The Self-evaluation form is in Excel format and should be filled electronically while the Application
file should be printed not exceeding 50 pages. The excel formatted self-evaluation form has 7 main
titles (Geopark Identity, Geology and Landscape, Geological Conservation, Natural and Cultural
Heritage, Management Structure, Information and Environmental Education, Geotourism,
Sustainable regional Economy) of which each are scored 1000 points in total. However each topic has
a different weight on the final calculation reflecting the philosophy and priorities of Geoparks.
Contrary to common belief what you do is more important than what you have in Geoparks. For
instance Geological Heritage has %5, Natural and Cultural Heritage has %10 weights while
Management Structure weights %25 and Geological Conservation %20 in total count. A UNESCO
Geopark certificate is given for limited period of 4 years. Within this 4 years period Geoparks submit
Progress Reports each 6 months. At the end of 4 years period Geoparks submits Self-evaluation
forms A-B to UNESCO. UNESCO will send 2 experts to the Geopark to verify the validity of the self-
evaluation forms and prepare a report and the final decision will be based on the evaluators report
from the Geopark plus annual reports.
Keywords: Geopark, geoheritage, geotourism, UNESCO, Kula
120
7792
Cultural Landscapes of Aviation Park In Terms of Visitors’ Viewpoint: Case of Eskisehir Aviation
Museum
Semra Günay Aktaş

Professor
Eskisehir, Turkey
Önder Yayla
Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
Sema Ekincek
Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Cultural landscape, which is a geographical area, have cultural and aesthetic values, related to
historical events, activities and people, keeping natural and cultural resources together. A cultural
landscape consists of physical elements such as roads, buildings, and vegetation as well as non-
physical elements reflecting tradition, custom, cultural values. According to this, cultural landscapes
have the three main components; natural structure, cultural life and the historical process. Tourism
develops in areas with high level natural and cultural landscapes. Therefore, tourism is the agent of
both conservation and change of natural and cultural landscapes. Aviation Park is a part of the
cultural geographical view of the city of Eskisehir and where historical and technological processes
are exhibited. In this study, interviews were held with the city tourists who visited the Aviation Park.
Perceptions on the Aviation Park were visualized with word clouds following the content analysis. For
more visits to the Aviation Park, recommendations were developed in the study.
Keywords: Cultural landscapes, Eskişehir Aviation Park, tourism development, geographical view
121
7797
Importance of Food Paradox, Food Equinox and Food Detox for the Local Food Culture
Alev Dündar Arıkan

Assistant Professor
Eskisehir, Turkey
adundar@anadolu.edu.tr
İrfan Arıkan
Professor
IMC FH Krems, University of Applied Sciences
3500 Krems, Austria
irfan.arikan@fh-krems.ac.at
Abstract
Production methods in the world change due to hybrid seeds that are produced by unhealthy
agricultural products. Likewise, unhealthy dairy products are obtained from animals genetically
modified by industrial ways. Native species of animal and plant diversity are disappearing. People
consume more and more animal protein than they need to stay healthy. Due to unhealthy and excess
food consumption, many diseases are caused. A food culture deformation is faced because of the
changes in cooking, storage and preparation methods, eating and drinking rituals, and equipment
used. Continuous depleted resources like water, soil, plants and animals, changing climate and the
perishable balance of the nature could result in the future in shortages of natural resources and food.
All of this constitute the food paradox concept. The balance, which does not change and disturbs the
local food culture is called “food equinox”. Also it demands an awareness of the needs of local
people, respect and appreciation for food culture and the natural environment and achieves a
balance between development and conservation. New projects and approaches to solve the
problems caused by the negative effects of food production and consumption and establish healthy
agricultural products are becoming more important than ever. It is expected that local people and
visitors of a destination will in the future prefer products, with which they feel healthy and secure.
Food paradox is toxidation of food culture with the negative effects of the food production and
consumption. The period of food paradox can be seen as an opportunity to protect the traditional
food of a culture that is called food detox. “Detox” is a period when you stop taking unhealthy or
harmful foods, drinks or drugs into your body in order to improve your health. Detox is a radical
decision and it is not an easy process. Food detox is not only the concept with the generally
recommended diet programs in order to purify the body. Food detox is a treatment that is intended
to remove harmful substances from the food culture. However, the implications will be different
from one culture to another in order to reflect local context and identity such as cooking, storage and
preparation methods, eating and drinking rituals, and equipment used. For the food equinox and
food detox a similar food culture theory to tourism equinox and tourism detox (Arikan & Ünsever) is
proposed. This paper investigates the influence of food paradox and food equinox on cultures in
relation to production and consumption, and the protection of local food culture with the help of
food detox. It primarily relies on qualitative research to understand the main futures of food
paradox, equinox and detox taking the negative impacts of local food culture into consideration. As
research methodology, a literature review and the sources of secondary data were used.
Keywords: Food paradox, food equinox, food detox, local food, food culture
122
7809
The Place of Sherbet in Beverage Preferences of University Students

Assistant Professor
Eskisehir, Turkey
Hasan Hüseyin Çakıcı

Student
Anadolu University
Eskisehir, Turkey
Eren Altunbağ
Student
Anadolu University
Eskisehir, Turkey
Abstract
When we look through the historical process, we can observe that different drinks came into
prominence in the Turkish cuisine. One of the oldest drinks of the Turkish cuisine is sherbet (şerbet)
like kumiss (kımız), ayran, wine, beer, boza and coffee. The sherbet which its origin reaches to the
communities of Central Asia is a drink obtained after the syrup is diluted and softened by the
addition of sugar to various plants, flowers, fruit, root, shell or seeds. With the acceptance of Islam,
sherbet started to be consumed more among Turkish people. Sherbet has been served in glasses in
the shops and on the streets since Seljuks to the present days. During the Ottoman period where it
was used most commonly, sherbet was a drink, which was produced and consumed by everyone
from poor to rich. It is also known that since the mid-seventeenth century, that famous beverage of
the Ottomans "sherbet" was exported to Britain with its lemon, rose, violet flavored varieties.
Sherbet formed the basis of the products known as "sorbet" in French, "sherbet" in English and
"sorbetto" in Italian. The consumption of the sherbet decreased gradually with the increase of the
production of the carbonated drinks by the domestic producers in 20th century and especially with
the start of coke sales after 1960. With the increase of the production of the industrial juices in the
same period, sherbet has become unable to compete with these drinks. This situation has caused the
sherbet culture to be forgotten. This study was carried out to determine the drinking preferences of
the young people, the factors that are effective in their choices and the place of sherbet among the
drinks that young people prefer. The research population is constituted by the students who studied
in the Faculty of Tourism at Anadolu University in the academic year 2017-2018. In this study, 361
questionnaires were evaluated and descriptive statistics and cross-tables were used in the analysis of
the data. Research results show that the sherbet is known among the young people however, it is not
being consumed too much. It is thought that the sherbet, which has existed in the Turkish cuisine for
centuries, needs to be turned into a preferred drink in order to be transferred to the next
generations. The study includes recommendations in order to increase sherbet`s recognition and
consumption.
Keywords: Sherbet, beverage, preference, Turkish cuisine, beverage preferences
123
7933
The Role of International Tourism Activities on Energy Consumption: A Case Study of Turkey
Korhan K. Gokmenoglu
Department of Banking and Finance, Eastern Mediterranean University
Famagusta, North Cyprus
korhan.gokmenoglu@emu.edu.tr
Baris Memduh Eren

Department of Banking and Finance, Eastern Mediterranean University
Famagusta, North Cyprus
baris.eren@emu.edu.tr
Abstract
Although determinants of energy consumption have been investigated extensively in the literature,
the effect of the international tourism has been highly ignored. Tourism is one of the most important
and developing sectors in Turkey, hence, this variable should be considered as a potential
determinant of energy consumption. We use powerful Bayer-Hanck (2013) cointegration and Hacker-
Hatemi-J (2006) bootstrap causality tests to investigate the determinants of energy consumption for
the case of Turkey, for the 1960-2015 periods, where the impact of tourism industry can be
observed. We employ a comprehensive multivariate model, which takes economic growth,
urbanization, trade openness, and tourism activities as explanatory variables to refrain from omitted
variable bias. Our empirical results provide evidence for the importance of tourism sector on energy
consumption for the sample investigated which has important implication for several aspects such as
sustainability of tourism led growth and environmental impact of the tourism industry. Also,
considering Turkey is an emerging economy, which has rapidly growing tourism industry, it is
believed that obtained results of this study provide a guideline for other emerging tourism-based
economies.
Keywords: Energy consumption, urbanization, trade openness, tourism activities, economic growth,
Turkey
124
7954
A Qualitative Study on Folk Dance Traıners' Evaluation of Folk Dance at the Perspective of Tourism
Eşref Ay
Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
esrefay@gmail.com
Abstract
Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) is the unique cultural practices shaped by the lives of societies.
These cultural practices can be perpetuated by transferring from generation to generation. Culture is
seen as an important tourist product in the tourism sector. The reason is that different cultures and
different practices in these cultures cause tourists to interest. It is seen that folk dances, which are
considered as ICH, are also used for tourist purposes with their tourist attractions. The main purpose
of this study is to dwell upon the current use of folk dances for tourism purposes and to reveal the
folk dances trainers’ opinions on the importance of folk dances in terms of tourism. For this purpose,
face-to-face interviews were held with 20 folk dance trainers. Descriptive analysis was performed by
interpreting the obtained data. It has been determined that the trainers look positively towards the
use of folk dances for tourism due to their contribution to the promotion of the country. However,
they expressed that they did not deem it appropriate to perform the folk dances differently from the
essence in order to attract the interest of the tourists.
Keywords: Cultural heritage, folk dances, tourism
125
7957
Questioning Export-led and Tourism-led Growth Hypotheses on a Regional Basis: Case of Central
Anatolian Region, Turkey
Mustafa Özer
Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
muozer@anadolu.edu.tr
Mustafa Kırca
Assistant Professor
Akçakoca Bey Faculty of Political Sciences, Düzce University
Düzce, Turkey
mustafakirca52@gmail.com
İnci Oya Coşkun

Assistant Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Exports and tourism have an important role in economic growth for many countries. Export-led and
tourism-led economic growth hypotheses are developed to analyze the role of exports and tourism.
In literature, there are a number of studies investigating these hypotheses for many countries and/or
country groups, including Turkey. However, exploring the impact of exports or tourism on regional
level is that important to see the widespread use and geographical diversification of these two
important sources of income. Despite its importance, the studies are limited. Therefore, this study
investigates the export-led and tourism-led growth hypotheses for Turkey’s Central Anatolian Region
(covering 13 provinces) using 2004-2014 yearly data for GDP (gross domestic product), exports and
tourism demand (overnight stays of tourists) variables. Dynamic panel data analysis method was
employed on natural logarithms. Cross-sectional dependency was identified and the variables were
found to be integrated at their first differences (I(1)). Panel bootstrap cointegration analysis showed
export and tourism have long-term effects on GDP. Empirical results of the mean group estimator
indicates a 1% increase in tourism demand increases the provincial GDP by 0.48% while a 1% increase
in exports increases the provincial GDP by 0.36%. Furthermore, as the provinces have heterogeneous
economic structure the value and significance of the coefficients differ for each province. The study
attempts to draw conclusions and recommendations for the selected region on economic growth.
Keywords: Export-led growth, tourism-led-growth, Central Anatolian Region, cointegration, dynamic

panel data analysis
126
7958
A Static Panel Data Analysis of Golf Tourism Demand from 14 Top Tourism Markets for Belek,
Turkey
Hakan Yılmaz
Associate Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
İnci Oya Coşkun

Assistant Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
Mustafa Kırca
Assistant Professor
Akçakoca Bey Faculty of Political Sciences, Düzce University
Düzce, Turkey
mustafakirca52@gmail.com
Abstract
Increasing popularity of golf as a sport in general and golf tourism in particular has been a global
phenomenon over the past fifteen years. Golf tourism market has become an important component
for many destinations. In line with these developments, profitability of hotels in destinations with
golf courts is expected to increase; in addition to the expectation of sustainable development,
improved infrastructure and acceleration of economic development of these destinations. Hence,
golf tourists are becoming a key target market for tourism development strategies of many
destinations around the world. The golf market has become a new area of tourism research.
However, the literature is very limited for Turkey, as well as many other golf destinations around the
world. Belek is the most prominent golf destination in Turkey, since 1994 after the first golf course,
The National Golf Club was put into service, and the destination gained international attention by the
end of 2000. This study attempts to analyze the relationship between the international tourism
demand and the number of golf games played by tourists in Belek. The number of tourists
accommodated in Belek and the aggregate number of golf games played was investigated for the top
14 tourism markets (namely, Germany, Austria, United Kingdom, Czech Republic, France, Norway,
Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Russia, The Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Slovakia) using static
panel data analysis (due to data limitations) for the period 2009M03-2014M12. Model results
suggests that a 1% increase in tourism demand to Belek increase the number of golf games played by
1.06 %. In addition, a comparison of markets based on their motivations to select Belek as a
destination is discussed via dummy variables. The results provide important policy recommendations
for decision makers relevant to utilizing golf tourism as a tool to diversify the impacts of tourism.
Keywords: Golf tourism, tourism demand, Belek-Turkey, static panel data analysis
127
7960
Organizing a Festival with Stakeholder Perspectives: Manisa Mesir Paste and Folkdance Festival
Zehra Gökçe Sel

Research Assistant
Department of Tourism Management, Manisa Celal Bayar University
Manisa, Turkey
gokce_doner@hotmail.com
Mustafa Tepeci
Professor
Department of Tourism Managemet, Manisa Celal Bayar University
Manisa, Turkey
mtepeci@yahoo.com
Selim Kirova
Research Assistant
Department of Tourism Managemet, Manisa Celal Bayar University
Manisa, Turkey
selim.kirova@cbu.edu.tr
Abstract
A cultural festival can be defined as the organization of a specific event in the cultural scope (Frey, 1994).
Festivals include a large number of events planned for a specific purpose and characterized by an
intensive service production and cultural experience (McKercher, Mei and Tse, 2006). The objectives of
the festivals may include offering new and innovative work, creating exchange forums between
professionals, and entertaining public as well as sharing the enhanced cultural image of the festival venue
(Rolfe, 1992). The starting point of the festivals, which are developed on the basis of the values judgments
of different cultures, are dated back to very old times. Cultural festivals were organized for the benefit of
the local community and these activities included various celebrations (Getz, 1997). Festivals were held to
celebrate a social event or a successful event, including religious purposes, and to honor someone or just
to spend free time (Chang, 2006). Today, cultural celebrations are used as an effective tool in the
marketing activities of the region in which they are held (Getz, 2008). Tourists who are eager to discover
authentic cultural tourism products travel to explore cultural festivals. Many tourists may want to
experience "local culture" and these festivals are also described as part of the local culture (Crespi-
Vallbona and Richards, 2007). Research on festivals (Crompton and McKay, 1994; Dwyer, Forsyth and
Spurr, 2006) is usually handled by a single stakeholder perspective (i.e., visitor).For example, Döner and
Tepeci (2015) investigated the motivations and satisfaction of visitors to the Manisa Mesir Paste Festival,
collecting data from the festival participants. The current study examines the Manisa Mesir Paste Festival
from the point of view of stakeholders and organizers to determine if the festival can be arranged in the
best possible way. Mesir paste and mesir stirring and cooking activities are one of the cultural symbols of
the Manisa destination. The Mesir festival, which is celebrated every year between 24-29 April, is among
the cultural values of the destination. In 2012, the Mesir Macunu Festival was included on UNESCO’s
Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. and contains many themes (such as
culture, religion, history, health and socialization). Stakeholders' views on the festival are important in
terms of both increasing the contribution of the festival to the local community and to the satisfaction of
the participants. Face-to-face semi-structured interviews will be used as data collection tools in the
research. In these interviews, the participants will be asked how the festival's management and
organization is considered as a cultural heritage for the destination and how the event can be developed
positively. The data obtained as a result of the interviews will be subject to content analysis. The main
themes and sub-codes resulting from the analysis will be presented as the findings of the research.
Keywords: Cultural festival, Manisa mesir paste festival, cultural heritage, stakeholder’s perspective
128
7962
Sustainable Heritage Tourism in Malaysia: A Legal Perspective
Norha Abu Hanifah

norha99@yahoo.com
Abu Bakar Webb

Webb & Co
Rohani Md Shah
Abstract
Heritage tourism can involve cultural heritage (tangible and intangible) and the natural heritage.
Recent tourism policies in Malaysia are towards promoting cultural heritage tourism. The question is
whether this tourism development is being managed in a sustainable manner. There are three
objectives of sustainable heritage tourism, that is i) meeting the needs of the local community ii)
satisfying the demands of a growing number of tourists iii) safeguarding the remaining cultural and
natural resources. Having the knowledge and means of improving developments in the cultural and
natural heritage tourism is crucial. The laws and regulations must be strong. Hence, this helps
maintain a long-term viability. Applying the qualitative research method, this study aims to highlight
the legal issues surrounding the development of heritage tourism at the Federal and State levels.
Thus, the study shows that the main player in planning and implementing sustainable heritage
tourism is the government. Little role is given to the local communities in the planning and decision-
making process. Indeed, there is a need to amend some of the laws and regulations such as the
National Heritage Act 2005 to better achieve a sustainable heritage tourism in Malaysia.
Keywords: Heritage, tourism, heritage laws, sustainable development
129
7972
Gastrotourism According to the 24 Solar Terms Regimen
Deniz Orhon
Kutsi Akıllı
kutsiakilli@gmail.com
Abstract
“What we eat affects, how we act, how we live from soil to palate.” Agriculture, climate, history,
archaeology, geography, astronomy are an integral part of gastronomy. The 24 Solar Terms regimen
is the most important living proof of today’s agenda. The practitioner of this type of eating, dating
back to Batı Han Dynasty in Ancient China, is Xu Wanju (202 BC – 220 AC). It is stated that this regime
which prioritizes agriculture and lifestyle based on seasons and nutrition is determined by climates, is
taught to and implemented by children in primary schools even today. Protected by UNESCO, this
gastronomy culture regime is noted to be very close to Turkish cuisine and culture. Turkish Cuisine
Empire and Chinese Cuisine Empire are essentially very close because both of them depend on
medicine. In this respect, using traditional tastes of countries as the foods of the future for your
health will be useful not only for us but also for the world resources. With this belief, we keep
adapting these tastes to technology and innovations without compromising their essence and
including them in global cuisine world. Gastronomy can be used in tourism in two different ways;
from the traditional methods which are namely deductive gastrotourism and inductive
gastrotourism. Deductive gastrotourism suggests the evaluation of the existing potential of the
region whereas inductive gastrotourism offers the involvement of a gastronomic side of an existing
potential. Both of these approaches of gastronomy are in the 24 Solar Regimen, its combination with
health tourism and gastronomy. It was stated that 24 solar terms regime had been a correct nutrition
technique in order to prevent diseases rather than treating any diseases. The necessity to comply
with such regime and any benefits thereof were explained with scientific data. The 24 Solar Terms
Gastronomic Regimen and calendar combine with health and gastro tourism. This information is
transferred to next generations even if the underlying reason is forgotten due to the fact that it is
integrated into the culture over time and passed down accordingly. The combination of these foods
constitutes the food culture and traditions.” 24 Solar Terms Regimen is a gastronomic culture and a
guideline for gastrotourism in order to eat healthily based on seasonal foods and enhance our health
and efficiency. As a matter of fact, the purpose is to establish such a gastrotourism concept that is
based on medicine and follows the eating culture of “what we eat becomes how we act” with
healthy foods of the future in the right place and right season. This concept will be integrated into
our cultures over time with the movement of “do not wait for the foods, it may decay during
transportation, it is better to go for them” and it will be transferred to next generations with culture
and tradition even if its underlying reason is forgotten. Sustainability of tourism can be achieved with
the integration of these regimes into cultures.
Keywords: 24 Solar Terms Regimen, gastronomy, eating habits, gastrotourism, endemic plants,
ethnobotany
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7973
Managers of Destination Management Organizations Behavioral Intention towards Crisis Planning
in Malaysia
Mohmed Razip Hassan

Faculty of Hotel and Tourism Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM)
Selangor, Malaysia
mohdrazip@tourism.gov.my
Nor’Ain Othman
Selangor, Malaysia
norain568@salam.uitm.edu.my
Norliza Aminudin
Selangor, Malaysia
norliza@salam.uitm.edu.my
Abstract
The study investigates the behavioral intention of Destination Management Organizations (DMOs)
managers towards undertaking crisis planning. It takes an explorative approach to identify several
challenges in crisis planning and destination management. A literature review was conducted along
with interviews with professionals in travel industry before an actual survey. Theory of Planned
Behavior (TPB) was used to develop the framework underpinning the study, which three
psychological factors namely subjective norms (SN) focusing on social influence (SI), perceived
behavioral control (PBC) and past crisis experience (PE) and, two external contextual environmental
factors i.e. national culture towards safety and security and operating in crisis prone locations and an
attitude as mediating variable were investigated to determine their relationship towards behavioral
intention (dependent variable) to undertake crisis planning. 400 questionnaires were distributed to
DMOs managers, with 68.8% response rate or 295 usable ones for data processes and analyses using
computer statistics package - Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS for windows) PLS-SEM. The
result shows that all indicators used in the study have high level capability to capture the issue of
interest. The findings shows that perceived behavior and location have significant effect towards
managers’ attitude. On the other hand, managers’ past experience, social influence and attitude
have strong effect on their behavioral intentions towards crisis planning. No effect of natural culture
and location on managers’ behavioral intention to undertake crisis planning. As a strategy, it is
important for DMOs managers to be exposed to crisis training, related committees and tools so that
they are prepared and more ready to take responsibility in crisis planning. The crisis could be
managed effectively when the crisis planning is in place, tested and ready to be executed by
managers so that the impact could be minimized and converted into new opportunities. This thesis
has implication for crisis training, preparedness and overall crisis management strategies by way of
crisis planning to safeguard destination resilience and positive image.
Keywords: Crisis planning, destination management organization, theory of planned behavior
131
8001
Satisfaction Maps for the European Airports
Nevin Yavuz
Lecturer
Department of Aviation Management, Eskişehir Technical University
Eskişehir, Turkey
neviny@anadolu.edu.tr
Serkan Olgac
Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
solgac@anadolu.edu.tr
Semra Günay Aktaş

Eskişehir, Turkey
Yeliz Mert Kantar

Professor
Department of Statistics, Eskişehir Technical University
Eskişehir, Turkey
ymert@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
It is known that air transport provides shorter duration of transportation. The shortening of the
transport time increases the average time in destination where tourists spend time. Besides, distant
points on earth are connected to each other by airway transport and thus tourism market has
expanded in the world. Airports provide the physical and social environment in which all parties
come together in the production of air transport services. On the other hand, airports represent the
prestige of the country. Passenger satisfaction on airport services is an important first step for
holiday satisfaction of holidaymakers because airports are the start and the end points of journeys.
Therefore, airports may have a significant influence on the passengers in order to support future
tourism and commercial activities in the country concerned. For this reason, it is important for
airport management to assess the level of passenger satisfaction in terms of airport services. In this
study, maps are driven according to the general, terminal settings, queuing and cleaning satisfaction
factors in airports in European countries. Spatial correlations between some airports are observed in
terms of four satisfaction types at airport. Since there is a lot of airports in European countries, the
first 100 airports receiving the highest number of passengers is chosen for this study. Passengers’
satisfaction data were obtained from Skytrax. In conclusion, a spatial review of satisfaction observed
at airports will contribute to the evaluation and comparison of all airports.
Keywords: European airports, satisfaction maps, spatial statistics, Skytrax, terminal cleaning, queuing
times, terminal seating facilities
132
8047
Modelling Overall Satisfaction in the European Airports
Yeliz Mert Kantar

Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
Serkan Olgaç
Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
Nevin Yavuz
Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
Semra Günay Aktaş

Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Transportation in tourism is most often seen as just part of the tourism system. Among
transportation types, air transport involves an important part of a broader travel and tourism sector.
Air transport consists of air/ground services. The first step of tourist’s satisfaction is satisfaction in
airports which depend on various factors. Thus, it is important to identify which factors in airport are
distractors and which factors are enhancers of passenger satisfaction. In this paper, we seek to find
the factors affecting the overall satisfaction at 100 airports receiving the highest number of
passengers in Europe. Our analysis is based on a sample data obtained from Skytrax. We considers
the ownership of airport operator (private, public or mixed), seating capacity, cleaning and queuing
time as variables to explain overall satisfaction. We observed that the airport type is not statistically
significant in terms of predicting overall satisfaction. We find that queuing time is the major variable
to explain overall satisfaction. Direction for future research is presented.
Keywords: Airports, regression, overall satisfaction, Skytrax
133
8051
Business Model Innovation in the Airline Industry
Ferhan Kuyucak Şengür

Associate Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
fkuyucak@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
Industry transformations generally stem from significant technological changes. Historically the
airline industry has been very innovative and many product innovations stemmed from the airline
industry. However, innovative business models in recent years have also caused industrial
transformation. The airline industry may be a relevant example of this. From the definitions of the
business model concept, it can be said that, airline business models demonstrate how airlines are
operating and create value for their stakeholders. Today creating value through innovation became a
very distinctive tool for increasingly deregulated global airline industry. According to (Teece, 2010)
new business models can themselves represent a form of innovation. Airline industry is one of the
good example of this situation. The industry has been witnessing the airline business models
revolution for the last decades. Especially low-cost airline or low-cost carrier (LCC) business models
became an important issue in the global airline industry. Airlines such as Southwest, Easyjet and
Ryanair developed new and specific business models. Although there is no pure and exact LCC
business model, they adopted similar business models based on lower costs and lower airfares. They
have some different product and operating features that are the means of having low costs
compared to traditional airlines. There are also other business models in airline industry such as
regional and charter airlines focused on a particular air service. However there has been a research
gap in the literature on innovation and business models. With an explorative approach, this study
aims to contribute to a deeper theoretical and practical understanding in the field of business model
innovation with an analysis of airline industry. As one of the best practicing area of business model
innovation, airline industry is expected to give insights for the existing theory. An in depth literature
review will be followed by the analysis of the current airline industry structure with a business model
innovation perspective. This study contributes to the existing literature of the airline industry by
providing a comprehensive overview of the development of the business models in the industry.
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8055
Ecological Tourism Opportunities in Eskişehir
Ersin Yücel
Professor
Department of Biology, Eskişehir Technical University
Eskişehir, Turkey
eyucel@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
When national and international publications and our own studies are evaluated together, it is clear
that Eskişehir has an international importance in terms of biodiversity. According to the studies, eight
areas, which have international criteria and suitable for ecological tourism, have been determined in
Eskişehir. These areas are; Acıkır, Aliken, Balıkdamı, Sarıyar Dam, Sündiken Mountains, Turkmenbaba
Mountain, Bozan-Yunus Emre-Sazak, Phrygia Valley (Han and Seyitgazi Districts). Preservation of
existing ecological resources and tourism is of great importance for Eskişehir and our country.
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8074
Airport Public Private Implementations in Turkey: A Review of Current Situation

Associate Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Air transportation is an essential public service for modern societies. Airports are basic infrastructure
provider of air transportation service and therefore they have been accepted as public
infrastructures beginning from the early years of modern aviation. Because of this reason, they have
been managed and owned by central or local government bodies. However, factors such as
infrastructure capacity problems, public finance limitations, public management efficiency problems
etc. started to seek new managerial alternatives for airports. In many countries, including Turkey,
Public-Private-Partnerships (PPPs) have becoming to be a part of airport ownership and
management. In Turkey airports have been governed by State Airports Authority (DHMI). Until 90s,
DHMI was the only authority in airport management in Turkey. After those years, PPP
implementations started and private airport and terminal management companies were established.
In this study, Airport PPP implementations have been analyzed based on secondary sources. First,
historical situation of airport business in Turkey was examined and new governance models under
the PPP scheme were examined in terms of implementation cases. New Istanbul Airport as a last and
the biggest PPP implementations in Turkey was analyzed in details. Advantageous and
disadvantageous of those implementations have been discussed in the last part.
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FULL PAPERS
6680
MAPPING THE SENSORY VALUES IN THE CORE ZONE AREA OF
MELAKA WORLD HERITAGE SITE
Nur Hidayah Abd Rahman
Lecturer
Department of Tourism Planning and Hospitality Management, Kulliyyah Languages and
Management,
International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM),
Pagoh, Muar, Johor Darul Takzim, Malaysia
nhidayahabdrahman363@gmail.com
Hairul Nizam Ismail

Senior Lecturer
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Built Environment,
b-hairul@utm.my
Zainab Khalifah
Professor
Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Management,
m-zainab@utm.my
Abstract
The influence of sensory experience in generating positive tourist experience has emerged to be a
cutting-edge trend in studies pertaining to geography and marketing in tourism, particularly in terms
of tourism sense-making. The literature has projected absence of the fundamental comprehension
related to the formation of ‘tourist space’ via tourist consumption and valuation towards available
cultural heritage attractions based on their sensory experience. Critical shift in the objectivism
approach from the light of valuing sensory experience has motivated the exploration of survey
mapping method in this study. Hence, this study employed the survey mapping method derived from
the landscape planning approach, in which a guide map was designed for international tourists to value
each attraction during their visit at the Core Zone Area of Melaka World Heritage Site. The data
gathered from 268 respondents were classified into five sensory mappings that reflected the
concentration of sensory values of visual, gustatory, auditory, olfactory, and tactile perceptions.
Visualisation of sensory mapping had been based on the classification of positive, moderate, and
negative sensory values. The outcomes from these sensory mappings signify the notion of ‘tourist
space’ or ‘honey pot’ among tourists based on their sensory experiences in the Core Zone area of
Melaka World Heritage Site. This exploration of the survey mapping method has contributed to a
critical discussion on the methodological approach, whereby most studies concerning sensory
experience are dominated by the qualitative approach. Therefore, the study results could strengthen
the management and planning by highlighting the significance of sensory quality in conserving and
preserving momentous cultural heritage attractions.
Keywords: Melaka World Heritage Site, Sense-making, Sensory Mapping, Sensory Values, Sensuous
Geography
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Introduction
The visual, gustatory, auditory, olfactory, and tactile perceptions are vital for tourist experience when
they visit a particular destination. Previous studies on tourist experience focused on the relationship
between place-making theories (e.g. Williams & Vaske, 2003; Williams, Patterson, & Roggenbuck,
1992). However, for an understanding of the fundamental of sensory experience, the current trend of
tourism sensory marketing and sensuous geography studies have been directed since this
fundamental’s introduction by Urry in 1990. Specifically, Pan and Ryan (2009) introduced the tourism
sense-making theory to provide an exposure to the importance of tourist sensory experience in
formulating a relationship between tourists and their destinations.
Rahman, Khalifah, and Ismail (2017) have recently addressed the importance of the sensory experience
in two fields of studies of tourism from the perspective of the sensuous geography (Everett, 2012;
Larsen & Urry, 2011; Urry & Larsen, 2011; Everett, 2009; Gibson & Connell, 2007; Hashimoto & Telfer,
2006; Dann & Jacobsen, 2003) and sensory marketing (Agapito, Pinto, & Mendes, 2017; Berg & Sevón,
2015; Xiong, Hazarina, & Murphy, 2015; Diţoiu & Căruntu , 2014; Agapito, Valle, & Mendes, 2014; Lin,
Pearson, & Cai, 2011; Pan & Ryan, 2009; Kivela & Crotts, 2006). According to these studies, the
important issue is the methodological approach in evaluating the tourist sensory experience during
their visit to a particular destination, as well as the understanding of the formulation of the tourism
sense-making theory. Previously, the methodological approaches which were conducted in tourism
marketing were in the form of questionnaire distribution (Diţoiu & Căruntu, 2014; Kivela & Crotts,
2006), content analysis (Pan & Ryan, 2009), both content analysis and questionnaire distribution
(Diţoiu & Căruntu, 2014; Lin, Pearson, & Cai, 2011), and observation and interviews (Berg & Sevon,
2015). Meanwhile, the methodological approach employed in tourism geography was content analysis
(Larsen & Urry, 2011; Gibson & Connell, 2007; Hashimoto & Telfer, 2006; Dann & Jacobsen, 2003),
interview and observation (Everett, 2012, 2008), and observation (Larsen & Urry, 2011).
However, from a different perspective, the place value through the survey mapping technique of place
attachment (see Brown, Raymond, & Corcoran, 2015; Brown & Raymond, 2007; Raymond & Brown,
2006; Brown, 2006, 2005) provides another platform of the methodological approach based on the
applied geography of the land-use planning. For instance, this study has explored and utilised the
survey mapping technique which was developed by Brown (2006) to evaluate the tourist experience
based on their sensory value towards the destination. Moreover, this evaluation is done to understand
the tourist’s attachment of destination from the tourist’s sensory experience perspective. The
exploration of the survey mapping technique is performed to understand the tourist’s consumption of
space in terms of sensory experience. This will fill the gap left from the current study, especially in
terms of the geographical perspective of cultural and heritage sites.
Literature Review
The critical change performed on the “Tourist Gaze” concept was very influential in tourism
geographies. Furthermore, the research on “Tourist Gaze” has set a new paradigm in the theoretical
perspective of sensory in a geographical perspective in evaluating the tourist experience. Moreover,
the “Tourist Gaze” has set an exploration of the method which should be used in tourism studies to
investigate the tourist’s sensory experience for an understanding of the fundamental aspects of
tourist’s consumption for a destination. Franklin and Crang (2001) argued that the contemporary
problem in the tourism and travel theory is the insufficient studies which provide a critical insight on
the different fields of study for a comprehension of the social phenomenon of the tourist experience.
From the viewpoint of the tourist experience, their perception of tourism products in their destination
is based on their corporeal experiences which involve the senses of sight, hearing, taste, smell, and
touch. The senses definitely play an important role in the tourists’ knowledge and understanding on
139
the tourism products promoted in their destination (Agapito, Pinto, & Mendes, 2017; Rahman,
Khalifah, & Ismail 2017, 2016; Xiong, Hazarina, & Murphy, 2015; Agapito, Valle, & Mendes, 2014).
Waterton and Watson (2010) highlighted the visual heritage of tourist destinations, where the visuality
had broadened the topic on lenses and frame through photography to understand the emerging
theories of heritage for the “Tourist Gaze” concept. It could be understood that visuality is the key to
the development of a destination. There are scholars who have offered a new perspective on the
construction of heritage sites through the tourists as the users of a destination’s visuality (see Zhang,
2017; Waterton, 2015; Vong and Ung, 2012; Poria, 2010; Poria, Reichel, & Biran, 2006; Rojek & Urry,
1997). Furthermore, Poria, Butler, and Airey (2006) highlighted that the number of studies of tourist’s
sensory experience in the context of cultural heritage is still limited. Moreover, the context of cultural
heritage is not limited to its social construct from the sensation of sight alone (Zhang, 2017; Lynch,
Duinker, Sheehan, & Chute, 2010; Poria, 2010; Poria, Butler, & Airey, 2006, 2004). This is due to the
fact that tourists will tend to taste the local food of their destination, explore the local daily-lifestyle
of the people’s religion, their economic activities, and other attractions (Rahman, Khalifah, & Ismail,
2016). Therefore, they are engaged with their destination’s cultural attractions through the holistic
experiences gained via their five senses.
The Core Zone of Melaka World Heritage Site

Melaka, alongside with George Town, has been awarded as UNESCO World Heritage Site on July 2008.
Due to the recognition of these states as the World Heritage Site for a decade, various studies have
raised concerns on the overdevelopment occurring around the World Heritage Site due to the urban
morphological changes made on the tourism-oriented development of Melaka World Heritage Site.
Furthermore, visuality had been important for the Conservation and Management Plan (CMP) in
managing the World Heritage Site. The visuality was highlighted by the Melaka Historical Council City
(MBMB) to ensure the sustainability of the heritage site and to reduce the degradation of its physical
condition. With the boundary of the Core Zone of 45.3-hectare area, there are 1,075 heritage buildings
(MBMB, 2011) in total which provide a unique visual experience to tourists.
However, visuality is not the only factor which plays an important role in the conservation efforts of
the Melaka World Heritage Site. This is because Melaka is featured with a unique cultural landscape
which contributes to the myriad of unique architectural designs of religious buildings (mosques,
Chinese temples, Hindu temples, and the churches), the distinct taste of local food, and the unique
culture of the Peranakan Baba and Nyonya community. Therefore, Rahman, Khalifah, and Ismail (2016)
discussed the relationship between these cultural and physical attractions of cultural heritage sites,
especially in the context of Melaka World Heritage Site. This is because the physical attributes as well
as the spiritual attributes from the local community will influence the tourists’ sensory experience.
Therefore, their sensory perception will play a vital role in creating a positive impression of Melaka
World Heritage Site, and they will be more appreciative towards its cultural and physical attractions.
Methodological Development
The applied geography in the land-use planning brings significant changes in the positivist paradigm in
landscape values through the map-based or participatory mapping approach (see Brown, Raymond, &
Corcoran, 2015; Brown and Raymond, 2007; Raymond and Brown, 2006; Brown, 2006, 2005). The
survey mapping technique, which is based on the rating from 5 to 50 points through the mnemonic
sticker dots, was introduced in a tourism study conducted by Brown (2006). In Brown’s (2006) study,
he explored the values of a tourist destination to understand the place attachment based on the
tourists’ perspective. However, since then, there has been no development of this methodological
approach in terms of its evaluation of the tourists’ sensory experience based on their perspective. This
140
methodological approach of survey mapping technique is relevant for the understanding of the form
of ‘tourist space’ or the ‘honey pot’ of a certain destination via the tourist sensory experience.
Meanwhile, a number of studies in Malaysia (e.g. Rahman, Khalifah, & Ismail, 2017, 2016; Zainol, 2014;
Zainol, Ahmad, Nordin, Mohd, & Ching, 2013; Jusoh, Masron, Hamid, & Shahrin, 2013) discussed on
tourist multisensory experience. Subsequently, Zainol et al., (2013)’s study was the most significant
study which explored the important factors of tourists’ appreciation values towards a destination’s
urban sensory elements in the context of Melaka World Heritage Site. However, the influence of the
chosen mode of transportation on tourists’ appreciation values towards a destination’s urban sensory
elements through the GIS approach was the focus of this study. Furthermore, the measurement rubric,
which scale consisting of 0 (Inaccessible – five sensory elements are inaccessible), 1 (Worse – only one
of five sensory elements can be appreciated), 2 (Equal – two or three of the five sensory elements can
be appreciated), and 3 (Better – All five sensory elements can be appreciated in detail), was provided
(Zainol et al., 2013). Therefore, this study has utilized the concept of the survey mapping technique
from Brown (2006) and the measurement rubric by Zainol et al. (2013) in drawing a guide map on A3-
sized questionnaires. These questionnaires were distributed to international tourists to value 75
attractions located in the Core Zone area of Melaka World Heritage Site.
The sensory values based on the tourist’s sensory perception while they are experiencing the Core
Zone area of Melaka World Heritage Site were measured using the 5-point Likert scale based on Vagias
(2006) and Diţoiu and Căruntu (2014), which ranges from 1 = Very Negative, 2 = Negative, 3 = Neutral,
4 = Positive, to 5 = Very Positive. Moreover, the words ‘see’, ‘taste’, ‘hear’, ‘smell’, and ‘touch’ were
used in the guide map instead of the word ‘visual’, ‘gustatory’, ‘auditory’, ‘olfactory’, and ‘tactile’ to
facilitate the tourists’ understanding of the questionnaires. In analyzing the attractions’ sensory values,
the mean range was calculated, followed by its categorization into Negative (1.00 – 2.33), Moderate
(2.34 – 3.67), and Positive (3.68 – 5.00). The interpretation data based on the categorization of sensory
values are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: The Categorization and Interpretation of Sensory Values based on Tourist Sensory
Perception
Mean range Sensory Values Interpretation

1.00 - 2.33 Negative The attraction generates negative appreciation value
towards the sensory experience
2.34 - 3.67 Moderate The attraction generates moderate appreciation value
3.68 - 5.00 Positive The attraction generates positive appreciation value
Results and Discussions

The visualization of sensory values is presented in Figure 1 (Visual), Figure 2 (Gustatory), Figure
3(Auditory), Figure 4 (Olfactory), and Figure 5 (Tactile). Based on the visual perception values map
(Figure 1), the concentration of positive values towards the attractions in St. Paul’s Civic Area was
presented. Here, the physical built environment of the colonial buildings represented a positive visual
perception of international tourists. With this, a ‘tourist space’ or ‘honey pot’ area was developed.
Moreover, the visualization of the visual perception values map indicated that most of the attractions
in the Core Zone area provide positive values towards the physical attractions of Melaka World
Heritage Site.
On the other hand, the concentration of the gustatory perception value map (Figure 2) was limited to
the attractions which contributed to the development of food attractions located around the Jonker
Walk area. The distribution of sensory values which were related to gustatory were concentrated
141
around Jalan Hang Jebat, Jalan Hang Lekir, and Jalan Hang Lekiu. Moreover, the gustatory values were
concentrated near the entrance between St Paul’s Civic Area and Jonker Walk. Therefore, the findings
indicated that the local economic activities which are conducted at local restaurants and shops could
attract the international tourists from St. Paul’s Civic area to Jonker Walk.
Figure 1: Visual Perception Values Map Figure 2: Gustatory Perception Values Map
The visualization of auditory perception values map (Figure 3) and olfactory perception values map
(Figure 4) have shown different sensory values in comparison to the visual perception values map.
However, these maps have shown crucial points on tourists’ sensory appreciation values towards the
attractions in the Core Zone area of Melaka World Heritage Site. Both auditory and olfactory
perception values maps presented the concentration of moderate sensory values towards most of the
attractions in the Core Zone area of Melaka World Heritage Site in comparison to the visual perception
values map in Figure 1. To be specific, it can be seen from the auditory perception values map (Figure
3) that there were nine points of surrounding attractions which contributed to the positive
appreciation values of auditory perception. As for the olfactory perception values map (Figure 4), there
were seven points of surrounding attractions which contributed to the positive appreciation of sensory
values. Additionally, there were concentrations of moderate sensory values around the attractions
near the Melaka River in both the sensory map of auditory perception and olfactory perception.
Based on these findings, it could be assumed that the noise and smell pollution around the
concentration area was due to the accessibility of vehicles around the area near the Melaka River. This
would create a conflict between the appreciation of visual perception values and the auditory and
olfactory perception values in the context of the Core Zone area of Melaka World Heritage Site.
142
Figure 3: Auditory Perception Values Map Figure 4: Olfactory Perception Values Map
As for the tactile perception values map (Figure 5), 24 points were plotted as the positive values of
tactile perception towards the cultural heritage attractions in the Core Zone area of Melaka World
Heritage Site. Additionally, the concentration of the positive values in the Dutch Square, Jalan Kota,
and Jalan Hang Jebat areas was shown in the tactile perception map. Subsequently, the visualization
of the tactile perception map has provided an important finding for this study, where the tactile
perception has contributed more positive values in appreciating the cultural heritage attractions of the
investigated destination in comparison to the auditory and olfactory perceptions.
Figure 5: Tactile Perception Values Map
Conclusion
Place-based values in tourist attractions are essential for tourism planners, management, and
marketers. In the context of this study, sensory mappings have provided the information related to
the consumption of sensory perception, which contributes to the positive, moderate, and negative
sensory values. Furthermore, in comparison to the visual perception values map, the conflict created
by the presence of many moderate sensory values, which were plotted in the auditory and olfactory
143
perception values map, has formulated a question on the authenticity of the Core Zone area of Melaka
World Heritage Site in terms of tourists’ appreciation towards the cultural heritage attractions based
on their overall sensory aspects.
In terms of the methodological approach to evaluate the destination that has been chosen in this
study, findings from the sensory maps have presented that there were no negative values found in the
cultural heritage attractions. Therefore, the specific sensory values of cultural heritage attractions
which provide the lowest and the highest sensory values will be investigated in future studies, as well
as the discussion on the type of attractions which are influenced by the sensory perception. Moreover,
with the open-ended questions that incorporated in the questionnaire, the factor of their sensory
values which have been captured in the sensory mapping will be discovered in detail. Additionally,
future studies could further explore the public participant geographic information system (PPGIS) in
terms of tourist sensory experience for a better visualization of ‘tourist space’ in a certain destination.
Additionally, this study reinforces that the MBMB should not disregard the authenticity of the holistic
cultural and heritage attractions, which can be achieved by other sensory aspects of the tourists, such
as the auditory, olfactory, and tactile perspectives. Hence, in managing the World Heritage Site, the
Conservation and Management Plan (CMP) by the MBMB should not only focuses on the visuality
aspect of attractions, but also the holistic sensory experience which then could impact a positive
tourist experience in Core Zone area of Melaka World Heritage Site.
References
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and Post-visit Study in Southwest Portugal. Tourism Management, 58, 108–118.
Agapito, D, Valle, P, & Mendes, J.D.C. (2014). The Sensory Dimension of Tourist Experiences: Capturing
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7296
IS TOURISM INDUSTRY READY FOR CRYPTO CURRENCY: A CASE
OF ESKIŞEHIR
Yuliia Borovska
Master Student
Eskişehir, Turkey
y_borovska@anadolu.edu.tr
Hakan Yılmaz
Associate Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Every day our world is becoming more and more digital and the technologies are developed with
incredible speed. One of a result of these developments is crypto currency. Crypto currency is a
currency that uses cryptography at its core (the science of encryption). Nowadays all the crypto
currencies that are represented on the market were first introduced in 2008 by a person or a group of
people named Satoshi Nakamoto. Since the crypto currency is a new financial instrument, the
possibility of using crypto currency is getting debate in the tourism industry. The purpose of this work
is to understand whether the tourist industry is ready for crypto currency and whether it will be able
to accept the crypto currency as a new payment method. In this article, deep interview method is
employed in order to reveal tourism managers attitudes and perceptions towards crypto currency
usage in tourism. The implementation was accomplished within the scope of the 8 hotel and 2 tourist
agencies in Eskisehir, Turkey. The data were collected through face-to-face interviews during the
period May, 2018. Findings show that the tourism industry refused to be ready to introduce crypto
currency as a method of payment for tourist services.
Keywords: Crypto currency, alternative payment method, tourism management, Eskişehir
Introduction
The word "money" is used in many senses. It is used with different connotations in daily conversation.
On the one hand, if people say that someone has a lot of money, it usually means that someone is
wealthy. On the other hand, according to economists, money has a very special meaning. They define
the money as "anything that is generally accepted for goods and services or for the repayment of
debts" (Mishkin, 1992).
The most famous definition of money was made by John K. Galbraith in 1975. According to this, money
is defined as "everything that people will accept as money". The tools to be used as money is required
to be generally accepted as a condition (Galbraith, 1990). According to L. Harris, "money is a circulation
tool an account unit and any item that acts as a value protection tool.
There are five features that money should have. These; portability, durability, divisibility, homogeneity
and impossibility of imitation. The portability function let easy to move money and transfer it to the
different payment points. The durability function is based on the fact that the material used as money
must be physically stable. Divisibility is a feature that arises from the fact that money can be divided
into all kinds during of purchasing processes. Homogeneity means that the payment instruments used
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as money are homogeneous. The non-imitation function requires that the payment instruments used
as money have to be are publicly recognizable (Öztürk ve Koç 2006).
Before money was invented, ranging from sea shells to precious metals were used as a tool of
exchange. The history of the exchange is actually much older than the humanity at all. Throughout
much of human's development, bartering was necessarily as a tool to implement for goods and service
shopping. This suggests that barter has an inseparable role in the historical development of money
(Glyn, 2002).
Antique money lacks portability, divisibility and durability. With the use of gold, silver and other metals,
the process of improvement of the money has also begun (Adrianov, 2013). As the economy
developed, it was a problem to carry large amounts of metal money. In China, the paper "banknote"
solved this problem. The States agreed to change the value of the paper money, which was printed, to
equal gold. Over time, the countries began to move from the monetary system to the "nominal
monetary system" (Akbulut, 2011).
Paper currencies are used in modern economies. Paper money are objects which, unlike precious
metals, have no value as a good but represent a value in the purchase of goods and services. Due to
the difficulties in the stealing of paper money and the difficulty of moving a lot of money, new
developments have been made in the payment systems and in the banks have started to use checks
as a payment tool. Check is a negotiable paperwork that orders all or part of the money in the bank to
be paid by the bank to the counterparty.
Today, crypto currency has begun to be used. This study aims to reveal the opinions of tourism
professionals regarding the use of crypto money in the tourism industry. In this context, in-depth
interviews were held with tourism professionals such as hotels and travel agency managers operating
in Eskişehir in May 2018, and the perspectives regarding the use of crypto money in the tourism
industry were determined. In general, it can be said that nowadays the tourism industry is not ready
for the use of crypto currency.
Payment Methods in Tourism Industry

Thomas Cook is considered the first professional tourism representative to open the world's first
known travel agency in 1841 (Putrik, 2014). In addition, travel checks, which Cook first began using in
1845 to protect passengers from theft, are also seen as the first modern payment method in tourism.
Nowadays travel checks are defined as currency substitution coupons accepted by many businesses as
currency (Hjalager, 2015). A travel voucher is an international payment instrument that is issued by
banks, international travel agencies or tour operators in accordance with certain rules, paid in advance,
written on it, and replaces Money. The use of these checks has decreased since the 1990s due to the
emergence of more appropriate options as payment method for passengers (Hjalager, 2015).
With the great economic crisis in the world in the 1930s, a phenomenon like barter started to spread.
Barter, an English-based concept, is defined as trade through trade or exchange. The barter is used to
exchange products or services under a single contract between two or more participants (Wilson,
Wang, 1996). The most common aspect of barter used in tourism are the hotels. The barter system
has been specially developed for small and medium sized hotels. Because of the fact that the tourism
sector is in close relationships with other industries, the barter application addresses a wide range of
applications ranging from apart hotels to holiday resorts, yacht and boat production to travel agencies,
from food and beverage companies to aircraft and car rental companies (Uçma ve Köroğlu, 2006).
In the 1990s, the processes of information technology, communication and the development of the
Internet changed ed the whole tourism industry. Along with the emergence of electronic commerce
(e-commerce), new business models have formed and the structure of marketing channels in tourism
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has changed (Beatrice, Mihlcuscu, 2013). Today, e-commerce is much better known than traditional,
and has spread to sectors such as airline tickets, buses and even package tours. However, people
started to use e-payments more and more. E-commerce is defined as the sale and marketing of
products and services through an electronic system such as the Internet. The advantage of comparing
e-payments made in tourism compared to cash or travel checks is the opportunity for instant access,
global recognition, security and reduced service in case of loss or theft, and a credit or service purchase
opportunity (Elkins, 2003). Thus, the proliferation of electronic payments has significantly increased
the volume of sales of goods and services, reduced barriers to direct lending, and introduced simplified
geographic restrictions for trade and bartering (Elkins, 2003).
A credit card is a payment instrument that allows people to buy goods and services with money
without paying cash. With this payment instrument, it is also possible for cash to be withdrawn, for
example by using a credit for the goods or services after a certain period of time or by installment at a
certain interest rate (Üzgören vd., 2007). The first credit card was issued in 1894 by the Hotel Credit
Letter Company. After this first example which has a limited importance in the tourism sector In 1914,
a credit card with the function of providing credit to Western Union Bank was arranged. The main
slogan were "Buy now, pay later" (Kaya, 2009). The first credit card in Turkey in 1968 Setur Inc. (Servis
Turistik İnc.) by taking authorization from Diners Club. It has started to be used widely since 1990
(Aslanoglu, Korga, 2017).
Currently accepted in Turkey and all over the world and continues to have an extensive network of five
large and important card payment system activities (Kaya, 2009):
• Visa - An organization that develops technology and provides infrastructure services to
develop new payment products to ensure mutual operation of close to two billion VISA
branded cards delivered to the market by 21,000 member financial institutions in the World
• Dinners Club - credit cards are also accepted in 8.4 million businesses around the world. Diners
Club, with an annual average of approximately US $ 30 billion, operates in 130 countries.
• American Express - today is an international financial institution operating in 78 countries with
75 partners. The card market offers differentiated services to its customers especially in the
travel and entertainment area.
• JCB - was established in Japan in 1961 as a Japan Credit Bureau (JCB) by Sanwa Bank for local
transactions purposes. JCB, which has a total of 51 million card customers worldwide, is also
accepted in more than 11 million businesses around the world.
• Master Card - a worldwide and widely accepted payment system. More than 25 banks and
financial institutions in 210 countries use it.
It seems possible to classify mobile payment services in multiple categories. One of them is to make a
distinction according to the parties involved in the payment. It is possible to classify this distinction as
Consumer-to-Business and Peer-to-Peer. Another category of distinction is in the context of proximity.
Closely mobile payment (proximity payments) requires the consumer to be physically present and
generally uses NFC (Near Field Communication) or similar technology. Remote payments are made by
paying remotely over a workplace or an individual mobile network (Information Technologies and
Communications Authority, 2015).
Crypto curremcy
Since its founding in the 1980s, in the mid-1990s, following the establishment of the World Wide Web,
Internet access and usage has grown enormously. This effect is very important in terms of being viewed
as a structural change in social behaviors, affecting people's lifestyles, interacting with each other,
collecting information, and of course taking into account the payment methods (Virtual Currency
Scheme, 2012). Thus, as the diversity of payment methods increased, alternative currencies emerged.
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One of the latest innovations is the emergence of a special currency called "crypto currency". Crypto
currency is the currency that uses cryptography (cryptography) in the structure (Gandal ve Halaburda,
2014). Digital values that allow secure transaction processing with cryptographic / encrypted and
additional virtual money supply are called crypto-money. Crypto-currencies are alternative currencies,
digitized, and at the same time virtual money (Çarkacıoğlu, 2016). All cryptographic currencies
presented today are based on a technical system, which were created by a person or group of people
under the name Satoshi Nakamoto in late 2008 (Barber et all., 2012)
Bitcoin is the starting point of all crypto currency. Bitcoin is composed of two English terms. The first
part "bit" is the smallest data unit in computing and digital communication, and the second part "coin"
is only the English word for the coin. (Leung D., Dickinger A., 2017) Bitcoin is not a company or an
institution, there is no management center (Kendime Yazılar, 2013). At the moment, the number of
bitcoins issued is about 14.1 million (Bitkurs, 2018). The border in the system is 21 million coins (Lo,
Wang, 2014). Today, there are known more than 500 crypto-currencies in the world, total capital is
370 billion dollars as of March 13, 2018 (Coin Market Cap, 2018).
Table 1: Capitalization of the most popular crypto currency
Capitalization, US dollar (13 Mart Capitalization, US dollar (18
No: Kripto para biriminin adı
2018) August 2018)
$155,002,900,347 $109.966.214.142
1 Bitcoin
$67,388,511,778 $29.631.899.637
2 Ethereum
$30,597,594,709 $12.686.355.073
3 Ripple
$18,164,863,630 $9.537.822.346
4 Bitcoin Cash
$9,737,033,816 $3.274.923.085
5 Litecoin
Source: compiled by the author on the basis of https://coinmarketcap.com/
Ethereum is designed to be much more than just a payment system"It is a decentralized platform that
governs smart contracts: programs that are fully programmed without closure, censorship, forgery, or
third party intervention" (Etherium, 2018). The coins of Etherium are known as Ether (Ether, ETH), and
the Greek letters Xi are used (Crypto Cash, 2018).
Ripple is the platform for remittance movements and the fastest scalable digital asset. The system's
fuel is the XRP indicator. One of the most important advantages of XRP distinguishing between other
crypto-currencies is direct interaction with banks (Ripple, 2018)
Litecoin If Bitcoin is regarded as "electronic gold", then Litecoin can be called silver. The crypto
currency has become one of the most successful projects to complement the idea of Bitcoin. Word
'Lite' means "lightweight or easy-to-use" - a simpler and more appropriate bitcoin version (Crypto
Cash, 2018).
There are problems in the tourism industry such as the transformation of funds, security issues related
to commissions and the money of tourists. The tourism industry is seeking solutions for these
problems. For tourists, the crypto currency eliminates bank charges and unprofitable exchange rates.
Ensuring the security of money in tourism is a priority. OjuT Coin is an example for the use of crypt
money in tourism. Oju Hospitality Group is a company based in Phuket Island (Thailand), the world's
most popular resort. Oju Hospitality Group plans to build a series of boutique hotels and resorts with
the Oju Gold brand, the world's first coin-operated network of accredited hotels, to incrementally
increase the number and value of OjuT. The payment goes through a special bag using a code snippet.
The crypto currency offers the possibility of making a taxi booking at any time of day and the payment
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can be made using the OjuT bag after arrival. You can register online without paying by using the Oju
application on Oju's web site and in the hotels of these coded money partners (Oju T, 2018).
Method
In this article, deep interview method is employed in order to reveal tourism managers attitudes and
perceptions towards crypto currency usage in tourism. Since the topic of the study is new and less
investigated, it was decided to use exactly the interview method, not the questionnaire. Thus, this
method allowed us to hear and analyze the opinions of professionals in the field of tourism on the
topic we researched. Also, in the process of choosing the method of research, we consulted with a
professional in the field of finance. For the interview, 10 tourism companies, 8 hotels and 2 travel
agencies were selected who are leading in the tourism industry in Eskisehir. The interviews took place
on May, 2018. The interview questions were divided into 2 parts. The first one concerned personal
experience and perception of crypto currency. At the same time, the second part of the questions was
aimed specifically at the professional opinion from the point of view of the heads of tourist enterprises.
The interviews were held in a convenient place for the interviewers, 100% it was the place of work,
without interrupting the work process. During the interview, a voice recording was conducted with the
help of a dictaphone and then translated into text. The interview consisted of 21 questions. İt were
divided into two main blocks – personal questions and tourism-related questions. Each block consisted
of 10 and 11 questions respectively.
Subject of the question

General questions about crypto currency:
• What does Crypto currency mean?
• When did you first time heard about crypro currency?
• Have you ever been owner of crypto currency?
Questions on personal opinion about the crypto currency in Turkey:
Personal questions • How do you assess the degree of development of the Crypto-
currency in the territory of Turkey?
• How do you think, is legalization of the crypto currency in
Turkey necessary?
• What do you think about the attitude of the Turkish
authorities towards the crypto-currencies?
Questions about the situation between tourism industry and payment
methods:
• What payment methods does your hotel or travel agency
Tourism-related questions
accept nowadays?
• Do you plan to expand the business, in particular, using the
crypto currency as a form of payment for tourist services?
Crypto-currency and tourism:
• What do you think will the introduction of crypto currency a
positive impact on your enterprise as a method of paying for
tourist services?
• The emergence of a special-purpose crypto currency in the
tourism industry, can it bring a new stage in its development?
• Which stage during the promotion of the crypto currency in
the tourism industry can be the most difficult and laborious
for your opinion?
Findings
Eventually produced the study of demographic characteristics of the executives surveyed can be
concluded that all of the respondents are of the middle age group, while also their experience in the
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tourism sector more than 10 years. The number of interviewed hotels 8, agencies - 2. In Eskisehir, the
best 4-5 stars hotels were selected, as well as the 2 most successful travel agencies of the group.
Table 2: Demographic Characteristics of Participants
Number %
1-30 0 0%
Age 30-50 8 80%
50+ 2 20%
1-10 1 10%
Work experiance 11-20 8 80%
20+ 1 10%
Hotel 8 80%
Type of business
Travel agency 2 20%
Interviewers were asked about the crypto currency. Do they know what it is? The majority consider
the currency as virtual money, a new financial model and see crypto curency as an investment tool.
There was also an opinion that this is digital money.
‘non-real virtual money’ (HM)
‘Crypto currency it is a new model, a new financing form actually’ (HM)
On the question concerning when and how our respondents collided with the crypto currency. Most
people heard about crypto currency for the first time from friends. This suggests that so far the topic’s
information sources still at the level of "word of mouth". Also one of the answers was that respondents
were first heard about the crypto currency from the media in the period of special interest in this
currency from the press and people. Also, after highlighting this topic in the press, some of the
respondents showed interest and conducted their own research on this topic. In general, it can also be
said that managers have a limited amount of information on this topic, and most of them had said this
before the interview began. The respondents know about the crypto currency about 2 years.
‘I took information about the crypt currency thanks to a close friend who works in the same sector as
me’ (HM)
In addition to all the above, we can say that all 10 respondents from the types of crypto currency know
only bitcoin. Interest in crypto-currencies was in fact based solely on bitcoin as a result of its harsh
popularity. None of the respondents actually don’t have any serious information on the topic of the
crypto currency.
‘For now the only kripto currency I know is bitcoin only’ (TA)
İt were asked whether respondents are owners of crypto currency and if so, whether they ever made
purchases using this currency. Absolutely all answered unanimously that they are not owners of
crypto-currencies and never made purchases using it on their own experience. In addition, we were
interested to know whether there are people in the environment of hotel managers and travel
agencies who know and use any of the crypto-currencies. In this case, the answers were divided almost
equally. Half of them answered that there are 3-5 people in their circle who understand this and even
managed to win serious money.
‘There are those who do this job in my environment. There is even those who could
win a serious money. I know 3 people.’(HM)
The other half said that in their environment there are no people who understand this or use crypto
currency. There was also an answer that in their environment there are people who know more about
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the crypto currency than the person interviewed, but they still have not entered this matter. It is logical
to draw conclusions that people still have fear of using crypto currency. Turning to the question of how
the crypto currency develops on the territory of Turkey. There was an opinion that the crypto currency
in Turkey will not easily enter, will not spread and will not be able to adapt quickly in people's lives.
This is to some extent connected with the education of the population with their inability to perceive
something new. For example, we can say about entrance credit cards to our life. It was difficult for
consumers to accept it. On the other hand, since crypto currency is a virtual Money level of trust to
them is minimal. According to the interviewed Turks like guarantees and want to be confident in the
next day. At the same time, for all people, regardless of nationality, the issue of guarantee and
infrastructure is opened. This will help develop the crypto currency and get a new turn of its
development.
‘…Here is a period in which security and infrastructure are questioned…’ (HM)
‘…I do not think it will easily enter to our country…’ (TA)
But, there were those who see the future in crypto currency. In their opinion, there is a part of the
population that loves everything new, monitors the development and changes in technology. They
believe that in the life of this part of the population the crypto currency will enter very quickly, will be
able to stay there and even develop further.
‘We love new things…I think it will become widespread. I look positively because trade and
other needs are constantly changing’ (HM)
When asking about how the Turkish authorities treat the crypto currency and what they think about
it, received an ambiguous answer. The most common response was that the Turkish authorities are in
the process of studying, more detailed research process. To some extent, the Turkish authorities show
an interest in crypto currency, but all still stand on the sidelines, observe and more and more study
this issue. That is, they took a neutral position. They didnt put up a barrier, but also they didnt
encourage at all.
‘…They look a bit apprehensive and researchers…’ (HM)
‘…They are currently reviewing, monitoring the market remotely…’(TA)
Also, the answer was received that the Turkish authorities behave the way, then crypto currency does
not exist at all. And in this there is some truth. The fact that the authorities do not legalize and do not
forbid the crypto currency leads to the fact that from some side this increases interest in it, and on the
other hand complicates its entry into everyday life.
‘…They never come close. They act like there is nothing. Ignoring some things does not
mean to be saved from this…’ (HM)
Exploring the readiness of the tourism industry to crypto currency and in the process of research it was
realized that one of the problems with the introduction of crypto currency is precisely the legalization
of this currency, we asked our survey participants whether it is worth legalizing the crypto currency.
Also, in the case of deregulation of the crypto currency, this will ensure its even wider distribution.
People will lose fear of its use, they will not think that tomorrow morning their accounts will be blocked
by the state and the invested money will be lost.
‘…Of course it is necessary. As a result, it will be a spending instrument, so its have to
be create a legal order…’(HM)
In addition, according to the participents precisely because this currency is still not legalized, it is not
so popular. Once it becomes legalized, everyone will use it. Since respondents are profecional in the
tourism industry, using the crypto currency in their experience as a payment for tourist services were
asked.
153
‘…Of course I would like ... I believe it is a convenience…’(HM)
‘…I see advantage of crypto currency as a payment system of tourist services…’ (HM)
Again, they said about the existing legal gap and this is not what will allow the crypto currency to gain
a foothold in the tourist sphere. The travel agency, in turn, if it can not pay for hotel or airline services
with the help of the accepted crypto currency, in such a case, that type of payment does not matter.
‘…Of course. But it has to be legal and secure…’ (HM)
The next set of questions was directed to the study of hotels or travel agencies, their features and the
possibility of introducing a crypto currency in them. First of all, it were asked what payment methods
are accepted today. Today hotels or travel agencies accept all kinds of legal types of payment, namely
cash, credit cards, transfer. Talking about the percentage, then most of the payments to institutions
are through credit cards, around 80%. The remaining 20% fall on cash and transfer money. This way
the founders are not very satisfied and there are reasons for this. According to the respondents, when
paying with a credit card, the bank takes its commission, the money comes to the account not
momentarily, it takes some time. Thus, there is a loss of Money and the bank in this case is the winner.
‘…They usually pay by credit card. It does not actually come to our business either…’(HM)
It were asked what type of payment managers would prefer - traditional or payment by crypto
currency. Here we also received an unambiguous answer - everyone wants to use traditional methods
of payment. As an argent, it was again said about the still not made legalization and distrust of this
type of payment. But, nevertheless, they said that in the case of legalization this method can very
quickly take root and fall in love with consumers as well as hotels or travel agencies. The issue of
commissions and taxes will be lifted. Also the participants focused our attention on the fact that
everyone still does not have full information about what a crypto currency is.
‘…I prefer traditional payment methods now. Because everyone is unconscious, we even do
not know what crypto money is…’(HM)
On the question of whether managers plan to introduce a crypto currency as a way of paying for
tourism services, the answers here are very diverse. Some said that they did not even think about it.
This suggests that the crypto currency has not really entered into everyday life so much and some do
not even see in it that payment method for any services. The next group gave a positive response that
they would like to introduce crypto currency as a method of payment in their tourist institutions. But
before us again and again there is a question of legalization and a guarantee. Since the institutions
surveyed refer to 4-5 stars hotels, they simply can not introduce any illegal payment methods.
‘…Of course I would like. But it’s have to be legal and secure…’(HM)
In this issue, travel agencies gave the same answers to our question. They would like to introduce a
crypto currency, but in this case it is very important for tourist agencies to pay for a service with the
same currency they accepted. Thus, if they accepted cash from the customer, they will pay the hotel
services in cash, if they accepted payment by credit card, they will pay for the airline's services with a
credit card. But, if they accepted the crypto currency, but none of their partners accept it, in this case
the travel agency will incur a loss. Thus, it was stated that the adoption of crypto currency as a method
of payment should occur in all directions of the tourism sphere, thus forming an original system.
The next question is very interesting and brought very interesting thoughts. What difficulties might be
encountered when entering the crypto currency. Thoughts were very diverse. First of all I would like
to say about the systematic problem. How is this manifested? In case of cancellation of the hotel
reservation, you will need to make a refund. Crypto currency is an unstable currency, its rate changes
every second. In this case, there may be a difference in the exchange rate and some of the parties will
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suffer losses. Thus, it is necessary to modernize and optimize the infrastructure of the system to work
with crypto currency.
‘…There are systemic difficulties in the first place. It is necessary to establish a good
infrastructure…’(HM)
Among the respondents there were those who believe that after the legalization there will be no
problems. Again and again we return to this problem. But, there are some who said that they do not
know what can be. This again suggests that this issue is not as simple as it seems at first glance. But,
there are some who said that they do not know what can be. This again suggests that this issue is not
as simple as it seems at first glance, but also that there is an information shortage.
‘…I do not know with what we can face. Let's not comment on what you do not know...’(HM)
The Crypto-currency, as we know, is developing very rapidly and a huge number of subspecies have
already appeared. It became interesting to us whether our respondents see in the future a crypto
currency, which will be peculiar only to the tourist sphere. For most them this is as an opportunity.
Since the tourist sphere is directly related to demand, they are confident that tourism can cover the
need of tourists and in this case there will be a new crypto currency that can be used only in tourism.
In this case, most likely this type of payment will be able to spread by itself. The main conditions is that
consumers can see the benefits.
‘…It’s possible that can come a new type of crypto currency. Special for tourism, which can
provide benefits…’ (HM)
On the other hand, some managers believe that this is impossible. In their opinion, it is very difficult
to integrate crypto currency into everyday life, and even more so in the sphere of tourism. In addition,
in their opinion, there will never appear the same strong and widespread currency as bitcoin.
‘…I do not think so. It's hard to be integrated.…’ (HM)
On the question of whether the crypto currency can make a new step in the development of tourism.
Here again received an ambiguous answer. some with certainty stated that the crypto currency could
make a new step. Perhaps in terms of accounting. To follow the payment with the help of crypto
currency will be much easier and in this case the hotel will be able to afford to cut staff, than it can
stay at a profit. Also, in their opinion, this type of payment will be much faster and more international,
which will attract tourists from all over the world. At the same time, another method of payment for
tourism organizations will be able to provide a new profit channel. At the same time, the leaders again
emphasize their attention to the safety of such payments. On the other hand, there is an opinion that
the introduction of crypto currency as a method of payment will not make any changes.
It were asked whether the introduction of crypto currency would affect their institution. I was received
a unanimous response that according to their opinion the introduction of a crypto currency will
positively affect. How will this affect? This may appear in relation to consumers in the first place. This
will help to provide a variety of tourists, in this case will help to reach the consumer market, which
previously could not be obtained. Also, the introduction of a crypto currency in any tourist institution
will help it to take a preemptive position before those who have not yet introduced these technologies.
‘…Using technology always shows you the benefit, you are always one step forward…’(HM)
At the same time, an important point is that in order to use crypto currency it is necessary to tell
everyone in a very accessible way about its risks, advantages and inconveniences. Thus, consumers
will be able to look at it from the other side and approach it. Thus, as soon as the information on this
topic spreads, the crypto currency will be able to move into a more used state and thus positively affect
the tourism industry.
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As for those who own crypto currency right now. The introduction of crypto currency as a method of
payment for tourist services will be able to open for their owners ways through which they can spend
their money.
About the advantages that the crypto currency can make as a method of payment. Unsurprisingly, half
of the respondents said that they do not know about what the advantages of crypto currency as a
method of payment can be. Lack of information was the main theme. But, there are also those who
expressed their supposition on this matter. First of all, it can facilitate the life of both tourist institutions
and tourists. In this case, it is a question of banking operations, which usually takes time, while money
does not come to the account momentarily. This for tourist institutions sometimes brings
inconvenience, money is needed today, there are times when it's too late tomorrow. The next
advantage was that the leaders called the non-payment of a bank commission. In this case, it is about
paying the commission after payment by credit cards. while another advantage is the facilitation of
the negative impact of the difference in rates.
‘…Tourists do not want to carry money with them…’(HM)
Leaders were asked according to there opinion how the tourists will behave, in case of entering crypto
currency as a method of payment. First of all for tourists it will provide one more kind of payment,
their choice becomes wider. At the same time, for those who do not use crypto currency yet, after
entering, tourists will become more interested in what kind of payment is this, that is, curiosity will
arise. In the opinion of one of the leaders, once the level of information on this issue is raised and the
use of crypto currency becomes more widespread, there is no chance that consumers will have any
negative feedback.
‘…Customers every time prefer easily to pay…’ (HM)
But, on the other hand, there is an opinion that even if you introduce payment using a crypto currency,
this will not affect tourists and their behavior in any way. This view is based on the fact that as long as
this method of payment is not legal and secure.
The next question concerned whether the crypto currency in tourism could stay and become
established. In this issue, the surpassing answer was that, in the opinion of managers, the crypto
currency will remain stable after entering the tourism sector. They believe that this method of
payment can provide ease of payment, which is preferential for consumers. On the other hand, every
day our lives become more and more virtual. At the same time, according to one of the leader’s
opinion, a variety of versions can be output.
As always there was an opposite opinion that the crypto currency will not remain stable. In confirming
their opinion, the respondents said that, in contrast to the crypto currency, there could be a huge
number of alternatives that we do not know about. Also, since the crypto currency is not only the
method of payment but also the way of earnings, in this case the crypto currency will not remain, since
it itself is not stable.
‘…Crypto currency is both - a method of payment and a method of earning. That's why I can
not say that it will remain stable. Because in itself is not stable…’ (HM)
To look into the future and leaders were asked whether see in the future other alternative methods of
payment. The answer was unequivocal - of course, yes. With the development of technology, of
course, development and expansion of payment methods is expected. At the same time, it was said
that if now bitcoin can keep its positions at the same level of popularity, then in the future its
alternatives will necessarily appear. Everything goes to the virtual level. So, for example, you can put
a loan. A few years ago, to get a loan it was necessary to bring certain information, in today even with
a mobile application you can make an application for a loan and within a minute the money will be in
your account. Such a rapid development of technologies will certainly allow alternative methods of
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payment to expand more and more. It can also be called an example of an online booking system. A
few more years there was only one of them, and today their number and diversity has grown at times.
‘…After the crypto currency comes out another methods will come, something virtual can
be…’ (HM)
Conclusions
First, as long as humanity changes, payment systems in tourism will be changing day by day. As a result
of the research, the first conclusion can be called that at the moment there is still insufficient
informativeness. All that is now is information heard from friends or from the media. Thus, only a small
part of the population could hear about the crypto currency, but only a minimal percentage could
understand this issue. Perhaps, with the increase in the number of scientific literature on this topic,
the sign of the population in this matter will increase and help positively affect the entry of crypto
currency into our daily life and thereby begin to use it in the sphere of tourism.
It is concluded that information about the advantages is very important, disadvantages and risks that
exist when using crypto currency. Knowing about the advantages that tourists will get by using crypto
currency, as a method of payment people will want to use crypto currency. The next problem that has
been discovered is that people are still afraid to use crypto currency. And in this case the main problem
was the problem - this is the question of legalization. In this regard, hotels and travel agencies prefer
to use traditional methods of payment.
Almost all unanimously stated that in order for the crypto currency to enter tourism legalization
should be accepted. In the case of legalization of the crypto currency, it was concluded that the tourism
industry will be able to get a new stage of development, since the currency is completely international,
this will help get to a market that has not been explored before, it will help attract tourists from all
over the world. The only thing that remains to do is wait for the Turkish authorities to legalize the
currency in the territory of Turkey. In the process of research, a problem was also identified which
could stand on the way to the introduction of crypto currency as a method of payment. This problem
is a problem at the organizational level. Since crypto currency is a currency that changes its practical
rate every minute there is an urgent need to create a single system of crypto currency payment, to
optimize the infrastructure for work in the sphere of tourism. Very interesting factors were the fact
that in the tourism industry the crypto currency should be taken to all its links of tourism at the same
time.
Thus, all the same, the most important problem is the legalization of the crypto currency. With the
solution of this issue, the crypto currency will be able to enter our everyday life as well as when credit
cards once existed.
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7305
THE EVALUATION OF ISTANBUL NATIONAL PALACES IN THE FRAME
OF SUSTAINABLE CULTURAL TOURISM
Elmas Erdoğan
Bilecik, Turkey
Parisa Göker
Bilecik, Turkey
Abstract
Cultural tourism indicates travel for cultural environment sightseeing including landscapes, the visual
and performing arts, and unique (local) lifestyles, values, customs, incidents in addition to other means
of creative and inter-cultural exchange processes. The significance of cultural tourism is based on
several reasons; having positive economic and social effects generating and strengthening identity and
aiding to built an image and protection of the cultural and historical heritage. Besides, it helps the
establishment of harmony and understanding among people by using culture as an instrument,
reinforcing culture and helps the renewal of tourism. Cultural tourism is a tool in a way in the
protection of the cultural and historical heritage. Tourism offers ways to sustain the customs and
provides finances for the preservation of heritage and improve visitor appreciation therefore
contributes greatly to culture and historical heritage. Sustainability is the entire activities carried out
to preserve natural resources as fulfilling the needs of today as well as leaving a sound environment
for the future generations. Therefore, tourism and sustainability interact with each other in the
preservation of cultural environment. Historical palace gardens, reflecting cultural features of
civilization that they belong to, also give information about the life styles of the people living in those
sites, cultural values and building techniques of the period. Garden culture, based on human-nature
relationships, has been modified and improved by geographic, historical, socio-economical, cultural
and living conditions of the era. Palaces served as living sites of state administration and sultans and
have become structures to reflect the art and architectural context of a civilization due to its specific
structures. Historical and cultural properties are touristic attraction sources for all nations. Cultural
values vital for tourism activities. Furthermore, they play a critical role for destination selections of the
tourists to spend their holiday. In this context, cultural heritage is the main sources of tourism, which
is one of the most important sectors of the world in terms of cultural interaction and economy.
Historical palace gardens and sites are subject to numerous influences due to various reasons in time.
Today, these influences emerge as tools of preservation of cultural assets due to changes originating
from actual needs. Interest in history and culture create pressure on historical monuments and sites
depending on tourism activities. Considering tourism with its economic gains, it can be accepted
positively in general. Moreover, impacts of tourism on palace gardens and sites, hosting hundreds of
thousands of visitors each year, can be ignored. The aim of this study was to emphasize the
significance of cultural properties of monuments as well as Ottoman Period Palace Gardens, with its
international cultural heritage values for national and international visitors. At the first stage national
palaces that are situated in Istanbul were introduced, then their problems and protentional
originating from tourism activities were discussed and at the final stage, suggestions were developed
to achieve sustainability of national palaces of Istanbul including Topkapi Palace, Dolmabahce Palace,
Beylerbeyi Palace, Yildiz Palace and their unique gardens based on the principles of conservation and
landscape design as far as sustainable cultural tourism is concerned.
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Key Words: Cultural Tourism, National Palaces, National Palace Gardens, Cultural landscapes,
Sustainability
Introduction
Cultural program of UNESCO is the protection and development of tangible and intangible cultural
heredity in the framework of respect to cultural variation. Various standards have been developed
to protect UNESCO heritage. Furthermore, various agreements have been approved and put into
force for the protection and development of cultural diversity and heritage. Collection and sharing of
experience and information acquired in the cultural field is another activity that UNESCO carries on
in the cultural area. List of World Heritage Areas is the application developed for preservation of
tangible cultural heritage and most recognized UNESCO applications. Most important indicators and
results of the approach and interpretation of UNESCO in the preservation of cultures and
transforming them to future generation can be followed up in four agreements, in two of them are
“tangible” and the others two are “intangible”, prepared for the preservation of culture and other
negotiations, notifications, conferences and meetings. Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNAT),
Deputy General Secretariat (National Palaces) is in charge of management, maintenance, repair,
restoration and operation as a museum of palaces, mansions, pavilions, museums and historical
factories according to international museum studies and conservation standards. National Palaces,
which are established during the first years of the Republic, consist of two palaces, three mansions,
five pavilions, three museums and two factories along with additions in time. It is the fundamental
function of GNAT Deputy General Secretariat (National Palaces) to preserve and restore all these
buildings, including their historical objects, by abiding by their cultural and historical background, and
enabling visiting them as valuable elements of our national culture by national and international
visitors with a modern museum approach. Trip and resting services are rendered in palaces, mansions
and pavilions, and factories, which are arranged by meticulous landscaping, with cafeterias and
souvenir shops, and cultural activities are arranged including exhibitions, symposiums, conferences,
panels, and concerts, etc. On the other hand, all these structures with both decorations, furnishing
elements and historical objects, and with architectural characteristics are recorded in the light of
contemporary methods by experts, and their restoration and conservation are carried out by
experienced and educated masters. Its mission is to “preserve historical and cultural works, which
are handed down to GNAT following the declaration of the Republic, and to transfer them to future
generations the best way possible” (Erdoğan, Aliasghari, 2014).
Its vision is to keep historical works alive, which it is liable to protect, and to keep open places and
works included in their body to national and international visitors with the awareness that these
works are parts of the cultural heritage of the entire world. At the same time, National Palaces aims
recognition of the mentioned historical heritage in the world scale. Gardens have been types of
sanctuary for centuries for people to avoid distress caused by simplicity in people’s daily lives, and to
be together with creatures of the nature. On the other hand, the place “heaven”, is also symbolized
by garden. In this context, ideals of people to have a small “Heavenly Place” in their lives in the world
have introduced us this art branch. The root of the word garden is Persian and means “small
vineyard”. Which generally defined as a land field where ornamental plants, fruits, vegetables and
healing herbs are grown; in addition, where beauty, greenness and relaxing characteristics of the
nature are regulated by people. Small or large, open to the environment or enclosed yards or gardens
are places reflecting living conditions, economic and cultural levels of societies in certain periods of
history and are shaped based on the characteristics of the region they are in. In this regard, diversity
of changes and garden arrangements made by people have added many differences to garden art in
terms of sensuality and stylistically (Erdoğan, Aliasghari, 2014).
Garden is a green environment that considerably transforms within the process of time. The
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transformation or elimination of the garden is much easier in comparing to other constructional
facilities in case the circumstances have been met. Therefore, the examples which survive up to
recent times should be accepted as very valuable and very special ones for the gardening art. Within
this context the historical gardens are valuable in ultimate level in respect to reflect the lifestyles of
the societies. Nowadays see the most beautiful examples of historical palace gardens existing in
Turkey. At the gardens of the palaces living in Istanbul, the historical palace gardens which are formed
prior to the XVIII. century is structured much simpler and more modest in compare to the ones
constructed subsequently and they are designed as exterior backyards in interior and free style in
geometric form. Historical palace gardens as of the century of XVIII, being impressed by Renaissance
and Baroque gardening arts, have directed to understanding of formal ornamentation. At the midst
of the XIX century, such kind of art movement has been dominated over all the movements of art in
respect to whole kinds of ornaments, and at the ends of the 19th century and afterwards, the
historical palace gardens under the influences of Naturalistic movement have visualized together
with the picturesque ornamentations. Palace gardens having such described specialties, the
Beylerbeyi Palace gardens, Dolmabahçe Palace gardens and Yildiz Palace are prominent examples
from the point of Ottoman- Turkish gardening art in respect to reflecting the historical background
and cultural values (Erdoğan, Aliasghari, 2014).
Cultural tourism is not only a major global industry that brings income, but also a support for national
identity and a means for preserving cultural heritage (Richards, 2007). Cultural/heritage tourism is
the fastest growing segment of the tourism industry because there is a trend toward an increased
specialization among tourists. This trend is evident in the rise in the volume of tourists who seek
adventure, culture, history, archaeology and interaction with local people (Hollinshead, 1993).
Cultural tourism includes any type whose main objective is to visit and discover sites and buildings
having some historical, artistic and cultural value, as well as to attend cultural events (Kurek, 2007).
Types of Historical Areas

Cultural resources can be classified into the following five type:
• Buildings: Houses, hotels or any similar construction that has been built to shelter any
human activity, the term also apply to any construction that accommodates any
supporting function like courts and jails or even houses.
• Structure: it is constructed to serve different purposes as against buildings. It does not
accommodate activities. Its functions cover bridges, courtyard, etc.
• Objects: The terms in usually used for artistic, small, simple or movable valuable historic
man- made or natural objects.
• Site: Location where major and special historic events happened. It might be even a single
building, ruins, or even just location of historic events, no matter what the surrounding
buildings values.
• District: A center or link between historic location or activities scattered through an area
over masterplan (Dames, 2009).
Palace Gardens
There are several ways to classify gardens and therefore it can be distinguished between different
types of gardens. Palace and castle gardens, botanical gardens, flower gardens, zoological gardens,
country house gardens, garden shows as well as allotment gardens are only some examples for
specific types of gardens. Some typologies base on the use of a garden, for instance private or
economic use. In many cases gardens are classified by their design and the type of gardening. There
are different classifications for garden types and styles. It is important to notice that garden types
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refer to building types (castle, imperial building, courtyard, etc.) and that garden styles are equivalent
to architectural styles (classical, gothic, baroque etc.).
Gardens as Tourism Attractions

A tourism attraction in general is defined as “a single unit, and individual site or a small-scale
geographic area accessible to tourists who are motivated to visit it in their leisure time for a limited
period” (Ivanovic, 2008). When looking at the different gardens as tourism attractions, they can not
only be categorized according to the type and style of the garden, but also along specific criteria such
as market appeal, ownership, type of attraction, and entrance fee as shown in Figure 1 below. The
figure displays that the product and its auxiliary services represent the core of the attraction. The
second dimension includes whether visitors have to pay entrance fee or not and looks at the type of
the attraction - either natural or built. A public or private ownership is a criterion in the next
dimension and last, the market appeal of the attraction is displayed. An attraction can have a local,
regional, national, or international appeal. Due to the increased interest in visiting gardens among
the population and the fact that gardens are part of the attractions sector, it can be argued that today
garden tourism constitutes an important niche market within the tourism industry. Many gardens
have acquired the image of an interesting place to be. Kew Gardens in Great Britain, Versailles
Gardens in France or Keukenhof in the Netherlands are only a few examples of such garden
attractions which also positively influence the tourism economy in their local region (Ballantyne &
Packer, 2008). The influence garden tourism has in smaller regions can also lead to an increase of the
tourism sector in general as employment is created and gardens often work together with different
suppliers of the region.
Figure 1: Classification of Attractions (Leask, 2003)
Discussion
Historical palace gardens are ancient and artistic areas arousing the attention of nations with their
architectural characteristics and botanical compositions. Reflecting the life style, socio-economic and
cultural concept of the era, these structures are the cultural values that offer an insight to today’s
society, as well as being recognized as something to be proud of, with not only its scientific and artistic
aspects, but also its educational and functional characteristics. Today, Turkish garden is the extension
of structure-open space construal, which has been conferred in Anatolian civilizations in the historical
process, as well as synthesis of Turkish culture. For Anatolian civilizations, nature has always been
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respected, and being in outdoors has always been recognized as a fact that is identified with the life,
itself (Erdoğan et al. 2003).
Ottomans did not design gardens as per pre-specified rules, but rather according to the topography,
climatic and environmental conditions of the land, where the gardens were planned to be located.
The gardens were planned for areas with running waters instead of using water conduits, and the
gardens were created with the usage of trees and flowers. Avoiding geometrical and formal layouts,
gardens with natural profiles were created. They differ from the Islamic gardens, giving a hint on this
matter, by positioning, formation as per topography, as well as view and climatic characteristics. It is
only the Ottoman private gardens that were unsophisticated by scale, which were accessible only to
the palace people; and as living quarters, the functionality and usability of the garden were as
important as its visual composition (Erdoğan et al., 2003).
“Tulip Period” was the era, when the western influences started to be seen in the Ottoman – Turkish
gardens. As the beginning of regression period in terms of both administrative and political aspects,
this period is of great importance with regards to fine arts and landscape, despite the limitations.
Istanbul became “the city of gardens and water” with the gardens and groves of numerous beach-
palaces, mansions and seaside residences built by statesmen and the wealthy, Ahmet the 3rd being
in the first place, spreading from Kagithane Valley through Halic and Bosporus Coasts. While
maintaining a formalism approach in small-scale gardens with the solely Turkish garden
characteristics, meaning an informal mixture with the nature, which could not get beyond the
controlled usage form of the garden elements, during this period, the western influences started to
be seen on the large-scale gardens of the statesmen. In Europe, as the garden fact of Renaissance
and Baroque periods was replaced with British naturalist gardens, Turkish garden, on the other hand,
gained a different identity with the western influences. The finest examples of palace gardens, which
were designed under the western influence, are Beylerbeyi Palace, Ciragan Palace and Dolmabahce
Palace, which were built in İstanbul in 19th century. Water has been an essential element of these
gardens. The water in the pools was activated with the sprinklers and falls, while building small
islands, bridges and rockworks and floating boats. While the pools were in tetragonal form-factor, it
turned out having round, oval curled lines in the 18thcentury, and then became artificial ponds in
19th century. The fountains, water dispensers, water-tanks with fountains were included in each and
every garden. Having an important place due to its recreation area throughout the history, İstanbul
gardens have been widely equipped with pools, sprinklers and water conduits. The gardens have
always been enriched with such flowers as Rosa sp., Hyacinthus sp., Tulipa sp., Fuchsia sp., while
commonly using the Cupressus sempervirens, Cercis siliquastrum and Purunus domestica trees.
Topkapı Palace
Topkapi Palace is a complex, built by continuously adding new structures from mid 15th century to
the mid-way through 19th century, meaning from the period of Mehmet the Conqueror to the period
of Sultan Abdulmecid (Aliasghari, 2016). The totaling area of the palace is equal to about 700.000
square meters. Approximately 80.000 square meters of this area comprises of the structures. Planned
as a castle-palace, Saray-ı Cedide-i Amire is surrounded with the walls named as “Sur-ı Sultani” over-
land, while being surrounded with Byzantine castle wars from the sea-side. With land walls reaching
up to 800 meters, and sea castle wars up to 2500 meters, the castle wall length is equal to
approximately 3300 meters (Ortaylı, 2007). The Palace was used as the residence of Ottoman sultans,
as well as being utilized as the governance and education center of the state. Built by Mehmet the
Conqueror between 1460 – 1478, while having outbuildings built in time, Topkapi Palace hosted
Ottoman sultans and Palace people for 380 years until the mid-way through 19thcentury. Starting
from 1856, Dolmabahce Palace was used as the residence and governance center, however, sultanate
treasure, sacred relics and empire archives were kept in Topkapi Palace, while organizing state
ceremonies in here, as well (Koçu, 1951).
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Topkapi Palace is a cultural asset, reflecting the Turkish culture in many aspects. Each part of this
palace, designed in a manner positioning the structures around the yards and courtyards, differ from
each other in terms of functionality. Topkapi Palace to be constructed within a single-phase does not
reflect a single style in terms of artistic and periodic aspects, but rather, the influences of other eras
can be seen (Aliasghari, 2016). The gardens of Topkapi Palace were designed as yards in terms of
their spatial functions. Bab-ı Humayın, as the main gate, is the “first yard”, which is out of the official
borders of the palace, connecting the palace and the city, which is also called as Regimental Square.
The “second yard” is the accessed via Bab-us Selam, as the center gate, which is also called as the
council or justice square; and the “third yard” is also known as the Enderun Square, as the restricted
area of the sultan and sultan’s family (Harem-i Humayun), accessed via Bab-us Saadet”, a.k.a.
Akagalar Gate. The “fourth yard”, as the group of gardens with views of Marmara See and Bosporus
beyond comparison, facing outward unlike the other yards, and which is also called as “Suffa-i
Humayun” due to being reserved for the private life of the Sultan, were built as four terraces on
various levels. The connection of this yard, which is partially a yard, which the other parts comprise
of gardens, with the other parts was ensured via a number of yards, rocky places and porches.
The relations between the Ottoman Empire philosophy and the citizens had a critical role in the
designation of layout plan for Topkapi Palace, growing and evolving for hundreds of years. It is known
to us that Edirne Palace, which was built by Sultan Murad the 2nd, as the father of Mehmet the
Conqueror near the Tunca River, of which ruins are the only things left today, was a magnificent
structure, and influenced the initial designing process of Topkapi Palace. Layout plan of Topkapi
Palace comprises of apartments reserved for governmental affairs from within various yards and
gardens, living spaces of the emperor, including private buildings for officers living in mansions and
palace. Comprising of group of buildings, Topkapi Palace is surrounded by the walls, known as “Sur
Sultani” from the land-side, while being surrounded by Byzantine castle wars from the seaside. The
structures were planned to be deployed on a wide area under an informal manner (Ortaylı 2007).
Bearing the characteristics of Ottoman Period building and garden architecture, while being the
largest Ottoman palace, Topkapi Palace was initially planned based on the inhabitability principle.
The gardens of Topkapi Palace, similar to the palace structures, were not the representative of a sole
style as a whole in terms of artistic aspects, due to not being formed in a single-phase (Cezar 1985).
Unlike the palace hardens of 19th century, which were created in line with a certain layout plan
during the construction process, the yards, including the structures in them, were created during
various periods upon being requested by the emperors. Each part of this palace, designed in a manner
positioning the structures around the yards and courtyards, differ from each other in terms of
functionality (Aliasghari, 2016).
The trees, garden pathways, botanical parterres and pools located in the yards and gardens of
Topkapi Palace, are positioned in an informal manner. Today, there are many trees and bushes,
available in various lengths and forms in the gardens and yards of Topkapi Palace. Such trees and
bush types as Acer negundo, Acesculus hippocastanum, Buxus sempervirens, Cedrus deodora,
Hibiscus syriacus, Laurus nobilis, Magnolia grandiflora, Nerium oleander, Picea abies, Pinus pinea,
Rosa sp., Tilia argentea, Ulmus glabra are available in the yards and gardens of Topkapi Palace (Yaltırık
et al., 1997).
As bearing the characteristics of solely a Turkish garden in the beginning, the yards and gardens of
Topkapi Palace underwent certain restorations with the effects of creative architects after 18th
century. However, knowing the availability of orchards, fruit gardens and vegetable patches reflects
the characteristic of functional Turkish garden. The western influence on the gardens of Topkapi
Palace can be seen around the mansions built long after, and on the please gardens, as well (Erdoğan
et al. 2003).
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Figure 2: Topkapi Palace (Necipoğlu, 2014) Figure 3: Topkapi Palace Second Courtyard
(Original, 2014)
Figure 4: Third Courtyard; Enderun Square Figure 5: İftariye Kasrı (Orijinal, 2013)
(Original, 2014)
Dolmabahce Palace Gardens

History of Dolmabahce Palace and its close surroundings goes back to pre-Byzantine era. Based on
Petus Gyllius’s work; it is thought that Pentekontorikon, the place where Pentekontos (ship with fifty
oars) was anchored, is Dolmabahce which was a village during that period. Architect Garabet Amira
Balyan started the construction of Dolmabahce Palace in 1844 with the order of Abdulmecid; and it
was completed in 1855 following approximately a ten-year work. However, due to Crimean war,
moving to the palace took place in June 1856. Dolmabahce Palace was the location of Abdulmecid’s
rule for 15 years, and Abdulhamid II spent the first years of his first emperor years, found it unsafe,
and moved to Yildiz Palace in 1877. His follower Mehmet Resad V. (1909-1918) resided here during
his reign. Dolmabahce Palace is a structure erected during the existence of modernization efforts and
opening to the west, in order to introduce Ottoman Palace organization to the understanding of the
art of the century (Erdoğan, Aliasghari, 2014).
A radical change was experienced with the movement of emperor residence from Topkapi to
Dolmabahce following the completion of Dolmabahce Palace in 1856, and this turned out to be a
milestone in the urban history of Istanbul which meant that the center of the city had changed. The
palace was opened with a spectacular ceremony, and this reflected that for the first time, a
movement was achieved from stone and long-lasting materials to heavy and splendid large
structures, leaving house types that are gardened, light and with national characteristics in the form
of mansions and manors; and this was a new and significant change and stage in the Ottoman dynasty
tradition. Palace gardens are arranged in five sections. A fountain pool, with its corners rounded, and
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various foreign plant species decorate Hasbahce, developed symmetrically between the treasury gate
and Selamlik (a site reserved for men) entrance. There is a pool in Kusluk Garden behind the Muayede
Hall, and the garden is shadowed with tall Tilia tomentosa and Castanea sativa and the ground is
covered with grass in patches. There is a fountain pool in the middle of Harem garden, a sunny
location and decorated with Magnolia grandiflora trees (Erdoğan, Aliasghari, 2014).
This garden is also known as Mabeyn garden or Selamlik garden and is situated between the treasury
door and palace building entrance. Hasbahce is the entrance of Selamlik suite, where Ottoman
emperors carried out state businesses and accepted statesmen and ambassadors, and it reflects
baroque style up to a point with the effect of the west. However, rather than in botanical usages,
traces of this effect are seen in the roads spreading in a radial shape from the pool in the middle of
the garden towards the surroundings and in plant stalls. A pool, located in the main axial that lie
parallel to the sea, and seasonal flower-beds, formed in the surrounding of the pool in a circular
shape, turn out to be the main elements of the arrangement. This pool has an octagonal shape with
its corners rounded and displays the baroque style. Inclusion of water elements in gardens was
significant for Ottomans and such a pool was built in the middle axial of Hasbahce, despite of the
presence of a sea in a close proximity (Mutlu, 2006). Marbles were used in the surroundings of the
pools in the garden, lighting posts, sculptures, axial symmetric arrangement, flowerbed arrangement
and plants shaped with the ‘topiary’ art reflect the western style formal garden effect.
Hasbahce Garden; The other section influenced from the west in terms of garden arrangement is
Hasbahce garden, where the emperor lived with his family and relatives. In the contrary to Kusluk
garden, it is arranged formally and carries the traces of the baroque garden style. The garden, which
is surrounded by high walls at the land site of the L-shaped block making up the harem section,
includes a style of an inner yard. This inner yard having a geometrical arrangement owing to the oval
fountain pool in the middle, exists with a gentle slope, not allowing symmetrical arrangement with
its marble roads and shadow providing huge trees.
Kusluk Garden; The only example of “kusluks” existing today is Dolmabahce palace kusluk, having
the same function. The garden, where Kusluk building is located behind Muayede Saloon, seems
natural. Kusluk garden is made of cages and perches, where thousands of birds feed, a bird hospital
and Kusluk mansion. Resources report that various animals walk around freely ever since the old
times in the palace garden. The most significant structure ensemble lasting until today, is the
structures of the Kusluk garden of Dolmabahce palace, in terms of animals in Ottoman palace gardens
as a lifestyle. The pool with grotto in the garden is rather interesting (Yaltırık et.al 1997).
Valide Sultan Garden; this garden is in the shape of an inner courtyard, with oval or semi-circle pools
in the middle, and in a geometrical arrangement but their perimeters are surrounded. These inner
courtyards are not open and do not have a wide perspective unlike Hasbahce. Therefore, gardens on
the landside of the palace are characterized as an ‘Ottoman palace garden’ owing to their structural
settlement and a private living understanding. Relationship of these gardens with the western
gardens, having a wide perspective and open vista, turns out to be only the geometrical shapes of
flowerbeds. During the application of the project to the garden, which was designed in 1978, a sera
was unearthed in 1985, at the bottom of the wall by Sunnet mansion, and a sera location was
allocated according to the ruins for the restoration of the area. This area restored by the technical
personnel of the national palaces and was used as a cafeteria for a certain period which is using by
gardeners today (Erdoğan, Aliasghari, 2014).
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Figure 6: Dolmabahce Palace (Altınçekiç, 2009) Figure 7: Hasbahce (Original, 2015)
Figure 8: Hasbahce (Original, 2015) Figure 9: Mefruşat Dairesi Garden (Original, 2015)
Beylerbeyi Palace Gardens

It has been a long time since the use of the area where Beylerbeyi Palace is located in Uskudar County
in the Anatolian side of Bosphorus as a residential area. This area used to be known as Arhai Foisuai
and referred to as Istavroz Gardens during the Byzantine Period. Sultan II. Mahmud built Old
Beylerbeyi Palace in the place of Beylerbeyi Palace of today during 1826-1832. Abdulaziz has
demolished this Palace and during 1863-1865 built New Beylerbeyi Palace which has lived until today.
New Beylerbeyi Palace was built during the Ottoman Empire modernization period. Beylerbeyi Palace
was built differently from Dolmabahce and Ciragan palaces which were built in the 19th century and
was used generally to accommodate representatives and foreign guests. Moreover, this palace
functioned as a summer shore palace for the emperor and his family especially during spring months.
It is known that Sultan Abdulmecit who succeeded to the crown after II.Mahmud used the Old
Beylerbeyi Palace as a summer palace. However, Sultan Abdulmecit moved to Ciragan Palace because
of a fire that took place in 1851. The palace was not used for a certain period, and demolished later
on and Architect Sarkis Balyan built Beylerbeyi Palace that is existing today. (Erdoğan, Aliasghari,
2014). New Beylerbeyi Palace was erected in the 19th century, during the modernization period of
Ottoman Empire open to western influences. New Beylerbeyi Palace was generally used to
accommodate representatives and foreign state guests. In addition, the emperor and his family used
the place as a summer seashore palace during especially summer months.
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Figure 10: Beylerbeyi Palace Gardens (Original, 2015)
Old Beylerbeyi Palace was demolished after the 1851 fire. Sultan Abdulaziz had the current Beylerbeyi
Palace erected during 1861-1864. Based on the information gathered from the Ottoman archives,
New Beylerbeyi Palace was designed and built by Sarkis Balyan, whose title was mentioned as
Mabeyn-i Humayun Chief Architect and later on mentioned as Sermimar-ı Devlet, and his brother
Hassa Architect Agop Balyan. Current Beylerbeyi Palace is a palace complex consisting of a shore
palace and structures and mansions connected to it. When generally inspected, it is clear that all units
of the palace are arranged on the land as independent from each other. Main structure of the palace
is located on shore and other sections are dispersed in set gardens. Sari Mansion and Mermer
Mansion are located in the upper section around the large pool, Ahir Mansion, on the other hand, is
situated in the back part of the land. Lime stone and sandstone was used in the construction of
Beylerbeyi Palace, erected using a brick piling system. Layout plan of this palace was shaped based
on the layout plan of old Beylerbeyi Palace. It is clear that the structures were placed independently
within a large piece of land and raising from the sea backwards in settings. The main building of the
palace and sea mansions took place in the seashore and other structures are distributed within
gardens. Sari Mansion and Mermer mansion are located on the fourth set and around the large pool
and Ahir Mansion, on the other hand, is located across from and in the south of these mansions.
Structures such as suits of Muslim judges, generals, Baltacilar and Geyiklik, Tavukluk, Hasahir,
Kushane, Aslanhane and drug stores do not exist today.
Sari Mansion (Sari Kosk); It is located on the northeast corner of the palace land and on the fourth
set. Sari Mansion is situated on the left of the large pool and it is called Sari because of its stones and
painting. Sari Mansion is located in a special site and it overlooks a very large area and other units of
the palace and large pool completely. It is a mansion made of limestone and is a three-floor building.
Mermer Mansion (Mermer Koşk); The most renown palaces among the old palaces are the structure
known as Mermer Mansion or Serdab Mansion. This mansion has been named for its facades covered
with large marble sheets and was left from the old palace of Mahmud II era. It is erected on the third
set, beyond the large pool and partially within the land and embedded within the fourth set. The
mansion was built to cool off during summer months and is called Serdab due to this characteristic.
Mermer Mansion has a classical and plane structure and is a one-floor building. There is a large saloon
in the middle and there is a room and services in the sides of the saloon. Bricks, marbles and timber
are used in the construction. Bricks are used on the walls, marbles are used in the outer facades and
inner location decorations, timber on the other hand is used in doors and windows. Bortik
Kamhaciyan has built the door and window wood works. The structure has a geometrical plan
reflecting the characteristics of the neo-classical style. There is a large saloon in the entrance of the
mansion. The rooms located in the right and left sides and small service locations in their back are
arranged classically and extremely plainly.
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Main Building (Selamlik and Harem building); Main section of the palace is located in the western
side of the land and behind a large dock, surrounded by a wall connected to the garden by two
monumental entrances and among pilasters and enlivened by triple niches. It is surrounded in the
north and south by high walls, having doors and it is bordered with a high set in the east, which it is
situated parallel to the seashore in the middle of the first garden at the dock level.
Deniz Mansions (Deniz Koşkleri); Deniz mansions were erected in pairs in Beylerbeyi Palace dock as
Selamlik and Harem. The mansion in the Mabeyn (a portion reserved for men) is called Selamlik Deniz
Mansion, and the mansion of the Harem side is called Harem Deniz Mansion. Sea mansions, having a
saloon in the shape of a polygon, lay toward the sea on the dock, and there are small service unites
on its sides, and in the garden site, it has an entrance with a large porch covered with domes.
Figure 11: Mansions of Beylerbeyi Palace Gardens (Originali 2015)
Yildiz Palace Gardens

Yildiz Palace is the last palace settlement of Ottoman Empire, surrounding an area of 500.000 square
meters approximately, in a hillside between Besiktas and Ortakoy over a hill, facing to Bosporus in
Besiktas District. This palace is a complex, comprising of mansions, governmental structures and
parks within a garden and coppice forest, surrounding the whole hillside up to Besikts Hill, starting
from the coast between Besiktas and Ortakoy (Erdoğan, Aliasghari, 2015).
This palace is a complex, comprising of mansions, governmental structures and parks within a garden
and coppice forest, surrounding the whole hillside up to Besiktas Hill, starting from the coast between
Besiktas and Ortakoy. The history of the area goes up to Byzantine Period, and also it is known that
it was a wide forestry area. Conserving its forestry characteristic in the Ottoman Period, Yildiz Area
was used as the recreation area of the sultans, starting from the reign of Suleyman the Magnificent
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(1520– 1566). This area preserved this characteristic for a long time starting from the conquest of
Istanbul, and was also known as Kazancioglu Garden during this period. It became one of the unique
gardens of the sultan during the period of Ahmet the 1st (Niğdeli 2005).
In this area, which is also named as Besiktas Hill, Sultan Ahmet the 1st got a mansion built for his
daughter “Kaya Sultan”. The most important structure that is available from this period to date, is
the fountain, which was to memory of Mustafa the 3rd, as the father of Selim the 3rd. Additionally,
the fountain, which was to memory of Selim the 3rd himself, is the oldest structure remaining to
date, due to being located in the courtyard (Kasif 2010).
One of the most important water structures of the garden is the fountain, which is located at the
southwest of Cit Kasri, and designed by the Architect Raimonda D’Aronco. This fountain is the first
example of gradual water pumping. All the Ottoman fountains were mainly functionality oriented,
gaining the aesthetical characteristics, afterwards. However, the fountain, designed by Raimonda
D’Aronco is of visual characteristics. There are two more fountains at the first yard, in addition to the
fountain designed by D’Aronco. Notwithstanding that there is not any certain information concerning
these two fountains, the fountain, located at the entry of Mabeyn building, is dated to the year 1843,
thus belonging to the period of Abdulaziz. Hamidiye Fountain, laid to the wall of Yaveran Apartment
is dated as 1903.
Figure 12: Yildiz Palace Gardens, Hamidiye Fountain (Original, 2015)
In addition to the mansion parts of the palace, used as residence during the period of Abdulhamid II,
various structures were disconnectedly allocated in the garden, to be used as official departments,
theater, museum, library and workplace. Yildiz Palace, which were surrounded with high walls,
evolved around three yards. Buyuk Mabeyn, Cit Kasri, Yaveran Apartment and Armory were located
on the first yard; while Harem structures, Gedikli Cariyeler Apartment and the theater on the second,
and Ceremony and Chalet Mansions on the third. In the area that is out of the palace walls, Hamidiye
Mosque, Kiler-i Humayun and Clock Tower are located.
Yildiz Palace is surrounded with thick and high walls, closing the gaps between the structures, leaving
no space, except for the hedge structures and barracks. The structures of the Sultan and harem are
in this area, and the private garden of sultan is surrounded with a wall. The design of Dolmabahce
Palace, projecting to keep the whole palace open to the sea-side, while closing solely the private
apartments and harem side on the land-side, is replaced with the traditional and closed palace
concept in Yildiz. The structures located in the gardens of Yildiz Palace are mostly located on the
north-west side of the land. The rest of the areas, particularly the valley behind the Ciragan Palace,
were left to be used as parks. In Yildiz Palace, a settlement and design characteristic is seen, which
can be recognized as the extension of settlement plan for Topkapi Palace. However, it took fifty years
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for Yildiz Palace to reach its current size, which took 300 years for empire to build Topkapi Palace,
during the wealthiest period (Kuban, 2007).
Figure 13: Yildiz Palace Gardens (Original, 2014)
Conclusion
Studied within the scope of this research, the historical palace gardens are of great importance for
today’s users and future generations as cultural heritages. Additionally, historical palace gardens
function significantly in terms of culture, refractive and tourism, due to the quantitative and
qualitative plant material that are contained, and for being structured in different periods, as well as
being affected by various art movements. Garden art, like any art forms, has developed in the
historical process, within the scope of various concepts. For garden art formation and development,
variation in culture, religious beliefs and the life-style have been the fundamental elements. 18th
century is an era of reform movement, when they started to be experienced in the Ottoman Empire,
considered as westernization attempts, this era was a preparation period with regards to
restructuring economy and activities, as well as the architectural areas and thus changes were
experienced in garden styles, as well.
As investigated within the scope of the research, historical palace gardens are of crucial importance
for today’s users and the future generation, due to being cultural heritages. What is more, they
function in daily use culturally both in recreation and touristic aspects, and quality, quantity,
structuring. In the context of different concepts, garden art has developed within the historical
process, as in any art branch. Culture, religious beliefs and lifestyles and social developments have
turned out to be the factors that have direct effects in surfacing of garden art.
Care must be taken for preservation of living and landscape components that make up the garden,
due to the palaces and their gardens together forming an integrity, which remind their period. When
erected in the respective period by making use of the old engraving and photographs in the scope of
restoration works, fitting components like sitting units, statues and fountains must be positioned in
their locations. Periodical maintenance of garden structures, along with the bird cages, orangery and
pergolas situated in the historical palace gardens should be carried out, while ensuring their
functionality. It is a must for the plant species, which are used in Turkish Palace gardens, to have an
informative usage. Placing the introductory boards for introducing national and exotic species, and
determining the plant names are also required. Daily utilization areas such as restaurants and
cafeteria located within the palace gardens must have aptness characteristic with the location they
are in. Historical palace gardens are the cultural assets that are of vital importance within the scope
of reflecting lifestyle of “hanedan”, including the open-air usage of their periods, which has to be
transformed to future generations. Yet, since the plant material is living and rapidly changing,
conservation is quite challenging, meaning that each and every component of the gardens should be
172
sensitively conserved within the scope of the changes throughout the history via special indications.
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7306
THE EVALUATION OF CULTURAL ROUTES IN THE FRAME OF
CULTURAL TOURISM
Elmas Erdoğan
Bilecik, Turkey
Parisa Göker
Bilecik, Turkey
Abstract
The cultural routes are the unique constructions of the respective assets and values of the cultural
heritage within the designated geographical area. The major components striking the balance on the
routes of culture can be summarized under the topics of tangible and intangible cultural inheritance
elements and natural formations. As specified in the Regulation on Routes of Culture published by
ICOMOS in 2008, the cultural routes can be seen in various geographies, thus differentiating by the
history, symbolic characteristics, functions, forms, social environments and economic values from
each other. When examined thoroughly, the cultural routes involve the historical towns, traditional
life style, ancient settlements, monumental buildings of various civilization, natural environment and
wild life depending on the main theme, function and scope of the cultural routes either of local,
regional or national scale is an accession corridor, which is created in today’s World or actually used
within a certain period in the history, bearing the cultural or natural inheritance elements on it, thus
coming into prominence thanks to this inheritance, as well as having the capacity to be improved with
such objectives as conservation, rural and tourism development. In this declaration, the effects of
natural and cultural assets on sustainable cultural tourism are going to be analyzed within 16 routes
of culture that are registered by the Turkish Routes of Culture Union that are located in Turkey,
including Lycia Road, St. Paul Road, Evliya Çelebi Road, Caria Road, Via Egnatia, Kaçkarlar National Park
Hiking Trail, Frig Road, Prophet Abraham Road, Hittite Road, Kızılırmak Basin Gastronomy Road, Ağrı
Mountain, Küre Mountains National Hiking Trail Route, Istiklal Road, Sarıkamış Walks, Istanbul as
between two seas and Yenice Forest Roads.
Keywords: Cultural Route, Cultural Tourism, Natural and Cultural Landscapes, Historical Roads,
sustainable tourism.
Introduction
“European Cultural Routes Programme” as organized by the Council of Europe in 1984 led the
emergence of the term “Cultural Route”, including the first studies on Cultural Routes (Karataş, 2011).
Santiago de Compostela Pilgrim’s road is the first culture road that made to the World Heritage Lists
of UNESCO in 1985. This road was accepted to be a world heritage in 1993. After then, the term
“cultural route” was first brought forward in the meeting of World Heritage Committee, held at
Madrid in 1994. Establishing the Institute of European Cultural Routes in 1994 and constituting the
International Committee of Cultural Routes by ICOMOS has led up the non-physical cultural assets to
be recognized as “World Heritage” as well, bearing an important theme (Karataş, 2011).
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Discussion
Definition of Cultural Landscape and Cultural Routes
Specifically, in relation to huge, tangible and intangible, heritage, in recent years many development
projects, especially in the inland areas, started with recognition of the Cultural Landscape and from
the identification of Cultural Routes. Cultural landscape, as defines by the World Heritage Committee,
are produced by long-term interactions between human and nature in indigenous societies
(UNESCO,2015). In addition, cultural landscape result from consecutive reorganization of the land by
indigenous peoples in order to better adapt the land’s uses and spatial structures to meet the changing
of society demands. They have been recognized as multifunctional landscapes that provide a
multitude of services that benefit people: provisioning goods and products, regulating and supporting
local resources, improving cultural services, ets. As a result, cultural landscapes have been highlighted
for their importance in rebuilding a society that is in better harmony with nature. Therefore, cultural
landscapes were added to the UNESCO world heritage site system in 1992, with the following
definition. Cultural landscapes are cultural properties and represent the “combined works of nature
and man. They are illustrative of the evolution of human society and settlement over time, under the
influence of the physical constraints and/or opportunities presented by their environment and
successive social, economic and cultural forces, both external and internal” (Campolo et al. 2016).
In the contemporary world, cultural itineraries represent a competitive network of wisdom. In the
international and European context, routes are competitive, recognizable and specific precisely due
to their theme. The offer of various routes at the European level is exceptionally rich, which is why the
choice of a theme for major cultural routes of Europe is defined by the basic criteria of the Council of
Europe according to the Resolutions CM/Res (2010)52 and CM/Res (2010)53. Route development
projects at the European level are subject to strict evaluation and selection. Equal criteria apply to
routes of smaller territorial coverage, if the aim is to attract the attention of European travelers
(Cojocariu, 2015). A cultural route has to function as a cultural tourism product as well by having all
necessary product features and offering corresponding content, information and facilities for
providing hospitality and accommodation services. A traveler taking the route wants to have fun, relax
and taste local products; therefore, one has to be provided with all of the above. The selection of an
attractive theme should be based on a historical principle as well as the principle of
contemporaneousness. In order to attract international guests, the cultural routes development
projects should follow at least some of the research and development pillars, according to the
following contents: cultural content, structural content, service content and associated content and
accompanying activities. The contents and offer need to be identified, developed, organized and
balanced along the route (Cojocariu, 2015). Cultural Routes “represent interactive, dynamic, and
evolving processes of human intercultural links that reflect the rich diversity of the contributions by
difficult people to cultural heritage” (CIIC, 2008). The cultural routes demonstrate, by means of
journey through space and time, how the heritage of different countries and cultures contributes to a
shared and living cultural heritage (Campolo et al. 2016).
Methodological framework of cultural routes impact assessment
The assessment of cultural routes development impact falls under the broader issue of measuring
tourism activity effects. These effects are reflected in terms of labor employment, tax revenue,
successful businesses, environmental conservation and cultural preservation at the level of local
communities, but also at macroeconomic level, by the contribution to the economic growth and
sustainable development. For measuring the impact of tourism destinations and their sustainability,
a set of key indicators has been set by the European Commission (2013), divided into four sections:
destination management, economic value, social and cultural impact, environmental impact. Among
these indicators:
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• percentage of destination that has a strategy / action plan on sustainable tourism, with agreed
mechanisms for monitoring, control and evaluation of development;
• percentage of enterprises / structures of the tourism destination using a voluntary and verified
certification / labelling environmental measures / quality / sustainability and / or social
responsibility;
• percentage of visitors satisfied with the general experience enjoyed at tourism destination;
• the percentage of visitors who are aware of the efforts towards maintaining the destination
sustainability
• number of overnights stays (monthly);
• daily tourist expenditures (accommodation, food and drink, other services);
• the average length of overnight stays;
• monthly net use of tourist accommodation capacity (annual average);
• percentage of travel companies taking steps to purchase local goods and services;
• the number of tourists / visitors to 100 residents;
• percentage of destinations covered by a policy or a plan to protect cultural heritage;
• percentage of tourists / visitors who by different modes of transport to reach destination (public
/ private transport type);
• the average length (km) of travel by tourists to and from home / destination or average trip (km);
• percentage of tourism companies involved in climate change mitigation plans;
• waste volume produced by the destination (annually or monthly number of tons per resident);
• volume of waste recycled (or annual percentage resident);
• the percentage of treated wastewater from destination to at least secondary level before
discharge;
• freshwater consumption in overnight stays compared to the rest of the population (water
consumption per night / person);
• energy consumption per overnights stays compared to the local population (per night / person)
(Cojocariu, 2015).
The classification of cultural routes
The classification of cultural routes is developed by examination of trail examples from different
countries. Depending on the basic features of selected examples, like theme, function, context and
content, a classification including historic roads and newly created trails, is developed. With respect
to their thematic aspects, cultural routes existing today can be analyzed in two groups; (A)
transportation corridors used in a period of history for a specific purpose and (B) itineraries which do
not belong to past with its physical presence, but defined today by revaluation of cultural heritage and
natural landscape along them. Below main characteristics of these two major groups and their sub-
groups are summarized and each sub-group is described with selected examples (Karataş, 2011).
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Table 1. The Classification of Cultural Routes (Karataş, 2011)
Cultural Routes in Turkey

Considering the natural, cultural and historical assets of our country has, it is interesting for Turkey
to have only two cultural roads or walking trails, marked in the European standards. One of them
is the Lycia Road, which was unclosed in 1999, while the other one is the St. Paul road, as a religious
and historical route, unclosed in 2004. What they have in common is that both of them are a
walking and exploration route with historical and natural diversity, as well as having attracting
characteristics of alternative tourism activities. Since both routes are connected to the sea, yacht
tourism can also be done. Scuba wreck diving can be done as an alternative tourism activity within
the scope of the yacht tours in the coasts by Lycia Road. In 2012, the Association of Cultural Routes
was established with the support of Ministry of Culture and Tourism, and today, reached to thanks
to the studies & works of the association, the number of routes that have been marked and
introduced reached to 17.
• Lycia Road, Hittite Road, Phrygian Road, Caria Road

• St. paul Road, Prophet Abraham Road
• Istiklal Road
• Kaçkar Mountains,
• Küre Mountains,
• Ağrı Mountain
• Via Egnatia
• Evliya Çelebi Route
• Gastronomy Route
• Sarıkamış Route
• Yenice Forests
Thematic development axes have been designated within the scope of Tourism Strategy 2023 by
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the Ministry of Tourism AND Culture. The strategy, defined under the headline “Tourism
development corridors”, is as follows: “It is the development of a certain route for tourism, based
on certain themes, by restoring its natural and cultural texture.” Accordingly, the objective was to
increase the attractiveness of tourism assets on regional scale, as well as developing the alternative
tourism and providing guidance for investors. Diversification of transportation, and development
of boutique hotel and B&B (bed and breakfast) are among the objectives in this line. 7 thematic
tourism corridors that were identified are as follows:
• Olive corridor
• Winter corridor
• Religious tourism corridor
• Western Black Sea tourism corridor
• Tableland corridor
• Thracian culture corridor
Route planning to provide the opportunity for contacting with the local community is of
importance, unlike the central administration works that stipulate tourism strategies on regional
scale like tourism development regions, tourism axes, master plans. Route planning is a functional
tool oriented designing tourism programmes, which focus on protecting and keeping the heritage
alive, while considering the needs of local community. Therefore, it should be noted that the routes
offer potentials for strengthening locality and horizontal relations (Tarihi Kentler Birliği Vakfı ve
ÇEKÜL, 2015).
Table 2: Local, National and International Cultural Routes in Turkey (Original, 2018).
Cultural Routes Theme / Activity Related Institution Level

Lycia Way Coastal, Cycling Association of Cultural Routes International
Prophet Abraham Path History, Religion Association of Cultural Routes International
Via Egnatia Culture, Peace Association of Cultural Routes International
St. Paul Trail Nature, History, Association of Cultural Routes National
Horse riding
Evliya Çelebi Way Nature, History, Association of Cultural Routes National
Horse riding
Caria Road Coast, History Association of Cultural Routes National
Kaçkarlar National Park Hiking Trail Nature Association of Cultural Routes National
Phrygian Way History, Cycling Association of Cultural Routes National
Hittite Trail History, Cycling Association of Cultural Routes National
Ağrı Mountain Nature Association of Cultural Routes National
Küre Mountains National Hiking Nature Association of Cultural Routes National
Trail Route
Istiklal (Independence) Trail Bicycle Association of Cultural Routes National
Sarıkamış Trails Nature, Cycling Association of Cultural Routes National
Yenice Forest Roads Nature Association of Cultural Routes National
Gastronomy Route Cycling Association of Cultural Routes National
Between Two seas Cruising Association of Cultural Routes National
Lycian Road
The Lycia Region, called Teke Peninsula today, is located along the southwestern coast of Anatolia.
In ancient times, the region is defined by provinces of Caria in the west, Phrygia in the north and
Pamphylia and the Antalya Gulf in the east (Harrison, 2001). Today, natural boundaries of the
peninsula are formed by Mediterranean Sea in the south, Dalaman Çayı in the west, Western Taurus
Mountains in the north and Antalya Gulf in the east. According to Bayburtluoğlu, Lycia is the region
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that lays on a geography at the south of a line between Antalya and Fethiye bays (Bayburtluoğlu,
2004). A great part of Lycia falls within the boundaries of Antalya, and the rest falls within Muğla.
Kemer, Kumluca, Finike, Demre, Kaş and Elmalı towns of Antalya and Fethiye of Muğla are forming
administratively divided districts of the region.
Lycian road is a 509-km-long, old trading route. Today, it is a part of our modern life, after the
project contest was organized by Garanti Bank in 1996 in order to reveal the national assets, and
the project “Lycia Road” won the first place, as presented by Cate Clow, who is a citizen of UK. The
hiking route was put into service in 1999, after a certain part of the pathways over the road were
marked and mapped by volunteers and Cate Clow. Notwithstanding that some of the marks have
locally disappeared, the whole track has been marked, and the maintenance works are carried out
by supporting organizations and volunteers. The first part of Lycia Road, starting from Fethiye
Ölüdeniz, goes up to Faralya Village, Butterfly Valley, Kabak Bay, Yedi Burunlar, Sdyma, Pınara,
Letoon, Xanthos ancient cities and Patara with its thin sands. The second part of the route leads up
to Antalya through Antiphellos/Kaş, Apollonia, Simena, Kekova, Mira/Demre, Limra and
Yanartaş/Olympos & Faselis, with a fire, which has been burning for centuries. Named as “Lykia
th
Road”, this route is recognized as the 4 longest in Europe, and 10th most beautiful hiking route in
the world (Tarihi Kentler Birliği Vakfı ve ÇEKÜL, 2015).
Figure 1: Lycia Cultural Route (Anonym 1, 2018)
Prophet Abraham Path
Prophet Abraham has a significant place in the beginning of a spiritual and cultural tradition, which
is shared by more than half of the world population in today’s world. Despite having a history that
hoes up to 4000 years before, to the Bronze Age, the story of Prophet Abraham is still remembered
and celebrated in the sacred places and historical cities all around Middle East. The remembrance of
Prophet Abraham is maintained the most probably by the people living in Şanliurfa, located in the
southeast of Turkey. According to a myth, Şanliurfa is depicted as the city, where he was born and
spent his childhood, and it has been recognized as a pilgrimage center for over a thousand years. A
structural complex comprising of caves, mosques, gardens and pools is, in fact, the city center, itself.
By starting to walk from here, one can reach to Harran, as the starting point of Prophet Abraham’s
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journey to Mekke and holy lands.
Urfa is a sacred city par excellence, built around a ritual complex of mosques, caves, and blessed carp
pools marking the site where Abraham was born. Visitors will follow Abraham’s footsteps through
these ancient environs, and explore a mosaic of surrounding sites whose significance stretches both
before and after the time of the patriarch. You might start in the capital city Urfa, where you can
explore the famed pilgrimage sites of Balikligol and sample some of the city’s celebrated cuisine. Or
opt for the biblical city of Harran, where Abraham dwelt with Sarah before travelling on to the
promised land of Canaan. The remnants of this era (the Well of Jacob, the city of Jethro) are tucked
among the cotton fields and mud-brick homes of today’s Arab and Kurdish villages. Within a days’
walk of Harran lie several hilltop shrines that rise suddenly from the surrounding plateau; some, like
the recently discovered archaeological wonder of Gobekli Tepe, are visible for miles around. This
remarkable prehistory is rivaled by Urfa’s historical treasures: the city was once home to pagans,
Jews, Christians and Muslims, each of whom lent a distinctive flair to Urfa’s contemporary culture,
cuisine, and architecture (Tarihi Kentler Birliği Vakfı ve ÇEKÜL, 2015).
Figure 2: Prophet Abraham Cultural Path (Anonym 2, 2018)
Via Egnatia
The Via Egnatia has been such a road par excellence, being the connection between the western and
eastern part of the Roman Empire. Built in the 3rd century BC (under consul Egnatius) as an extension
of the Via Appia, it runs through the Balkans from Durrës (Dyrrachium) in Albania, through FY Republic
of Macedonia and Northern Greece all the way to Istanbul (Byzantium) in Turkey. Originally
a military road, it served economic and social functions for more than two millenia. After the decline
of the Roman Empire the Byzantines used and protected the road. After them came the Ottomans,
who send their tax collectors and trade-karavans along its trail. Used by soldiers and later by
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crusaders, preachers and bandits, merchants and peasants on their way to the local market, tax
collectors, karavans with up to two hundred mules and donkeys, loaded with skins, wines, wood and
sulphur, the road served local as well as interlocal purposes. Many different ethnic groups made use
of the Via Egnatia, and met each other along its trails, in its karavan-serails: Greeks and Jews, Vlachs
and Pomaks, Turks, Venetians, Egyptians and Roma. Also, modern migrants travelled long it, for
example the Evros-Greeks who left their country in the sixties and (many of them) came back in the
last decade. So, the Via Egnatia - with intervals due to political or geographical trouble has been a real
trans-Balkan highway (Anonym 3, 2018).
Figure 3. Via Egnatia Cultural Route (Anonym 4, 2018)
St. Paul Road
St. Paul Trail is the second longest road after Lycia way, as one of the marked walking trails of Turkey,
one branch of which starts from Perge, while the other starts from Aspendos, reaching to Isparta –
Yalvaç through Eğirdir Lake by aligning in the Adada ancient city near Sütçüler. This pathway, of
which length is about 410 km, marked in the organization by Kardelen Karlı (Kate Clow) and Terry
Richardson with the help of local residents in 2004, comprises of the route followed by Saint Paul,
making great contributions for spreading the christianity, in Anatolia for spreading it to the tribes
other than Jews in Jerusalem (Sarı, 2007).
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Figure 4: St. Paul Cultural Route (Anonym 5, 2018)
Evliya Çelebi Road
Evliya Çelebi was an Ottoman Turkish gentleman adventurer who travelled far and wide for over 40
years. Born in Istanbul, he made many journeys across the sultan’s domains to the frontiers of the
Ottoman Empire in the Balkans and the Middle East, and far beyond to the Habsburg emperor’s seat
at Vienna, towards the headwaters of the Nile, and to the Caucasus and Iran. Often, he travelled on
official business, but also for pleasure. His observations on everyday life in the 17th century is a unique
record of his times. Among his many accomplishments, Evliya was a scholar, raconteur, dervish,
musician, and linguist. He dubbed himself ‘World Traveler and Boon Companion to Mankind’ and wore
a ring inscribed ‘The World Traveler Evliya’. He aimed to describe everything he saw on his journeys,
and left a record of his wanderings in 10 large volumes, the Seyahatname, or Book of Travels.
Following the first parts of his Pilgrimage journey taken in 1671, this road was opened in 2011, as the
400th birthday of Evliya, and declared by UNESCO as the celebration year of Evliya’s life and what he
accomplished. Evliya Çelebi Road passes through or near the regions of the most spelended and
diversified landscapes, various villages, as well as towns and cities where the Ottoman Empire was
established, thus having a history of great importance. The route follows locally the rivers, pathways,
tractor and forest trails, floor-covered roads from Roman and Ottoman periods. The areas with rough
ground surfaces are rarely seen. With a bridleway of 650km, it takes about 25 days, excluding the
resting and visiting intervals. Not considering the plain grounds, the walking route is about 330 km
long, which takes about 22 days to complete, excluding the resting and visiting intervals. (Anonym 6,
2018).
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Figure 5: Evliya Çelebi Cultural Route (Anonym 6, 2018)
Carian Trail
The Carian Trail is an 800 km long distance walking path exploring Southwest Turkey through the
modern provinces of Muğla and Aydın. The trail is named after the Carian civilization. On route you
will discover a region rich in ancient ruins and history. Stone paved caravan roads and mule paths
connect villages from the coast to a mountainous hinterland. Pine forest cloaks the mountain slopes
whilst olive terraces and almond groves are an important part of the region’s economy. (Anonym 7,
2018) Carian Trail, is the longest trekking route (820 km) in Turkey, covering the provinces Muğla and
Aydın. Taking the name of Caria civilization, which lived on this area in the ancient times, this walking
route, with its unique architecture, passes through a number of villages, untouched bays, hills full of
olive and almond trees, as well as small and large ancient cities, some of which can only be accessed
by foot.
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Figure 6: Caria Cultural Route (Anonym 7, 2018)
Kaçkarlar National Park Hiking Trail
The Kaçkar Mountains are an extension of the Caucasus, and separate the Black Sea from Anatolia.
Armenians and Georgians settled early in the Pontic Alps, now the Kaçkar, later building wonderful
stone monastery churches hidden in the mountains. The Turks gradually occupied the area from the
11th century but area remained ethnically mixed; Turkish, Hemşin and Laz languages are still used
(ÇEKÜL, 2018). Kaçkarlar is one of the few areas with regards to its bio-diversity. Here, you can find
old and verdant forests, highlands, where once the bulls used to be grazed, three glacier masses and
many glacier lakes, sharp basaltic peaks.
Figure 7: Kaçkarlar National Park Hiking Trail Cultural Route (Anonym 8, 2018)
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Phrygian Way
Creating a shining civilization around 3000 years ago in the geography across AfyonKarahisar, Ankara,
Eskişehir and Kütahya provinces (Phrygia), the trails of Phrygians, making a name with their legends,
are long walking and biking routes in international standards at the present time. The total length of
the road, comprising of three main routes, is 506 km; the whole route is marked with red and White
colors in order to facilitate the tracking of road. Magnificent ancient roads, with a depth of 2 to 3
meters at certain locations, due to the tuff-rock structure of the region, and connecting the ancient
areas in Phrygia (Gordion, Pessinus, Midas) to each other, constitutes the main theme of Phrygian
road. Starting in three branches from Gordion (Ankara), Seydiler (Afyonkarahisar) and Yenice Farm
(Kütahya), and entering into the Phrygian soils, aligns in Yazılıkaya-Midas (Eskişehir) as the center of
Phrygian civilization. The road follows the splendid routes where the magnificent monuments
created by rock-scraping by Phrygians, and the unique works of Roman, Byzantine and Seljukian
civilizations can be seen, while feeling the marginal touches of Phrygian alleys together with nature
and history, as well as breathing the relaxing atmosphere in.
Figure 8. Frig Cultural Route (Anonym 9, 2018)
Hittite Trail
Hittite Trail was constituted by old migration and caravan routes in Alacahöyük – Shapinuva triangle,
as one of the other important Hittite settlement areas of Çorum, including the Boğazköy-Hattuşa line
within the World Heritage List of UNESCO. 17 tracks over the route, marked for 236 kilometers,
reaches up to 380 kilometers with alternative routes. The total length of six mountain biking tracks is
about 405 kilometers. The backbone of the routes is constituted by Boğazkale – Hattuşa – Shapinuva,
Alacahöyük – Alaca – Shapinuva and Boğazkale – Alacahöyük routes. Alaca River Valley and İncesu
Canyon covers the alternative routes. In the area, there are some other activities that are performed
like canyoning, rock climbing, photo safari, handline fishing, caravan and camping, in addicting the
walking and biking (Demirel, 2016).
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Figure 9: Hitit Cultural Route (Çorum Valiliği, 2016)
Ağrı Mountain
Named as “Eğri Dağ” in old Turkic, “Küh-i Nuh” by Persians, Cebel-ül Haris (Ararat the Magnificent) by
Arabs, Masik by Armenians, and Ararat by the Western societies, Ararat is the highest mountain of
Europe and Turkey with an altitude of 5137 meters. It can be seen within kilometers of distance from
Iğdır in the north, and Doğubayazıt in the south. With his little brother “Little Ararat” at the east with
an altitude of 3896 meters, it rises majesticly before Doğubayazıt. These two cones rising on a
common bottom up to 2500 meters, are separated from each other by Serdarbulak Pass (2687 m)
with a length of 14 kilometers. There are many tablelands on this pass over an old caravan road. Due
to its geological location, and hosting the Noah’s Ark after the Biblical Flood, it is an important
mountain (Demirel, 2012).
The cone of Mount Ararat is surrounded by several summits higher than 3000m. The slopes of all these
mountains are covered with basalt blocks and lava flows, blown out by ancient volcanic eruptions.
They harbor a variety of birds and rare wild flowers as well as small lakes. The area attracts
mountaineers and nature lovers with several well-known mountaineering routes. Known as the “roof”
of Turkey, the province of Ağrı includes four of Turkey’s highest summits: Greater Ararat 5137m.,
Mount Süphan 4058m., Lesser Ararat 3896m., Mount Tendürek 3533m. Süphan’s summit is in Bitlis
but the north-eastern slopes are located within Ağrı province. Ararat walking routes include Greater
Ararat, Lesser Ararat, Mount Süphan, Mount Köse summits and Balık and Küp high tarns (ÇEKÜL,
2018).
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Figure 10: Ağrı Mountain Cultural Route (Anonym 11, 2018)
Küre Mountains National Hiking Trail Route
Such factors as genetics, species, natural diversity, existence of rarely seen and endangered species,
age and maturity of the ecosystem and sensibility for external elements sets out the importance of an
area in terms of natural conservation. The areas with high endemism level and increasingly exposed
to natural loss, are named as Hot Point by the nature protectors in all over the world. (kdmp.gov,
2018).
Figure: 11: Küre Mountains Cultura Route (Anonym 12, 2018)
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Istiklal (independence ) Trail
Wars of independence give rise to legends and symbols of national rebirth. The Independence Route
connects the corners of a triangle which played an important role during Turkey’s War of Independence.
During the war, boatloads of arms and ammunition arrived at the port of Inebolu from İstanbul and
Russia over a period of three years. A dirt road, built at the end of the 19th century by volunteers and
convicts, connected the port of Inebolu to Ankara, and was a vital conduit for military supplies. The
famous saying of Mustafa Kemal, “While my eyes scanned Sakarya and Dumlupinar (battlefields), my
ears were at Inebolu” demonstrates the importance of the Independence Route, plied by the oxcarts
carrying their burdens towards independence (ÇEKÜL, 2018). With a length of 105 kilometers in total,
Istiklal Road reaches from İnebolu to Kastamonu, Çankırı and Ankara. 10 of 105 kilometers of the trail
route is a pathway, while the rest is known to be ox-cart path (Ayaeş, 2018).
Figure 12: Istiklal Cultural Route (Ayaeş, 2018)
Sarıkamış Trails
Expanding over high plateaus found et altitudes of 1500 through 3000 metres, Sarıkamış falls to the
southwest of Kars Province. Located at the edge of Kars Duzu (Kars Plain) besieged by Mounts
Allahuekber, Soganli and Gullu, Sarıkamış is at the spot where the Anatolian peninsula transitions to
Caucasia (Transcaucasia region). The settlement bears all geographical characteristics of Eastern Anatolia
Region and its lands demarcated by Selim and Senkaya townships of Erzurum Province) from the north,
Horasan and Eleskirt townships (of Erzurum) from the south, Selim and Kagizman districts from the east
and Senkaya and Horasan population centers from the west (ÇEKÜL, 2018). The largest forested land of
Kars, covered with wide plains and elevations up to 3.000 meters, is located in Sarıkamış district.
“Sarıkamış Walking Trails” project has been carried into effect in order to make use of the tourism
potential not only for simply winter, but for twelve months, while energizing the available dynamics. In
addition to this project, walking trail routes have been established in Susuz Valley, around Boğatepe
Ecotourism Village, as one of the most important tourism potentials of Kars
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Figure 13: Sarıkamış Cultural Route (Anonym 13, 2018)
Yenice Forest Roads
In 1999 the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) designated one hundred “Hot Spots of European Forests”
regions of extraordinary biodiversity requiring immediate protection. The Yenice Forest in Karabük
Province, is one the nine “Hot Spots” in Turkey. The route was created as part of a project instigated by
the Governorship of Karabuk and the Administrator of Yenice County in October 2009. 21 trails were
marked along 210 kilometres, and together with the alternative trails the total route adds up to 396
kilometres. The trails are classified either as daytrips, short trips or long trips and include forestry roads
and footpaths. Mountain bike trails total 292 kilometres. Trail marking is in accordance with the
international “Grande Randonnée” system, with red and white paint markers and signposts mark the
routes’ beginnings, ends and junctions. Later the trails are extended to Eskipazar (Karabük) including
the ruines of Hadrianoupolis. 8 more paths have been added and the extension project is called
‘Trekking Routes from Nature to History – Eskipazar’ (ÇEKÜL, 2018).
Yenice Forests, with its monumental trees, which can be rarely seen in the world except for the
tropical areas, verdant valleys, mountains up to the altitudes of 2000 meters, deep canyons,
continuously gurgling rivers, surprising falls, wild life and botanical diversity, is recognized as a real
ecotourism center for various outdoor activities. In addition to daily or camping walking trails and
biking routes, such activities like canyoning, rock-climbing, bird watching, photo safari, botanical
hiking, rafting and paragliding can be performed on this area, as well.
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Figure 14: Yenice Forest Cultural Route (Anonym 14, 2018).
Gastronomy Route
Know in Roman times as Niconia, also referred to as Yankoniye, Trokmu and Gordiana, the Greek origin
of the name Çorum is Dzorum. According to a study, the name Corum comes from a tribe connected to
Üçok branch of the Oghuz Turks. A different concept, used for the first time in Turkey, was used to
prepare the Kızılırmak Basin Corum Gastronomy and Walking Route project. In an ecotourism study, the
cultural, historical and natural beauty of settlements along the Kızılırmak were evaluated and found to
support a unique food culture. Along the route of the river, in the lap of nature, a steady flow of travellers
make a ceaseless journey though time and space, borne by the currents of time, spreading this culture.
As a result of the evaluation of Kızılırmak Basin for ecotourism, 190 kilometers of gastronomy and hiking
trails are now marked. They are made up of 25 tracks, along with alternative routes, totalling 305
kilometers. Similar to other trails in Turkey, the trails include long walking routes of 37 and 52-kilometer
length marked with red-and-white waymarks. There are 7 bicycle routes totalling 606 kilometers,
generally following village and forest paths. A 702kilometer section known as the Scenic Vehicle Road,
begins at Hirfanlı Dam, near Kırşehir and passes through Kirikkale, Ankara, Çankırı, Corum, Samsun and
Sinop provinces. Those who want to follow the northbound Kızılırmak from the town of Avanos in the
province of Nevsehir can use parts of this route parallel to the river to reach the Black Sea littoral. Those
who wish to see the historical values of Çorum can follow the 359 kilometer Culture Route. Thus, you
can, on one journey, pass the ancient sites of Hattusa, Yazılıkaya, Alacahöyük, Corum Museum and the
clock tower, Kapılıkaya, Osmancık Koyunbaba Bridge, Kandiba Castle, the Citadel and the Mosque of
Hacıhamza Kargi, İskilip Castle and Rock Tombs, Ugurludag Resuloğlu ruins and Sungurlu clock tower. At
the same time, all the bike routes and the Scenic Vehicle Road can be combined as a jeep safari route
(ÇEKÜL, 2018).
Between Two seas
“Between Two Seas” is a four-day walking route in the near west of Istanbul, between the Black Sea and
the Marmara Sea, which allows one to experience the threatening transformation of Istanbul on foot.
The total length of the trail is 60 kilometers. The route composed of four 15-kilometre parts can also be
covered over four separate days. Layer by layer, the route progresses from the outermost periphery of
190
the city to its center. It passes through rural and forest areas, and water basins to reach the center of
the city. The trajectory passes through lignite mines, the area earmarked for the new airport, the road
leading to the 3rd Bosphorus Bridge, excavation dump sites, industrial sites and housing areas, and also
sites of cultural and historical significance such as the Yarımburgaz Cave, which is the oldest settlement
in Istanbul, and inner-city vegetable gardens.
Figure 15: Between Two Seas Cultural Route (Anonym 15, 2018)
Conclusion
As a recently developing new concept, cultural routes represent systems that bear significant elements
of cultural and natural heritage, thus requiring planning processes that are different than those for a
single site. They can be designed as a tool for conservation of heritage, improvement of tourism sector
and enhancement of development, while possessing the potential to be developed by revaluation of
transportation corridors that were used in past for specific purposes, like migration routes, commercial
corridors and military roads. In both cases, a cultural route or network constituted by several sub-trails,
could be utilized for enhancement of heritage, especially through cultural landscapes in rural areas.
Regarding characteristics of cultural landscapes that emerge with interaction of man and nature in time,
route planning can be used as a tool for easing conservation processes of heritage, especially at regional
scale. Interpretation and presentation of historical context at regional scale can be improved by using
the connecting and mobile character of routes and networks. Hence, a system including elements of
both historical and contemporary world can be developed to build up a holistic understanding of a
region.
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191
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Roman and Early Byzantine Period. University of Michigan Press, USA.
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Cultural Routes, Ratified by the 16 th General Assembly of ICOMOS, Quebec, Canada, 4 October 2008.
Karataş, E. (2011). The Role of Cultural Route Planning in Cultural Heritage Conservation the Case of
Central Lycia. Middle East technical University, The Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences.
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5-3. İstanbul.
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192
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7327
A RISING VALUES IN CONSERVATION OF URBAN TEXTURE:
INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE
Arife Karadağ
Associate Professor
İzmir, Turkey.
karadagarife@gmail.com
Leman İncedere
PhD student
İzmir, Turkey
lemanincedere@hotmail.com
Abstract
Industrial sites and buildings are essential indicators of the socio-economic past of a country together
with their mechanical equipment that performs the production and the structures in which they are
located. Especially upon the rapid urbanization movements experienced in the aftermath of the Second
World War, one was confronted with deep transformations which contributed to the disappearance of a
large number of industrial assets known as industrial heritage. Urban growth mostly led to the
disappearance of the physical representation of the former ways of life that were a crucial part of the
sociocultural structure. Old industrial sites are of importance in that they are both the eyewitnesses of
and the driving force for an important period of the history of humanity. Handing the industrial heritage
down to future generations depends on preserving the original identities of old buildings, along with
introducing them to the urban life with an appropriate function. The studies for the adaptive reuse of
those old industrial buildings which lost their function through the decisions taken in an unplanned and
unconscious fashion may cause further destruction. Therefore, the convenience of old buildings for the
pattern and demands of the city is essential in the restructuring process. This study aims to reveal the
importance of the industrial heritage sites and buildings – which have been important components of the
city since ancient periods – for the physical and socio-economic development of the city.
Keywords: Industrial heritage, urban memory, deindustrialization, historical & cultural identities, Turkey
Introduction
Industrialization led to significant changes in the urban landscape. This new landscape provided the
formation of the modern urban structure upon the intensification of industries and with the needs of the
gradually increasing population. Upon the gradual development of post-Fordism in the developed
economies in the aftermath of the Second World War, industrial heritage occurred as both a material by-
product and a social structure (Harvey, 2002). It is seen that globalization, deindustrialization, industrial
relocation and economic (re)conversion have had a profound impact on the traditional industrial sites
throughout the whole world in the recent years in particular (Loures and Panagopoulos, 2007).
Recently, emphasis has been placed on the need to regard industrial heritage as a source for urban
development and to acknowledge it as an integral part of the collective identity. The evaluation by Henri
Lefebvre (2014, p. 182), who made innumerable important studies on space; by saying “No space
disappears completely or disappears without leaving any mark… every layer takes its own conditions
beyond itself every period. Is it the effect of metaphorization? Yes, but it also includes a metaphoric
impact, for superposed spaces still form a group (a whole).” is important at this point. An industrial
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building or site should be regarded as an element of space the whole landscape of which forms through
interaction over time, beyond being considered a building or a group of buildings.
With a similar approach, Xie (2015, p. 37) defines industrial heritage as a part of the urban palimpsest
which encompasses factory buildings and the remains of the successive industrial periods likely to be
found at different sites.
Baudelaire uses the concept of palimpsest as a metaphor and likens it to the memory (Terdiman, 1993,
p. 109). The reading of the urban space as a palimpsest is a type of stratification state which occurs with
the construction of what is new over the remains of what is old as some physical continuity. This
stratification is a conceptual process as much as it is a physical process in terms of the urban life. Hence,
a city’s state of being a palimpsest cannot merely be explained via physical processes and the concepts
deeply associated with the city such as time, memory, culture, identity, and experience should not be
ruled out (Özkan and Özdemir, 2017). An evaluation should be made as a whole at the stage of the
adaptive reuse of industrial heritage sites and buildings too and this collective structure of the building
should be preserved.
The importance of old industrial buildings and sites for the urban life should not be disregarded.
Furthermore, if the necessary interventions in these sites are not made, one may be confronted with
problems which will negatively affect the urban life in economic and social terms over time. That’s why
it is essential to physically renovate these sites, to improve the infrastructure, and to adapt them to new
sites (Nikoliç, 2014). Urban transformation includes the decisions and practices which attribute a new
identity and character to derelict and worn urban areas in sociocultural, economic, and physical terms
(Tolga, 2006). Industrial sites make up a derelict and idle site withdrawn from the center as a result of
the increased commodity value of city centers. It is important to turn these sites into useful elements for
the environment and the socio-economic life by using one or more of the methods of renovation,
rehabilitation, conservation, gentrification, and integration.
Industrial heritage sites are generally sites with a quite high commodity value at the city center.
Therefore, they are generally demolished by disregarding their cultural and socio-economic significance
for the city. The concept of “industrial heritage” was defined as “a commodity that nobody can identify
but that everybody is willing to sell” by Hewison (1987, p. 9). It should be borne in mind that these sites
are cultural elements with an important place in the urban memory.
“Rapidly growing regions and countries destroy – in a carefree manner – the historic spaces,
houses, palaces, factories, and others that occurred over time. If one finds an advantage or
a profit in this destruction, that work disappears. Later on, towards the end of the
accelerated growth, these same countries discover the use of the space for cultural
consumption, for ‘culture’ itself, for tourism and leisure, and for big promising industries.
Upon this, these countries reconstruct with great costs what they have demolished. If the
devastating initiatives have not been successful completely, one resorts to ‘renovation’ and
then one imitates and copies and what has been destroyed in the frenzy of growth is
adored.“ (Lefebvre, 2014, p. 362).
It is quite important to understand the value of industrial sites before they are lost. Especially one of the
most important reasons why industry-oriented urban areas have become depression regions is that these
areas have lost their economic vitality as a consequence of deindustrialization. In this context, as also
stressed by Roberts and Sykes (2000), urban transformation aims to use the revival of the local economy
as a means to improve the areas undergoing physical, environmental, and social depression. The adaptive
reuse of derelict sites will stimulate local trade, instigate the dynamics of economy with methods like
creating new spatial formations, and form a driving force for physical regeneration.
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Industrial Heritage Conservation Studies from the World and in Turkey
Old industrial sites are widely in the “brownfield” status due to various qualities of theirs. The term
“brownfield” was first used in the literature in the 1970s to describe some sort of regeneration process
of the available steel factories in the steel industry of the United States (Alpan, 2012). A clear definition
of industrial heritage is required to understand it more clearly. A wide variety of definitions of the concept
of industrial heritage have been made in the world. The definition in the “NIZHNY TAGIL” Charter, signed
in 2003 and prepared by the International Committee for the Conservation of the Industrial Heritage
(TICCIH), is one of the most accepted ones. As mentioned in the charter:
“Industrial heritage consists of the remains of industrial culture which are of historical,
technological, social, architectural or scientific value. These remains consist of buildings and
machinery, workshops, mills and factories, mines and sites for processing and refining,
warehouses and stores, places where energy is generated, transmitted and used, transport
and all its infrastructure, as well as places used for social activities related to industry such
as housing, religious worship or education.” (Nizhny Tagil, 2003).
Especially the old industrial buildings which lost their functions and remained idle mostly due to the rapid
technological developments at the city centers began to be mentioned in the literature as the cultural
heritage required to be conserved as of the second half of the twentieth century. The site first inscribed
on UNESCO’s World Cultural Heritage List of Industrial Monuments/Sites in 1978 was the Wieliczka Salt
Mine in Poland. Industrial heritage includes the tangible and intangible sides of the human systems
considered culturally important for the aesthetic, economic, historical, organizational, political, and social
values (see Table 1). Timothy (2011, p. 369) adds that the range of industrial resources should go beyond
production, the unearthing of natural resources, transportation, and transportation-related remains and
sites.
Table 1: Types and Examples of Industrial Heritage Sites
Industrial Site Examples
Factories, assembly plants, sifting plants, mills, glass-blowing work,

textile factories, leatherwork, breweries, wine works, mint, printing
Production and Processing
houses, pots and kilns, diamond workshops, and animal processing
facilities
Mine Sources Mines with open quarries, underground mines, quarries, and timber
factory
Transportation and Transport Railways, canals, aqueducts, bridges, shipyards, quays, depots, and
transport museums
Engineering Bridges, dams, and aviation facilities
Generation of Energy Hydroelectric power plants, nuclear energy stations, dams, and
windmills
Disposal Systems Sewerage, storage areas, and burning facilities
Other Relevant Places Harbor zones and industrial museums
Source: Timothy (2011, p. 369)
Reuse, accessibility and character have been the emphasized important issues in the conversion of the
industrial heritage worldwide recently. Additionally, various design concepts and the design of old
industrial buildings without being damaged and without losing their characters are on the agenda as
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sensitive points that attention should be paid to (Oeverman and Mieg, 2015). At this point, the studies to
determine and conserve old industrial sites and buildings by the UNESCO are essential. Of 1,031 sites
registered in the world heritage list as of 2015, 74 were determined as industrial heritage
(http://whc.unesco.org/en/list).
Apart from the conservation and sustenance studies conducted by the UNESCO, it is seen that significant
steps are taken within the conceptual, legal, corporate, and cultural frameworks worldwide so as to
maintain the industrial heritage. The graduate programs opened at the universities particularly in England
and the United States of America concerning the conservation of industrial heritage, the struggle by
nongovernmental organizations, the institutions aiming to document and conserve the industrial
heritage within the international framework such as the TICCIH (The International Committee for the
Conservation of the Industrial Heritage), the ICOMOS (the International Council on Monuments and Sites),
and the DOCOMOMO (The International Committee for Documentation and Conservation of Buildings,
Sites and Neighborhoods of the Modern Movement), the conferences and seminars regularly organized
by these institutions and the periodicals they issue, the expansion of the concept of industrial heritage
from the building scale to the regional scale and the inclusion of policies on the conservation of such sites
in the legal legislation are a few of these initiatives (Köksal, 2000).
In Turkey, however, industrial heritage has begun to be highlighted particularly for several decades. In
1982, the Charter for the Conservation of the Architectural Heritage of Turkey was issued by the TGNA
with an approach that adopted the considerations addressed in such documents as the Convention on
the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage, the Convention on the Conservation of the
Architectural Heritage of Europe, and the European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological
Heritage and the international documents prepared by the ICOMOS (ICOMOS, 2013). Within the scope
of this conservation charter, as also seen in Figure 2, the industrial site or building to be acknowledged
as heritage is first of all expected to have some originality in terms of material, design, and cultural values
in order for buildings or groups of buildings to be conserved and to qualify as a cultural property. This
originality should not be damaged but should be preserved at the stages of the arrangements made and
of reuse.
A building’s possession of conservation value as an industrial site and its providing of information on the
social, cultural, and economic lives as well as technology of the period of its foundation depend on the
adaptive reuse of the historic building concerned and its inclusion in the present urban life.
Figure 1. Architectural Heritage Conservation Approaches in Turkey

Source: The diagram was organized from the document ‘ICOMOS, 2013’.
Whilst a noteworthy accumulation of knowledge has been achieved in Turkey regarding why industrial
heritage should be conserved, the question of how to conserve it has been of secondary importance and
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the successful practices have failed to go beyond chief examples (Saner, 2012). Now that the place where
industrial sites have developed most in Turkey is İstanbul, the largest number of and best examples in
terms of industrial heritage are seen in and around İstanbul. Factories began to be founded in İstanbul as
of the 1830-40s. The number of factories in İstanbul was 265 in the early twentieth century and only 43
of them have survived to date. Many industrial facilities in our country turned into economic, social, and
physical depression areas abandoned for various economic, political, and social reasons in the 1990s.
When the public industrial buildings of the Republican period are considered, it is seen that they also lost
their function and intensity of use (Torlak, 2013). Thus, this gave rise to the concentration of the initiatives
and projects performed in terms of the concepts of conversion of old industrial sites and conservation of
the industrial heritage generally in İstanbul. In Table 2, it is intended to provide the industrial buildings
and sites displaying different characteristics of use in various provinces of Turkey besides the main well-
conserved industrial heritage buildings and sites in İstanbul.
Table 2. Examples of the adaptive reuse of the industrial heritage sites and buildings in Turkey
Year of
Industrial Heritage Location State of Use
Activity
Silahtarağa Power Museum and Art Gallery, Campus of Bilgi
Kağıthane, İstanbul 1913-1983
Plant University.
Fair, Meeting, Concert, Gala, and
Feshane Eyüp, İstanbul 1839-1986
Exhibition Area
Cibali Tobacco
Fatih, İstanbul 1884-1994 Cibali Campus of Kadir Has University
Factory
Darphane-i Amire
Eminönü, İstanbul 1727-1967 Museum and Exhibition Area
(Imperial Mint)
Bomonti Feriköy, İstanbul 1890-1991 Entertainment Center
Tophane-i Amire Beyoğlu, İstanbul 15th-19th Mimar Sinan Faculty of Fine Arts
(Imperial Cannon centuries
Foundry)
Lengerhane Hasköy, İstanbul 1861-1980 Rahmi Koç Museum and Exhibition Area
(Anchor House)
Kasımpaşa Salt Kasımpaşa, İstanbul 1849-1956 Advertising Agency
Warehouse
Merinos Textile Bursa 1983-2004 Museum and Culture Park
Factory
Merinos Power Bursa 1983-2004 Museum and Exhibition Area
Plant
Gasworks İzmir 1862-1994 Restaurant-Café and Cultural Center
Train Station Mudanya, Bursa 1849-1950 Hotel
Building
SEKA Paper Factory Kocaeli 1936-2005 Museum and Exhibition Area
Kurt Tile and Brick Eskişehir 1928-1986 Museum, Cafeteria, and Restaurant
Factory
Except for the examples of use of these chief industrial heritage buildings in Turkey, Haliç Shipyard,
Beykoz Shoe Factory, Hasan Paşa Gasworks, Paşalimanı Flour Factory, Unkapanı Flour Factory, Cendere
Water Pump Station, Kuzguncuk Gasworks and Nakkaştepe Gasworks, located in İstanbul and still being
at the projecting stage, as well as Azmi National Flour Factory in Aksaray, which is in the process of
conversion into a museum of science and industry, Zonguldak Mine Museum, which qualifies as the first
mine museum in Turkey, and the section of industrial machinery that will form part of the museum
198
designed as the largest archaeology museum of Turkey in Adana are studies which are expected to be
completed and which are quite important in the process of conservation of the industrial heritage and its
reintroduction to the city. Besides, the buildings which are not subject to any adaptive reuse process,
which are idle, and which have a quite important place in terms of industrial heritage such as
Küçükçekmece Match Factory, Kasımpaşa Flour Factory, Yedikule Gasworks, and Dolmabahçe Gasworks
should also be restored, maintained, and introduced to the urban pattern without delay by providing the
necessary sources.
In Lieu of Conclusion…
The studies carried out regarding the concept of industrial heritage, which began to become widespread
in the 1990s, and particularly regarding the adaptive reuse of the early industrial sites in Europe also
came to the fore for the old industrial sites in Turkey; however, it was failed to conduct a process which
was as sound as desired since practices were carried out without adequately basing the justifications for
conservation and the concept of industrial heritage in the adaptive reuse studies performed. As also seen
at many old industrial sites subjected to adaptive reuse in the urban pattern, only the exterior structure
of the facility has been preserved, whereas most of the production units of the building which are as
important as the building itself in terms of production and labor memory have been dismantled from the
facility and destroyed. Even though some essential industrial units are particularly conserved and
exhibited in the important museums in İstanbul, the failure to exhibit them at their original sites has
prevented the urban pattern from being preserved as a whole.
Conservation and adaptive reuse of the industrial heritage by adhering to the necessary legal procedures
mostly become harder for these sites of the city with significant rents. In addition, as seen in many
examples in our country, most of the time, the fact that an old industrial site was registered as a cultural
property, legally conserved, and highlighted by the nongovernmental organizations could not prevent
that building from being destroyed before undergoing restoration. Many examples in our country within
this scope explicitly show us that the failure of the society to have the necessary awareness of these sites
and the bureaucratic obstacles to the conservation of old industrial buildings are quite important. The
level of consciousness we encounter when we examine the social media databases about these sites,
which have become dilapidated in the city over time, is rather thought-provoking. At this point, a great
duty falls to local governments and university institutions. Bonds should be formed among these
institutions at the local and national levels and the bureaucratic obstacles to conservation and adaptive
reuse should be fought in this way. The awareness-raising studies to be carried out regarding the fact
that old industrial sites are not dilapidated and worthless buildings which have remained in the dark in
the city are essential in terms of conservation. Although especially the number of local municipalities in
this field has recently been very small, their initiation of carrying out more conscious studies is a
promising development. Carried out to raise awareness of industrial heritage sites and to highlight these
sites, the industrial heritage mapping project of İstanbul and the studies to illuminate (chimneys of Kurt
Tile Factory in Eskişehir and İzmir Gasworks) and color (Alsancak Silo in İzmir) old industrial sites are
essential initiatives in this sense. Making such studies widespread in all provinces will play a driving role
in both archiving the industrial heritage in our country and materializing new projects.
On the other hand, the failure to conserve the old industrial sites and production elements that are
located in the city and that have integrated with the society and lived with it for years by taking the
necessary measures and remaining indifferent to their disappearance by demolishing or overlooking
them cause cities to get more and more standardized and to lose their subjectivity with every passing
day. Doubtlessly, comprehending the psychological, socio-economic and political parameters that lead
to the loss of identity in cities and preserving the urban pattern and originality by raising awareness of
them in the public opinion are quite difficult actions. Nevertheless, if no effort is put to this end, we will
have to live in cities which are deprived of an identity and which go on growing with the semantic gaps
they create.
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Biographical Notes
Arife Karadag is an Associate Professor in the Department of Geography, Ege University at İzmir, Turkey
where she teaches courses on sustainable cities, urban conservation and city tourism. Her research
focuses on sustainable community, sustainable cities and cultural heritage in Turkey.
Leman Incedere is the PhD student at Ege University Social Science Institute, Izmir- Turkey, where she
studies a Human and Economic Geography program. She is continuing her doctorate education about
urban conservation and cultural heritage.
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7338
SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHERS’ VIEWS ABOUT VALUES EDUCATION AND
TOURISM
Associate Professor
Department of Turkish and Social Sciences Education, Anadolu University
Eskisehir, Turkey
Nazlı Gökçe
Professor
Eskisehir, Turkey
Erdoğan Kaya
Associate Professor
Eskisehir, Turkey
erkaya@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
Values are the principles, standards, and thoughts which guide behavior, and represent required
qualifications of individual and society. Individuals learn basic social and cultural values in their family.
Then values education continues in the environment, community, and the educational institutions. Social
studies course plays a significant role in values education in primary and secondary schools. Values
education is needed in all parts of the society, and business life. However, tourism directly focuses on
people interaction, and communication. Therefore, it can be said that values education helps people
learn and be aware of important values in tourism. This study aims at investigating social studies teachers’
views’ about values education and tourism. This descriptive study was carried out through survey model.
92 social studies teachers participated in the study from different geographical regions of Turkey. In the
analysis of the data, descriptive analysis was used. Results of the study showed that values such as
hospitality, honesty, tolerance, justice, and respect were important for tourism according to teachers.
Teachers thought that values education is very important for tourism, and values should be taught to the
students in the social studies course. They suggested some teaching activities to improve values
education connected with the tourism subject.
Keywords: Values education, Tourism, Social studies, Teacher
Introduction
Social studies which integrates social sciences disciplines in an interdisciplinary way, and includes civic is
one of the main courses in primary and secondary schools in Turkey. Social Studies course help students
develop their skills of decision making and obtaining information as citizens who embrace the cultural
differences as richness in a society of democracy (Sunal and Haas, 2002, p.9). Social studies introduces
society and social life to the children, and focuses on necessary knowledge, skills, and values to
participate in social life. Values are a part of every lesson and experience at school curriculum. However,
social studies includes values naturally. The best way to approach values can be organizing reflective
thinking sessions in the social studies experience (Ellis, 2010).
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Education for democratic participation necessarily engages moral issues and values education.
Democratic principles, including tolerance and respect for others, and concern for both the rights of the
individual and the welfare of the group, are all based on moral principles (Colby, 2002). The term values
can be defined as “principles, fundamental convictions, ideals, standards or life stances which act as
general guides to behavior or as points of reference in decision-making or the evaluation of beliefs or
action and which are closely connected to personal integrity and personal identity” (Halstead, 1996, p.5).
Values are part of educational activities, and values education is included in the Social Studies Education
Program.
Tourism can be defined as a trip away from home that is done for pleasure and ends with a return to the
traveler’s point of origin. The word “tourist” comes from the Greek word tornos which means making a
circle (Berger, 2008). Development of tourism can be explained with Industrial Revolution and processes
of industrialization, urbanization and technical and technological developments of society, which have
been evolving since the beginning of the 19th century. In that process tourism has identified as a new way
of consumer behavior and social phenomenon. Lastly, in the past century tourism acquired global
dimensions (Dujmovic & Vitasovic, 2015). Tourism which has effects on nature, and society is both an
economical, and social activity. Since social studies integrates social sciences, different social sciences
help understand tourism issues. For instance, sociology can contribute to form an understanding of the
forces in society that shape tourism and its significance, psychology can also enhance our perspective
regarding tourism as a form of individual behavior (Holden, 2005). Tourism is one of the issues included
in the Social Studies Curriculum as well as values.
Social Studies Education Program includes 7 learning domains which integrate information, skills, and
values and organize learning in an interdisciplinary way. These learning domain are listed as Individual
and Society; Culture and Heritage; People, Places and Environment; Science, Technology and Society;
Production, Distribution and Consumption; Active Citizenship, and Global Connections (MEB, 2018). All
learning domains include special values and skills which should directly be taught to the students during
the unit. However, teachers integrate other values which they see relational of the teaching unit.
Therefore, integrating tourism subject with values can be meaningful for students. In the literature, there
are many studies focusing on teachers’ views about values education (Balcı ve Yelken, 2013; Thornberg
and Oğuz, 2013; Yıldırım and Çalışkan, 2017). However, there is not any study about social studies
teachers’ views on values education and tourism. This study is significant in terms of clarifying connection
between values education and tourism from the perspective of social studies teachers.
Method
This descriptive study aims at investigating social studies teachers’ views’ about values education and
tourism was carried out through survey model. An open ended questionnaire was used to obtain data.
Convenience sampling was used in the study (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2013). 92 social studies teachers
participated in the study from different geographical regions of Turkey. Demographic information about
the participants were presented in the Table 1. The questionnaire forms were sent via e-mail to the
participants and they were required to fulfill online form. In the analysis of the data, descriptive analysis
was used. Data of the research were collected through a questionnaire prepared by researchers. The
questionnaire consists of two main sections. First section has questions regarding personal information
of teachers such as gender, professional seniority, and geographical region where they are teaching social
studies. Second section has open-ended questions regarding teachers’ views values education and
tourism.
Descriptive analysis technique was used in the analysis of data. Descriptive analysis focuses on describing
and developing themes from the data and forming an in-depth understanding of the major phenomenon
through description” (Creswell, 2005). Researchers were formed themes based on the answers of social
studies teachers. After this analysis, researchers compared the themes that they determined from the
data, and they agreed with each other’s view. Themes based on the analysis of teachers’ views obtained
by open-ended questionnaire were presented in Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4.
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Findings
Teachers’ views about important values for tourism were shown in Table 2. Findings of the study showed
that hospitality, honesty, tolerance, justice, and respect were the most important values for tourism
according to teachers. It can be stated that hospitality, and honesty are the main values for tourism
according to the teachers. One of the teachers explained his views in the questionnaire as “Hospitality
and honesty are so important values. Because when we go to somewhere we look how they welcome us
and how they behave to us. If they behave kind and warm we would prefer stay longer.”
Table 1: Demographic Information of the Participants
Gender Female Male

35 57
Professional 1-5 years 6-10 11-15 years 16-20 More

seniority years years than 20
years
25 30 18 14 5
Geographical Marmara Aegean Mediterranean Southeast Eastern Black Central

region Anatolia Anatolia Sea Anatolia
18 14 12 10 12 10 16
Table 2: Teachers’ Views about Important Values for Tourism
Important Values/Skills for Tourism
Hospitality,
Honesty
Tolerance
Justice
Respect for others
Sensitivity to cultural and historical heritage
Reliance
generosity
Cleanliness
Diligence
Debonairness
Esthetics
Collaboration
Being sensitive to the environment
Empathy
Communication
Another teacher who emphasized tolerance and respect for others indicated that “Tolerance is necessary
value for tourism. We should be aware that tourists are coming from different cultures, and we should
not judge them because of their behaviors”. This teacher also underlined the fact that bias can be
dangerous in terms of social relationships in the tourism activities. Other values which are important for
tourism were listed as sensitivity to cultural heritage, reliance, generosity, cleanliness, diligence,
debonairness, esthetics, collaboration, being sensitive to the environment.
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One of the teachers explained her views about sensitivity to cultural and historical heritage as “In my
opinion, being sensitive to the cultural and historical heritage is very important. Because an individual
who has these values may understand value of her/his country’s heritage. Also s/he may realize
contribution of her/his own cultural heritage to the world heritage.” Additionally, teachers emphasized
role of skills such as empathy and communication for tourism. They underlined the fact that individuals
should have adequate information about history and geography of their environment.
Secondly, teachers were asked about place of tourism and values in the social studies education in the
study. Teachers’ views about place of tourism and values in the social studies education were presented
in Table 3. Findings of the second research question revealed that values education is very important for
tourism, and values should be taught to the students in the social studies course according to the
teachers. Generally, teachers stated that both of tourism, and values were included in the social studies
lesson, and the social studies course has objectives related with both of them. One of the teachers wrote
his views on the questionnaire form as below:
Social studies introduces different places, and cultures to the students. At the same time,
values are taught in this course. In the previous program, hospitality value took place.
However, in the last program we do not have hospitality as a value. But we still focus
hospitality as a part of Turkish culture. Hospitality means being kind, generous and honest
to the guests. If our students gain this value they can contribute to the tourism activities.
Table 3: Teachers’ Views about Place of Tourism and Values in the Social Studies Education
Place of Tourism and Values in the Social Studies Education
Values education is very important for tourism

Values should be taught to the students in the social studies course
Both of tourism, and values were included in the social studies lesson
Social studies course has objectives related with both of tourism and
values
Tourism and values help intercultural communication
Tourism support respect for others in the social studies course
Values and tourism are both related with the subject of culture
Tourism and values are not emphasized adequately in the social studies
course
It can be understood that teachers mentioned about issues related both tourism and acquiring hospitality
value in the social studies course. Additionally, teachers emphasized that tourism and values help
intercultural communication, and tourism support respect for others in the social studies course. They
related values and tourism with the subject of culture. However, they indicated that these issues were
not emphasized adequately in the social studies course.
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Table 4: Teachers’ Suggestions about Activities for Values Education and Tourism
Suggested Activities for Values Education and Tourism
Practice
Active learning
Student participant
Organizing trips
Drama
Tourism as an elective course
Inviting quest to the classroom
Story completion
Visual reading
Research projects
Student exchange programs between schools from different regions
Using films in terms of supporting tourism with values education
Teachers’ suggestions about activities for values education and tourism were showed in Table 4. As seen
in the table, teachers suggested some teaching activities to improve values education connected with the
tourism subject. Teachers generally emphasized importance of practice, active learning, student
participant, and organizing trips for students. In this context, one of the teachers stated that “I think the
best way for teaching something is practice. Trips can be organized to touristic places in the local
environment and we should let students interact with tourists”. Beside this, teachers indicated that drama
activities can be useful to teach issues regarding tourism and values. One of the teacher explained his
views in that words: “Children need to experience different situations through drama activities. Ethic
values in the enterprises, attitudes towards tourists can be showed in drama activities for effective
learning.” Some teachers suggested that tourism can be presented as an elective course in the school
curriculum. One of the teachers indicated that “Especially, in the touristic regions elective courses on
tourism and values can be fruitful. Also, practice opportunities should be provided for students in these
elective courses”. Moreover, teachers recommended activities such as inviting quest to the classroom,
story completion, visual reading, research projects, and student exchange programs between schools
from different regions, using films in terms of supporting tourism with values education.
Conclusions
It can be concluded that values such as hospitality, honesty, tolerance, justice, and respect were
important for tourism according to teachers. Rojek and Urry, 1997 emphasize that while tourism is
generally identified as a set of business activities or movements of people, it is also a social phenomenon;
people travel from place to place, and so see and interact with their cultures (as cited in Inui et. al., 2006).
Because of the tourism is a social phenomenon and it deals with culture, tourism is directly related with
values which are identified as standards and criteria guides people’s behavior. In this study social studies
teachers emphasized connection between tourism and values.
In this study, social studies teachers stated that empathy and communication skills were also important
beside the values for tourism. Similarly, Holden (2005) points out that besides helping visitors to find their
way around new places, the visitor experience can also be enhanced through interpreting the
environmental setting. It can be claimed that an important dimension of environmental interpretation is
communication. Therefore we need to develop necessary skills as communication in students for the
tourism studies.
According to results of this study, social studies teachers stated that students should have information
about historical background and geographical features of their local environment. Keçe (2015) found that
social studies pre-service teachers do not have enough information about historical and cultural tourism
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heritage in his study. It can be said that historical and cultural heritage should be taught effectively in
social studies teacher training programs to prepare them for their professional life
In this study, teachers thought that values education is very important for tourism, and values should be
taught to the students in the social studies course. In Yıldırım and Çalışkan’s study (2013) social studies
teacher stated that value education is necessary for educating young people, teaching values, protecting
values, ensuring social order, ensuring social unity and developing new values. It can be claimed that
generally social studies teachers see values education necessary for social health. Al-Rabaani (2013)
found out that Social Studies pre-service teachers’ hold positive attitudes towards tourism for sustainable
development in Oman. Literature supports this study in terms of clarifying necessity of tourism and values
education in the Social Studies Education Program.
At the end of the study, teachers suggested some teaching activities to improve values education
connected with the tourism subject. In this study, teachers especially emphasized significance of practice
and participation of students in tourism and values education activities. In their exploratory study Kim et.
al. (2014) found out that student-centred approach had significant benefits on students’ learning in
tourism and hospitality education. They focused on content structure, individual engagement with
learning, peer interactions, and student reflection on the learning process in their research. Similarly,
Polat (2013) listed suggestions in his study for in South Eastern and Eastern Anatolia regions. He stated
that children have to be trained as volunteer guides.
It can be stated that findings from both literature and this study underline the fact that student’s
participation and importance of student centered studies for tourism and values education.
These suggestions can be put forth in light of findings of the study:
• Values education can be integrated with tourism subject in the social studies course.
• Fundamental values such as hospitality, honesty, tolerance, justice, and respect for others should
be taught related with the tourism.
• Student-centred activities such as trips, research project, students-change programs can be
conducted to improve necessary information, skills, and values in the scope of tourism subject.
References
Al-Rabaani, A. H. (2013). Attitudes of Omani social studies student teachers to tourism for sustainable
development. European Journal of Educational Research, 2(3), 129-138.
Balcı, F. A. & Yelken, T. Y. (2013). İlköğretim sosyal bilgiler programında yer alan değerler ve değer eğitimi
uygulamaları konusunda öğretmen görüşleri. Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi
Dergisi, 14(1), 195-213.
Berger, A. A. (2008). Tourism in society. Society, 45 (4), 327-329
Creswell, J.W. (2005). Educational Research. (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education International, pp.
230-256.
Colby, A. (2002). Whose values anyway? In W. Damon (Ed.), Bringing in a New Era in Character Education
(pp. 149-171). Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press.
Dujmovic, M. & Vitasovic, A. (2015). Postmodern society and tourism. Tourism in Southern and Eastern
Europe, 3, 49-62.
Ellis, A. K. (2010). Teaching and Learning Elementary Social Studies. 9th ed. Boston: Pearson Education.
Halstead, J. M. (1996). Values and values education in schools. In J.M. Halstead, & M.J. Taylor (Eds.),
Values in education and education in values. (pp. 3-14). London: Routledge Falmer.
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Holden, A. (2005). Tourism studies and the social sciences. London: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
Inui, Y., Wheeler, D., & Lankford, S. (2006). Rethinking tourism education: What should schools teach.
Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 5(2), 25-35.
Keçe, M. (2015). Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretmen Adaylarının Ankara'nın Tarihi ve Kültürel Turizm Değerlerine
Yönelik İlgi ve Farkındalıkları. Journal of Kirsehir Education Faculty, 16(1), 131-149.
Kim, A. K., & Davies, J. (2014). A teacher's perspective on student centred learning: Towards the
development of best practice in an undergraduate tourism course. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure,
Sport & Tourism Education, 14, 6-14.
MEB. (2018). Sosyal bilgiler dersi (4–7. sınıflar) öğretim programı ve kılavuzu. [Elementary school social
studies curriculum grades 4–7]. Retrieved from http://mufredat
.meb.gov.tr/ProgramDetay.aspx?PID=155
Polat, N. (2013). Impacts of tourism projects of development agencies on social peace in Turkey.
Tourismos: An International Multidisciplinary Journal of Tourism, 8 (1), 233-245.
Sunal, C. S.,& Haas, M. E. (2002). Social Studies for the Elementary and Middle Grades. A Constructivist
Approach. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Thornberg, R. and Oğuz, E. (2013). Teachers' views on values education: A qualitative study in
Sweden and Turkey. International Journal of Educational Research, (59), 1, 49-56.
Yıldırım, Y., & Çalışkan, H. (2017). 2005 ile 2017 Sosyal Bilgiler Dersi Öğretim Programlarındaki Değerlere
ve Değerler Eğitimine İlişkin Öğretmen Görüşleri. Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in
Education, 1 (1), 7-23
Biographical Notes
Tuba Çengelci Köse is an Associate Professor in the Department of Turkish and Social Sciences Education,
Anadolu University, Turkey where she teaches courses on values education in the social studies, and
examinations of social studies course book. Her research focuses on social studies education, values
education in the social studies course.
Nazlı Gökçe is a Professor in the Department of Turkish and Social Sciences Education, Anadolu University,
Turkey where she teaches courses on General and Physical Geography, developing social project, and
science ethics and research methods. Her research focuses on social studies education, and
environmental education.
Erdoğan Kaya is an Associate Professor in the Department of Turkish and Social Sciences Education,
Anadolu University, Turkey where he teaches courses on teaching life sciences, and social studies
education. His research focuses on social studies education, and integrated education.
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7340
FIELD TRIPS IN SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAM IN

TERMS OF TEACHING CULTURE AND HERITAGE TOURISM
Nazlı Gökçe
Professor
Eskisehir, Turkey
Erdoğan Kaya
Associate Professor
Eskisehir, Turkey
erkaya@anadolu.edu.tr

Associate Professor
Eskisehir, Turkey
Abstract
Tourism is seen as an important alternative to solve economic problems. In this regard, education
contributes to create an awareness regarding tourism. In the education process, social studies which is
an interdisciplinary course including social sciences such as geography, history, anthropology, economy,
and tourism has a significant role in teaching about culture and heritage. In the social studies course,
subjects related to natural, historical, and cultural heritage are taught, and field trips are organized.
Therefore, investigating pre-service teachers’ experiences regarding field trips may be useful for future
studies. The aim of this study is to understand contributions of field trips in terms of teaching culture and
heritage tourism to pre-service teachers in a social studies teacher training program. Qualitative research
approach was used in the study. Participants of the study were 40 pre-service teachers enrolled in a social
studies teacher training program. Field trips were organized to teach about culture and heritage tourism
values in 2015-2016 academic year around the city of Eskisehir. At the end of the field trips, an open-
ended questionnaire was applied to the pre-service teachers. Content analysis was employed for data
analysis in the study. The analyses were done by two different researchers for reliability of the study.
Results of the study show that field trips are effective in terms of teaching natural, historical, cultural,
and touristic values; improving communication skills of pre-service teachers; and having good time.
Moreover, suggestions are put forth about problems regarding organizing field trips.
Keywords: Field Trips, Social Studies, Culture and Heritage Tourism, Pre-service Teachers.
Introduction
Social studies is a primary education course that basically aims to furnish students with citizenship skills
through integrating various social sciences such as history, geography, psychology, anthropology,
sociology, economics, law, and philosophy with and interdisciplinary approach (National Council for the
Social Studies [NCSS], 1992; Ministry of National Education [MNE], 2018). Field trips are an important
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part of this course due to both the goals and content of the course. Within the scope of social sciences
course, trips are organized to several fields outside the school, alias informal education settings. These
fields range from the school’s neighborhood to nearby bazaars, governmental offices, factories,
exhibitions, archeological sites, botanical gardens, aquariums, workshops, museums, and to historical
areas (historical buildings, monuments, museum-cities, battlefields, etc.) (Bozdogan, Okur, and Kasap,
2015; Guler, 2009; Hannu, 1993; Howe and Disinger, 1988; MNE, 2018).
Relevant body of research indicates that field trips and similar activities support official education
(Gerber, Cavallo, and Marek, 2001; Hannu, 1993), lead to more effective learning (Ramey-Gassert, 1997),
and offer students the opportunity to learn through experience (Meydan and Akkus, 2014). Besides, they
are also conducive to use of five senses, converting knowledge into behavior by having fun, and
establishing permanent learning (Farmer, Knapp, and Benton, 2007; Guler, 2009; Meydan and Akkus,
2014; Tatar and Bagriyanik, 2012; Yavuz and Balkan Kıyıcı, 2012). Furthermore, these field trips have been
concluded to help students develop awareness about the responsibilities they should fulfil for social life
in the community they live in (Demir, 2007a; Ozgen, 2011).
Such trips may ease the teaching process during which social studies teachers strive to integrate society,
culture, economics, tourism, and technology via an interdisciplinary perspective. By the help of trips and
expeditions to both natural areas and different places of the community, students may taste real learning
experiences through interacting with nature, cultural environment, society, and their friends. They can
enjoy the entire process due to learning by seeing, feeling, and smelling. They make a better sense of the
world through active participation (Cengelci, 2013; 2015; Uztemur, Dinc and Acun, 2018). On the
contrary, some research studies have determined that teachers are not sure about how to conduct such
field trips and they are in need of guidance (Anderson, Bethan, and Mayer-Smith, 2006; Bozdogan, 2012;
Demir, 2007b; Ferry 1993; Tal 2004; Tal, Bamberger and Morag; 2005). Taking pre-service teachers to
such trips during undergraduate years matters considerably since they can make use of their experience
when they do the same for their students, which poses as a significant measure to tackle this problem.
This study aims to evaluate field trips organized for pre-service teachers in social studies teacher training
program in terms of their efficacy to teach touristic values.
Method
This section provides information about the research model, participants, data collection, and analysis.
Research Model
This study has been conducted in accordance with qualitative research approach employing a
phenomenological design. Phenomenology focuses on phenomena that we are aware of but not have
detailed understanding about (Yildirim and Simsek, 2013). Since this research is on pre-service social
studies teachers’ experiences in learning about culture and heritage tourism, phenomenology was
adopted as a suitable design.
Participants
The participants of the current study are 40 sophomore students (23 female and 17 male) studying at a
social studies teacher training program.
Data Collection, and Analysis
In 2015-2016 academic year, the pre-service teachers in this research joined field trips organized to
Odunpazari Kursunlu Islamic Social Complex (Kursunlu Kulliyesi), Sheik Edebali’s Tomb, Atlihan,
Musemum of Cartoon Art, Museum of Contemporary Glass Art, Ataturk Museum, the Turkish Foundation
for Combating Erosion, Reforestation, and Protection of Natural Habitats (TEMA), Selale Park, Sarhoyuk
Archeological Site, Sazova Park for Science Arts and Culture, and Kent Park. Following the field trips, the
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participants were given a questionnaire containing open-ended questions. The items in the questionnaire
regard participants’ demographic information, their opinions about what was interesting and appealing
for them during the trip, their ideas about how trips can contribute to teaching touristic values, how they
evaluate the trip, and their suggestions as to improve such trips. Semi-structured interviews were held
and audio-recorded with 3 voluntary pre-service teachers in order to enhance the data set with relevant
details. Interview records were transformed onto forms. Research data was analyzed through content
analysis. Sentences indicating pre-service teachers’ opinions and perceptions were identified and coded
to form themes. Two field experts were consulted and two separate coding sessions were completed to
establish research reliability (Miles and Huberman, 1994). Findings are presented under theme titles and
supported with direct quotes from teacher candidates’ opinions. Pseudonyms were used instead of
participants’ real names.
Findings
Research findings are grouped under two main titles which are “Contribution of field trips organized
within social studies teacher training program to teaching touristic values” and “Evaluation of and
suggestions for field trips organized within social studies teacher training program.”
Contribution of field trips organized within social studies teacher training program to teaching touristic
values
Pre-service teachers stated different opinions about the contribution of field trips organized within social
studies teacher training program to teaching touristic values. Teacher candidates’ opinions vary as
follows: “I had the opportunity to learn about the geography (f33) and history (f30) of the places through
experience; it helped with our social and communication skills (f29); and I had fun and good time during
the trip (f 29).” In addition, some other opinions include “I became aware of the natural beauties around
us (f 28), historical and geographical values (f 28), and archeological sites (f 22); I witnessed the effect of
geography on historical places (f 24); I strengthened my previous knowledge (f 15); I saw nearby places
that I had never seen before (f 12); I set up a link between past and present (f 8).”
What pre-service teachers found interesting and appealing for themselves during the trips include “parks
(f 30), Odunpazari houses with their different architectural features and the structures in the parks (22),
and musuems (f15). Besides, archeological sites (f 12), Atlihan (f 7), the Social Complex (Kulliye) (f 5),
historical stories and memories narrated about the places (f 5), and non-governmental organization (f15)
are also among the interesting and attractive places as reported by the pre-service teachers. Accordingly,
participant D listed what s/he liked during the trips by saying “I didn’t know Eskisehir has this many tourist
attractions. Odunpazari houses reminded me of Safranbolu… Atlıhan, landscaping and thematic toys in
Sazova park are really interesting.”
Few of the participants reported their negative feelings about the field trips as follows: It did not meet
my expectations (f 2), I think the students in the group are not interested enough (f 1), I haven’t learned
anything new about the visited places (f 1). Following the trip to an archeological site, participant S
explained the effect of geography over historical places and what that trip meant to her/him by saying “I
learned why people settled here, how many different civilizations lived here, and what they left behind
for us. It was a nice practice for archeology class.”
The benefits over social and communication skills were listed as “There were students who had been in
the same class but had never talked for two years. These trips serve as icebreakers. Everybody talked
with each other” by participant M, as “We started talking with our friends whom we had never spoken
once” by participant F, and as “Since I felt relaxed and comfortable during the trips, I was better at
expressing myself” by participant D. Participant Z stated that s/he had the chance to see places that s/he
had never seen for two years by saying “I have never been to Selale Park although I have been living here
211
for two years. I haven’t even heard the name of Sarhoyuk. I saw places that I had never seen thanks to
these trips.”
Evaluation of and suggestions for field trips organized within social studies teacher training program
Pre-service social studies teachers evaluated the field trips in terms of their relation to social studies
education, the time they are organized, duration, number of participants, things to bring to such events,
problems, and courses in their programs that are suitable for such trips. Mostly, teacher candidates think
that field trips are relevant to social studies education (f 38). Accordingly, participant F, T, and P said “The
topics in the trips are actual topics in social sciences”, “Social studies become solid with field trips”, and
“Field trips equip students with different perspectives in social sciences” respectively.
As for pre-service teachers, field trips within social studies teacher training program should be organized
during spring (f 31). Accordingly, they stated that the calendar for such events can be scheduled by the
end of the courses (f 8), before the midterms and finals (f 5), or anytime except for the exam weeks (f 5).
What the participants noted regarding the duration of such trips is as follows: daily tours should be
organized (f 13); the duration should be determined according to the goal and significance of the trip and
to the distance of the place (f 12); and it should a two-day trip out of town (f 2). Considering the size of a
group to be taken to such field trips, teacher candidates provided various ideas ranging from less than 50
(f 15), between 30 to 40 (f 14), between 20 to 30 (f12), and to uncrowded groups (f 10) and not too small
a group (f 3).
Pre-service teachers’ opinions as to the materials and tools to be taken to such field trips include camera,
video camera, audio-recorder (f 19), foods and drinks (f 18), map and sketch (f 15), documents about the
places to be visited (f 12), raincoat and umbrella (f 8), hat (f 5), sunglasses (f 5), casual clothes (f 4), trainers
(f 4), notebook, pen/pencil (f 3), compass (f 1), bags for garbage (f 1), and first aid kit (f 1). One of the
participants stated that s/he had no idea (f 1) about this question.
Accordingly, pre-service teacher F said “Taking pictures of the places we visit is necessary since we can
use them in our classes when we start teaching. Thus, camera or a video camera is a must-have item.
Only one of the participants, Z, underlined the need for garbage bags during such trips by saying “We saw
a lot of garbage at the places we visited. We should take garbage bags with us.”
While almost half of the participating pre-service teachers thought that the field trips went smoothly
without any problems (f24), the other half (f16) reported some problems they experienced during the
trips. As a matter of fact, the teacher candidates noted different opinions as regards the problems, which
include ‘uneven distribution of responsibilities’ (f 15), ‘undisciplined and irresponsible behaviors of the
participants’ (f 6), ‘overpopulated group’ (f 4), ‘inefficient use of time’ (f 3), ‘less time for resting’ (f 3),
‘inadequate materials and tools’ (f 2), ‘bad weather conditions’ (f 2), and ‘not meeting the expectations’
(f 1). Both pre-service teachers A and O underlined the responsibility issue by saying “Although some
students were given responsibilities, some others had no role” and “We are the teachers of future, we
can’t just go to such trips without any responsibility, We should be given some responsibilities both
before and after the trip” respectively. Furthermore, participant M expressed her/his dissatisfaction from
the trip by saying “I am disappointed with the trip, I guess fun was missing.”
In general, pre-service teachers set forth some suggestions for the problems they identified during the
trips. These include ‘there should be a solid plan’ (f 29), ‘labor and responsibilities should be divided
evenly’ (f 23), ‘weather forecast should be checked beforehand’ (f 7), ‘volunteers should be assigned roles
and duties’ (f 4), ‘the size of the group should not be crowded’ (f 4), ‘the trip leader should be a disciplined
person’ (f 3), ‘universities should provide support for such trips’ (f 1), and ‘students’ awareness about
such trips should be increased’ (f 1). The significance of a proper planning was stated in participant U’s
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words as “I realized that such trips should be well-planned. It is a must to use the time efficiently and to
organize students properly. There are lots of things to be done, before, during and after such trips.”
The participating teacher candidates listed the courses into which such field trips can be embedded as
geography (f 37), history (f 33), archeology (f 15), and anthropology (f 4). Although there are various
courses that pre-service teachers take during the first two years in social studies program, the
participants, interestingly, listed the names of few courses.
Conclusions
The current research concluded the contributions that field trips organized within social studies teacher
training program can make to the teaching of touristic values. Among them are learning about the
geography and history of the visited places through experience; awareness about historical, cultural,
geographical values, natural beauties, and the influence of geography over historical sites; and seeing
some places for the first time. A large body of research in the literature state that field trips offer learning
through experience about the visited places (Aytac, 2014; Gerber, Cavallo, and Marek, 2001; Gokkaya
and Yesilbursa, 2009; Hannu, 1993; Meydan and Akkus, 2014; Robson, 2002). Because teacher candidates
generally visit historical sites as part of their geography courses, they underlined geographical and
historical values more than others. The fact that some pre-service teachers strengthened what they had
learned earlier indicate that field trips and similar activities support education provided by schools,
increase the efficiency of learning, ease transformation of knowledge into behaviors, and enhance
retention of information as pointed by other studies (Aytac, 2014; Bozdogan, Okur and Kasap, 2015;
Farmer, Knapp, Benton, 2007;;Gokkaya and Yesilbursa, 2009; Guler, 2009; Ramey-Gassert, 1997).
The research finding that the organized field trips improved teacher candidates’ social and
communication skills and gave them an opportunity to have fun and spend good time with friends is also
compatible with those of various studies (Aytac, 2014; Fuller, 2006; Malkoc, 2014; Bozdogan, Okur and
Kasap, 2015; Robson,2002). According to Aytac (2014), interacting with nature, going out to open air, and
getting out of the four walls of classrooms increase students’ motivation.
An important finding for tourism is that pre-service teachers listed parks, buildings with different
architectural designs, museums, historical sites, stories and narrations about the visited places, and non-
governmental organizations as what was interesting and appealing for them. Likewise, Guler (2009)
supports this by concluding that national parks can serve as laboratories and natural & cultural values
they host can be utilized to boost ecotourism. The findings of the current study have pointed that field
trips organized within social studies teacher training program contribute to the teaching of many natural,
historical, and cultural touristic values and that these expeditions facilitate having fun and spending good
time, which is vital for tourism.
An evaluation of field trips conducted within social studies teacher training program both sheds light onto
the problems and indicates the importance of planning. Problems identified based on the findings of this
research include uneven distribution of responsibilities, undisciplined and irresponsible behaviors of
group members, overpopulated group size, inefficient use of time, less time for resting, inadequate
materials and tools, bad weather conditions, and dissatisfied expectations. Several other studies
concluded similar problems. Robson (2002) emphasizes that field activities should be planned
meticulously; otherwise, students can be worn out both physically and mentally. Present findings are
valuable since they can give us some ideas about the possible problems that can arise within social studies
teacher training programs. According to the relevant literature, the most crucial component of field trips
is planning (Bozdogan, 2012; Demir, 2007b; Ertas and Parmasizoglu, 2011). Besides, another point shown
by relevant research studies is that planned expeditions outside the school influence students’
213
knowledge, attitude, and behaviors positively (Ballantyne and Packer, 2009; Guler, 2011; Kete and
Horasan, 2013; Knapp and Barrie, 2001; Orion and Hofstein, 1994; Ozgen, 2011).
Although participating pre-service teachers clearly stated the relation between field trips and social
studies education, field trips are embedded into only limited number of courses. Thus, as also underlined
in other studies, teacher candidates should be furnished with knowledge and skills necessary to plan and
organize field trips through undergraduate courses and projects (Bozdogan, 2012; Bozdogan, Okur, and
Kasap, 2015).
In conclusion, field trips organized within social studies teacher training program play a crucial role in
terms of teaching touristic values. So, it is reasonable to suggest that field trips be organized as part of
other courses too so that teacher candidates can improve themselves and can be more beneficial for
their future students, and such practice should be the focal point of various prospective research studies.
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Biographical Notes
science ethics, and research methods. Her research focuses on social studies education, and
Erdoğan Kaya is an Associate Professor in the Department of Turkish and Social Sciences Education,
Anadolu University, Turkey where he teaches courses on teaching social studies education. His research
focuses on social studies education, and integrated education.
examinations of social studies textbook. Her research focuses on social studies education, values
216
7341
TOURISM AND TRAVEL FOR LEARNING ABOUT CULTURES:
EXPERIENCES OF SOCIAL STUDIES PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS
Erdoğan Kaya
Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey

Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey

Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Nazlı Gökçe
Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
‘Culture and Heritage’ is one of the learning domains from 4th to 7th grades in Social Studies Instructional
Program in Turkey. In Social Studies course, the study of culture examines socially transmitted beliefs,
values, behaviors, traditions and way of life of a group of people. It also includes literature, music, arts
and artifacts, and cuisines. It can be claimed that culture is a significant part of Social Studies Program. In
this regard, travel offers opportunities to learn about other times, places, and people in terms of learning
outside the classroom. This study aims to understand pre-service social studies teachers’ opinions on
traveling to learn about cultures through experience. In line with qualitative research approach,
phenomenology design was used to conduct this study. The participants are 8 pre-service social studies
teachers enrolled in social studies teacher training program at a faculty of education in Eskisehir, Turkey.
Individual and semi-structured interviews were held to obtain information about the research questions.
Inductive analysis approach was used in the study to analyze obtained data. Findings have shown that
pre-service teachers usually travel to learn about different cultures and would like to see historical and
natural places. The participants state that tourism plays a significant role in introducing cultures to other
societies. Moreover, they emphasize that issues such as sensitivity to cultural heritage should be taught
to next generations.
Keywords: Culture, learning, travel, pre-service teacher
Introduction
Transforming children into good citizens is one of the most salient functions of educational institutions,
which helps children socialize and get to know the culture, history, and parts of the society they are living
in. This way may lead to raising content and productive individuals and sustaining the continuity of a
society. Social Studies course is among the others that serve this end (Erden, n.d., p.4). Social Studies
course matters considerably in terms of teaching children their responsibilities as citizens, introducing
them with the social and cultural properties of their society, and meeting their educational needs with
respect to social events (Yanpar-Sahin, 1994).
217
Culture is one of the significant domains within social studies program. Social Studies Standards
established by NCSS in 1994 also underpins the importance of culture as a learning domain (Turner, 1999:
61). In Social Studies course, the study of culture examines socially transmitted beliefs, values, behaviors,
traditions and way of life of a group of people. It also includes literature, music, arts and artifacts, and
cuisines. “Culture and Heritage” is one of the learning domains from 4th to 7th grades in Social Studies
Instructional Program in Turkey. Yet, social studies instruction should be revisited with respect to
acculturation and cultural learning.
It is inevitable for social studies course to resort to outside activities while aiming to transform children
into active and social citizens (Topçu, 2014, p.2). Directly embedded in life, social studies course can attain
its goals more effectively if supported with settings and activities outside the school. John Dewey also
emphasizes the vitality of space for socialization. It is the space that forms socialization and the social
structure (Kaya and Oner, 2017). Thus, exploring places by traveling stands out as a definitive element
with regards to making judgements about socialization forms. Accordingly, learning about culture
through expeditions outside the school and class provides a great number of opportunities to collect
information about times, places, and people.
Activities based on expedition and observation are essential components of social studies instruction.
Within Social Studies course, not only geography but also all other topics should benefit from traveling.
Considering the potential contributions that travel can bring into cultural learning, tourism should be
carefully noted due to its influence over the relation among people.
Tourism builds interaction among societies with different social and cultural properties, and it drastically
influences social structure and behavioral patterns. Therefore, tourism—defined as a social
phenomenon—should not only be regarded as an economic activity, but also as a field totally wired with
dense human relations and in need of many human or society-centered sources because of the product
it markets. Thus, tourism’s effect over social and cultural structure should be examined, and a place’s
natural, historical, architectural, social, and cultural identity should be handled as a whole (Duran, 2011).
In other words, social studies course containing culture, cultural learning, and tourism entails integrating
all fields. In this respect, it is crucial for pre-service social studies teachers to consider the relations that
tourism activities within their both private and educational lives have with the field. In this research, the
contributions that tourism and travel can bring into cultural learning are examined through pre-service
social studies teachers’ perspectives. Answers have been sought for the following research questions:
• How do pre-service teachers define culture?
• What do pre-service teachers think about the ways to get to know other cultures?
• How do pre-service teachers define cultural learning?
• What do pre-service teachers think about the role of tourism in cultural learning?
• What do pre-service teachers think about the role of teacher in cultural learning?
• What do pre-service teachers suggest with respect to tourism’s contribution to cultural learning?
Method
This section provides information about the research model, participants, data collection, and analysis.
Research Model
This study has been conducted in accordance with qualitative research approach employing a
phenomenological design. Phenomenology focuses on phenomena that we are aware of but not have
detailed understanding about (Yildirim and Simsek, 2013). Since this research is on pre-service social
studies teachers’ experiences in learning about cultures through travel, phenomenology was adopted as
a suitable design.
Participants
The participants are pre-service social studies teachers selected via criterion sampling, a purposeful
sampling method. The main goal of criterion sampling is to investigate situations that meet a set of
218
criteria determined earlier (Yildirim and Simsek, 2013). Having visited cities located in different regions
and traveling at least two times a year were the criteria for the current research. So, eight pre-service
social studies teachers have partaken in this study. Table 1 depicts the participants’ features.
Table 1: Participants’ Features
Feature f
Gender
Female 6
Male 2
Travel Frequency
2 3
3 4
3 and more 1
Travel purpose
Get to know the history and geography 5
Seeing places un-visited earlier 3
Get to know the culture 2
Education 1
Recreation 1
As can be seen in Table 1, the number of female and male participants are 6 and 2 respectively. Four
stated that they travel more than 3 times a year. The most frequent purpose for travel as noted by the
participants is to get to know historical and geographical properties of a place. Other purposes include
seeing places unvisited earlier and get to know the culture. So, it is obvious that these travels host an
expectation to learn about history and geography, hence culture.
Data Collection and Analysis
Developed by the researchers, a semi-structured interview form was utilized to figure out the role of
travel in learning about culture based on pre-service social studies teachers’ experiences. Interview is one
of the primary data collection techniques of phenomenology design. Field experts were consulted to
finalize the interview form. During the research, pre-service teachers were directed several questions
about cultural learning, ways to get to know other cultures, the role of tourism in learning about cultures,
and things that teachers can do to introduce students with other cultures, which is how qualitative data
were collected.
Descriptive analysis was employed during analyzing the research data. In this analysis, data are organized
in accordance with themes that are distilled from the interview questions (Yildirim and Simsek, 2013).
Next, the themes were converted into codes, relations were examined. MAXQDA software was used for
data analysis. Research data were analyzed by two researchers independently, and differences regarding
analysis results were resolved through negotiation. Furthermore, findings were supported with direct
quotes and pseudonyms were used for participants.
Findings
Research data were grouped under following themes: pre-service teachers’ perceptions about culture,
perceptions about cultural learning, and suggestions about the contributions that tourism can bring into
cultural learning. Accordingly, Figure 1 displays pre-service social studies teacher’s perceptions about
culture.
219
CULTURE
Definition Ways to Learn
*Combination of abstract and concrete *Learning from peers

concepts *Watching travel programs
*Things humans have created so far *Watching documentaries
*Interaction with nature *Reading novels
*Traditionalism *Reading travel blogs
*Research
Figure 1: ‘Culture’ Theme

As shown by Figure 1, pre-service social studies teachers’ opinions were gathered under two title within
culture theme. Participants provided several definitions for culture and mentioned various ways to know
about culture. As for the teacher candidates, culture refers to a combination of abstract and concrete
concepts, what humans have created so far, interaction with nature, and traditionalism. Defining culture
as a combination of abstract and concrete concepts, pre-service teacher Aycan supported her ideas by
saying “Culture is a vast topic. It may vary from person to person. What we learn at school mostly is a
combination of abstract and concrete concepts.” She added “Both abstract and concrete elements are
involved. For me, anything related with customs and traditions is a reflection of culture.” Emphasizing
traditionalism, Reyhan defines culture as follows “When it comes to culture, it covers everything material
and spiritual. For example, traditional games, folk dances, traditional cuisine, dresses, all are components
of culture.” Ceyda underlined humans’ interaction with nature and human creations in her definition of
culture by saying “It sound cliché but everything created by humans is culture. Or, everything humans
have created as a result of their interaction with nature… For example, dressing styles, the way we speak,
our dishes, I mean everything in life.”
As noted by the participants, the ways to learn about culture include learning from peers, watching travel
programs and documentaries, reading novels and blogs, and researching. Mentioning peers as a channel
to learn about cultures, Ali stated his opinion by saying “Because of my friends. I learned about their
culture after I met them.” Ayse pointed to documentaries and family involvement by stating “I love
documentaries. As a family, we enjoy watching documentaries a lot.” On the other hand, Ceyda
underpinned the significance of research and technology support to learn about cultures by noting “I
generally get help from social media and the Internet to learn about other cultures.” Again, Ceyda
mentioned travel blogs and how important technology is by saying “The truth of what I learn online is
still debatable, yet I follow blogs by people who travel a lot. That’s how I learn.” However, she annotated
her concerns about the truth of online information sources. Figure 2 depicts pre-service teachers’
opinions about cultural learning.
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CULTURA
L
LEARNIN
G
Definition Tourism's Role Teacher's Role

*Learning the
effect of
environment *Using documentaries
*Cultural
*Learning *Designing cultural
transmission
about activities
*Learning the different
experiences cultures *Finding pen pals
*Learning the *Seeing *Inviting guests to the
history different class
places *Travel and
*Learning observation
through
experience
Figure 2. ‘Cultural Learning’ Theme

As shown in Figure 2, pre-service social studies teachers’ opinions about cultural learning are grouped
under three titles: definition, tourism’s role, and teacher’s role. Teacher candidates defined cultural
learning as cultural transmission, learning the experiences, and learning the history. Considering cultural
learning as cultural transmission, Merve said “Cultural transmission comes to my mind about cultural
learning. It starts in the family, and it is shaped by our immediate environment. It is blended with different
interactions during learning.” Relating cultural learning with learning about the history, Oznur noted “It
may mean to know about the things that have happened up until now in human history. Or it may mean
to learn together with the culture. That’s what I can say.”
Social studies teacher candidates who underlined the role of tourism in cultural learning pointed to
learning the effect of environment, learning about different cultures, seeing different places, and learning
through experience. Stating that tourism helps to learn the effect of environment within cultural learning,
Ceyda underlined that travel improves learning by saying “Here it comes to that culture-environment and
human-environment relation because environment shapes the culture a lot. Or it naturally shapes
people’s lives considerably. Thus, it’s more meaningful to go and see things in vivo. And it eases
retention.” Oznur emphasized the significance of tourism in terms of enhancing learning about different
cultures and places within cultural learning by noting “Foremost important thing is tourism since it is the
only medium we learn about different places and cultures. Other non-touristic travels are not that
influential because the aim is different and we do not pay much attention to things we see during such
visits. Therefore, I think it is crucial.”
Pre-service social studies teachers who believe that teachers play a vital role in terms of cultural learning
listed what teachers can do as using documentaries, designing cultural activities, finding pen pals, inviting
guests to the class, and offering travel and observation opportunities. Noting pen pals as an effective
way, Melis worded her opinions as “People say there is a pen pal system. Teachers contact trustworthy
people living in other cultures, and build some kind of affiliation with the school. Then, students write
letters to them, and they write back, which provides chances to practice daily language and to learn about
daily routines of other people. This may ease identifying oneself with another culture.” Again, Melis
underlined that teachers should invite people from different cultures to the class by saying “Someone
who has experience about living in a different culture may be invited to the class. S/he can share her/his
experience with students. Such activities may be helpful.” Another teacher candidate focused on travel
and observation opportunities by saying “To me, the most influential way is travel.” Likewise, another
participant also pinpointed the significance of travel and observation for permanent and fun learning by
221
saying “A school should organize expeditions to the historical places nearby. Learning will be more
permanent with activities outside the school. They will both learn and have fun.” Figure 3 displays pre-
service social studies teachers’ suggestions concerning how tourism can contribute to cultural learning.
Suggestions
*Foreign language teaching should be more important

*Restoration efforts should be planned with care
*Congress organizations on tourism should be increased
*Biases should be reduced
*Publicity should be increased
*Governments should provide monetary support
*Value education should be taken seriously
Figure 3. ‘Suggestions’ Theme
As listed in Figure 3, teacher candidates suggested that foreign language teaching be more important,
restoration efforts be planned with due care, more tourism congresses be organized, biases be reduced,
publicity be increased, governments provide monetary support, and value education be taken more
seriously. Accordingly, Ayse who thinks foreign language teaching should be improved noted that
language education should be more communicative by saying “Foreign language teaching should be
improved. We should teach how to speak with tourists. This will enhance tourism.” Saying “What directly
rushes into my mind is the Russian tourists heading towards the coasts. This is among general biases. I
think tourism is not perceived in the correct way in Turkey”, Veli indicated the necessity to change biases.
Veli also pointed the importance of restoration by saying “There are beautiful historical places. And,
restoration plans and efforts should be more careful and precise.”. On the other hand, Ali expressed the
need for more congress organizations by saying “I think there are congress organizations on tourism.
There should be more of them. More panels and symposiums should be held.” Expressing her opinions
by saying “Our country is home for lots of varieties, but unfortunately we can’t use them for tourism
because they are sometimes not publicized effectively and sometimes not in good shape. Serious
publicity should be commenced”, Reyhan underlined the vitality of publicity. Another teacher candidate
who mentioned the relevance of publicity indicated the role of media by saying “Commercials can be
broadcasted on local TV channels. Or, there are radio stations, too. Billboards can also be used for the
downtown areas.” Focusing on government’s responsibility for tourism, Ceyda expressed her opinions by
saying “The government should do what is necessary. They should advertise different cultures we host
and they should provide monetary support.” Prioritizing value education about tourism, Aycan said
“Values of cultural heritage and sensitivity should be taught within our educational program.” Similarly,
Melis noted that current value education is incomplete by saying “There are some parts about different
cultures in the coursebooks, but I think they do not pass onto students. I don’t think students understand
them. I believe more emphasis can be laid on value education. To me, it is rather artificial as it is now.”
So, one can conclude that pre-service teachers think education and government support are crucial for
tourism to make any contributions to cultural learning.
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Conclusions
The present research concludes that pre-service teachers define culture as a combination of abstract and
concrete concepts, things humans have created so far, interaction with nature, and traditionalism.
Kagitcibasi (2010, p.35) states that there are 164 different definitions for culture in the literature
(Kocoglu, 2014). The commonalities among these definitions indicate that culture is a product of a
society, that its components are knowledge, skills, beliefs, values, arts, and tradition, and that it reflects
people’s thoughts. Research findings show that pre-service teachers’ definition for culture is compatible
with the one in the literature, but it is defined more comprehensively in the literature. Furthermore, as
for teacher candidates, the ways to learn about different cultures include learning from peers, watching
travel programs and documentaries, reading novels and travel blogs, and researching.
Pre-service social studies teachers define cultural learning as cultural transmission, learning the
experiences, and learning the history. Cultural learning is also named as cultural transmission (Ballantine,
2017 cited from Chang et.al., 2010.). This time, teacher candidates’ definition overlaps with the one in
the literature. Yet, literature handles cultural learning as cross-cultural learning as well (Ikeguchi, 2008).
It seems that pre-service teachers did not mention this aspect of cultural learning in their definitions.
Underlining the role of tourism in cultural learning, pre-service social studies teachers listed the
contributions that tourism can make as learning the effect of environment, learning about different
cultures, seeing different places, and learning through experience. Cetin (2009) concludes that tourism
establishes cultural interaction between local people and tourists, which is in line with teacher
candidates’ idea that tourism has a positive influence over cultural learning via learning about the
environment and other cultures. According to Atayeter and Tozkoparan (2014, p.11), social studies
teachers should have a good command of knowledge about the culture and places where they take
students as part of school expeditions. Thus, teachers should make necessary preparations before they
set out for such travels. However, it is known that many teachers do not prepare for such trips, and as a
result, students do not benefit from them as efficiently as they should. In this respect, it will be wise for
pre-service social studies teachers to fall back on their own tourism experiences when they organize any
school expeditions or travels in their professional life.
Acknowledging that teachers bear a major role within cultural learning, pre-service social studies teachers
listed what teachers can do as using documentaries, designing cultural activities, finding pen pals, inviting
guests to the class, and providing travel and observation opportunities. As can be deduced from the
opinions, teacher candidates suggest adding variety to instructional activities and blending them. Hatoss
(2006) underpins that both conceptual and experiential learning are significant in cultural learning. In this
sense, teacher candidates’ suggestions that teachers should design activities where students can learn
through experience are compatible with the literature. As for Atayeter and Tozkoparan (2014, p.19),
social studies teachers should diversify instructional activities and employ the methods appropriate for
the content and objectives in order to maximize students’ academic success. They should choose student-
centered methods that entail active participation on part of students. Travel and observation
opportunities, which can achieve this goal, should be provided whenever necessary.
As for pre-service teachers, foreign language education should be improved, restoration efforts should
be planned with precision and care, congress organizations should be increased, biases should be
eliminated, publicity should be enhanced, governments should provide monetary support, and value
education should be taken more seriously if tourism and travel are expected to contribute to cultural
learning. In their study examining university students’ enthusiasm to learn a foreign language for their
tourism education, Akgoz and Gursoy (2014) pointed to the key role that foreign language bears for
tourism and laid several suggestions as to how the quality of foreign language education can be improved
within tertiary education. In this current research, teacher candidates regard foreign language as the
most essential component of interaction in tourism.
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Following suggestions can be listed based on the research findings:
• The relation between culture, cultural learning, and tourism should be included within Social
Studies Instructional Program through both theoretical and applied senses.
• Activities should be planned to improve pre-service social studies teachers’ foreign language
skills.
• Activities should be developed to increase pre-service social studies teachers’ awareness about
cultural learning and tourism.
• Further research should be conducted on tourism’s effect over cultural learning.
References
Akgöz, E., & Gürsoy, Y. (2014). Turizm eğitiminde yabancı dil öğrenme, istek ve kararlılıkları: Selçuk
Üniversitesi. Journal of Tourism and Gastronomy Studies, 2 (1), 21-29.
Atayeter, Y. & Tozkoparan, U. (2014). Sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri ve 6. sınıf öğrencilerinin sosyal bilgiler
dersinde gezi-gözlem yönteminin uygulanmasına yönelik görüşleri. Mehmet Akif Ersoy
Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi 3 (5), 1-21.
Ballatine, J. H. (2017). The sociology of education. 7th edition. Content Technologies.
Çetin, T. (2009). Beypazarı’nda turist-yerli halk etkileşimi ve turizmin sosyal, kültürel ve ekonomik etkileri.
Türk Dünyası İncelemeleri Dergisi, 9 (1), 15-32.
Doğanay, A. (2004). Sosyal bilgiler öğretimi, C. Öztürk ve D. Dilek (Ed.) Hayat Bilgisi ve Sosyal Bilgiler
Öğretimi, (ss.1546). Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık.
Duran, E. (2011). Turizm, kültür ve kimlik ilişkisi; turizmde toplumsal ve kültürel kimliğin sürdürülebilirliği.
Istanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 10 (19), 291-313.
Erden, M. (n.d.). Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi, Ankara: Alkım Yayınevi.
Hatoss, A. (2006). Globalisation, interculturality and culture teaching: International students' cultural
learning needs in Australia. Prospect, 21 (2), 47-69.
Ikeguchi, S. (2008). Cultural learning and adaptation: a closer look at the realities. Intercultural
Communication Studies XVII, 285-298.
Kaya, E., & Öner, G. (2017). 100. Yaşındaki Sosyal Bilgiler Dersini Sosyalleşme ve Toplu Öğretim Ekseninde
Yeniden Düşünmek. Anadolu Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 1 (2), 1-25.
Koçoğlu, E. (2014). Sosyal bilgiler dersi kazanımlarının kültürel yaşam üzerindeki etkilerine ilişkin
öğretmen algıları. Mediterranean Journal of Humanities IV/2, 191-205
Meydan, A. & Akkuş, A. (2014). Sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde müze gezilerinin tarihi ve kültürel değerlerin
kazandırılmasındaki önemi. Marmara Coğrafya Dergisi Sayı: 29, Ocak - 2014, S. 402-422
Topçu, E. (2017). Sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde okul dışı öğrenme ortamları: öğretmen adayları ile
fenomenolojik bir çalışma. International Education Studies, 10(7) 1-27.
Turner, T. N. (1999). Essentials of elementary social studies, 2nd ed. USA: Allyn and Bacon.
Yıldırım, A. & Şimşek, H. (2013). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. Seçkin Yayıncılık.
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7342
AN ANALYSIS OF TURKISH SOCIAL STUDIES TEXTBOOKS IN TERMS OF
CULTURAL AND NATURAL HERITAGE, AND TOURISM
Associate Professor
Eskisehir, Turkey
Nazlı Gökçe
Professor
Eskisehir, Turkey

Assistant Professor
Department of Primary Education, Anadolu University
Eskisehir, Turkey
ogurdogan@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
Social studies is a part of school curriculum concerned with the study of functioning of society and the
social relationships based on social sciences such as history, geography, , economics, psychology
sociology, and anthropology. Both historical events, current events, and future are included in the social
studies course. In this regard social studies course play a crucial role in introducing new generation
cultural and natural heritage in primary and secondary schools. Also, tourism helps societies present their
own cultural and natural heritage to the other countries. Therefore, issues about cultural and natural
heritage, and importance of tourism should be taught in the social studies course. Purpose of this study
is to analyze 5th grade Turkish Social Studies Textbook in terms of cultural and natural heritage and
tourism. Documentary analysis technique, one of the qualitative research methods, was used in this
study, and the data were analyzed with content analysis. The results of the study revealed that issues
related cultural and natural heritage, and tourism were mostly took place in the learning domains of
“Culture and Heritage”, “Production, Distribution, and Consumption”, and “Global Connections” in the
5th grade social studies textbook. Suggestions were put forth in light of the findings.
Keywords: Social Studies, Textbook, Tourism, Cultural Heritage, Natural Heritage
Introduction
Culture can be defined as the shared behaviors, beliefs and values of a group of people. It is generally
created, shared and learned by a group of people. Therefore, each person belongs to a cultural group;
the group shares culture (Zarillo, 2004, p.37). Social Studies Education program should provide
experience to students about the studies on culture and cultural variations. It is a fact that human beings
construct culture, learn and adapt to that culture. Culture enables us to see ourselves as an individual
and member of different groups. The cultures of human beings resemble and differ. (NCSS, 1994).
Social Studies program helps students learn about cultures in various learning units with connection of
different social sciences such as Sociology, Anthropology, Geography, and History. Social Studies Program
aims to introduce the basic components of Turkish culture, and to adopt the necessity of development
and protection of the culture to develop the national awareness. There are values in the program which
are formed in our cultural heritage. Beside cultural heritage Social Studies Education Program (MEB;
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2018) deals with the natural heritage and tourism subject in various learning domains. Cultural and
natural heritage are classified in different ways. However, UNSECO made one of the main classifications
about this issue.
World Heritage Convention accepted General Conference of UNESCO in 1972 defines cultural and natural
heritage as follows (unesco, 2005, pp.45-46):
For the purposes of World Heritage Convention, the following shall be considered as “cultural
heritage”:
– monuments: architectural works, works of monumental sculpture and painting, elements or
structures of an archaeological nature, inscriptions, cave dwellings and combinations of features,
which are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science;
– groups of buildings: groups of separate or connected buildings which, because of their
architecture, their homogeneity or their place in the landscape, are of outstanding universal value
from the point of view of history, art or science;
– sites: works of man or the combined works of nature and of man, and areas including
archaeological sites which are of outstanding universal value from the historical, aesthetic,
ethnological or anthropological points of view
Similarly, for the purposes of World Heritage Convention, “natural heritage”. In this context natural
features consisting of physical and biological formations or groups of such formations, geological and
physiographical formations and precisely delineated areas, and natural sites or precisely delineated
natural areas of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science, conservation or natural
beauty were included in natural heritage. Also, another title was Mixed Cultural and Natural Heritage in
UNSECO’s classification. Properties shall be considered as “mixed cultural and natural heritage” if they
satisfy a part or the whole of the definitions of both cultural and natural heritage.
Textbooks are important tools for teachers which guide them what to do in the classroom prepared in
light of the Social Studies Education Program. Therefore, informative texts, visuals, and activities which
are suggested in the textbook help teacher design learning activities for students. There are many studies
analyzing social studies textbooks in the literature in terms of different issues such as global citizenship
and human rights, sex bias, and environmental discourse (Bromley, Meyer, & Ramirez; 2011; Kepenekçi
ve Ökdem, 2013; Moon & Koo, 2011; Sumalatha, & Ramakrishnaiah, 2004). However, there is not any
study focusing on cultural and natural heritage, and tourism in the social studies textbooks. In this
context, purpose of this study is to analyze 5th grade Turkish Social Studies Textbook in terms cultural and
natural heritage and tourism. The following questions were addressed in the study:
• What kind of components related with cultural and natural heritage, and tourism take place in
the5th grade social studies textbook?
• What kind of activities are presented in the 5th grade social studies textbook?
Method
In the present study, out of qualitative research methods, “document analysis” method is used. The
document analysis contains analysis of the written documents involving information about fact or facts
aimed to investigate. As it can be used singly as research method, it can be applied as extra information
source when other qualitative research methods are employed. In line with the research problem, which
documents are important and which can be used as a data source are determined. In the studies related
to education, documents such as curriculums, student and teacher hand books, course books, student
registrations, correspondence within and outside the school, student assignments and exams, lesson and
unit plans can be used as data sources (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2013).
In this study, 5th grade social studies textbook approved by National Education Ministry (MEB, 2017) is
based on as a data source. In the literature some studies (Gürkan, 2015; Pehlivan and Kolaç, 2016)
generally revealed that cultural heritage components were mostly emphasized in the 5th grade social
studies program and textbook. Therefore, the 5th grade textbook was selected to analyze in terms of
cultural and natural heritage and tourism in the study. The data were analyzed with content analysis
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technique. As for the reliability study of the study, two researchers analyzed 5th grade social studies
textbook separately. After this procedure, the researchers compared the themes related to cultural and
natural heritage, and tourism in the textbook and reached a consensus on the defined themes.
Findings
Findings of the study were presented in two titles parallel with the research questions. Firstly, findings
regarding components related with cultural and natural heritage, and tourism in the social studies
textbook were explained. Secondly, findings regarding activities on cultural and natural heritage, and
tourism in the social studies textbook were presented. Also, distribution of the codes according to
learning domains were showed in Table 1. Samples from textbook were given in pictures. In the text
pictures were cited.
Table 1: Distribution of the Codes According to Learning Domains/Units
Learning Text Visual Activity

Domain/Unit
Mesopotamian Sumerian Stone Relief Using news
Civilizations
Anatolian Civilizations Ziggurat in Ur/Iraq Interpret a historical evidence
(a text or a visual)
Intangible Cultural The main gate of the city in Virtual tour

Heritage Babylon in Iraq
Cultural Features Wall board of the Assyrians

Transferring Cultural Investigating contributions of
Heritage from Past to Kadesh Treaty tablets Anatolian and Mesopotamian
Present Civilizations to the humanity
Van Urartu Castle Examining common
characteristics of historical and
touristic places
Eskisehir Midas Monument
Culture and Investigating intangible cultural
Heritage İzmir Ephesus Theatre heritage in the local
environment
Anatolian Civilizations
Archeological Elements: Comparing past and present
Vase, Sculpture
Bursa Cumalıkızık Village
Edirne Historical Fountain
İstanbul Süleymaniye
Mosque
İstanbul Topkapı Palace,
Tile Panel
Bolu Abant LAke
Antalya Manavgat Waterfall

Pazırık carpet
Folk dance
Antalya teke house
Beypazarı House
Turkish Delight
Tourism as Economic Kartalkaya Ski Resort Using news
Activity
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Kartalkaya Winter
Tourism
Contributions of Kındıra Village
Tourism to the
Economy
Case of Kındıra Village

Professions regarding Relating Professions with
Tourism Economic Activities
Contributions of my Fairy Chimneys (Goreme)
Global
Town to the Economy
Connections
East Blacksea Using news
Tourism Changes Bias Kaş Town Using news
Common Heritage of Göbeklitepe Using news
Humanity
Divriği Ulu Mosque
The Ancient City of Ephesus
Mostar Bridge
Findings regarding Components related with Cultural and Natural Heritage, and Tourism in the Social
Studies Textbook
Texts and visuals were examined to figure out themes regarding components related with cultural and
natural heritage, and tourism in the social studies textbook. After this analysis four themes were
determined regarding with cultural and natural heritage, and tourism. This themes were listed as natural
heritage, cultural heritage, mixed natural and cultural heritage, and tourism. These themes were shown
in Figure 1.
•Bolu Abant •Tangible Cultural

Lake Heritage:
•Manavgat Monuments,
Waterfall Castles, Historical
Natural Cultural Sites
Heritage Heritage •Intangible
Cultural Heritage:
Handicrafts, Folk
Dance, Food
Mixed
Cultural
Tourism and
Natural
•Tourism as Heritage •Goreme
an economic National Park
activity
•Tourism as a
way of social
interaction
Figure 1: Components related with Cultural and Natural Heritage, and Tourism
Findings regarding natural heritage

Bolu Abant Lake and Manavgat Waterfall were identified as a natural heritage in the 5th grade social
studies textbook in the unit of Culture and Heritage under the title of My Beautiful Country. However,
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these were not introduced in the text. There were only visuals about them. Visual regarding Bolu Abant
Lake was presented in Picture 1.
Picture 1: Bolu Abant Lake
Findings regarding cultural heritage

Components regarding cultural heritage were mostly given in the unit of Culture and Heritage, and then
Global Connections unit. Cultural heritage was figured out as tangible and intangible cultural heritage in
the 5th grade social studies textbook. Objectives of the unit of Culture and Heritage were listed as below:
• You will learn contributions of Anatolian and Mesopotamian civilizations to the humanity.
• You will learn natural features, historical sites, and architectural works in your environment.
• You will compare your local environment to your country in terms of cultural characteristics.
• You will be aware role of the culture for social unity.
• You will understand development of cultural components from past to today.
In this context, in the subject titled Travel to Past there was an informative text about Anatolian and
Mesopotamian Civilizations. In the Culture and Heritage unit, there were so many informative texts and
visuals about historical architectural works, works of monumental sculpture and painting, elements or
structures of an archaeological nature, inscriptions, cave dwellings and combinations of features etc.
Also, cultural heritage was examined as tangible and intangible cultural heritage. Van Urartu Castle
(Picture 2) and Mesopotamia Wallboard (Picture 7) were samples of tangible cultural heritage took place
in the textbook. Intangible cultural heritage components such as handicrafts and folk dance were
presented under the title of Our Cultural Features. Additionally, Turkish delight was given as an example
for traditional Turkish desert.
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Picture 2: Van Urartu Castle
Similarly, tangible cultural heritage components were explained in the Global Connections unit. In this
context, Internet news and visual about Göbeklitepe (Picture 3) which was accepted by UNESCO for
World Heritage List were presented in the subject of Common Humanity Heritage. Additionally, Divriği
Ulu Mosque and The ancient city of Ephesus were mentioned in the unit in the text and visuals were
presented regarding these heritage which took place in UNESCO World Heritage List (MEB, 2017, p.181).
Lastly, an informative text and visuals were showed about Mostar Bridge which was built by the Architect
Hayreddin who was student of Architect Sinan.
Picture 3: Göbeklitepe, Global Connections
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Findings regarding mixed cultural and natural heritage
Göreme National Park (Fairy Chimneys) which was accepted as mixed cultural and natural heritage by
UNESCO in the World Heritage list was shown in the cover page of the Global Connections unit (MEB,
2017, p.156). However, there was not any explanation or information about the visual.
Findings regarding tourism
It is seen that the theme tourism took place in the Production, Distribution and Consumption, and Global
Connections units. Tourism theme was examined in two different dimensions. One of them was tourism
as an economic activity, and the other one was tourism as a way of social interaction. In this context, in
the Production, Distribution and Consumption, tourism was introduced as an economic activity (Picture
4). And contribution of tourism to the country’s economy was explained in detail. For instance, in this
unit winter tourism in Kartalkaya, Bolu, and its’ positive economic effect on the nearest village Kındıra
were introduced in the text with a current news and visual in the textbook. This news and visual were
given in Picture 5. Additionally, in the same unit there was a subject titled Professions in my Environment.
In this title, professions related with tourism were introduced in the text (MEB; 2017, p. 141). However,
tourism was explained also as a way of social interaction in the Global Connections unit. In this unit, role
of tourism in learning about different cultures and developing tolerance for them was explained. Under
the subject title of Tourism Changes Bias, firstly concepts of tourism and tourist were identified, then text
and case were presented about role of tourism in social interaction between people from different
cultures (MEB, 2017, p.175). News about increasing visits between Kaş, Turkey and Meis Island, Greece
were told after the visa problem solved between two countries.
Picture 4: Tourism as an economic activity
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Picture 5: Using news about tourism
Findings regarding Activities on Cultural and Natural Heritage, and Tourism in the Social Studies
Textbook
Using news, research questions, using historical evidence, virtual tour, and comparing past and present
were identified as the activities which were presented in the 5th grade social studies textbook. It can be
claimed that mostly using news activity was repeated in the textbook. In these activities generally
redesigned Internet news was given to the students, and then they were required to answer some
questions regarding the news. A sample news was showed in Picture 6. In the news, it was explained that
historical fountains were damaged with graffiti in the city of Edirne. In the questions, students were asked
if they saw this kind of damaged historical heritage in their environment, and what kind of precautions
should be used to protect historical heritage.
Picture 6: Activity, Edirne Historical Fountain
Research questions were used in the 5th grade social studies textbook to support students’ learning by
investigation. The following sample can be referred as a sample which was presented in the Culture and
Heritage unit:
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“Choose one of the cultural component from your environment which is related with celebration as
wedding ceremony, and feasts. Write details about this celebration in your notebook. Explain
importance of this celebration in terms of social unity and continuity” (MEB, 2017, p.54).
As seen in the sample research activity, students were asked to do research about intangible cultural
heritage in their local environment and understand why this heritage is important for their society. Using
historical evidence was another activity given in the textbook. Activity regarding Mesopotamian
wallboard can be given as an example for this theme which was shown in Picture 7. In this activity,
students were asked to analyze wallboard and then answer some questions. These questions were about
economic activities, and socio-economic structure of society in Mesopotamia. Activity makes student
firstly examine wallboard, use the historical evidence and then interpret answers of the questions.
Picture 7: Activity
There was a virtual tour activity in the 5th grade social studies textbook. In the virtual tour students were
asked to visit website of the Anatolian Civilizations Museum and make a virtual tour in the museum. Also,
there were some questions which should be answered after the virtual tour activity. Questions were
about what they saw in the museum, and how historical heritage could be protected in the museums. It
can be claimed that technology integration made activity different and attractive for students.
There were some activities in the textbook which required students compare past and present. One of
the examples for these comparison activities was given in the Culture and Heritage unit. In this unit,
students were asked if they would like to live in Sumerians times or not, and why? (MEB, 2017, p.38). In
this activity, students were required to compare past and present from various dimensions, and explain
their decision with reasons. It can be claimed that various activities which help students think, compare,
research, and make decisions may be useful in terms of learning cultural and natural heritage, and
tourism.
Conclusions
The results of the study showed that issues related cultural and natural heritage, and tourism were mostly
took place in the learning domains of “Culture and Heritage”, “Production, Distribution, and
Consumption”, and “Global Connections” in the 5th grade social studies textbook. Themes titled natural
heritage, cultural heritage, mixed natural and cultural heritage, and tourism were found in the textbook.
As a conclusion it can be said that cultural heritage was mostly included in the unit of Culture and
Heritage. Tourism was analyzed as an economic activity in the Production, Distribution, and Consumption
unit. In the Global Connections unit, beside economic contributions, role of tourism in facilitating social
interaction and intercultural communication was explained. Moreover, in the same unit some
information and visuals were presented regarding heritage of our country which were accepted as World
Heritage by UNESCO.
In the fifth grade social studies textbook, some activities such as using news, research questions, using
historical evidence, virtual tour, and comparing historical times and present were presented to support
learning process. It can be claimed that using news is a beneficial activity for students. News may
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concretize issues through real cases for students. Additionally, activities which include some research
questions help students relate subjects with their local environment and daily life. Virtual tour activities
aim at integrating instructional technologies with subjects. In light of findings of the study following
suggestions can be put forth:
In the social studies textbook;
• relationship between introducing and protecting cultural and natural heritage, and tourism can
be emphasized,
• beside economic dimension, cultural and social contributions of tourism can be presented in
detail,
• various activities can be prepared to help students learn cultural and natural heritage, and
tourism actively.
References
Bromley, P., Meyer, J. W., & Ramirez, F. O. (2011). The worldwide spread of environmental discourse in
social studies, history, and civics textbooks, 1970–2008. Comparative Education Review, 55(4),
517-545.
Gürkan, B. (2015). Sosyal bilgiler ders kitaplarının somut olmayan kültürel miras açısından incelenmesi.
[An examination on the books of social sciences lesson in terms of intangible cultural heritage].
Yayinlanmamis yuksek lisans tezi, Cukurova Universitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitusu, Adana.
Kepenekci, Y. K., & Ökdem, M. (2013). Consumer rights in elementary school life studies and social studies
textbooks. Ilkogretim Online, 12(3), 674-686.
MEB. (2018). Sosyal bilgiler dersi (4–7. sınıflar) öğretim programı ve kılavuzu. [Elementary school social
studies curriculum grades 4–7]. Retrieved from
http://mufredat.meb.gov.tr/ProgramDetay.aspx?PID=155
MEB. (2107). Ortaokul sosyal bilgiler ders kitabı 5. [Secondary school social studies textbook 5]. İstanbul:
Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları.
Moon, R. J., & Koo, J. W. (2011). Global citizenship and human rights: A longitudinal analysis of social
studies and ethics textbooks in the Republic of Korea. Comparative Education Review, 55(4), 574-
599.
NCSS. (1994). Expectations of excellence: curriculum standards for the social studies. Washington, DC:
National Council for the Social Studies.
Pehlivan, A., & Kolaç, E. (2016). Açık-örgün eğitim sosyal bilgiler ders kitapları ve öğretim programında
somut olmayan kültürel miras ögeleri. [Elements of the intangible cultural heritage in open -
formal education social studies textbooks and curriculum]. Turkish Studies, 11(19), 655-670.
Sumalatha, K., & Ramakrishnaiah, D. (2004). Sex bias in secondary school social studies textbooks: A case
study in India. American Journal of Applied Science, 1 (1), 62-63.
UNESCO. (2005). Basic text of the 1972 World Heritage Convention. Retrieved from
http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/activities/documents/activity-562-4.pdf August 28, 2018
Yıldırım A. ve Şimşek, H. (2013). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. [Qualitative research
methods in social sciences].9. Baskı. Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık.
Zarrillo, J. J. (2004). Teaching elementary social studies principles and applications. (2nd ed.). New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
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Biographical Notes
examinations of social studies course book. Her research focuses on social studies education, values
science ethics, and research methods. Her research focuses on social studies education, and
Ömür Gürdoğan Bayır is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Primary Education, Anadolu
University, Turkey where she teaches courses on teaching life sciences, and social studies education. Her
research focuses on social studies education in the primary education, peace education and values
education.
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7351
A QUALITATIVE METHOD TO DETERMINE PROBLEMS IN TOURISM

SECTOR: FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS
Senay Oğuztimur
Associate Professor
Department of City and Regional Planning, Yildiz Technical University.
İstanbul, Turkey
soguz@yildiz.edu.tr
Abstract
As being one of the most fragile sector; while planning tourism, planners have to fully understand the
reasons of problems and develop solutions sensitively. In that scope, it is observed that, focus group
interview technique has gained acceptance as a qualitative research method. There is increasing
acknowledgement of the value of qualitative research approaches in social sciences. More recently, focus
group methodology has gained considerable popularity as an alternative means of gathering qualitative
data in the study of social sciences.
Three successful focus group experience during the process of İstanbul Tourism Master Plan is subjected
in article. A group of academician were responsible for the Master Plan and organised focus groups. The
first part in article consists of the literature survey regarding with focus group interviews. The definitions,
data analysis approaches, the ways of planning/organising groups are mentioned. Second part focuses
on a sample study for İstanbul Tourism Sector. The details of three focus group organisation as a
significant part of İstanbul Tourism Master Plan, analysis of focus group data and basic comparative
findings of these three group interviews are presented. As a result; focus group participants’ contribution
to İstanbul Tourism Master Plan is comparatively presented in terms of identifying problems and
developing solutions.
Key words: Qualitative Research, Focus Group, Tourism, İstanbul, Tourism Master Plan.
Introduction
There are a number of reasons for using focus groups, including the development of a new measuring
instrument (Gray- Vickery 1993, McKinley et al. 1997). However, the literature does not explain how focus
group data can be transformed systematically into a new questionnaire, although Powell et al. (1996)
examine their usefulness. Firstly, focus groups may pay explicit attention to consumers rather than
professionals, with the consumer being regarded as the expert. Secondly, they depend on dynamic
interaction to provide the information sought (Kitzinger 1996). Thirdly, they can provide major insights
into attitudes, beliefs and opinions (Carey 1994). However, Kitzinger (1996) identifies a disadvantage, in
that they can silence individual voices of dissent.
A focus group methodology was used to obtain in-depth information describing community leaders’ and
businesspersons’ attitudes and perceptions of the process of tourism development (Wilson, et al. 2001).
More specifically, the focus groups explored how communities had developed their local tourism
industries and community leaders’ understanding of the reasons why some communities were successful
at developing local tourism and others were not. Participants were asked to discuss, in detail, their
experiences (i.e., their successes and failures) in stimulating tourism in İstanbul.
The main purpose of this paper is to examine and assess the experience of İstanbul Tourism Master Plan
team had. More specially, objectives of the paper are (1) to express the practice of three focus groups,
236
(2) to identify the methodology used while organizing the focus group meetings, (3) to express strategies,
thoughts and solution suggestions.
Focus Group Interview: A Qualitative Data Collection Method
The definition of focus group interview
A focus group is, according to Lederman (Thomas et al. 1995), ‘a technique involving the use of in-depth
group interviews in which participants are selected because they are a purposive, although not necessarily
representative, sampling of a specific population, this group being ‘focused’ on a given topic’. Participants
in this type of research are, therefore, selected on the criteria that they would have something to say on
the topic, are within the age-range, have similar socio-characteristics and would be comfortable talking
to the interviewer and each other (Richardson & Rabiee, 2001).
In a more basic meaning, a focus group is, 'an informal discussion among selected individuals about
specific topics' (Beck et al. 1986: 73). Although there are many possible variations on the basic method
(Kitzinger 1990, Krueger 1994), centrally it involves one or more group discussions, in which participants
focus collectively upon a topic selected by the researcher, and presented to them (most commonly) as a
set of questions, although sometimes as a film, a vignette, a set of advertisements, cards to sort, or a
game to play. The participants (usually 6-8, and rarely more than 12) may be pre-existing groups of people
(e.g. family members, work colleagues) or they may be drawn together specifically for the research- in
which case it is usually recommended that groups are relatively homogeneous, particularly in relation to
'prestige' or 'status' factors such as occupation, social class, or age (Carey 1994: 229).
Focus groups are commonly conducted among a small nonrepresentative sample of participants who
share one or more characteristics that are on interest to the researcher. The characteristics participants
share may be demographic, situational, behavioural, ideological or any combination of these. The sample
selection is purposive and based more on suitability and availability, rather than on representatives
(O’Brien,1993). Thus, focus group samples are often small and nonrepresentative, allowing for in depth
description of phenomena but not for generalization to a larger population.
Focus groups could provide information about a range of ideas and feelings that individuals have about
certain issues, as well as illuminating the differences in perspective between groups of individuals. Focus
groups can generate large amounts of data in a relatively short time span, and the findings may be used
to precede quantitative procedures. Like one-to-one interviews, the results of focus-group interviews can
be presented in uncomplicated ways using lay terminology supported by quotations from the
participants. Krueger & Casey (2000), while describing in detail the advantages and disadvantages of
focus groups, point out when to use focus-group interviews and when not to use them.
Data analysis approaches and Interpretation of focus group data
Compared with the extensive advice available on how to conduct focus groups, there is relatively little in
the focus group literature on how to analyse the resulting data. Data analysis sections of the focus group
handbooks are typically very brief, and most commentators suggest (or imply) that the techniques
suitable for analysing one-to-one interview data are equally applicable for use with focus group data. In
published focus group studies, researchers often omit, or briefly gloss, the details of exactly how they
conducted their analyses (categories are 'identified' or themes 'emerge') (Wilkinson, 1998).
As one of the leading academic, Wilkinson (1998) refers to Morgan (1987:64) who identifies two main
approaches to analysing focus group data: 'systematic coding via content analysis' and 'strictly qualitative
or ethnographic' analysis. The former produces a summary description of the data, usually incorporating
a quantitative element, while the latter relies primarily on direct quotation from the group discussion.
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Very briefly, Content analysis is, a matter of debate whether qualitative data should be quantified at all
(as is typically the case when it is subjected to some form of content analysis). However, the main
advantages of content analysis are to allow for a relatively systematic treatment of the data and to enable
its presentation in summary form. Ethnographic analysis, by contrast, is rarely systematic, in the sense
of ranging across the full data set-it is much more selective and limited in scope. Its main advantage is to
permit a detailed interpretative account of the everyday social processes of communication, talk and
action occurring within the focus group. The key issue in ethnographic analysis is how to select the
material to present (whether this is framed up as 'themes', 'discourses'.
As a qualitative research technique, focus group interviews generate a great deal of data. Thus, a central
aim of data analysis, according to Robson (1993), is to reduce data. Yin (1989) points out that data analysis
consists of a number of stages, i.e. examining, categorising and tabulating or otherwise recombining the
evidence, in order to address the initial goal of a study. Krueger & Casey (2000) build on this concept and
suggest that the purpose should drive the analysis; they believe that ‘analysis begins by going back to the
intention of the study and survival requires a clear fix on the purpose of the study’. Following this concept,
although hard at times, is extremely helpful for managing the data, making sense of what is going on,
getting rid of extra and irrelevant information and travelling safely through the maze of large and
complicated paths of information (Rabice, 2004).
The process of collecting data in a focus group is a delicate and complex one, for four main reasons (Sim,
1998):
- Data need to be collected not only on what participants say, but also on how they interact
with one another
- Quotations need to be attributed accurately to individual group members,
- The process of data collection should not interfere with or detract from the coordination or
the group
- The method of recording data should not itself have reactive effects upon the group
participants.
Sim (1998), the analysis of focus group data is likely to follow the same process as for other sources of
qualitative data. Many of the problems can rise in analysing data like any qualitative data in general. At
the very least, the researcher draws together and compares discussions of similar themes and examines
how these relate to the variables within the sample population. In general, it is not appropriate to give
percentages in reports of focus group data, and it is important to try to distinguish between individual
opinions expressed in spite of the group from the actual group consensus. As in all qualitative analysis,
deviant case analysis is important-that is, attention must be given to minority opinions and examples that
do not fit with the researcher's overall theory (Kitzinger, 1995).
The only distinct feature of working with focus group data is the need to indicate the impact of the group
dynamic and analyse the sessions in ways that take full advantage of the interaction between research
participants. In coding the script of a group discussion, it is worth using special categories for certain types
of narrative, such as jokes and anecdotes, and types of interaction, such as "questions," "deferring to the
opinion of others," "censorship," or "changes of mind." A focus group research report that is true to its
data should also usually include at least some illustrations of the talk between participants, rather than
simply presenting isolated quotations taken out of context (Kitzinger, 1995).
Planning and Organisation of the focus group
One of the most interested issue is the number of focus groups. Krueger (1994) suggests continuing with
running focus groups until a clear pattern emerges and subsequent groups produce only repetitious
information (theoretical saturation). However, several authors, including Krueger (1994), suggest that for
a simple research question the number of focus groups necessary may only be three or four (Burrows &
Kendall, 1997).
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The optimum number of participants for a focus group may vary. Krueger & Casey (2000) suggest
between six and eight participants, as smaller groups show greater potential while Morgan (1997))
mentions six to twelve participants for each focus groups. However, the number generally suggested as
being manageable is between six and ten participants; large enough to gain a variety of perspectives and
small enough not to become disorderly or fragmented. However, the size of the group depends on the
aims of the study. Experience of researching these groups suggests that lack of confidence and low self-
esteem often prevent these individuals participating in a group discussion. Focus-group interviews could,
therefore, be used as a vehicle to empower the participants from these communities. Another potential
problem in using focus groups is the number of non-attenders. The recommendation is, therefore, to
over-recruit by 10–25%, based on the topic and groups of participants. In order to maximise participation
it is important to obtain an agreed date from the informants well in advance of the interviews and to
remind them a few days before they start. Each group interview usually lasts approximately 1–2 h, based
on the complexity of the topic under investigation, number of questions and the number of participants
(Morgan, 1997) and consist of between six and twelve participants (Baumgartner, Strong, & Hensley,
2002; Krueger, 1994, 2000).
The number of times a focus group meets can vary from a single meeting to multiple meetings. Likewise,
the number of different focus groups can vary. However, using multiple focus groups allows the focus
group researcher to assess the extent to which saturation (Morse, 1995) has been reached, whether data
saturation (i.e., occurring when information occurs so repeatedly that the researcher can anticipate it
and whereby the collection of more data appears to have no additional interpretive worth; Sandelowski,
2008; Saumure & Given, 2008) or theoretical saturation (i.e., occurring when the researcher can assume
that her/his emergent theory is adequately developed to fit any future data collected; Sandelowski,
2008). Focus groups can be formed by using pre-existing groups (e.g., colleagues at a place of work).
Alternatively, these groups can represent newly formed groups that the researcher constructs by
selecting members either randomly or, much more commonly, via one of the 19 or more purposive
sampling techniques (e.g., homogeneous sampling, maximum variation sampling, critical case sampling,
or multistage purposeful sampling; Onwuegbuzie & Collins, 2007). Krueger (1994) and Morgan (1997)
have suggested that three to six different focus groups are adequate to reach data saturation and/or
theoretical saturation, with each group meeting once or multiple times.
The group should be coordinated by a moderator or facilitator, who is often assisted by a co-researcher.
The personality, social identity and interpersonal skills of the focus group moderator will influence
powerfully the process of interaction that takes place, and the way in which moderator behaves and
verbal and non-verbal cues that she/he gives to the group, are crucial in this respect (Vaughn et al, 1996).
A particular difficulty lies in striking the right balance between an active and a passive role. The
moderator must be sufficiently involved in the group to fulfil the role of facilitator, but not so dominant
as to bias or inhibit discussion (Goldman, 1962). Nyamathi and Shuler (1990, p 1286) describe the
moderators in their study as providing mild, unobtrusive control over the group.
The typical instrument for a focus group study is a discussion guide. The guide establishes a set of issues
for the group to discuss and is used to channel the discussion towards accomplishing the research
objectives. The guide may be more or less structured, depending on the purposes of the study. Expletory
studies call for relatively unstructured discussion guides that specify the broad topics participants are to
discuss but not the order in which topics are introduced. Unstructured discussion guides facilitate insight
into participants’ thinking by allowing them to discuss any dimension of a topic they wish. In contrast,
structured discussion guides usually specify the order in which topics are introduces and include probes
for specific types of information. They are most appropriate in studies designed to obtain information
on a particular aspect of a topic. For example, in studies designed to compare differently defined groups,
structured guides ensure that specific points are discussed or that similar points are discussed across
groups (Hughes and DuMont, 1993)
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An Example For Focus Groups: İstanbul Tourism Master Plan
Istanbul, a rapidly developing metropolis and the financial and cultural centre of Turkey, is a popular
tourist destination as well. In order to manage this popular destination, local and central authorities of
Istanbul has formulated policies and initiated development projects. One of these efforts is Tourism
Master Plan which is administrated by İstanbul Metropolitan Municipality. Tourism Master Plan is
prepared by a group of academician from Yildiz Technical University, Department of City and Regional
Planning.
İstanbul is a huge city and a destination, which offers multiple touristic options. It is one of the most
crowded cities in the world. Therefore occurring problems of the city are large-scaled as well. Not just
tourism, but instead every and each subject that effects the urban life should be investigated in depth.
Although the city has always enjoyed a fair share of national tourism revenue, until recently it lacked
tourism strategies –in general meaning- designed particularly to attract tourists. Although İstanbul’s
reputation is mostly more known than Turkey, for now İstanbul has an image of having no formal
strategies for tourism. Tourism Master Plan (TMP) was one of the head of the projects that had been
made to determine a road map for İstanbul. Project lasted in (two years) 2013. During the process, many
different topics related with social, economic and spatial issues are evaluated analytically.
Comprehensive analytic studies processed within subsidiary source as well as primary sources. The
techniques of primary sources such as survey, interview, and focus group meetings were all preferred for
the Master Plan. Surveys were planned with households and tourists, on the other hand focus group
meetings, the subject of this article, are organised respectively.
In order to determine tourism road map for İstanbul, 3 focus group meeting have been organised. For
this meetings, 3 critical sectors were chosen and related professionals were invited. In the planning
process of focus group meetings, two common purposes are determined: (1) To explore the attitudes of
a range of sector representatives towards the problems and potentials of sector and get the view to
manage them, (2) to use focus group data to develop these attitudes quantitatively. In accordance with
these purposes, the organisation of the meetings, the analysis of focus group meeting analysis and the
outputs are presented below.
Organising the Focus Groups for İstanbul Tourism Master Plan
Development of the interview guide
The interview guide was developed through literature search, fact reports and various searches done by
İstanbul Tourism Master Plan team. A preliminary list, containing the key issues to be explored during
interviews, was produced. This list was examined, and broad issues were identified and incorporated into
the interview guide. Broad questions were used and participants were informed of the questions prior to
coming to the group. The interview guide was prepared to direct group discussion and to stimulate
conversation about the research topic, besides to ensure that all the desired information is sought.
Principles of interview questions were put forward like progressing from general to specific. Interview
guide was sent to group members via mail and they were given information about the focus group theme
and the way to be followed.
Composition of the groups
In order to compose İstanbul Tourism Master Plan study groups, three homogenous groups were
designed depending on their sector and the institution they work for. The sectors and institutions were
all critical in the sense of contributing the general plan study. All the professional guests were well known
in their community. As recommended in literature, homogeneous groups -almost the age, status, class,
occupation and other characteristics were similar- were created. These meetings were realised in
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following 6 weeks. The most effective meetings were tried to organise with limited financial sources and
time pressure.
The first focus groups were conducted with a group of Culture/Art Sector, Entertainment Organizers,
Creative Industry Representatives (participant number=12), the second: tourism sector enterprisers and
public institutions representatives (participant number =20), and the third: publicity and promotion
professions and marketing specialists were the last group (participant number =9). It is known that
sample size is one of the most contentious issues, as there is little consensus as to what is most
appropriate. In this context, it is tried to form the groups as advised size but in İstanbul TMP experience
second focus group’s participant number is a little more than acceptable average. Although more than
accepted number of participants were attended to second focus group meeting, this did not limit the
efficiency. But in all circumstances, Stewart and Shamdasani (1990) also suggest that there is no general
rule as to the optimal number of focus groups. They put forward the rationale of working out the number
of groups according to the homogeneity of the potential population, and the ease of research application.
Recording the data
Data were collected using both video record and an audio recorder, and team members took notes as
well. This is to be in the safe side, if the machines would have failed, data would still have been recorded
by the team members. In order to keep field notes and simultaneously facilitate the interview, as this
required following the flow of discussion and asking questions for purposes of clarification or explanation.
During the meetings the project team did neither state any opinions nor guide the meeting, but instead
just attended as an observer.
Analysis of the Focus Groups Interviews’ Data /Findings
Three of the focus group meetings started with two basic open ended questions. Moderator gave each
participants 10 minutes and the participants were asked to write down their opinions.
The data gathered from meetings is methodologically qualitative data and analysis were done by
qualitative research method. This environment of stating opinions ended up beneficially in means of
determining problems, finding the potentials and generate suggestions. Participants were asked to
develop ideas on these three points respectively: (1) Problem definition, (2) Benchmarking destination
through the world, (3) Solution oriented thoughts. On this major axis, before each meeting, participants
were informed about expectations for their reason of being. Participants were asked to answer questions
in their professions.
1. Focus Group Meeting: The participants of first focus group were representatives of Culture-Art Sector,
Entertainment Organizers, and Creative Industry Representatives. The first issue was about identifying
the art and culture, cultural and creative industry sectors’ problems facing in İstanbul. Barriers that
are limiting the developments? Sorts of support expected from both public and private sector? The
second issue was about good models abroad. What kind of lesson should we take from those examples
and very lastly who could do what in order to overcome those issues. What kind of spatial arrangements
are required?
2. Focus Group Meeting: The participants of meeting were tourism sector enterprisers and public
institutions representatives. On this focus group meeting the enterprisers and the state employers
discussed the problems and potentials of İstanbul. Participants mentioned to the problems from their
own perspective. Advantages and disadvantages also been discussed throughout meeting. Then, as
planned, participants expressed opinions regarding with good models and solution recommendations.
Also in order to manage worldwide problems of İstanbul, the spatial development and organization issues
are mentioned.
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3.Focus Group Meeting: The least participant number has achieved in this third focus group meeting with
9 participants. Participants were representatives of publicity and promotion professions and marketing
specialists. The same subjects were in the agenda and the same method was followed as in the previous
two. From their specialized view, the subject was focused on “How to promote İstanbul as a tourism
brand?” The responsibilities of public/private sector, the sorts of collaboration were asked and
participants presented their opinions.
Findings And Conclusion
Environmental plan (in 2009) identified İstanbul as a multi-cultural and city’s one of the development
axes was based on tourism. Following year, in 2010, İstanbul was accepted as European Cultural Capital
City. Although İstanbul’s reputation is mostly more known than Turkey, for now İstanbul has an image
of having no formal strategies for tourism. TMP was one of the head of the projects that had been made
to determine a road map for İstanbul. During the process, many different topics related with social,
economic and spatial issues are evaluated analytically. Comprehensive analytic studies processed within
subsidiary source as well as primary sources. The techniques of primary sources such as survey,
interview, focus group meetings were all preferred for the Master Plan.
Within the context of İstanbul TMP, the most critical three problem domain area were chosen. From this
point of view professionals were invited regarding with the issues and it was aimed to gather information
from those participants. The first focus groups were conducted with a group of Culture/Art Sector,
Entertainment Organizers, Creative Industry Representatives (participant number=12), the second focus
group were; tourism enterprisers and public institutions representatives (participant number =20), and
the third focus group were; publicity and promotion professions and marketing specialists were the last
group (participant number = 9). At the beginning of each focus group meeting; participants were told
about expectations by moderator. In every focus group meetings; main route was based on the same
context: (1) Problem definition, (2) Benchmarking destination through the world, (3) Solution oriented
thoughts. The consequences from the meetings are presented below:
1. Step of the Focus Group Meetings: Defining the Problem
No matter how different discipline of the participants are, the definition of the problems were almost the
same because of the similarities of the problems.
Table 1: Findings of First Focus Group Meeting
Problem Definition Lack of Physical Financial Public Sense of Total

Management, Lack deficiencies deficiencies recognition, tourism, extend
of coordination, conscious of tourism
organizational
problems
Frequency % frequency % frequency % Frequency % frequency % Fre %

1. Focus group 14 50 5 18 6 20 3 12 0 0 28 100
meeting
2. Focus group 13 24 12 24 0 0 6 12 21 40 52 100

meeting
3. Focus group 20 29 20 29 0 0 12 18 16 24 68 100

meeting
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In each three meeting; the main point was based on the organisational problems. To put a finer point on
it, people of different professions built consensus on the problems of İstanbul’s tourism management. It
is important that it did not matter which sector they represent.
2. Step of the Focus Group Meetings: Benchmarking
Second meeting was regarding to successful country models that would be a good example for Turkey.
For about this issue, benchmarking proposals for the perspective of urban conservation (especially for
second meeting) were in limited number but deepened as well. But in the third meeting; due to the
reason of being outward looking structure of the sector, participants diversified country and city
experiences for İstanbul/Turkey.
During each meeting; generally the successful examples were usually from EU countries. Two far but
worldwide famous and substantial brand cities were mentioned: New York and Sidney. The answers and
referred information gathered were mind opening for TMP team.
3. Step of the Focus Group Meetings: Solutions
The last question of meetings were about solution oriented thoughts. How should disadvantages be
managed and create into a positive step.
Table 2: Findings of Third Focus Group Meeting
SOLUTIONS General politics, Urban Strategic Minding over Total

bringing a new infrastructure management, sector specific
perspective coordinational infrastructural
improvement problems
frequency % frequency % frequency % frequency % frequency %
1. Focus 7 23 - 0 3 10 20 67 30 100
group
meeting
2. Focus 20 30 7 11 18 26 21 32 66 100
group
meeting
3. Focus 7 23 2 7 11 37 10 33 30 100
group
meeting
The prominent subject of third focus group meeting was about developing strategic management system.
The diversity of words and concept is mentioned, quality of sticked answers to the point were best in
those three.
It is known that; it is unlike and harder to create solutions than problem identification. The financial
model of proposals, prioritize the strategies and mode of organisation need to be studied in depth. Even
though all the difficulties and time pressure, focus group meetings were successfully realised.
Participants of the meetings contributed to TMP process. They simplificated problem definitions and
solution proposals. As a real advantage, in an economic way, the master plan team got the views of
professionals in very different views and institutions. Participants probably felt supported and
empowered by a sense of group membership and cohesiveness contributed as well. If the team had had
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possibility to organise one more meeting, the fourth meeting would have focused on actors (and their
roles) and financial modelling.
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Biographical Note
Senay Oğuztimur is Associate Professor in the Department of City and Regional Planning, Yıldız Technical
University. She teaches “regional planning” and “transportation/logistics” based courses. She was
participated in Istanbul Tourism Master Plan team.
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7363
THE GAMIFICATION OF LEARNING CULTURAL HERITAGE:
ARCHITECTING A SCENARIO
Majd Tayara
Master’s Degree Student
Tepebaşı, Eskişehir, Turkey
majd.tayyara@gmail.com
Hakan Yılmaz
Associate Professor
Tepebaşı, Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Gamification has gained a growing interest in the tourism literature and it has pervaded many
applications in the tourism industry including museums. The main purpose of this research is to use the
concept of gamification as a tool to enhance visitors’ attraction. This research paper examines the
concepts of heritage and gamification first and then, highlights the role of gamification and museums in
preserving and educating the cultural heritage. In order to create a gamified learning experience of the
cultural heritage, this paper attempt to develop a scenario of a puzzle game for the Eti Archaeological
Museum (EAM) using scenario analysis as a qualitative methodology. For this purpose, the required
information was collected by visits held in the museum. Furthermore, to facilitate the creation of the
story of the respective game the scenario was developed in a strategic and systematic way. Finally, we
propose a novel way to enhance the visitors’ experience, potential visitors’ attraction and their learning
experience by suggesting the application of the puzzle game in the EAM through the context of the
developed scenario. In addition to this, suggestions are given for further studies.
Keywords: Gamification, cultural heritage, museum, scenario
Biographical Notes
Majd Tayara is a master’s degree student in the Department of Tourism Management, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey where his interest focuses on smart tourism and virtual reality.
Hakan Yılmaz is an Associate Professor in the Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Anadolu
University Eskişehir, Turkey. He received his Ph.D. Anadolu University from the department of Public
Relations and Advertising. His research focuses on tourism marketing, media and communication in
tourism and gastronomy.
Introduction
Heritage and Cultural Heritage
The word Heritage, which is defined as valued objects and qualities such as historic buildings and
cultural traditions that have been passed down from previous generations (Oxford Dictionaries) briefly
means, what we as human inherit from the past and use in the present (Graham, Ashworth, & Tunbridge,
2000). The definition of heritage in its broader meaning is generally associated with the word inheritance;
that is, something transferred from one generation to another. Owing to its role as a carrier of historical
values from the past, heritage is viewed as part of the cultural tradition of a society (Nuryanti, 1996). It
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may be tangible (e.g monuments, building, coal mines, railway stations, artwork or museum pieces) or it
may be intangible (e.g beliefs, flavours, sounds, activities or social relation) (Timothy, 2014a; 2014b).
Learning of Heritage and Gamification
Gamification in learning and education is a set of activities and processes To solve problems related to
learning and education by using or applying the game mechanics (Kim, Song, Lockee, & Burton, 2018).
Games for educational purposes namely Serious Games (SGs) are now becoming more and more popular
(Michela, et al., 2013). The main feature of an SG is its objective of supporting the player to achieve
learning targets through a fun experience (Capdevila, Marne, & Labat, 2011). Recently we have witnessed
the introduction of serious games, including the use of games to support cultural heritage purposes, such
as historical teaching and learning, or for enhancing museum visits (Apperley, 2006). The majority of
architectural/natural heritage awareness games either offer an immersive, realistic reconstruction of a
reallocation to appreciate and learn the architectural, artistic or natural values of a site, or simply offer
engaging mechanisms to motivate users into areal experience (Bellotti, Berta, De Gloria, D’Ursi, & Fiore,
2012).
Museums and Heritage and the Role of Museums in Learning
Museums, like most heritage attractions, are multi-functional facilities whose mandates commonly
comprise a variety of goals (Ashworth, 2012; Tunbridge, 2007) and have been widely considered as being
informal educational sites and have been greatly acknowledged for their ability to stimulate the
development of interest, enthusiasm, motivation, eagerness to learn, cultural awareness, and general
openness and alertness (Briseño-Garzón, 2013; Dierking & Falk, 1994). Heritage includes but extends
beyond tangible bricks and mortar to encompass the practices, representations, expressions, as well as
the knowledge and skills (including instruments, objects, artifacts, cultural spaces), that communities,
groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage (UNESCO, 2003). As part
of the process of safeguarding heritage, museums are commonly perceived to be important means of
presenting, preserving and protecting heritage (Kurin, 2004). In recent years, museums, have been
promoted as leisure based learning centres. People around the world are using their leisure time to visit
museum collections and gaining meaningful experiences by enjoying museum spaces (Roberson, 2011).
Many experts think that museums will play an increasingly valuable role in education as our economy
transforms into a knowledge-based economy (Packer & Ballantyne, 2002).
Eskişehir and The Eti Archaeological Museum
Eskişehir is very important in the Ottoman history as its Karacahisar Castle is the first conquest of the
Ottomans. Almost all of Eskişehir's counties are settlements which are rich in history and culture. Among
these is Mihalıççık where Yunus Emre, the pioneer of Turkish poetry, a minstrel and philosopher was born
and the Yunus Emre Social Complex can be found here today. Sivrihisar, a significant settlement during
the Roman and Byzantine periods, is famous for artworks dating from the time of the Seljuk and Ottoman
empires. Besides Akşehir in Konya, Sivrihisar is also believed to be the birthplace of Nasreddin Hodja, a
world-famous philosopher. The county of Seyitgazi is well-known for the tomb of Seyyid Battal Gazi, a
saintly figure and warrior. Located in central Eskişehir is Odunpazarı, the area where the first city is
thought to have been established (HomeTurkey).
In 1945, a storage museum was established in Eskişehir Alaeddin Mosque with movable cultural assets
collected from the provinces and counties of Eskişehir. In 1966, Kurşunlu Mosque Complex located in
Odunpazarı District was officially opened to service by Eskişehir Museum Directorate. By the Ministry of
Culture and Tourism, ETI Eskisehir Archaeological Museum, to display the projects implemented by the
private sector in Turkey is considered as the first museum. The densities of the museum exhibits are as
follows: Dorylaion (Şarhöyük Eskişehir-Tepebaşı), Pessinus (Sivrihisar-Ballıhisar), Han Yeraltı City (Han
Yazılıkaya), Keçiçayırı (Seyitgazi-Bardakçı), Çavlum Village Old Hittite Necropolis (Odunpazarı- Çavlum),
247
Demircihöyük Tepebaşı), Karacahisar (Odunpazarı-Karacaşehir) Küllüoba (Seyitgazi-Yenikent), are
exhibited in chronological order together with their important finds. Among the exhibited works are
marble sculptures and statuettes, architectural pieces, stellar, terracotta daily use vessels, idols, glass
vessels and beads, metal vessels and weapons, jewellery, coins. There are approximately 22,500 movable
cultural assets in the Eskişehir ETİ Archaeology Museum covering Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Bronze, Hittite,
Phrygian, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Seljuk and Ottoman periods. The remaining 20,500 artefacts are
preserved in 900 m2 museum repositories, except for approximately 2,000 artefacts exhibited in a
covered area of approximately 1,800 square meters of the museum (Republic of Turkey Ministry of
Culture and Tourism).
The main purpose of this study is to enhance the attraction of Eti Archaeological Museum’ visitors as well
as, their awareness of the cultural heritage of Eskişehir. Therefore, Gamification can bring a new
innovative way for realizing the purpose of this study. In order to develop a gamified learning experience
of the cultural heritage of Eskişehir and thus, enhancing visitor attraction, this study is working on
architecting a scenario for a puzzle game.
Literature Review
Heritage in Museums
Musealization of the object allows more effective solving one of the most important tasks for any of the
World Heritage Sites popularization. Traditionally, one of the fundamental functions of the Museum is to
popularize objects and collections, which it keeps (UNSECO, 2015). According to the official definition of
the term Museum which is given in the ICOM Statutes: “A museum is a non-profit, permanent institution
in the service of society and its development, open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches,
communicates and exhibits the tangible and intangible heritage of humanity and its environment for the
purposes of education, study and enjoyment” (ICOM, 2017).
The Museum is one of the expert organizations for the conservation of cultural heritage and often
museum becomes an unofficial centre for the preservation of cultural and natural heritage. Considering
the great experience and potential of the museums preserving World Heritage objects, they could
become methodical centres in the field of conservation, restoration and preservation of heritage in their
region (UNSECO, 2015). The role of private museums in the preservation and interpretation of cultural
heritage, in the processes of social adaptation and cultural identity, in education and leisure activities, is
also rising (Absalyamova, Absalyamov, & Absalyamova, 2015).
Heritage resources are associated with memory. They mediate the past, present and future and can be
used to shape collective memory into official versions of the past. Natural and cultural landscapes,
specific sites, aspects of the built environment, monuments and material in museums can all trigger and
shape individual memories as they are related to personal experiences. However, they also play a
powerful role in shaping collective memories in terms of what is selected for preservation and storage,
and how these resources are interpreted and presented (Davison, 2005).
Museums give material form to authorized versions of the past, which in time become institutionalized
as public memory. In this way, museums anchor official memory. Every preserved artefact is a tangible
trace, a crystallized memory, of its manufacture and use. Objects held by museums constitute a material
archive not only of preserved pasts but also the concerns that motivated museum practice over time.
These concerns can seldom be separated from relations of power and cultural dominance. Museums
have often been described as places of collective memory, but selective memory may be a more accurate
description (Davison, 2005).
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Gamificaiton
A Conceptual Framework
The term gamification first appeared in 2008 (Deterding, Dixon, Khaled, & Nacke, 2011) and has
gained popularity since 2010 (Epstein, 2013). Gamification can be described as the integration of game
mechanics into a non-game environment in order to give it a game-like feel (Deterding et al. 2011). In
this context, gamification consists of four dimensions, namely, game, non-game context, elements and
design (Yılmaz and Coşkun, 2016). According to Yılmaz and Coşkun (2016) these dimensions relates
gamification to games, not to play, whereas play is contemplated as a category containing but different
from games. Gamification refers to a process of enhancing a service with affordances for gameful
experiences in order to support user’s overall value creation (Huotari & Hamari, 2012). Zichermann and
Cunningham (2011) suggest gamification to establish a brand, engage users and influence their behaviour
by using game mechanics in areas other than traditional gaming context. According to Caillois (1961)
gamification is still contested and many games and user experience designers have come up with other
terms such as gamefulness and gameful design. Yet, it is important to distinguish between various terms
that might be related or be named in the context of gamification. One of these is the distinction between
playing (paidia) and gaming (ludus) as those represent two different types of activities. Playing involves
free-form, non-rule-based and expressive actions, whereas gaming represents a rule-based and goal-
oriented form of playing. Established research theories on games and gaming consistently confirm the
previous definition as they characterise ludus through explicit rule systems and outcomes (Salen &
Zimmermann 2004; Juul 2005).
With the goal of elaborating on the previous definition of the game concept (Matallaoui, Hanner, &
Zarnekow, 2017), four fundamental features a game must have in order to fit in this classification of ludus
and paidia (McGonigal, 2011):
• Clearly defined goals that provide players with a purpose for playing the game
• Consistently defined rules that represent the limitations and boundaries of how to achieve the
given goals;
• A steady feedback system that guarantees the players that the goals can be reached if the game
rules are respected;
• The free will of accepting participation in the game and thus following its rules to reach the goals
Seaborn and Fels (2015) argue that sometimes it is not easy to identify game elements. Therefore, it is
inevitable to subjectively differentiate a fully fledged game and a gamified system which uses some game
mechanics but not to create a whole game. Nevertheless, gamification differs with games for the purpose
of play. Gamification focuses on changing players' behaviour, engagement with their environment and
co-players who may also be fellow customers or service providers towards achieving meaningful
interaction and engagement and potentially achieve rewards. In contrast, games focus more on
entertainment and pleasure.
From a systematic point of view, the model MDA (Mechanics-Dynamics-Aesthetics) can be considered to
explain the game design (Hunicke, Leblanc, & Zubek, 2004). Hunicke et al. (2004) define game mechanics
as game tools which describe the specific components, which usually include achievements, collections,
badges etc. Game dynamics connect the player with the system, such as the freedom of making choices,
progression to the next level, teamwork or competition with other players. Serious games include
competitions against other players as part of the gaming experience whilst often concentrate on
individual experience. Game dynamics work together to create a meaningful game experience, or in other
words, aesthetics (Werbach & Hunter, 2012).
Motivation is a central topic in gamification as gamified systems are implemented to change behaviour
for wanted and desirable activities. Motivation in gamification uses a two-folded approach. First, extrinsic
motivation focuses on applying gamified elements into a non-gaming context to stimulate external
249
motivation. Second, game thinking and motivational design have a positive influence on intrinsic
motivation as it is done because of an internal desire to play (Groh, 2012; Nicholson, 2012; Ryan & Deci
2000).
Gamification in the Context of Tourism
Gamification is considered as a popular trend for tourism (WTM, 2011). Nevertheless, gamification as a
consept, is not very novel for the tourism industry. In tourism, several applications are frequently used,
more particularly by airlines, for example, earning miles in frequent flyer programs (Yılmaz and Coşkun,
2016). Chaffey and Ellis-Chadwick (2012) propose gamification as an important trend for marketing. In
this regard, Yılmaz and Coşkun (2016) considers gamification as a new toy of marketing communicatin in
tourism. Vargo and Lusch (2008) introduce the customer's role in value co-creation. Tourism experiences
are co-created by both the tourists and the service providers (Neuhofer, Buhalis, & Ladkin, 2012). The
level of consumer integration in the value creation depends on how tourism organisations empower
tourists to play a role in new product development. Within service systems, tourists interact with tourism
companies for the experience co-creation. Gamification can be applied in two ways in these systems. The
concept can be used either to encourage customer engagement and enhance the experience or to
improve employee engagement within an organisation (Huotari & Hamari, 2012).
The wide use of gamification is evidenced in education applications (Denny, 2013; Domínguez et al.,
2013), health industry (Cafazzo, Casselman, Hamming, Katzman, & Palmert, 2012; Hori, Tokuda, Miura,
Jiyama, & Jirose, 2013), business training and marketing campaign (Barata, Gama, Jorge, & Goncalves,
2013), sustainable behaviour applications (Gnauk, Dannecker, & Hahmann, 2012; Negruşa, Toader,
Sofică, Tutunea, & Rus, 2015). However, gamification can be used by tourism organisations for marketing,
sales and customer engagement (external application) or in human resources, training, productivity
enhancement and crowdsourcing (internal application). Gamification can also benefit tourism marketing
in raising brand awareness, enhancing tourist experience, engagement, improving customer loyalty,
employee management and providing entertainment (Xu, Buhalis, & Weber, 2016).
Gamification in Museums
Gamification has been utilized and exploited in various domains of the including the museum sector
(Sauer & Göbel, 2003). Museums, in fact, have abundantly used gamification as a way of teaching
concepts, and revealing artefacts. as games often offer a suitable way of teaching concepts that would
be otherwise hard to grasp. However, gamification is pervasively reaching all types of museum contexts,
for its high potential in capturing attention and transferring information to visitors (Roccetti, Marfia,
Varni, & Zanichelli, 2013).
Gamification in Learning
Gamification can be useful for learning and instruction because it can promote learner engagement. Due
to its fun and playful nature, gamification can be a good solution to help solve learner engagement and
participation issues. Considering the definition of gamification in learning and education described
previously, serious games should be included in gamification in learning and education because they are
also a set of activities and processes to solve problems related to learning and education by using or
applying the game mechanics (Kim, et al., 2018).
250
Method
In this paper, scenario analysis (scenario development) has been utilized as a qualitative research
methodology. However, there is a need to clarify the term scenario first. A scenario describes (textually
or graphically) a set of hypothetical sequences of events that might reasonably take place (Kahn &
Wiener, 1968). Scenarios can be considered as hypothetical images of the future that describe the
functioning of a system under different conditions with a certain degree of uncertainty (Bunn & Salo,
1993). On the other hand, scenario analysis can be considered as complementary to traditional
forecasting and simulation techniques, in which to provide a composite picture of future developments
for use as a background for policy making and/or strategic planning. Scenario development or design can
be considered for different layers of society in terms of demonstrating the change in the social structure
as well as for consumers or managers. In this context, scenario analysis can contribute to important social
issues such as education, health and security (Kozak, 2017).
In order to develop a game scenario that can serve the purpose of this paper, there is a need to create
the story in a strategic and systematic way. Hence, this study benefits from the storytelling template for
games that Kapp, Blair and Mesch presented. According to Kapp, Blair and Mesch (2014), creating a story
outline should contain the following elements:
• Performance Objectives: Describing what will the user get after completing the experience
• The Situation: The situation should be described in order to set the direction of the story
• Characters: Who will be involved in the game?
• Goals: What will the users be trying to achieve?
• Metric: How the achievements of the users are going to be measured?
• Barriers and Conflicts: This shows what disrupt the character in achieving their goals.
• Control: What will the character be able to control and what can they merely react to?
• Chain: The order of the game or story.
• The predictable Unexpected: What would occur in the story that is predictable, but may be
unexpected to the characters?
In the domain of cultural heritage, according to Mortara, et al. (2013), serious games falls in a wide variety
of game genres, extend from trivia, puzzles and mini-games to engage in interactive exhibitions (e.g.
History of a place, Multi-touch Rocks) to mobile applications for museum or touristic site visits motivated
by some reward/engagement mechanism (e.g. Muse-US, Tidy City), to simulations of past events (The
battle of Waterloo) to adventures and role-playing games set in faithful reconstructions or digital
counterparts of real sites (e.g. the Priory Undercroft, Revolution).
Puzzle games can sometimes be a useful tool in educational purposes for the ability they provide to the
players, like the use of logical skills, problem-solving skills, intuition, pattern recognition and memory to
solve puzzles (Kim, et al. 2018, p. 20). Accordingly, this paper attempt to develop a scenario for a puzzle
game in the light of storytelling elements given previously and the story will be given in an integration
with the game elements in the following section in (Table, 1).
The required information to facilitate the creation of the scenario were collected by the writer in visits to
the Eti Archaeological Museum, which took place in 17.04.2018 and 14.06.2018. Due to limited access to
the full inventory of the museum, notes regarding the exhibited artefacts were taken manually.
Results
The puzzle game genre is a game type in which the player fits pieces of various shapes and colours
together to complete the target image. In another word, this type of games work solving logic puzzles, or
navigating mazes, or matching tiles. Puzzles are well suited to be played on mobile devices. Since the
251
emergence of smartphones and tablets, new interaction methods, like swiping a screen by a finger, have
been added to the typical means for playing these types of games. Because of the new interaction
methods and new technologies, puzzle games have become more various and aesthetic (Mortara, et al.
2013; Kim, et al. 2018).
The scenario for the suggested game “Lands of Histories” which this paper worked on, is given below in
detail:
Table 1. A Scenario for the Puzzle Game: Lands of Histories
Elements Desctiption of the Story Game Lierature

Elements
Performance The performance objective of this game is

Objectives to create a fun (gamified) learning
experience of the cultural heritage that
results in a rising visitor attraction.
The situation Players first will take a look pictures for a Pattern Cunningham and
few seconds and then they will be asked recognition Zichermann (2011);
to move or drag every piece of the puzzle and collecting Deterding et al. (2011)
to its desired location in the pictures
related to their historical period (e.g.
Picture of Çavlum Necropolis related to
the Middle Bronze Age). Players should
get the coins related to each period in
order to pass to another.
Characters Players are whether visitors in-site (in the groups Schell (2008);
museum) or potential visitors off-site (out McGonigal (2011);
of the museum). Moreover, the game will
be in two modes, single and multiplayer
mode.
Goal The player will be trying to complete every achievements, Zichermann (2011);
level of the game (periods of the history) badges, Deterding et al. (2011)
and collect all the coins related to their rewards and
levels in order to get achievements. By gifting
deploying QR codes in EAM, rewards are
suggested to be given in two ways: (a)
reward in case of accomplishing 50% of
the game (e.g. a cup o coffee in a partner
restaurant), (b) reward in case of
completing the game with all the badges
and the highest score (e.g. a one day free
museum card).
Metrics The progressive bar will display the progress bar, Schell (2008);
advancement of players for the whole levels, badges, McGonigal (2011);
game. Every part of the levels will be leaderboard Zichermann (2011);
represented with one, two or three and feedback Deterding et al. (2011)
badges according to its difficulty.
Additionally, Leaderboards will be
252
deployed to demonstrate the best players,
as well as players, will progressively get
feedback about their performances.
Barriers and The main barrier is the time pressure. Challenge, Werbach & Hunter,
Conflicts Players will be asked to complete the parts under time 2012
of the game under time pressure. This pressure
time will differ accordingly with the
difficulties of the parts of each level of the
game. The challenging situation between
players.
Control Players will be free to choose by which Profiles Schell (2008);

level (historical period) to start and McGonigal (2011);
continue the game as well as, they can
choose whether to play in a single or in the
multiplayer mood. They will also be able
to sign in to the game with their social
media accounts and post their
achievements.
“In Order To” To complete the game, players have to Levels Schell (2008);
Chain accomplish every specific level to get to McGonigal (2011)
another, and to accomplish every level
players have to finish each part of that
level of the game (e.g. finishing every
picture of the Roman period and getting
the coin, then passing to the Phrygian
period, or vice versa).
The Reinforcement will be available in the Reinforcement Cunningham and

Predictable whole game but, players will have the Zichermann (2011);
Unexpected right to get it merely 4 times throughout Deterding et al. (2011)
the game.
Source: Kapp, et al., (2014); Cunningham and Zichermann (2011); Deterding et al. (2011); Schell (2008);
McGonigal (2011); Werbach & Hunter, 2012
Conclusion
This paper emphasis on the importance of gamification and the role of museums in learning cultural
heritage. Moreover, this paper gives an example of architecting a scenario for a gamified learning
experience of the cultural heritage in museums. The developed scenario in this paper will benefit the
visitors by adding a fun factor to their experience in the Eti Archaeological Museum and, will be a useful
tool for Destination Managment Organizations as well as, the administration of the EAM in bringing the
chance to increase the attraction of potential visitors. Furthermore, this scenario can create new
collaboration opportunities between EAM and other organizations such as cafes, restaurants and hotels
that take place in Eskişehir. For the purpose of this paper, the developed scenario was created to fit the
puzzle type of games. In further studies, more comprehensive scenarios and different type of games can
be developed.
253
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7367
WHICH IS THE MODERATOR OF ETHNOCENTRISM: COUNTRY or
PRODUCT IMAGE ?
B. Zafer Erdogan
Professor
Anadolu University, Department of Marketing, TURKEY
bzerdogan@anadolu.edu.tr
Bulent Aydin
Research Assistant
Anadolu University, Department of Tourism, TURKEY,
bulent_aydin@anadolu.edu.tr
Deniz Kirmizi
Student
Anadolu University, Department of International Business, TURKEY
seared88@hotmail.com
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to test the effect of the ethnocentrism on country image and product image.
Besides, it aims to determine from which one of these variables product or country image is the
moderator for ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism known to have negative effects on the country and product
image. Therefore, it is important to determine the variable that will decrease negative effect.
Quantitative methods were used in the research. The theoretical framework was established and the
research model was developed. Scales were determined and a questionnaire was created for the model
test. In terms of measurement, country image scale, country product image scale and the CETSCALE were
used. Data was collected via developed questionnaire in Eskisehir city center with convenience sampling
technique. Explanatory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis were performed on data collected from 400
people by face to face interviews. SPSS and AMOS programs were used for analysis. Hypotheses were
tested with SPSS PROCESS software.
According to the findings, while ethnocentric tendency on consumer affects country image negatively, it
doesn’t affect the product image. In the effect of ethnocentrism on the image of the country, although
the general image of the products of the country has a positive moderator effect, it is not statistically
significant. Yet country image has a significant moderator between ethnocentrism and product image. It
was determined that the level of education used as a control variable affected only the first model
significantly and positively.
Keywords: Country image, Product image, Ethnocentrism, France, Tourism
258
Introduction
With the increase of international trade, competition between domestic and foreign products in the
country's markets has increased. Initially it has been seen that in the flow of trade towards the developing
countries and undeveloped countries from the developed countries, the consumers were affected by the
country image and preferred the goods of these developed countries (Schooler, 1965; Nagashima, 1970;
Wang and Lamb, 1983; Han, 1990). In this aspect, the researches, on the preference of imported products
have focused on the image of the country of origin and the product image. As a result of these researches,
it has been determined that country of origin has a strong effect on the product image and changes the
quality perception of the product (Roth and Diamantopoulos, 2009; Ahmed et al. 2002). Although the
developed countries have a positive image, it is known that they cannot reflect this positive image to all
of their products. Countries are more likely to have a positive effect on the products in the categories
they are gifted; but in the categories in which, they are not gifted even the developed countries have not
been able to influence their products’ images positively (Rothand and Romeo, 1992; Koubaa, 2008).
Therefore, the image of the country’s product category has begun to come to the forefront much more
than the level of the development of the country. In this aspect, an undeveloped country can have a very
good image in a specific product category. While the researches are concentrating on country and
product image in the undeveloped and developing countries, the concept of ethnocentrism has begun to
appear in developed countries. Cause even in the developed countries such as USA, the consumers prefer
imported products but it has also been reported that the number of customers who have an ethnocentric
tendency have also been increased (Shimp and Sharma, 1987). With the entrance of Japanese
automobiles in the market of America’s advanced automobile industry, this situation has lost its
effectiveness and damaged the American automobile industry (Wang and Lamb, 1983).
Therefore, since the developed countries have their alternatives to imported products, the main variable
that affects the consumers’ preference has been largely ethnocentrism than the image. In the places
where ethnocentrism is dominant, the image of the trading country and the images of its products remain
on the second place. Because the customers who have ethnocentric tendency find it more appropriate
to choose their own products due to various concerns (economic reasons, job loss, etc.) (Shimp and
Sharma, 1987).
The case of ethnocentric tendency is also valid for developing countries. In these countries, the customers
mainly prefer their own products (Erdogan and Uzkurt, 2010; Han and Wang, 2014), domestic products
against foreign products; and if there is no alternative domestic product, they prefer the products of the
countries which are close to their own culture. (Watson and Wright, 2000). The customers are taking a
positive attitude towards domestic products which are alternative to foreign products or for the products
from countries with which they are culturally close, they have taken a negative attitude towards foreign
products (Watson and Wright, 2000). The poor quality of domestic products versus foreign products can
sometimes change this attitude in the opposite direction (Wang and Chen, 2004). However, products that
fall into heavy industry category like automobiles seem far away for developing countries. Therefore
developing countries have to choose brands from the developed countries even though they are not
culturally close to them.
It is known that ethnocentrism have a negative affect on consumer and country image. For this reason,
it will be useful to find the variables that will transform it into having a positive affect from negative. The
country's image is intensively shaped by the prevalent product image. Therefore, it is crucial to determine
whether general image of the country’s products has a moderator effect to reduce the negative impact
of ethnocentrism on country image or not.
As it is known that country image plays crucial role in tourism. The image is the key factor for preference
of a country. In this respect positive perception of country's image also facilitates preference for the
country. Therefore, reducing the impact of ethnocentrism on the image of the country will also be
reflected positively in tourism.
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Thus, the researcher tried to determine whether the general image of products has transformed the
negative impact of the ethnocentrism on the country image. In this context, two different models were
created and tested. The research provides significant contributions both literature and practitioners.
Literature Analysis
Ethnocentrism
The concept of ethnocentrism is based on the fact that it sees its own groups in the center of the universe,
interprets other social units in terms of their groups (Erdoğan and Uzkurt, 2010; Özçelik and Torlak, 2011)
and defined as an attitude that evaluates other cultures according to their own cultural standards
(Thomas and Hill, 1999). From a functional point of view, ethnocentrism allows the person to understand
the acceptance or inadmissibility of purchasing behavior in the group in which the person is present
(Shimp and Sharma, 1987). From the ethnocentric point of view, the purchase of imported goods is wrong
because according to them, this causes damage to the local economy, causes job losses, contradicts
patriotism and constitutes a sign of disrespect for the excessively ethnocentric consumers (Shimp and
Sharma, 1987).
There are several reasons why consumers have ethnocentric considerations. These include: family,
opinion leaders, friends circle and media (Shimp, 1984); the past events of the country: wars, trade
borders, economical-political events (Herche, 1994) and sense of losing business due to foreign products
(Usunier, 1996, pp. 285). Ethnocentric tendencies have a strong relationship with the demographic
characteristics of consumers (Erdoğan and Uzkurt, 2010). Watson and Wright (2000) stated that women,
old people, the people who have low education levels and low income levels are more ethnocentric than
other demographic characteristics. Also, non-demographic factors such as belief, person’s social
environment and intentions affect the customer’s ethnocentric tendencies (Martinez et al., 2000).
In general, consumers tend to prefer products produced in their own countries. In his study, Reierson
(1966) asked American students about their thoughts on Swiss, German, Italian, American, French,
Japanese and British products and the result of his research showed that American students prefer
American products in comparison to the other countries’ products. However, it is known that this
situation differs for consumers in developed and developing countries. For example, while studies of
American, French, and Scandinavian consumers have shown that consumers prefer their products to
other countries' products, it has emerged that Iranian consumers have positively evaluated and preferred
products when there is a foreign label involved (Usunier, 1996). It’s stated that there is a similar situation
for customers in Puerto Rico (Bilkey and Nes, 1982). However, regardless of how advanced the countries
are, imported products can also be preferred depending on the product type. Losing effectiveness and
the damage to the American automobile industy by the Japanese automobiles entries to America’s
advanced automobile industy may be an example of this situation (Wang and Lamb, 1983). It is also
known that in countries where there are no local alternatives, consumers tend to prefer foreign products
(Morello, 1983).
Ethnocentric tendencies can also affect consumers’ perceptions of a foreign country and its products
(Sharma, Shimp and Shin, 1995; Watson and Wright, 2000; Kaynak and Kara, 2002; Moon and Jain, 2002;
Erdogan and Uzkurt, 2010; Fakharmanesh and Miyandehi, 2012). Especially in countries where there are
no domestic alternatives, the ethnocentric tendency has been identified as an opportunity for countries
and products with cultural similarities (Watson and Wright, 2000). According to Erdogan and Uzkurt
(2010), consumers with a high ethnocentric tendency perceive foreign products negatively while
perceiving domestic products positively. But if the people are open to different cultures, this situation
reduces the ethnocentric tendency (Sharma, Shimp and Shin, 1995). The quality issue related to the
product also reduces the effect of ethnocentrism. Especially the quality of domestic products is also very
influential in the preference over foreign products. When domestic products are perceived as of poor
quality, consumers may prefer imported products (Elliott and Cameron, 1994). The quality perception of
260
the consumers’ may vary according to the level of need, product and country of origin (Huddleston and
Stoel, 2001).
There are many variables that affect consumer preferences and attitudes in international markets and it
is known that image of country, product and brand are the most important of those. But ethnocentrism
reduces the positive effects of these variables. Ethnocentric tendencies can be more effective than
country image, product and brand image. People believe that ethnocentric considerations may refuse to
use imported products regardless of the origin of the products and the brand image (Herche, 1994). This
situation may occur both in developed and developing countries consumers. Intensive researches have
been conducted on ethnocentric tendencies of consumers in developed countries but developing
countries were neglected. Thus there are some gaps in the literature about developing countries. In this
respect, this study tried to determine the effects of ethnocentric tendencies by focusing on the
consumers of a developing country. In this context, the following hypothesis developed was put to test.
H1: Ethnocentrism affects negatively the product image.
H2: Ethnocentrism affects negatively the country image.
Product Country Image (PCI)
It is known that the product and country image are used by consumers and affect consumers in various
forms. Numerous studies have been carried out in this area in past and still researchers are deeply
interested in exploring the said area more. According to studies carried out by (Nagashima, 1970; Han,
1990; Lee and Tse, 1993; Parameswaran and Pisharodi, 1994; Essoussi and Merunka, 2007; Maher and
Carter, 2011) its stated that the consumers affect the product image (Schooler, 1965; Nagashima, 1970;
Roth and Romeo, 1992; Parameswaran and Pisharodi, 1994; Dinnie, 2003; Felzensztein and Dinnie, 2005;
Lin and Chen, 2006; Roth and Diamantopoulos, 2009) and brand image (Lee and Tse, 1993; Lee and
Ganesh, 1999; Essoussi and Merunka, 2007; Koubaa, 2008). Therefore, products and brands can affect
the country image positively or negatively as the image of the country affects the product image and
brand image.
The country image can be considered by consumers before any product is preferred (Huddleston et al.,
2001; Baker and Ballington, 2002; Hinner, 2010). It’s stated that the consumers use the country image
either as a halo effect or summary construct (Bruning, 1997). In the context of the cues, consumers use
the country image as a single cue or multiple cues in product evaluations. In the case of single cue, the
only information source that consumers have in product evaluations is where the product is produced.
In the researches in which multiple cues are used, other information is shared with consumers along with
country of origin (Bilkey nd Nes, 1982). Hence, it’s stated that the country of origin effect is greater in the
single cue research than multiple cues research (Bilkey and Nes, 1982; Peterson and Jolibert, 1995).
However, adding other cues such as brand name, demographic items, and familiarity with the product,
decrease the country of origin effect (Maronick, 1995). The country of origin effect used as a halo effect
and summary construct (Han, 1989; Han, 1990; Martin and Eroglu, 1993; Al-Sulaiti and Baker, 1998;
Lampert and Jaffe, 1998; Ahmed et al. 2002; Insch et al., 2015). According to Han (1990), consumers use
the country image as a clue when they are not familiar with country’s products as a quality sign and they
generalize this knowledge to other products of the country when they know the country and its products.
In other words, as a result of consumer experience the halo effect on the goods and services linked to
the country become a summary construct (Nebenzahl et al., 1997). According to Lampert et al. (1998),
the consistency of product images of a country and brand images similarity results in image crystallization
leading to summary effect. Thus, there is a common image of the products produced in the country and
the country image is perceived in the same way (Lampert, et al., 1998). Also, when the summarization
effect is used, sensitivity to the country of origin is also evident (Johansson, 1989). Initially country image
was measured by the product image on product country image researches but later it’s stated that two
concepts are different from each other (Papadopoulos and Heslop, 1993; Martin and Eroglu, 1993). When
the first studies which were evaluating the product examined, the country image was reflected by its
products and therefore, the quality of the products is seen as a country image (Schooler, 1965; Reierson,
261
1966; Nagashima, 1970; Nagashima, 1977). Thus, the products of economically developed countries are
perceived as better quality products than the products of the developing countries Huddleston et al.,
2001). However later on, the country image was started to be evaluated depending on the product groups
regardless of how advanced the country economically was (Wang and Lamb, 1983; Roth and Romeo,
1992; Lampert and Jaffe, 1998; Koubaa, 2008). ). In addition, acculturation level and the country of origin
also positively affects the evaluation of the country and its products (Suh, Hur ve Davis, 2016). Thus,
considering the above discussions it is understood that the image of the country’s products can affect the
image of country image. But, in this research the following hypotheses are developed to test which is the
moderator effect. Product or country image?
H1a: Country image has a positive moderator affect between ethnocentrism and product image.
H2a: Product image has a positive moderator affect between ethnocentrism and country image.
Methodology
Sample and data collection

The research data was collected from 400 people in the city center of Eskişehir which is one of the
cosmopolitan cities in Turkey through questionnaires. Eskişehir is located in the middle of Turkey and is
one of the most diverse cities regarding demographic, socio-economic and cultural characteristics. The
data was collected by the researchers face to face with 378 employees and 22 non-working people living
in this city. The questionnaire to collect the data was applied in two ways. To measure whether
participants were affected by the order effect of the survey sections, the questionnaires were divided
into two groups of 200 pieces. The sequence of questions in the first format of questionnaire was;
demographic characteristics, France image and the general image of French products and ethnocentrism.
The sequence of questions in the second format of questionnaire was; Demographic characteristics,
ethnocentrism, France image and general image of French products.
Measures
The survey used in the research consists of 4 parts. These parts are: statements containing demographic
characteristic, country image scale and country product image scale (Lee and Ganesh, 1999) and the
CETSCALE scale, which has been used in a wide variety of sources in the literature (Shimp and Sharma,
1987; Good and Huddleston, 1995; Erdoğan and Uzkurt, 2010; Asil and Kaya, 2013) to measure consumer
attitudes towards nationalistic values and has proven its reliability. CETSCALE was previously translated
into Turkish by Erdoğan and Uzkurt (2010) and Asil and Kaya (2013), so no translation was needed.
However, other scales were translated into Turkish by a group of experts in English and Turkish languages.
All scales used in this study were used before and have proven their validity and reliability. In the
research, the effects of ethnocentric tendencies on France’s general products, one of the best-products
seller countries in Turkey, and on its image has been investigated. For the evaluation of attitudes of
consumers 5 Likert- type measurement “I certainly do not agree- I strongly agree” was used.
The models for the current study were designed as follows.
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Figure 1. Model 1: Product as a moderator variable
Figure 2. Model 2: Country as a moderator variable
Analysis
In the research, for construct validity, Exploratory Factor Analysis and Confirmatory Factor Analysis were
used with the help of SPSS and AMOS. Descriptive statistics (frequency, mean etc.) were calculated and
to test the hypothese PROCESS software developed by Andrew F. Hayes (Hayes, 2013) was used. PROCESS
is a tool for SPSS testing for mediation and moderation. Bootstrapping technique is used to measure the
direct and indirect effect of variables (Hayes, 2013).
For normality test the values of “Skewness” and “Kurtosis” were checked. For normality values between
+1.5 and -1.5 are accepted as normal (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2011), values between +2 and -2 are also
accepted (Darren and Mallery, 2003).
Results
(Profile of the Respondents)
The descriptive statistics of the participants are presented in Table 1 below. It appears that the vast
majority of participants consisted of employees who have at least bachelor’s degree and were identified
as white-collar employees.
Table 1. Sample Characteristics

Characteristics Frequency Percentage
Gender
Male 187 46,8
Female 213 53,3
Age
19-25 64 16,0
26-30 115 28,8
31-35 70 17,5
36-40 57 14,3
41-45 40 10,0
46-50 21 5,3
51-73 33 8,3
Marital Status
Single 169 42,3
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Married 231 57,8
Education Level
Primary 23 5,8
Secondary 118 29,5
University, Postgraduate 259 64,8
Occupation
Doesn’t work 20 5,0
Retired 22 5,5
Working 358 89,5
Working Place
White Collar 222 55,5
Blue Collar 99 24,8
Entrepreneur 39 9,8
Monthly Income
Less than 1500 TL 95 23,8
1500-3000 TL 158 39,5
3001-4500 TL 95 23,8
More than 4500 TL 52 13,0
Measurement Analysis
Firstly, for the validity of scales in terms of structure Exploratory Factor Analysis was conducted. Once it
is determined that the data set is suitable for factor analysis (Creation of correlation matrix, Barlett test
and Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) tests) (Kalaycı, 2006; Büyüköztürk, 2012) and as a result of factor analysis
of the Promax Rotation key components on the data set, 3 factors above the value of 1 are determined.
The three factors included in the research model, their statistical values and factor analysis results are
shown in the table 2 below.
Table 2. Factors and Values

Factors Mean Std. Cronbach’s Variance KMO Chi-square Sig.
Dev. Alpha Exp.
p
Image of France 3,463 0,98 0,67 59 0,619 187,97 0,001
General Image of French 2,866 1,04 0,91 73,80 0,877 1341,89 0,001
Products
Ethnocentrism 3,079 1,246 0,94 63,98 0,946 4952,71 0,001
Another process for the validity of the structure was the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) in AMOS.
Since the load values of the expressions in the DFA analysis are expected to be close to 0.60 (Kline, 2005,
p.178), the items with low load values (s18, s16, s12) were recycled one by one. As a result the following
values obtained were supported by the literature (Cole, 1987; Kline, 2005; Uğurlu, 2014; Meydan and
Şeşen, 2015).
264
Table 3. CFA compliance values
Indices Acceptable fit Value
Cmin/DF χ²≤5 3,58
CFI 0,90≤CFI≤0,97 0,90
NFI 0,80≤NFI≤0,95 0,87
GFI 0,80≤GFI≤0,95 0,83
SRMR 0,08≥SRMR≥0,05 0,06
Rmsea 0,08≥Rmsea≥0,05 0,08
As a result of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis, the path was continued with an acceptable structure of
3 factors and 24 expressions.
Tests of Hypotheses
Hypothesis testing was performed using the SPSS PROCESS program. As a result of the analysis on data
collected from a total of 400 respondents H2 was supported but H1 was not supported. In other words,
while ethnocentrism effects country image negatively, it doesn’t affect product image negatively.
Additionally, while ethnocentrism has significant affect on country image, it doesn’t have on product
image. It is crucial to note that, although H2a wasn’t statistically significant, it was determined that H1a
and H2a have a positive effect as a moderator variable. However, the country image has stronger
moderator effect than the product image. In addition, the educational status in the study used as a
control variable and it has a positive and significant effect in the first model. But, it wasn’t positive and
significant in the second model. Moreover, although it was not hypothesized in the research, it was also
found that France's general product image was not mediated between Ethnocentrism and France image.
Tablo 4. SPSS Process Moderator Model Data For Product Image

Country Image (Y)
Antecedent Coeff. SE p
Ethnocentrism (X) -,083* ,038 < .05
Product Image (W) ,379* ,042 < .001
XxW ,0354 ,0408 ,386
Education ,191* ,0833 < .05
Constant 3,308* ,0712 < .001
Model Summary R2 = 0.210; F(4, 393) = 26,04, p = < .001
Conditional effect of X on Y = b1 + b3W; Y= i1 + b1X + b2 W + b3 XW
*Significant
265
Figure 3. Model Coefficients For Product Image
Tablo 5. SPSS Process Moderator Model Data For Country Image

Product Image (Y)
Antecedent Coeff. SE p
Ethnocentrism (X) ,011 ,0420 ,784
Country Image (W) ,458* ,049 < .001
XxW ,112* ,0475 < .05
Education -,010 ,097 ,912
Constant 2,937 ,162 < .001
Model Summary R2 = 0.19; F(4, 393) = 23,50, p = < .001
Conditional effect of X on Y = b1 + b3W; Y= i1 + b1X + b2 W + b3 XW
*Significant
Figure 4. Model Coefficients For Country Image
Conclusion and Discussion

The aim of current research was to determine how the ethnocentric tendencies of educated individuals
in Turkish culture affect foreign country image and its products. It was also aimed to determine
moderator variable for ethnocentrism. For this purpose, research has been carried out on France whose
products widely sold in Turkey and also is a major tourism destination in the world. The appropriate scales
266
in the literature have been determined for the study and the validity and reliability of these scales have
been tested. Once the validity and reliability of these scales were determined and found to be acceptable,
hypotheses testing was undertaken. In the context of H1 and H2 ethnocentric tendencies of Turkish
consumers in France and its product image were tested and the moderator effect of country and product
image tested within H1a and H2a. As a result, H1 (β=, 011, p >0.05) wasn’t supported and H2 (β= -.083,
p<0.05) was supported. It was determined that the moderator of product image on ethnocentrism (H2a)
has positive but not significant affect (X x W =, 035, p >0.05). Yet the moderator of the country image on
ethnocentrism (H1a) has positive and significant affect (X x W =, 112, p<0.05). Therefore, it can be said
that it is possible to reduce the negative effect of the ethnocentrism on the product image by using the
moderator effect of the country image. In addition, education was taken as a control variable in the
models and its effect was controlled. Thus, while education affects the first model positively and
statistically significant (β=.191, p<0 .05), it is not positively and statistically significant in the second model
(β=, - 010, p >0.05). Smilarly other demographic variables were controlled and the following implications
were defined. In the first model, while monthly income and marital status were statistically significant;
working place, gender, age, occupation weren’t significant. In the second model, while gender and
occupation were statistically significant, monthly income, marital status, working place and age weren’t
statistically significant. Therefore, some variables which weren’t significant in the first model were
significant in the second, and the ones that were significant in the second model weren’t significant in
the first.
According to He and Wang (2014), the negative effect of consumer ethnocentrism decreases when the
value and prestige of imported brand is high. Like the fact that the French products are not affected
negatively by the ethnocentric tendencies of Turkish consumers, it’s estimated that could be a reflection
of its brand value. It is known that the perceived quality of the brand reduces the negative effect of
ethnocentrism (Elliott and Cameron, 1994). It can be a sign that it is one of the most preferred automobile
brands, especially in Turkey. According to research by Kaynak and Kara (2000) on Turkish consumers,
Turkish consumers have a very positive perception of products from Japan, USA and Western European
countries. The fact that France, one of the western European countries, is likely to have produced such a
result. This is also known halo effect in the literature (Han, 1989; Han, 1990; Lampert ve Jaffe, 1998). It is
therefore possible to say that the general product image of France has a halo effect on the image of
France.
According to the result of the research ethnocentric barriers may point to France but it is not toward to
its products. One of the probabilities of these results is that most of the activities that Porter (1985)
mentioned in the value chain model carried out in Turkey. In other words, some French cars
manufacturing in Turkey is an indicator for value sharing. Through value sharing, while the business could
make profit economically they can also socially benefits the country and the community.
In the context of tourism, the results of current study evaluated and it is likely to say the positive image
of tourists' goods and services regarding to the country has also improved the image of the country.
Likewise positive image of the country has improved the image of the country’s products. Furthermore
country image has a significant moderator between negative ethnocentrism and the image of countries’
products. From this point of view, it is likely to regulate the negative effect of ethnocentrism and product
by the positive image of the country. In this case, it is important to change the perceptions of individuals
who have negative product perceptions in the tourism sector.
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Biographical Notes
B. Zafer Erdogan currently works at the Department of Marketing, Anadolu University. He does research
in Marketing, Advertising and Business Administration.
Bulent Aydin is a research assistant at Anadolu Universitiy, Turkey. His research focuses on tourism and
image.
Deniz Kirmizi is graduated student at Anadolu University department of International Business. Her
research focuses on country image.
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7379
EVALUATION OF ALAÇATI (İZMİR / TURKEY) DESTINATION IN ASPECT
OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM INDICATORS
Özge Bora
Teacher of Geography
Yaşar Education and Culture Foundation Anatolian High School
Çeşme/İzmir, Turkey
ozgeparasiz@gmail.com
Füsun Baykal
Professor
Bornova/İzmir, Turkey
fusun.soykan@ege.edu.tr
Abstract
Çeşme is the destination that the service capacity of tourism has developed most in İzmir. As a district
of Çeşme, Alaçatı has become a rapidly growing destination in the last two decades. This popularization
of Alaçatı, its natural and cultural riches, its proximity to Izmir and proximity to Çeşme played the most
important roles. However, the setting up of an excessive number of operators (hotel, pension, restaurant,
shopping units) in this small settlement center, which took the first steps of touristic life cycle quickly,
caused some problems, especially noise.
The subject of this paper is; According to the WTO's sustainable tourism indicators, to examine Alaçatı’s
current situation of tourism. Proceeding; according to Alaçatı tourism and sustainable tourism indicators,
Alaçatı's level of adaptation has been defined as what should be done in order to develop Alaçatı tourism
according to sustainable tourism indicators. Goal is to evaluate the emerging results from a critical point
of view. In the study six local actors were interviewed within the scope of twelve questions with verbal
interview technique. Interviewing, one of the most frequently used data collection methods in qualitative
research; has made it easy to access profound knowledge for Alaçatı. Opinions were transferred to this
work with descriptive comments. If we make a generalization according to the findings, it is also true that
Alaçatı has some positive developments in terms of sustainable tourism indicators, but there are also
risks that can lead to various problems in the future.
Keywords: Sustainable tourism, indicator, local actor, interview, Alaçatı
Introduction
Tourism is a rapidly developing sector since the second half of the twentieth century. This development
has taken shape mostly as mass tourism and sea-sun-sand-weighted tourism has come forward. Intensive
tourist accommodation in coastal accommodation facilities during the short season has led to extreme
use and has resulted in the exceeding of tourist transport capacity. The concept of alternative tourism,
which has come up worldwide since the mid-1990s, refers to alternative tourism types to mass tourism.
Alternative tourism aims to create a quality environment by preserving natural and cultural attractiveness
and to offer economic benefits to the local community. That’s why alternative tourism has a common
denominator with sustainable development and sustainable tourism. The differentiation of tourist profile
nowadays, paved the way for the development of alternative tourism types that are compatible with
sustainable tourism, while mass tourism was being thrown into background. The World Tourism
Organization (UNWTO) defines sustainable tourism as “to preserve the future of host regions while
addressing the needs of tourists and these regions, and improving opportunities” (UNEP and UNWTO,
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2005). The goals of sustainable tourism can be listed as; to make tourism planning, to spread tourism to
time and place, to diversify, to raise public awareness about sustainable tourism, to give priority to the
local people in tourism employment, to include community in planning activities and decision-making
processes, and highlighting local culture (Roney, 1999). Some principles have been determined to ensure
sustainable tourism worldwide. Also, several indicators have been specified to control the impacts of
tourism. In this study, only indicators were included from the master's thesis in which Bora (2018)
evaluated Alaçatı tourism in terms of sustainable tourism principles and indicators. In the flow of the
subject; first the tourism characteristics of Alaçatı are discussed. Then, the responses of the meetings are
mentioned to find the level of alignment according to Alaçatı's sustainable tourism indicators. Finally, the
recommendations are explained for developing Alaçatı tourism according to sustainable tourism
indicators.
Purpose and Method
The aim of this study is to decide the degree of adaptation of Alaçatı (Çeşme/İzmir) according to
sustainable tourism indicators and to contribute to the transfer of it to the future with various
recommendations. For this purpose, WTO's sustainability standards were based on for Alaçatı.
Qualitative research method was used in the study. Qualitative data analysis is a collection of activities in
which the obtained data is organized and categorized, the themes are created and the whole process is
transferred to a report. Qualitative data is obtained through various techniques such as observation and
interviewing for certain purposes and consists of information that includes the perception and opinion of
individuals about the events (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2003). Data in qualitative research can be supplied
through individual interviews, group interviews and observation (Altındağ, 2005). Six local actors were
selected to conduct interviews in master’s thesis (Bora, 2018) which is the basis for this study. Selections
comply with the purposeful sampling method. Individual interviews were conducted as “well-structured
interview”. Local actors have been contacted by telephone, e-mail and visit. Firstly, the scope and
importance of the study and the contributions they can make to the study were explained to them. The
interviews were conducted at proper time and place of the participants. Interviews were recorded as
note-taking and the information obtained was reviewed and arranged. Finally, the opinions were
tabulated, and the points found important were written directly. The opinions were evaluated with short
comments and what to do next, was added under various headings.
Overview of Alaçatı Tourism
Alaçatı is a district in the Çeşme county of İzmir (Figure 1). Alaçatı was a village connected to Çeşme in
the past centuries and municipality organization was established in 1873. Alaçatı became a district of
Çeşme in 2014 with the Metropolitan Law No. 6360. According to the results of Alaçatı's 2017 ADNKS
(Address-based Population Registration System) population is 9745 people. Alaçatı has lived for many
years introverted, because the choice of domestic and foreign tourists was Çesme. Formerly, Çeşme had
earnt reputation as “sand, sun, sea” and later as “entertainment, sports, thermal, transitions to Chios
Island”. Global changes in tourism (alternative tourism, new trends), has created a great opportunity for
the development of tourism in Alaçatı. For example, windsurfing, boutique hotel management and local
events have led to the emergence of interest to Alaçatı.
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Figure 1. Geographical Location of Alaçatı (Source: Bora, 2018)
Historical center of Alaçatı is 3 km north to Ilıca Bay and 3 km south to Yumru Bay (Figure: 1). The
establishment place of the settlement is a depression ground consisting of alluvial plains. Alaçatı Bay, 3
km inside with a marsh. White sandy beach strips extend along the small bays of Alaçatı-Ovacık coast.
Çark Beach is the largest beach on the coast and is one of the most suitable places for windsurfing (Photo
1). The continuously blowing wind allows for sailing and kite surfing as well as surfing. Two beaches in
Alaçatı has won the Blue Flag in 2018. The closest geothermal sources to Alaçatı are in Ilıca and Şifne.
Alaçatı, has examples of civil architecture which extends to the beginning of the 19th century. Old Greek
houses are the most important cultural heritage of Alaçatı. Alaçatı was announced an urban conversation
area in 1998. With the Lausanne Exchange in the 1920s, people who come from Greece, Albania, Serbia
and Macedonia constituted the local people today. People who came to work from various provinces of
Turkey have been added this exchange population. Historical center of Alaçatı has a very homogeneous
structure. Narrow and dead-end streets, small squares, traditional stone houses are characteristic
features of the settlement structure. Old stone buildings in ancient Greek architecture are restored and
used as cafe-restaurant, boutique hotel, etc. (Photo 2). The city hall serves as a center and is one of the
busiest sites in Alaçatı in terms of pedestrian traffic. Pazaryeri Square is another node that is the market
area of Alaçatı. Ayios Konstantinos church (1874) is called today as Pazaryeri Mosque (Photo 3).
Hacımemiş Square is in the south of Alaçatı and known for its two traditional coffees. Hacımemiş Aga
Mosque is one of the oldest mosques on the Urla Peninsula. Windmills are a symbol of this environment
(Photo 4). Some of them have served as restaurants or cafe. In Alaçatı, there are many workshops,
galleries and antique stores within the scope of art and culture. In Çeşme, yearlong festivals,
competitions, concerts, theaters, discos and bars make entertainment life alive. Alaçatı Outdoor Theatre
is one of the popular event areas with a about 3000 people capacity (Kesici, 2016).
The second houses in Alaçatı has been started to be built since 1985. Accommodation and catering
facilities have been put into service since the mid-1990s. Stone houses functioned variously as second
House, Boutique Hotel, Hostel, restaurant, cafe and bar. Hence social and spatial change has been
experienced. One of the factors that play a role in the development of tourism is İzmir-Çeşme highway
(1994). The project “Kanal Evleri” (Alaçatı Port), which was started in 2005 at Yumru bay, located in the
south of Alaçatı, is proceeding (Photo 5). Support of local government for Alaçatı in various aspects is one
of the important factors in Alaçatı's current situation. Local activities are also playing a major role in
increasing Alaçatı's interest. Especially Alaçatı Herb Festival, Bicycle Festival, Pegasus Turkey Windsurf
Championship League, etc. comes forward. In 2017, Alaçatı has 287 accommodation establishments with
their licenses for tourism business and investment and there are 2103 beds of them.
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Indicators of Sustainable Tourism
Indicators of Sustainable Tourism (IST) are information sets that are used to measure the changes caused
by internal factors related to tourism, the changes caused by external factors affecting tourism, and the
various impacts caused by tourism. The most comprehensive work on IST is the study of “Indicators of
Sustainable Development for Tourism Destinations”, conducted by the World Tourism Organization
(WTO) in 2004. 41 IST has been identified under 13 headings for destinations. In addition to WTO, the
European Commission has developed the European Tourism Indicators System (ETIS) for “Sustainable
Destination Management” in 2013 to measure sustainability-related performances of touristic
destinations (European Union, 2016).
Findings
Evaluation of Alaçatı According to Indicators of Sustainable Tourism
The final situation of tourism in Alaçatı is evaluated in terms of IST in a master's thesis (Bora, 2018). In
this qualitative study, Alaçatı's level of compliance with IST was determined according to the interviews
made with 6 local actors (participants). Participants are decision makers and people who have a role in
tourism. Thus, opinions of public, local and NGO representatives were received (Table 1).
Table 1 Interviewees and their Institutions

Participant Title Institution
P1 Çeşme Governor Çeşme Governorship
P2 Çeşme Vice-Mayor Çeşme Municipality
P3 Chairman of the Board ÇEŞTOB (Çeşme Tourism Hotels Union)
P4 Member of Board Alaçatı Tourism Association
P5 Founding Chairman Alaçatı Art and Culture Association
P6 Chairman of Association Alaçatı Association of Struggling with Noise
12 questions out of 16 from the thesis takes part, in this study. Questions were prepared based on 12
indicators selected from ISTs of WTO (Table 2).
Table 2. Indicators from ISTs of WTO for Alaçatı

Indicators
1. Local Satisfaction With Tourism
2. Public Participation
3. Sustainability of Cultural Assets
4. Tourist Satisfaction
5. Health and Security
6. Economic Benefiting from Tourism
7. Impacts of Tourism on Natural and Social Structure
8. Natural Resource Management
9. Impacts of Tourism on Infrastructure
10. Control of Touristic Activities
11. Destination Planning and Control
12. Touristic Products and Services
Source: WTO, 2004
Interview questions and answers are listed below in a concise format.
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1. Is the local people happy with the tourists in Alaçatı?
The local people are pleased with tourism and thereby tourists because of the increase in earnings and
the increase in business opportunities. There are no complaints from tourists at all. However, “an
unhappy group that has lost its home and land” may be reactionary to those who later came to the resort.
Besides, the noise problem is indirectly linked to the crowd of tourists. However, these problems can be
overcome by workings of active civil organization, training and supervision.
2. Is there any public awareness activities about tourism in Alaçatı?
In Alaçatı, it is thought that public awareness activities about tourism have been carried out by public,
local administrations and NGOs. Examples can be given as; public awareness articles in local newspapers,
various courses and seminars with tourism orientated in the Public Education Center, meetings and
various activities held by associations, setting up of a vocational tourism high school to train intermediate
staff for tourism, etc.
3. What are the effects of tourism on cultural heritage in Alaçatı?
In Alaçatı, the effects of tourism on cultural heritage mostly have a positive feedback. Especially, it is
considered significant for protectionism to restore traditional buildings in accordance with their original
and to make stone construction compulsory for new buildings. However, it was realized that excessive
structuring was a threat.
4. What is being done in Alaçatı for the sustainability of tourist satisfaction?
In Alaçatı, it is stated that the following services have reached a convincing level in the sustainable tourist
satisfaction: transportation (highway, main road, bicycle road), tourist safety, tourist health, services for
the elderly people in hotels, services for disabled tourists (a beach has been opened by Çeşme
municipality), etc. There is no special health care unit for elderly tourists, but a thermal treatment center
has been planned. There is a Tourism Advisory office in Alaçatı which belongs to an NGO, but it is not
sufficient.
5. What are the most important economic effects of tourism in Alaçatı?
The most important economic effects of tourism in Alaçatı can be sorted as; revival of the economy,
increase in employment opportunities, decrease in unemployment, increase in the value of the land and
buildings, increase in income level, increase in the welfare level of the people, development of the service
business, etc.
6. What are the effects of tourism on society in Alaçatı?
In Alaçatı, there is an opinion that tourism has a combination of positive and negative impacts on society.
Tourists, tradesmen and operators have caused significant changes in local society. Social distortions
(young people are badly affected, decrease of trust, friendships and neighborhood etc.), as well as
positive influence from the high culture of the local people, exist. Therefore, tourism and tourist as well
as the community's own structure is important.
7. What about works about coastal cleaning and sea water quality?
In Alaçatı, there is no big problem with coastal cleaning and sea water quality. The presence of Blue Flag
beaches is an indicator of this. There is only concern that the Alaçatı Port project will create pollution in
the future.
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8. What is the level of water and energy savings and the use of renewable energy in Alaçatı?
In Alaçatı, it can be concluded that water and energy savings were payed attention at touristic facilities,
but the use of renewable energy was very limited. The excessive number of wind power plants in the
region and their very close establishment to residential areas are creating a reaction.
9. What is being done in Alaçatı on sewage treatment, solid waste management, air pollution and noise?
It was asserted that there was no serious problem in terms of sewage, solid waste management and air
pollution in Alaçatı (except for environmental pollution and traffic problems in summer), the only
important problem was noise. It was stated that preventive measures are started to be taken for noise.
10. Is the spatial expansion of tourism in Alaçatı under control?
The spatial development of tourism in Alaçatı is planned under the responsibility of the Çeşme
Municipality, İzmir Metropolitan Municipality and the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. However,
contrary to this development, rapid construction and concretion is a threat especially on the coast.
11. Is Alaçatı working to preserve the image and brand value?
There is a view that Alaçatı has gained worldwide fame in terms of image and brand value. At this point,
domestic and international expositions are introduced; festivals etc. in the town are being organized and
quality, price, presentation, decoration, special regional tastes in the menus, landscaping, protection and
restoration of stone houses in accordance with the original, etc .. are being maintained in a controlled
way. The only concern is that the image of Alaçatı will be damaged due to changing tourist profile and
overcrowding during summer.
12. What is being done for the sustainable development of Alaçatı tourism?
The point where Alaçatı reached today in tourism has been considered by local actors with more worrying
dimensions. In this context, while the expositions are seen as the most important tool for the
development of Alaçatı, it is claimed that there is no need for introductions anymore and that it is
necessary to focus on protection. It is believed that protection is essential to compete. For sustainable
development, setting up excessive hotels, overcrowding and noise, costly and service quality weaknesses
should be prevented. If these problems have not been overcome, the opinion that Alaçatı will not see
any demand, has started to dominate. In addition, diversification of activities, spreading tourism to
winter, keeping hotels well-cared, balancing prices, and the efforts of restaurants to keep up the quality,
will contribute to the development of sustainable tourism.
As a result, the views of local actors on sustainable tourism in Alaçatı are positive in terms of tourists,
local people, and the impacts of tourism. On the other hand, there are deficiencies and omissions in terms
of maintenance, control, measure and protection that will contribute to sustainability.
What to do to Improve Alaçatı Tourism According to Indicators of Sustainable Tourism
The satisfaction of local people should be ensured; Social peace and harmony, and satisfaction of local
people in small settlements is very important regarding sustainability of tourism. Since the rise of tourism
in Alaçatı in the 1990s, there have been some trouble with the relationship between local people-
tourism-tourists. It has been put forward that there were some disagreements with those who settled in
Alaçatı later, and there is excessive noise. The collaboration of non-governmental organizations and their
actions can bring a solution. The satisfaction of local people can be increased with strong participation.
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• Tourist satisfaction should be ensured; Tourist satisfaction is very important for sustainability of
tourism operators and to get competitive advantage for them. Satisfaction of tourists about
transportation and accommodation in Alaçatı has a high level. The boutique accommodation
unique to Alaçatı creates a great attraction. Tourist safety and tourist health services are very
satisfactory. The most disturbing issue in Alaçatı is the overcrowding and noise problem. That's
why it has been worried that the old people would move away from Alaçatı. Measures taken for
2018 are expected to be effective for this issue. Another lack of Alaçatı regarding tourist
satisfaction is the lack of official Tourism Office. In Alaçatı, in order to ensure and sustain the
satisfaction of tourists, each operator must detect the degree of customer satisfaction and take
measures according to the results. This feedback work should be carried out after each season
and for the next season, a road map should be drawn.
• Cultural values must be protected; one of the most powerful attractions of a destination is the
values of protected cultural heritage. It is very important to balance protection and usage in the
management of this heritage. Historical stone houses and cultural landscape resources in Alaçatı
should be protected in a sustainable way. At this point, the national protection policy, its
implementation at the local level, and the intellectual level of people are very significant. The
main danger of cultural preservation is the loss of local and authentic identities. It is thought that
the effects of tourism on cultural heritage in Alaçatı are positive. This is true to some extent.
Because, the old buildings that were declared as urban conservation areas have been restored in
accordance with their original and protectionist development plans have been implemented for
many years. However, the semi-detached (adjacent) intensive constructions under the name of
the stone house, setting up excessive number of accommodations, food&beverage and shopping
centers, visual pollutions like large size boards and signboards in a great number, is falling
opposite to the city's historical ambiance and leads to loss of the authenticity of the streets also
elimination of calm and elitism. Operators should organize activities to protect cultural heritage
and to raise awareness of their staff and customers. For example, personal memories that has
been lived at the houses should be collected, old items, old food, old craftsmanship, old habits
should be taught to tourists, and a documentary should be created by recording life stories of old
people.
• Alaçatı image and brand value should be protected; There is a close relationship between
reputation and brand. Human is subject of reputation and brand is subject of destination. The
brand is strategically critical for operators, and it increases the competitive power of the operator
to make more sales and profits. Most powerful touristic products of Alaçatı create its brand value.
Alaçatı stone houses and their use as a hotel, windsurfing, herb festival can be listed as the first
three products. According to the “Life Cycle Model” (Buttler, 1986), Alaçatı completed its period
of exploration and penetration to the market. It is experiencing periods of development and
consolidation. It is asserted that the “stagnation” process which is the final stage of the life-cycle,
approaches gradually. This indicates that Alaçatı is moving towards losing its image and brand
values. It is once again clear that Alaçatı should be managed with sustainable principles and
indicators to avoid this ending.
• Renewable energy should be used, water and Energy Conservation should be done; The issue of
savings and type of energy sources is at the centre of sustainable tourism. In terms of cost and
environmental protection, renewable energy (green energy) sources include solar, geothermal,
biomass and wind come forward. In this context, both the use of renewable energy sources and
the modern architectural approaches to green hotels (bio hotels) in tourism & lodging industry
are becoming increasingly widespread. There is a low-level of progress in water and energy
savings in touristic facilities in Alaçatı. Also, the use of renewable energy is very limited. A local
reaction has occurred to many of wind energy turbines in Alaçatı and nearby hills. Protests of local
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initiatives are taking place and there are many reasons for these protests. It can be suggested
that solar energy is the most convenient type as a renewable energy source for Alaçatı.
• Eco-Friendly Products and logos should be used; Accommodation operators can only contribute
to sustainable tourism through an eco-friendly management approach. In this context, the use of
renewable energy, waste reduction, water efficiency and water saving, environmental education
and the use of eco-friendly products are the first to come to mind. Green stars, White stars, Blue
Flag campaigns in Turkey serve this purpose. Eco-labels, which guarantee that products and
services have certain standards and quality, have entered the world agenda in the 1980s and have
reached a number more than 300 today. Eco-label now represents sustainability and is a method
and tool for risk management, access to markets, prestige and dignity, cost advantage and
investments. In Alaçatı, operators pay attention to the use of natural materials in construction
and decoration works. Usage of these very limited materials should be increased and spread to
wider areas for sure.
• Requirements for sewage treatment, Solid Waste Management and noise should be met; Sewage
treatment, waste reduction and separation are among the essential principles and indicators of
sustainability. Various practices in the world about waste management (usage of fabric instead
of paper, applying recycling projects, recycling oil products, usage of garbage disposal, reducing
paper consumption, not using plastic materials etc.) should be come into force in Alaçatı. Even
though the sewage system was built in Alaçatı, there are no serious workings in terms of solid
waste management and air pollution. Noise is a current and important problem. The project
“#alacati75desibel”, which was launched in April 2018, seeks a solution to the noise problem.
With this project, 135 operators affiliated to Alaçatı Tourism Association will not be able to
broadcast music over 75 decibels on the streets. Any sources of noise, other than music, should
also be reduced. For instance, the noise should be minimized by changing the flow direction of
heavy traffic and with the time limitation.
• The spatial development of tourism and functional use of buildings should be controlled; In the
context of conservation, “re-function” is often applied today. The ÇEKÜL foundation, for example,
undertook an important mission in transforming old buildings into a City Museum, a History
Museum, an Art Gallery or a Culture House. Alaçatı is a whole with its historical street patterns
and traditional stone houses. With the restorations in the last thirty years, both the old settlement
area has expanded, and new settlement areas have emerged in the nearby areas. Tourism has
created new sites over the years, as spatial expansion is directly associated with tourism.
Eventually, tourism in Alaçatı has shown a multi-part spatial spread. On the other hand, the old
houses, one by one, have gained a new touristic function. The critical point here is, which direction
of spatial growth is towards, physical and social transport capacity is payed attention to what
extent, and how much functional changes are controlled in terms of protectionism. Clearly, local
governments and non-governmental organizations (NGO) have a great deal of responsibilities.
• The marketing of Alaçatı should be sustainable; The path to sustainable marketing of Alaçatı is
very simple: how and to whom should Alaçatı serve? The answers to this question are: to set
bounds to usage of traditional houses for accommodation, food and beverage, shopping and
entertainment purposes (carrying capacity); to prohibit any visual materials (posters, panels,
signboards, plates) that will depreciate the image of Alaçatı; to impose strict sanctions on noise
sources; to simplify traffic flow in the historical center, to put into use electrical public transport
vehicles, to encourage bicycle use, to increase pedestrian zones, to urge the sale of high quality
souvenirs which are using Alaçatı brand values, to prevent the sale of goods that are imported,
cheap and inconvenient to health; to limit tourist entries, to control reservations; to protect
excessive construction of coasts which are identified with coastal tourism and sports tourism and
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located outside the Historical Center. Thus, sustainable marketing of Alaçatı which focuses itself
on sustainable tourism development, would be so permanent.
• Tourism strategy and action plan should be made; Strategic and action plans are made to manage
tourism in a region or destination and to carry it to the future. There is no tourism strategy and
action plan for Alaçatı and its connected county Çeşme. However, both have been referred in this
kind of plans which belong to İzmir. In the plan of Sustainable Development Strategy in the
Peninsula 2014-2023 (İZKA, 2014), some predictions are made for Çeşme and Alaçatı: restoration
of historical buildings, inns and baths and their conversion to boutique hotels and art centers;
dissemination of wave and solar energy; energy efficient building design; walkway and bike trail
creation, green transportation; to render feasts and festivals national and international. Apart
from all these, a tourism plan that is specific to Alaçatı should be made on the principles of
integrated planning. This plan must be with a sustainable approach and participatory as well as
innovative.
Result
Alaçatı is a unique destination with high brand value for İzmir, Aegean region and Turkey. Natural
environment of Alaçatı and its structure with a cultural identity are the most important sources of power
in tourism. Alaçatı has risen rapidly in tourism over the last thirty years and must be carried to the future
by protecting with all its values. Tourism in Alaçatı should be managed by sticking to the principles of
sustainable tourism. Besides, sustainable tourism indicators must be guiding to control the impacts of
tourism and to eliminate problems. According to sustainable tourism indicators Alaçatı has reached a
level that can be criticized from several aspects today. This reveals that the stages in the touristic life
cycle are also consumed rapidly. In order not to enter the last stage of the “recession” process; local
people, NGOs, local and public governments, circles of university, investors and operators should monitor
Alaçatı tourism with common mind and be in cooperation. If they will be able to act together in protecting
Alaçatı, find solutions to problems together, control the works done, reward the achievements, then it
would be enough to make Alaçatı an exemplary and model destination in Turkey. In this process,
‘protection of own spatial values in the future of Alaçatı tourism’ should be adopted as the most basic
principle. Changes that will estrange the region should never be allowed. One of the most important tasks
to do is preparation of a strategy and action plan for Alaçatı.
References
BORA, Ö. (2018) Sürdürülebilir Turizmin İlkeleri Ve Göstergeleri Açısından Alaçatı (Çeşme/İzmir)

Turizminin Değerlendirilmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ege Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü
Coğrafya Anabilim Dalı, İzmir.
BUTLER, R.W. (1986) Bir Turizm Alanının Gelişme Süreci: Kaynakların Yönetimi Konusunda İpuçları. Çev.
Pervin Bilgen, Planlama 86/2, 11-15, Ankara.
DERE, G. (2010) İzmir İli Alaçatı Beldesinde Sörf Sporu Örneğinde, Spor ve Spor Yerleri Üzerine Bir
Araştırma. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ege Üniversitesi Peyzaj Mimarlığı Anabilim Dalı, İzmir.
EUROPEAN UNION (2016) The European Tourism Indicator System (ETIS Toolkit for Sustainable
Destination Management), Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.
İZKA (2014) Yarımada Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma Stratejisi 2014-2023. İzmir Kalkınma Ajansı, İzmir.
280
KESİCİ, A. (2016) Kırsal Yerleşimden Turistik Yerleşime Dönüşümün Ildırı (Çeşme) Ve Alaçatı (Çeşme)
Örneğinde İncelenmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ege Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Coğrafya
Anabilim Dalı, İzmir.
RONEY, A. S. (1999) Sürdürülebilir Turizm ve Türkiye. Anatolia Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, Mart-Haziran,
36-46, Ankara.
UNEP and UNWTO (2005) Making Tourism More Sustainable - A Guide for Policy Makers. pp.11-12.
WTO (2004) Indicators of Sustainable Development for Tourism Destinations: A Guidebook. Madrid,
Spain.
Photographs
Photo 1. Çark Beach and Surfers (By Özge Bora)
Photo 2. A Boutique Hotel / Old Alacatı House (By Özge Bora)
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Photo 3. Mosque of Pazaryeri (Source: http://www.umart.com)
Photo 4. Historical Windmills and Gift Shops (By Özge Bora)
Photo 5. A View from Port Alaçatı (By Özge Bora)

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Biographical Notes
Özge Bora is a geography teacher at the Yaşar Eğitim ve Kültür Vakfı Anadolu High School. She has
completed her master’s thesis at the Department of Geography, Ege University in 2018.
Füsun Baykal is a professor at the Department of Geography, Ege University. Her interest areas are
tourism geography (rural tourism, ecotourism, agrotourism, impacts of tourism, spatial distribution of
tourism etc.), rural development, settlement geography and cultural geography.
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7388
A CONCEPTUAL STUDY ON ACCESSIBLE ECO-RECREATION
Elif Şenel
Eskişehir, Turkey
eozelmas@hotmail.com
Cemile Ece
Eskişehir, Turkey
Efnan Ezenel
Eskişehir, Turkey
Yaşar Sarı
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Difficulties in work and normal life in recent times, tiredness and stress have led individuals to natural
outdoor areas in the city or outside the city where recreational activities can take place. For this reason,
the demand for nature-based recreational tourism activities has increased. Day-to-day or long-term
ecotourism activities have contributed to the sustainability of rural development and natural habitats by
increasing their share in tourism and creating significant investment areas. The recreation element has
an important place in the concept of ecotourism as well as in relation with other tourism types. This is
the concept of eco-recreation, which is carried out in ecological areas, which does not harm the integrity
of nature in any way and contributes to the conservation, development, development and support of
natural areas. Eco-recreation activities provide important contributions especially to small settlements
such as villages and towns which are close to natural areas. The participant involved in such activities is
called eco-recreationist. Eco-recreationists benefit from a wide range of sports and recreational activities
such as camping, trekking, climbing, scouting, etc., which are made in natural areas. However, the fact
that the activities are outdoors, the fact that the sports and activities are carried out under difficult
conditions, the difficulty of Access to the region makes participation in eco-recreation activities difficult.
Particularly for disadvantaged groups and people to participate in such activities, it seems impossible to
take part in such activities. From this point of view, the concept of accessibility is important for reaching
the centers and activities of the ecorecreation sites, using the fields and taking the active part in the
tourism for the disadvantaged groups. In this research, it is aimed to examine ecorecreation activities
with a concept of accessibility from a holistic point of view.
Key words: Ecotourism, Ecorecreation, Accessiblity
Introduction
The life processes of the individuals are divided into two as time of work and the time remaining from
work (leisure time). Recreational activities are defined as events that take place in the leisure time, that
are efficient and active in time as well as activities that entertain, rest and satisfy the individual from all
directions. Eco-recreation is the name given to the realization of recreational activities in ecological rules.
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In non-disabled or non-disabled individuals, eco-recreational activities bring about common outcomes
such as happiness, entertainment, skills development and socialization. In this respect, it is very
important to ensure participation of all disabled people in eco-recreational activities carried out in open
areas. In this way, the socialization of individuals with disabilities, being intertwined with society and
rehabilitation can be realized. In the recent days, people with disabilities can easily reach the regions
where eco-reactive activities are carried out, while individuals with disabilities experience difficulties in
reaching the eco-regional activities carried out in open areas. From here, it is very important to find
applications that can be realized in order to enable disabled people to easily access eco-recreational
activities. Therefore, this study also tried to look at the event through the eyes of people with disabilities.
Recreaction and Ecorecreaction

The monotony and tiredness of the working life has resulted in people paying more attention to their
free time and turning to recreational and entertaining recreational activities. Recreation as a social
community and a professional field of study; it is a full and happy means of life that is valued in its own
independent from working life, meeting the needs of the individual. Recreation; are the activities that
people participate in order to relax and restructure the body and spirit that the working environment has
given them. This concept is called "create"; creating and "re-creat"; deriving from the English roots, which
means re-creation (Demir, 2001). In another sense, recreation can be defined as activities in which people
participate voluntarily in their free time and provide individual satisfaction (Köycü Öpözlü, 2006).
Recreational activity preferences include open areas in the city and more activities in the natural areas
outside the city. Urban recreational resources, also referred to as eco-regional resources; natural
environments intervened by human hand, national parks, nature conservation areas and monuments,
wildlife development areas, such as protected areas consists of (Karaküçük and Akgül, 2016). Eco-
recreation contributes to increasing the environmental awareness of individuals participating in
recreational activities through "eco-recognition awareness" (internalizing ecological awareness as eco-
region or eco-physics) and practices. On the one hand, this enables activities to be carried out in more
environmentally friendly environments, while on the other hand, the environmental sensitivity and
consciousness of the individual are carried to other areas of life (Peker, 2017).
However, it should be noted that recreational organizations realized outdoors thanks to the technology
and facilities developed in our time can be maintained in closed spaces as well as many activities that
have been carried out in enclosed spaces can now be realized also in open spaces. For example; Activities
such as tennis, basketball and soccer can be performed in open space as well as in indoor spaces. (Özgüç,
2015). Eco-recreation is precisely the realization of all activities and leisure activities of leisure time with
the sensitivity and awareness of "environmental protection" and "sustainability" (Karaküçük and Akgul,
2016).
In eco-tourism, which is a leisure activity and is carried out inside with nature;
• Observations in the environment of untouched wildlife and natural resources in leisure time
periods where people are free from work and daily life, or participate in recreational activities in
different environmental characteristics,
• To be able to benefit from the positive innovations gained by the natural environment
(exploration, relaxation, adventure, excitement) and many activities under the name of the
name, artificial or natural environments, instrumental-toolless, vehicle-vehicle-free areas to
evaluate,
• Adaptation to the ecosystem of individuals participating in recreational activities and benefiting
from natural resources,
• In the recreational activities carried out by individuals in leisure time, they maintain the ecological
balance, contribute to them and participate in the activities with the logic of sustainability
(Karaküçük & Akgül, 2016).
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The social, economic, environmental and personal benefits and effects of participating in nature-based
eco-regional organizations have been examined by many researchers from past to present. The benefits
that individuals with eco-orreational qualifications earn for individuals can be listed as follows (Karakcuk,
1999, Yerlisu Lapa and Ardahan, 2011);
• Introduces the behavioral and psychological processes that occur between the groups,
• Teaches the leader and leadership spirit,
• Develops decision-making skills on its own,
• Provide the ability to identify and manage risk targets,
• Teaching to recognize and assume responsibility for self and environment,
• Increase physical, psychological and social development,
• Increase confidence in yourself and others around you,
• It feels happy, peaceful and healthy,
• Provide interaction and socialization with other people,
• Gives morale, motivation and self-confidence in terms of mental health,
• Provide mental development with practical activities to be done,
• Prevent and / or reduce the mental and physical stress that may occur in the future,
• Develop imagination (creativity)
• Develop personal skills and competence,
• Providing positive impact on personal success and productivity increase,
• The most effective natural method of talent selection
• Bridges the given special education and social life.
• Accelerates and influences the rehabilitation process.
• Drama, games, sports and organizations are the first application areas of rehabilitation education
and the first step in social life.
• Contribute indirectly to the morale and motivation of the family.
Recreation Needs
Maslow classifies human needs in a hierarchical structure as five levels. Maslow has put a hierarchical
order of motivational needs in each other and started the order of importance at the bottom. Needs
explained in five steps According to the hierarchy theory, it is stated that people have some wishes,
expectations and needs to realize their goals and they can be categorized in a different way. It is told that
people's needs can be cascaded and moved to a higher level only if the lower level needs are satisfied at
an adequate level, that is, the level of self-realization of the individual can be achieved by the completion
of the levels in the hierarchy (Kula and Çakar, 2015).
The first goal of a man is to get rid of his most intense needs. In case of not fulfilling the requirements of
eco-recreational needs in the individual, he / she can develop reactions such as unhappiness, frustration,
shyness, introversion and aggression. This can create communities of unhappy individuals, and can also
create disagreements in society. The need for self-realization refers to the need for one to realize all the
potential within one's basic sense, to be full of life and to be in harmony with nature. This is synonymous
with the purposes of recreation activities. Clearly, self-realization raises the same emotional concepts as
eco-learning experience (Karaküçük, 1999).
Eco-recreation should not be regarded as a goal but as a means of raising and regulating quality of life,
strengthening learning, improving health, improving physical and mental integrity, changing the angle of
view towards nature, increasing motivation and reducing crime rates (Reader et al., 2006). The evaluation
of free time in an effective and positive manner to eliminate the needs is also very important for the
hurdles. In this way, the integration of the disabled with the society and rehabilitation can be achieved.
Rehabilitation aims not only to provide the freedom of movement but also to be a person who is totally
independent in his daily life and who can continue without needing anybody (Öcal, 2012). As a general
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feature of sports and games, the angles of view of the disabled who participate in eco-recreational
activities, actively participate in games and activities are changing. As a result of this, the faults are
connected more tightly and sincerely. For this reason, extra-recreational activities in the handicapped
can be regarded as one of the most important ways to ensure that the obstacle communicates with the
world.
Accessible Eco-Recreation
Currently, there are various recreation facilities where people spend their spare time. However, people
have started to prefer outside of the cities for their recreational activities and these facilities are generally
ecologic. Eco- recreation is an eco- based concept that preferred by people who live in city centres for
meeting the nature, resting, escaping from the stressful daily life. These eco-recreational areas offer a
wide range of activities and untouched wilderness areas but the most important thing is all about
equality, social integration and inclusion in these areas what is indicated in this study. All eco-
recreational areas must provide equal opportunities to enjoy the outdoors. Facilities must be used by all
people. According to World Bank of disability topic, it is indicated that one billion people or 15 % of the
world’s population experience some form of disability and between 110 million and 190 million people
experience significant disabilities (The World Bank, 2018). This shows us why accessibility is important in
eco-recreational areas. While protecting the natural resources, it is also significant to challenge for
accessibility. It means more than need because all people must have opportunity to use this facility. So
using the principles of universal design in order to integrate accessibility is stated as the best way (Zeller,
J., Doyle, R., & Snodgrass, K., 2012).
Accessible Eco-Recreation areas should include universal design facilities, adapted recreation programs,
and accessible equipments as below (www.toronto.ca, 2018):
Universal Design Facilities
• Interpretation is for everyone on direction boards
• Accessible golf facilities
• Recreational boating facilities
• Wheelchair storage space
• Accessible routes serving fishing piers
• A trail built on universal design principle
• Accessible beach
• Accessible Swimming pool
• Suitable food courts, tables, order system devices
• Accessible washrooms
• Accessible parking area
• Doorways having a minimum of 32 inches (815 millimeters) clear width.
• Outdoor recreation access routes
• Hand rails
• Edge protection
• Accessible camp units
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• Play areas
• Audio information devices
• Accessible picnic units (Zeller, J., Doyle, R., & Snodgrass, K., 2012)
Adapted recreation programs

• Adapted Arts
• Adapted Camps
• Adapted General Interest Programs
• Adapted Sports
• Adapted Swim
• Adapted Instructional Swim
• Adapted Diving
• Adapted Hiking
Accessible Equipments
• Aquatic chairs and lift chairs
• Adapted bicycles
• Wheelchair platform swing
• Al-terrain wheelchairs
• Sport wheelchair
• Adapted sun beds
• Beach wheelchairs
Discussion
From the study the above discussion suggests that best practice in accessibility should include the
provision of accessibility information to patrons, in alternative formats, recognizing persons with visual,
hearing or cognitive impairments. Accessible Eco- Recreation should be promoted more than now.
Facilities should be designed inclusive and accessible and programmes, activities should be organised in
the scope of inclusive concept. There should be periodic trainings for staff and volunteers regarding
accessible and inclusive approaches. Accessibility always is more difficult and costly to implement but it
can be supported by project especially tourism project. Thus the more projects can create the more
inclusive outdoor recreation opportunities.
288
References
Demir, C. (2001). “Milli Parklarda Turizm ve Rekreasyon Faaliyetlerinin Sürdürülebilirliği: Türkiye’deki Milli
Parklara Yönelik Bir Uygulama”, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Doktora Tezi.
Karaküçük, S. (1999). Rekreasyon, Boş zamanları Değerlendirme, Kavram Kapsam ve Bir Araştırma, Seren
Matbaacılık Yayınları.
Karaküçük, S. ve Akgül, B.M., (2016). Ekorekreasyon-Rekreasyon ve Çevre, Gazi Kitabevi, Ankara.
Köycü Öpözlü, A. (2006). “Çağımızda Değişen Sağlık Bilincinin Sportif Rekreasyona Katılım Düzeyine
Etkisinin Araştırılması Kütahya Örneği”, Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Beden
Eğitimi ve Spor Anabilim Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi.
Kula, S. ve Çakar, B. (2015). “Maslow İhtiyaçlar Hiyerarşisi Bağlamında Toplumda Bireylerin Güvenlik Algısı
ve Yaşam Doyumu Arasındaki İlişki”, Bartın Üniversitesi İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi, Cilt: 6 Sayı: 12.
Öcal, K. (2012). “Engellilerde Rekreasyon”, https://ozelegitimokulu.tr.gg/ENGELL%26%23304%3BLERDE-
REKREASYON-.htm, Erişim Tarihi: 25.08.2018.
Okuyucu, C., Ramazanoğlu F. ve Tel, M., (2006). “Çevresel Faktörlerdeki Değişimlerin Serbest Zaman
Faaliyetlerine Etkisi”, Doğu Anadolu Bölgesi Araştırmaları, ss. 40-43.
Özgüç, N. (2015). Turizm Coğrafyası, Çantay Kitabevi, İstanbul, s. 4.
Peker, G. (2017). Ekorekreasyon Nedir?, https://www.rekreasyonist.com/ekorekreasyon-nedir/, Erişim
Tarihi: 25.08.2018.
The World Bank, 2018. Disability. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/disability, Access Date:
25.08.2018.
Toronto, Accessible Recreation. https://www.toronto.ca/city-government/accessibility-human-
rights/accessibility-at-the-city-of-toronto/accessible-recreation/.Access Date: 25.08.2018.
Zeller, J., Doyle, R., & Snodgrass, K. (2012). Accessibility guidebook for outdoor recreation and trails. USDA
Forest Service, Technology and Development Program.
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7389
CONTRIBUTION OF TOURISM TO ECONOMY IN EUROPEAN UNION
AND TURKEY
Bahar Berberoğlu
Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Çağlar Karaduman
Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
caglarkaraduman@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
Tourism sector and tourism expenditures are of high importance for every country and it can be good
support for them, especially the ones with higher current account deficits. In this study, European Union
countries as well as the candidates were investigated through cluster analysis using data on International
Tourist Arrivals, International Tourism Inbound Receipts, Tourism and Travel industry in GDP and Tourism
and Travel Industry in Employment. Findings show that the upper cluster was consisted of Spain and
France. Meanwhile the second best cluster was of Italy, England, Germany and Turkey. Coming after,
Greece, Croatia, Poland, Holland, Austria and Hungary. Other countries were found to be belonging to
the bottom cluster. The position of Turkey in the clusters can be interpreted as pretty good. Further, the
position of her is the best among the candidates. According to discriminant analysis the clusters were
separated at a high level of 94.1% and the lengths were normally distributed.
Keywords: European Union, Cluster Analysis, Discriminant Analysis
Introduction
Tourism has become a monetary and social concept and it creates economic, social, cultural and political
outcomes. Thus, tourism is an important concept and an increasing fund expense not only in developed
countries but also in emerging markets.
Investments on tourism has increased and reached to a great extent both nationally and internationally.
This led to increases in job opportunities, higher income values, a different social and cultural structure
and social achievements.
Main contributions of tourism to economy are seen on national income, employment and balance of
payments. On the other hand, tourism helps societies in reaching a higher level of socio-economic
position by introducing new perspectives from different places on earth. While starting and increasing
the capacity of tourism does not need any special skills or high-tech inputs, and thus relying mainly on
labour, it causes a remarkable drop in unemployment rates, at least seasonally. Touristic businesses also
create other job opportunities depending on their demands, which at the end ensure the birth and
development of regional industries. Meanwhile, there is the fact that touristic expenditures may attract
sectors other than tourism. (Berberoğlu, 1988).
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The Importance of Tourism in the Economy
Tourism provides wealth and a platform for development. Tourists, as being only a consumer, creates
additional autonomous consumption. That additional consumption increases the money flow in
economies and acts as a stamina. That flow indirectly causes both regional and overall developments in
the sectors of economy and infrastructure, causing other sectors to employ more and gain higher returns
(Kozak et al. 2000; Aktaş, 2005).
Increased rates of touristic expenditures may be reviewed as a solution for unemployment without the
need of higher technology. While creating jobs, tourism also creates an inflow of exchange, causing the
real exchange rate to decrease and helping countries with foreign currency scarcity, which causes balance
of payments deficits to decrease (Berberoğlu, 1988). That can be considered to be “exports” made in the
country with retail prices. As automation and mechanization techniques are practically impossible to
apply to the sector, tourism is of high employment/investment rate.
Yıldırım and Öcal (2004) found that especially in the long run, tourism is an important driver for economic
growth in Turkey. Similarly, Çetintaş and Bektaş (2008) investigated the short and long-run relations
between tourism and economics growth in Turkey for the period 1964-2006. They concluded that there
was no connection in the short run but a strong tie in the long-run. Zortuk (2009) studied the sector after
1980, the period it thrived in Turkey, for whether it significantly helped the economic growth or not and
found that the effect was positive and significant. Hepaktan and Çınar (2010) put that while tourism helps
the Turkish economy directly by increasing the total revenue in the economy, enhancing balance of
payments and creating job opportunities, it actually helps economic growth indirectly.
Tourism in European Union and Turkey

Tourism has been historically important in Europe and European Countries. In other words, the most
tourists and touristic attractions are European People and Europe itself. Thus, European countries play a
key role in shaping the development of tourism. 12 of 40 top leading countries for tourism are European.
While Spain, Italy, Greece, France, Portugal have been specialized in sea-sand-sun tourism, middle
European countries have done the same for winter and thermal tourism. Large cities in the western
Europe are shiny for fashion, congress, business and festivals (Türsab, 1999).
European Union aims to produce mutual policies on economies and socio-cultural structures. This can be
seen especially in tourism policies. Tourism is an important factor for Europe to promote multicultural
characteristics of the Europe and society and to encourage intimacy (Şen, 1998).
European Union follows a mutual protocol for protecting environmental and cultural values. Rural, social
and youth tourism are to be developed and covering as many parts of the society is targeted. Thus
especially in in the areas that lag behind are handled as priorities. Promoting local authorities, which
undoubtedly have more and better ideas on local issues, helps increasing economic productivity for
tourism. As in many economic activities, tourism also needs product ranges like sea tourism, cultural
tourism, nature tourism, gastronomy tourism etc. This strengthens the idea of local management for
touristic activities.
For creating and sustaining touristic activity relations, a set of World-standard services is a must. As there
are quality policies in exported goods, all labour intensive products, including tourism, have to offer some
quality criteria including but not limited to hygiene in rooms, comfort, healthy and well produced food.
With the expected implementation of EU standards in Turkish tourism, Turkey will be a stronger touristic
place for all the World. In addition to those facts, tourism is of high importance for Turkey, especially
considering the fact that inflow of foreign currency is regarded as a vital source for economic
performance (Doğan, 2015; Genç, 2018).
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Table 1: 2016-2018 Comparison Chart for Tourist Arrivals from Different Countries (January-June)
(Source: https://tuik.gov.tr)
Years Share (%)
Origin 2016 2017 2018* 2016 2017 2018*
Germany 1 502 949 1 246 744 1 560 251 13,99 10,18 9,77
Austria 108 244 86 038 110 066 1,01 0,70 0,69
Belgium 150 167 138 046 175 947 1,40 1,13 1,10
Czech Republic 33 314 36 561 69 245 0,31 0,30 0,43
Denmark 141 917 96 765 117 610 1,32 0,79 0,74
Finland 65 902 40 465 58 148 0,61 0,33 0,36
France 218 950 188 857 254 942 2,04 1,54 1,60
Holland 364 466 263 370 370 887 3,39 2,15 2,32
UK 693 081 607 272 858 055 6,45 4,96 5,37
Ireland 25 533 19 654 28 779 0,24 0,16 0,18
Spain 52 447 41 118 68 488 0,49 0,34 0,43
Sweden 153 236 112 137 159 334 1,43 0,92 1,00
Switzerland 88 110 69 306 92 150 0,82 0,57 0,58
Italy 109 207 82 150 114 490 1,02 0,67 0,72
Iceland 1 985 1 029 1 280 0,02 0,01 0,01
Luxemburg 2 122 1 753 2 596 0,02 0,01 0,02
Hungary 28 438 26 172 38 431 0,26 0,21 0,24
Norway 74 674 46 281 65 712 0,70 0,38 0,41
Poland 85 969 98 773 235 471 0,80 0,81 1,47
Portugal 13 491 10 002 15 607 0,13 0,08 0,10
Slovakia 19 748 25 572 42 608 0,18 0,21 0,27
Greece 283 415 251 327 247 076 2,64 2,05 1,55
TOTAL EUROPE OECD 4 217 365 3 489 393 4 687 173 39,27 28,49 29,35
Albania 33 448 36 799 48 695 0,31 0,30 0,30
Bosnia-Herzegovina 29 066 32 883 48 368 0,27 0,27 0,30
Bulgaria 783 429 799 279 987 957 7,29 6,53 6,19
Estonia 18 907 18 826 27 660 0,18 0,15 0,17
Southern Cyprus 3 404 3 410 3 689 0,03 0,03 0,02
Croatia 11 744 9 900 18 948 0,11 0,08 0,12
Montenegro 8 585 8 216 11 069 0,08 0,07 0,07
Kosovo 45 722 46 431 58 591 0,43 0,38 0,37
Letonia 15 844 16 214 26 903 0,15 0,13 0,17
Lithuania 49 980 54 427 91 701 0,47 0,44 0,57
Macedonia 65 905 68 010 87 267 0,61 0,56 0,55
Malta 2 628 1 861 3 120 0,02 0,02 0,02
Romania 163 309 160 305 253 485 1,52 1,31 1,59
Serbia 52 917 55 487 86 245 0,49 0,45 0,54
Slovenia 9 851 8 040 16 449 0,09 0,07 0,10
Other European Non- 578 510 664 0,01 0,00 0,00
OECD
Total Europe Non-OECD 1 295 317 1 320 598 1 770 811 12,06 10,78 11,09
Total Europe 5 512 682 4 809 991 6 457 984 51,33 39,27 40,44
European standards for tourism are especially important for Turkey considering the fact that according
to the chart, a large share of tourists visiting Turkey originates from the Europe itself. Thus, increases in
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the quality of touristic services in Europe should be watched closely by Turkish authorities due to its
possible effects on the demand to Turkish tourism (Emekli, 2005).
It is actually a great opportunity for Turkish tourism sector that EU regards tourism as a locomotive for
decreasing regional development differences and supports Mediterranean countries with project-based
financial programs (Aydın, 2005).
Figure 1: Value Increase of Euro Against Turkish Lira

Source: https://kur.doviz.com/serbest-piyasa/euro, (Accessed: 08.29.2018)
Value loss of TRY against EUR especially lately may be turned into an opportunity of creating high quality
yet cheap tourism option for Europeans. This way it seems possible to effectively reach the full capacity
in tourism in Turkey. Approaching this issue with the help of government authorities is of the highest
importance to strengthen macroeconomic stability in Turkey. In this context, European standards seems
extremely valuable (Genç, 2018).
Variables and Sample

In this study, following variables from World Economic Forum (WEF) The Travel & Tourism
Competitiveness Report 2017 were used:
International Tourist Arrivals (x1): Arrival headcount for tourists. It can be used as a measure for naming
a country “popular”. However, it is weak variable for measuring tourism effect as it lacks origins and
average incomes of the tourists.
International Tourism Inbound Receipts (x2): Touristic foreign currency inflow to the subject country. By
dividing this value to the international tourist arrivals, average touristic expenditures can be calculated.
Average Receipts per Arrival (x3): International Tourist Arrivals / International Tourism Inbound Receipts
(x1/x2) ratio. Displays average tourist spending and useful for comparing countries.
Tourism and Travel (T&T) Industry GDP (x4): GDP produced in tourism and travel sectors. It can be used
by itself as a good comparison gauge for tourism performance of different countries. Another good use
of the variable includes time series techniques. A higher TT(GDP) ratio in the whole GDP of a country
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generally indicates a well-performing tourism sector. It is also an important variable for decreasing
current account deficits.
T&T Industry Employment (x5): Employment created by tourism and travel sectors. Increased values of
the variable show the extent of the sector. Increased share in the total employment in a country
considered to be negative as tourism is mainly seasonal (WEF, 2017).
As x1 and x2 are used to calculate x3, both of them are excluded from the analysis as they would create
multi-collinearity problem.
There are 34 countries in our analysis. These are Turkey and the EU member states. Hence, countries that
were included in the analysis were put in order as follows: Belgium (BE), Bulgaria (BG), Czech Republic
(CZ), Denmark (DK), Germany (DE), Estonia (EE), Ireland (IE), Greece (EL), Spain (ES), France (FR), Italy (IT),
Cyprus (CY), Latvia (LV), Lithuania (LT), Luxembourg (LU), Hungary (HU), Malta (MT), Netherlands (NL),
Austria (AT), Poland (PL), Portugal (PT), Romania (RO), Slovenia (SI), Slovakia (SK), Finland (FI), Sweden
(SE), United Kingdom (UK), Albania (AL), Bosnia and Herzegovina (BA), Montenegro (ME), Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (MK), Serbia (RS) and Turkey (TR). The values of the variables used in
our analysis are the values calculated for the year 2016.
Methodology and Application

In our study, non-hierarchical k-means cluster analysis, which are among the multivariate statistical
analysis techniques, were used. Cluster analysis is an objective method developed to evaluate the
structural features of the observations (Kalaycı, 2008).
k-Means Technique: Mac Quenn used the term of the k-means technique in order to define the algorithm
that can divide each element with close values into clusters. This technique follows the following steps:
1. It divides the units into k clusters.
2. It is continued by gathering the units under the closest cluster in terms of the value. The distance
is generally determined by using the “Euclidean distance.” Then, the new value of the cluster is found by
calculating the units. Thereafter, the new value of the cluster is found by calculating the mean value for
the units.
3. Step 2 is repeated until there are no more allocations left (Norusis, 1993; Atamer, 1992).
4 variables related to tourism, which were obtained from the website of WEF and constitute the data set
including 34 European countries and Turkey, were subjected to an analysis with the non-hierarchical k-
means technique. In this analysis, cluster number was determined as k=2, 3, 4 and repeated 3 times. The
fact that the number of clusters needed to be 4 was identified with the formula k = (n/2)1/2= (34/2)1/2=
4.123. Therefore, the European Countries table within the analysis conducted with k=4 is given below:
Table 2: Countries and Number of Cases in each Cluster
Cluster (k=4) Number of Cases in Each Cluster and Countries

1 6 EL, HR, PL, NL, AT, HU
2 2 ES, FR
3 4 IT, UK, DE, TR
4 22 MT, CY, SI, SK, RO, SE, BE, BG, CZ, DK, EE, IE, FI, LV, LT, LU, PT, AL, BA, ME, MK, RS.
The second cluster indicates the highest group. The highest cluster includes Spain and France. They are
followed by Italy, United Kingdom, Germany and Turkey which is proceeding towards candidateship for
the European Union.
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Table 3: Distances between Final Cluster Centres
Cluster 1 2 3 4
1 58317034,563 21774751,519 13546563,296
2 58317034,563 36586714,914 71863514,354
3 21774751,519 36586714,914 35308927,370
4 13546563,296 71863514,354 35308927,370
The fourth cluster indicates the lowest group. The lowest cluster includes 17 EU countries and 5
Candidate countries: Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Ireland, Cyprus, Latvia,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Finland, Sweden and Albania, Bornia and
Herzegovina, Montenegro, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Serbia.
ANOVA table is shown as follows in the analysis performed with the cluster number k=4:
Table 4: ANOVA table that belongs to Significant Variables

Cluster Error F Sig.
Mean Square df Mean Square df
x1 4154395845501846,500 3 25240358641458,535 30 164,593 ,000
x2 2366592611,720 3 21777799,193 30 108,670 ,000
x4 10485547635,610 3 188284434,177 30 55,690 ,000
x5 3093758742194,295 3 117824886819,468 30 26,257 ,000
It is seen when above-stated Table 4 ANOVA table is checked that the variables x1, x2, x4, and x5 were
significant by 5%.
Table 5: One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test

Distance of Case from its
Classification Cluster Center
N 34
Normal Parametersa,b Mean 4130535,1179880
Std. Deviation 2339819,44035089
Most Extreme Differences Absolute ,119
Positive ,119
Negative -,080
Test Statistic ,119
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) ,200
a. Test distribution is Normal.
b. Calculated from data.
That the distances from the centre of the clusters are normally distributed is another condition that must
be taken into consideration in the clustering analysis (Tatlıdil, 2002). Accordingly, the Kolmogorov-
Smirnov test was performed, and it was understood that the normality assumption was fulfilled in Table
5. We find 0.200>0.05 when we apply the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test to the distance values in order to
understand whether the cluster distances were distributed normally.
We use the discriminant analysis in order to realize whether the correct discrimination has been obtained
according to the non-hierarchical k-means technique, that is, whether the clusters have been formed
correctly.
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Table 6: Classification Success of the Clusters
Classification Resultsa
Cluster Number of Predicted Group Membership Total
Case 1 2 3 4
Original Count 1 6 0 0 0 6
2 0 2 0 0 2
3 0 0 4 0 4
4 2 0 0 20 22
% 1 100,0 ,0 ,0 ,0 100,0
2 ,0 100,0 ,0 ,0 100,0
3 ,0 ,0 100,0 ,0 100,0
4 9,1 ,0 ,0 90,9 100,0
a. 94.1% of original grouped cases correctly classified.
According to Table 6, the clusters are classified 94.1% correctly. This is quite a high clustering success.
Czech Republic and Portugal was included in Cluster 1 according to the discriminant analysis, while this
country was located in Cluster 4 in the clustering analysis.
Conclusions
According to these variables (International Tourist Arrivals, International Tourism Inbound Receipts,
Tourism and Travel Industry GDP and Tourism &Travel Industry Employment), the European Union
members that have the best position in our analysis are the Spain and France. We realize it from the
cluster distances in Table 3. The third cluster indicates second high group. The second high group includes
Italy, United Kingdom, Germany and Turkey .
Turkey is in the best position compared to candidateship for the European Union in respect of the
discussed variables.
International Tourist Arrivals (x1) International Tourism Inbound

45000000
Receipts (x2)
40000000 30000
35000000
25000
30000000
25000000 20000
20000000 15000
15000000 10000
10000000
5000000 5000
0 0
296
Tourism and Travel Industry GDP (x4) T&T Industry Employment (x5)
40000 700000
35000 600000
30000 500000
25000
400000
20000
300000
15000
10000 200000
5000 100000
0 0
Figure 2: Status of Turkey in Candidate Countries
According to the results of our analysis, Turkey is found to be in a better position than 23 members of
European Union. For this reason, as a successful candidate of European Union tourism must be
considered as any other sector, but a leading sector in Turkey.
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7396
DETERMINING THE REASONS FOR Y GENERATION INDIVIDUALS TO
COOK AT HOME: A PRELIMINARY STUDY
Zeynep Kahya
Graduate Student,
Anadolu University Institute of Social Sciences
Eskisehir, Turkey
zkahya@anadolu.edu.tr
Çağıl Hale Özel

Associate Professor
Anadolu University Department of Tourism Faculty
Eskisehir,Turkey
Abstract
It can be deduced that eating at home will take the place of eating outside in the future since we are
living in the communication age where individuals are conscious, egocentric, and have prosumer
characteristics. However, it is understood that there is not a sufficient number of relevant literature in
Turkey which will bring the subject to an understandable level. In a small number of studies on home
cooking, it has been tried to determine what the reasons of home cooking are. The main question that
needs to be addressed in the study is how Y Generation individuals lead to cooking at home. Since the
individuals of Y Generation are now conscious and inquisitive consumers who cover a large part of
working life as of nowadays, individuals of this generation were selected. In other words, it was assumed
that Y was a generation who became willing to eat at home with this increase in consciousness. This study
has a qualitative design. In August 2018, face-to-face interviews were conducted with 11 participants
determined by snowball sampling method. Participants were asked six open-ended questions and
demographic questions about characteristics (age, occupation) via semi-structured questionnaires. The
findings show that Y-generation individuals tend to prepare meals at home because of health and hygiene
reasons, economic reasons and, enjoyment. The results of this study are important in terms of
contributing to the knowledge of cooking at home behavior and the knowledge of the Y generation.
Key words: Postmodern Consumer, Eating Out, Cooking at Home, Y Generation.
Introduction
Nutrition is the intake of necessary nutritional elements into the body and utilization from them for
growth, improvement and a healthy and long life (Bulduk, 2005 p.45). Considering the age, gender and
physiological state of an individual, adequate intake of all required nutritional elements must be secured
for a healthy nutrition (Saygın et al., 2011, p. 43-44). In other words, consuming healthy foods in all meals
of a day is of great importance. However, a changeover in nutritional habits occur together with the social
switch and urbanization process. Technological changes and transition from an agro-society to an
industrial one leads many people to prefer consuming foods that are prepared by other people and
outside of the house; rapid progress in communication tools, industrialization and western culture are
influential in the quick change and expansion of food habits (Bulduk, 2005 p.65).
299
While most of the studies about the subject have focused on consumption outdoors, those which are
about cooking and consuming at home stayed in the background. In fact, it is also known that there is a
group of consumers who object the rapidly rising tendency to eat outdoors and habituate cooking and
eating at home. In addition, how much worthwhile the food consumed outdoors for health is also a widely
current and discussed issue in the recent years. According to the results of a scientific study, which was
declared in a meeting of American Heart Association, the risk of getting diabetes for those who eat at
home is lower than of those who eat outdoors. According to the results of the study conducted on
100.000 people, the risk of getting Type-2 diabetes for those who eat 11-14 main meals (lunch and
dinner) in a week as home-cooked is 13 % lower than of those who eat half of the week outdoors. At the
same time, at the end of eight years of research period, it was discovered that those who consume home-
made food gained much lesser weight than those who eat outdoors. It follows from this that, eating
outdoors is an activity almost bringing along obesity (Cnnturk, 2016).
Consumers’ tendencies, preferences and desires towards nutrition finds reciprocity in the food and
beverage sector. The fact that healthy, organic and natural products can easily create a market for
themselves may be connected to this cause (Grand Thorton, 2011). Besides, cooking at home and
postmodern era behaviors such as self-production, IKEA effect, and hobby and prosumer cultures are
complementary in feature. Because, in the postmodern era, the consumer makes a more conscious and
informed impression that is striving to return to the old and willing to produce and consume himself
(Atakan and Seraj, 2016 p.128). Toffler (2008, p.230-240) emphasizes that the consumer profile of the
postmodern era, the so-called third wave, displays a creative profile which criticizes the goods and
services with a negative impact on environment and affects the whole of the society with his life style
and behaviors. Parallel to this, it is inevitable describing eating outdoors unhealthy and tending towards
cooking at home. However, there is a limited number of studies in the literature that tries to find out the
reasons that make people cook at home instead of eating outdoors. With this study, deep interviews
were made with people who cook at home and it was aimed to contribute to the knowledge created by
the existing studies.
Related Studies
Research of the eating behavior outdoors necessitates a multi-disciplinary attitude. In accordance with
its multi-disciplinary structure, eating is of interest to academic disciplines such as anthropology (Douglas
1975; Levi-Strauss 1983), sociology (Mennell et al., 1992; Finkelstein 1989), economy (Cullen 1994),
marketing (Riley 1994), tourism management (Wood 1994; Olsen et al.. 2000; Knight et al. 2009) and
nutrition (Kant and Graubard 2004). A direct correlation can be found between the phenomenon of
eating outdoors and especially the food and beverage management as a sub-field of tourism
management among these academic disciplines (Riley 2005; Wood 2007; O’Mahony 2007). As a result of
an extensive literature scanning, Johns and Pine (2002) specified the research subjects focused by the
studies that inspect the phenomenon of eating outdoors with the perspectives of differing disciplines as
food choice, restaurant choice, context of eating outdoors, economical dimensions of eating outdoors,
sociology of eating outdoors, satisfaction and loyalty of the consumers who eat outdoors.
One of the phenomenal researches which reveal the factors that are effective in consumers’ orientation
in cooking at home was made by Costa, et. al (2007). In that study, profound face-to-face interviews were
conducted with consumers and behavior of cooking at home was compared with fast-food consumption.
As a result of this comparison, the researchers showed that the behavior of cooking at home is related
with feeling healthy and alive, the feeling of fulfilling a duty, being in compliance with the group, enjoying,
feeling successful and feeling self-conscious through keeping the weight in balance. In a study conducted
in Belgium, Daniels et. al (2012) referred cooking process as a way for consumers to please both
themselves and the others. In addition, this study shows that consumers who doesn’t work, especially
housewives, consider cooking as a bounden duty in order to eliminate feeling guilty and shame and social
criticism. In addition to the working conditions of consumers, their educational level also influences their
300
perception of cooking. Daniels et al. (2012) set forth that those with lower educational level perceive
cooking as an obligation, but not an activity to enjoy in free times. The same study also shows that cooking
is seen as a display of love by families, especially those with kids.
A study conducted in the United States of America (Mintel, 2011) revealed that young population prefers
cooking at home in order to feel sophisticated and clever, create reliability among peers, consume
healthy food, gain different experiences, display love and relax-calm. Atakan and Seraj (2016), on the
other hand, aim at revealing the connection between consumer motivations and the behavior of cooking
at home via an ethnographic study. As a result of the study, physiology, security, autonomy and control,
belonging and love, prestige, relaxing and calming, emotional satisfaction, cognitive stimulus, self-
expression and creativity were detected as the motives of cooking at home.
Generations
Groups composed by people living in the same period and sharing common features are defined as a
generation (Adıgüzel et al., 2014, p.165). People’s perceptions, thoughts, habits, expectations and
behaviors change due to time concept. The fact that individuals born in close periods to each other share
similar features and those born in distant periods share fewer common features directed researchers to
make a closer inspection on the generation concept. Thanks to the researches, information gathered
about the differences between generations, similarities, expectations and habits, and societies of the
past (Adıgüzel et al, 2014, p.166).
The most generalized classification of generations, as known, is made as Traditionalists, Baby Boomers,
X, Y and Z. The generation called as traditionalists is also mentioned as the quiet or adult generation in
some sources. This generation covers those born between 1925 and 1945 (Letho et al., 2006, p.238).
Traditionalists, although they are not many in number but still active in the working life, are the ones who
has built the work life. The fact that traditionalists are unique sources of knowledge and have a quick
mind, made the members of this generation rise to critical positions in business (Zemke et al., 2013,
quoted by Adıgüzel et al., 2014, p.171).
Baby boomers generation is composed of those born between 1946 and 1964. Individuals who were born
in the years of the population explosion following the 2nd World War, compose this generation. Changes
observed in countries’ political and economic structures at that period, during which economical welfare
increased gradually, also affected the genius of this generation (ERC Report, 2011, p.10). Representatives
of this generation, who think that quality living conditions can be obtained only through working very
hard, have adopted the view “work hard now, you will get its worth in the future” (Acılıoğlu, 2015, quoted
by Aka, 2018, p.166).
X generation is composed of those born between 1965 and 1979. Other names of this generation, which
follows the “Baby Boomers” generation, are “Baby Buster”, “twenty something” and “f-you generation”
(mtstajprogramları, 2018). It is a generation which tries to stay away from stressful jobs, simplify and try
to enjoy the job that they conduct for living. Members of the X generation make a great effort to catch
the changing conditions. However, this effort and race make them feel isolated as a result of the
impressions it creates on them as “missing” and “failing to modernize” (Dias, 2003, quoted by Adıgüzel
et al, 2014, p.172).
Y generation is composed of those born between 1980 and 1999. (Keleş, 2011, p.129). Y generation is
composed of the children of Baby Boomers and X Generation. As of their ages they comprise an important
part of the working life today. This generation is perceived as “digital society” (Meier and Crocker, 2010,
p.68, 69). People among this generation are smart, free-spirited, devoted to technology and also who
knows to use it very well. Living a comfortable life means a lot to this generation, who spend nearly fifteen
hours a day interacting with media and communication technologies. For this generation, technology is
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the symbol of many things in their life (Mengi, 2011). In this study, concerning its technologically focused,
informed, rogatory and self-obsessed personality, Y generation is regarded as a generation that can
prefer cooking at home instead of eating outdoors.
Z generation is the one which represents those born after 2000 and also called as the “crystal generation”.
Experts define this generation as “deeply emotional” (dijitalajanslar, 2013). This generation have never
experienced a period that internet did not exist. Representatives of this generation, who communicate
via smart phones, prefer to talk through emojis and icons in the social media instead of talking and writing
on the phone. Representatives of this generation, who are interested in social events, are sensitive to
technological developments, environment, social injustice, economy and inequality (ik ve iletişim, 2014).
Method
This study has a descriptive design. Main purpose of the study is to find out the reasons that lead the
members of the Y generation to cooking at home. The questions that are formed in accordance with this
purpose and of which answers are sought are as follows:
- What are the reasons for cooking and eating at home?

- What could be the benefits of cooking and eating at home?
- What do you think about your habit of cooking at home? How did you habituate that?
- Do you advise to cook and eat at home to your circle?
- Do you think that the population who cook and eat at home will increase in the future? What
could be the main reasons of this?
In the research, a semi-structured interview form was used in gathering data from source people. A form
composed of six open-ended questions was created for the interview. In addition to the above-
mentioned questions, participants were also asked questions about demographic features, such as age
and occupation.
Determination of Source People and Collection of Data

The reason of choosing individuals from Y generation is that they compose the largest part of the
currently working people. Because the members of Y generation are economically independent, they can
prefer to eat outdoors without the obligation of cooking at home. The reasons which direct individuals
who cook at home, without having obligation for that, are tried to be understood and Y generation
members are supposed to be suitable for this.
Persons who are interviewed within the framework of the research are selected via snowball sampling
method. The first source person, who is a representative of the Y generation and who cooks at home, is
a previously known person by the researchers. Following the first interview, this person was asked to
direct the researchers to someone else showing the same characteristics. Face-to-face interview method
is adopted in the collection of data. The interviews were held in Bursa, between 10 August and 14 August
2018. The places where source persons live were visited for the interviews. Interviews were held at the
decided time which were determined through getting appointments and 11 source persons were
interviewed. Interviews were recorded with tape recorders. Source persons were asked to sign the
written permission forms for that. Voice records were then put down on paper and transcript were
generated.
Credibility of the Data

In order to strengthen the reliability and validity of the research, only participants with specific features
are included. Conditions that the participants are to be (I) representing Y generation (1980-1999), (ii)
working, and (iii) cooking and consuming at home are fulfilled. It was thought that the data gathered from
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these 11 participants are sufficient within the framework of this research’s purpose. Because, when the
data reach to a specific satisfaction level in qualitative research, the number of participants is accepted
to be adequate (Şencan, 2005; quoted by Özel et al., 2018, p.219). It was also thought that making
citations from the participants can increase the reliability of the study (Coşkun, et al, 2015, p.324).
Findings
Findings of the study are given under this title, as sub-titles. In order to keep the participants’ personal
information confidential and ease the presentation of the findings; their names and working places were
not mentioned and participants were coded as K1, K2, K3. As it can be seen in Table 1, all the interviewed
participants are woman between the ages of 25 and 33. Source persons, except K11, are undergraduates.
Eight of the participants are married and three are single. Among the participants, most of whom are
teachers, there is one geological engineer, two accountants and one servant.
Table 1. Information about the participants
Participant Age Gender Marital Occupation Educational Length of

status level interview
K1 27 Female Married Teacher Undergraduate 06:02
K3 28 Female Single Teacher Undergraduate 14:15
K4 27 Female Married Geological Undergraduate 09:06
engineer
K5 33 Female Married Accountant Undergraduate 05:05
K10 29 Female Married Accountant Undergraduate 04:02
K11 32 Female Married Servant Primary school 05:37
Findings about the Reasons of Cooking and Consuming Meals at Home

Participants indicated that they had concerns about health and hygiene while eating outdoors and verged
to cooking at home because of that. K1’s explanation on the issue is as follows: “First of all, consuming
must take place at home but not outdoors for the health aspect. Use of syrup instead of sugar, use of
GMO products, use of oil over and over again; because we do not witness, there must not be high amounts
of consumption. I think that this may cause cancer in the future, and for this I do not want to consume
outdoors too much”. K6 explained the reasons of not consuming outdoors as; “Because I do it myself, I
know how I use and clean, I think it is better for hygiene and at the end of the day we do not know how
many times the food, frying we eat outdoors is cooked in the same oil. Hygiene and health are my primary
reasons.” K10 and K11 mentioned their doubts about cleanness and hygiene with these words; “for health
and hygiene reasons, it is better to cook and eat at home instead of eating outdoors and worrying about
it”, and said that they verged to cooking at home for this reason.
Although health and hygiene are matters of concern, some participants regard the health and hygiene
concern as a secondary issue. It is unfolded that these participants enjoyed spending time in the kitchen.
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About the issue, K3 said that “Health is a factor to me but the most important thing is to enjoy. I love
kitchen. Trying different things, having guests, doing something for someone else..”. K4 stated the reason
of cooking at home as; “Above all, I like cooking, I cook very well. Eating outdoors is not attractive for us,
we prefer to eat at home also because my husband also likes eating homemade meals”. Cooking at home
also seemed to be a pleasing activity to the participants for providing good time at home. K8 explained
this situation as; “The most important reason is the time we have while cooking at home. I don’t like
cooking alone to, mom and I used to cook together, I used to be her assistant. And consuming it in time
at home together, conversations held at the same time..” Concerns of flavor also matter concerning
cooking at home. This can be understood from K8’s “Health is not much of a priority for me, strictly
speaking, flavor is important to me. I think the most important reason..” statement.
Another reason detected in cooking at home is the financial concern. K1 explained this as “Besides,
budget doesn’t too much tolerate eating outdoors”. On the other hand, K5 said “It makes more sense to
use what we already have at home, instead of spending outdoors. What I do, what I know is better”.
Participants who verged to eating at home also went to changes in their shopping routines. The
statement made by K2 as, “My husband and I very much like Sunday shopping. Instead of groceries, we
prefer to choose our fruit and vegetable from public-market in the weekends as much as possible.” also
confirms this fact. The necessity to pay high amounts to eat a qualified meal outdoors despite the
existence of many choices is expressed by K9 with these words, “I started to consume less meat outdoors
because of doubts I have about their taste, even the expiration date. There are too many choices but if
you want to eat something good or tasty at a good place, you pay high amounts to meet that, and this
affects.”
Participants were also asked where they got the information that cooking at home is healthier from. As
a response, K2 emphasized that daytime women programs on TV, schools and doctors always suggest the
same thing and she got this information from these sources; and TV shows and doctors also distinguished
in the statements of K5, K6 and K11.
Findings on the Benefits of Cooking at Home

Cooking at home is found economic and good for health by most of the participants. About the issue, K1
said, “Above all for health, and then budget”; K4 said, “We have a healthy diet, in addition to that it is
also profitable in economical means”; K7 said, “I believe that cooking and eating what I know in
ingredients is healthier. At the same time the unhygienic food that we buy from outdoors is both
unhealthier and more expensive”; K11 said “there are economic reasons but the most important point is
that we don’t know how the food we buy from outdoors is prepared, we know what we cook and use as
ingredient at home, we buy the vegetables and fruits that we use by choosing”. Some participants find
cooking at home good only for health: “Because I know the calories of the food I cook myself, I feel more
comfortable, it is healthier” (K6). It is understood from K6’s words that in addition to that the meals
cooked at home are healthy, availability to consume without dependency on the location is also a factor,
“We can also consume outdoors what we cook at home. We can take it to school for breakfast or we
prefer to prepare and eat at a park or somewhere else while meeting with friends”.
It is discovered that, in addition to budget, health and hygiene issues, participants also consider factors
such as learning something new in the kitchen, preparing something for whom they love and they find
cooking at home useful for this reason. “Cooking at home, in your own kitchen is very enjoyable and nice,
and it is really pleasing if you are cooking your favorite foods” (K2); “First it is economic, I am confident
about the hygiene, and what I learn about cooking..”(K8); “First economic, second the time spend in the
kitchen actually contributes to you. It is important who you spent your time with and for. I am pleased
when I am cooking for someone I love, their admiration or the expectation of admiration makes me happy.
Thinking that it is my kitchen and I will cook in it makes me happy” (K9).
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Thoughts about Cooking at Home and Findings on how this Behavior is Habituated
Participants generally have positive thoughts about cooking at home: “When we have a problem of time
limit, we verge towards eating outdoors but our preference is to eat at home” (K2); “I don’t consider it as
an obligation because I like it, you are doing something you already like in a more enjoyable way, so it is
not a problem” (K6). In addition, it is also among the findings that cooking at home provides a mental
refinement and motivates the person to live a regular and healthier life. About this subject, K3 said “Many
people tend to chop something, cut into small pieces when they are angry, and kitchen is a nice place for
it. Cooking lets oneself go, changes the focal point and at the end makes you feel more motivated when
you decorate and eat what you have prepared. Because it is yourself the producer, eating feels happier”.
K4 expressed her desire of a regular life with a healthy diet with these words: “I side with eating at home
for a regular diet, eating from everything, taking vitamin and nutriment from everything”. The unifying
and moral side of cooking at home is also among the mentioned subjects: “Family unity is important to
me, to prepare and present something to my family in the same house is better than eating something
outdoors prepared by someone else. I take the moral side mostly” (K5); “Cooking regularly at home brings
much more soul to the house I guess. I started this behavior compulsorily but then started to like it,
especially when my husband says my meals are very delicious. It is some kind of a mixture of obligation
and pleasure” (K8); “If I am alone, I don’t seek for food at home. But if there is someone, I cook and eat
while they are at home. Existence of someone pushes me to cook and eat” (K9).
As understood from the findings, behavior of cooking at home is generally obtained after marriage and
then becomes a pleasing activity: “I did not cook too much before I married, after marriage, I have been
cooking every other day and having good time” (K1); “I did not have a cooking habit at home pretty much.
My life came to a different point within these few months, I got married. So, I had to do but discovered
that I like it” (K8). There are also participants who accept cooking at home as a habitual behavior as a
result of family traditions or culture included: “I am the daughter of an Aegean family, we consume quite
much vegetables and herbs, I don’t slog too much in cooking at home thanks to that” (K2); “Cooking at
home is not hard for me because I had that habit even before marriage” (K6); “Cooking at home mostly
originates from family structure, the reason that made me get this habit is, I guess, my mother” (K7). K11
expressed that cooking at home is a mandatorily habituated behavior for herself: “I lost my mother when
I was a child, I had to take care of my siblings, I have been cooking since I was nine years old”.
Findings on the Opinions about the Future of Cooking at Home

Participants think that cooking at home will gradually decrease in the future. The phenomenon that the
population cooking at home is going to decrease as a result of women’s participation in the work life is
expressed by K6 with these words, “There are fast-food products everywhere outdoors, it is hard surely
for working women, for that I don’t think that the population cooking at home will increase”; and by K8
as “People will probably verge to fast-food associated with women getting in the work life and men not
helping them”. Contrary minded K4 expressed her belief in the increase in cooking at home despite the
effectiveness of work life with these words: “because the working population and the number of working
women is high, eating outdoors is leaned towards. But on my side, the number of people cooking at home
will be much more.”
There are also those who think that cooking at home is an ordeal and not preferred because of this. K5
expressed this as “I think they verge to outdoors because of easiness, now youngster do not very much
like cooking, they prefer to take the easy way out”, and K7 as “I strictly don’t think that there will be an
increase. A generation getting used to the easy one is coming. People’s hand start to focus on these works
during childhood. Cooking will be difficult in the advanced ages for those who are not used to cook in the
childhood”.
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There is also a group of hopeful participants about the future of cooking at home. K3 expressed that there
won’t be a decrease in the tendency of cooking at home thanks to factors such as health concerns,
financial situation and will to consort, with these words; “Especially when I look at the younger
generation, I see that it becomes conscious. And this generation is showing effort to cook for both
themselves and husbands, and their child if they are mothers or candidates. There is already an intensive
work life, cooking at home will make them happier and will be more economic instead of having unhealthy
fast-food meals outdoors in the spare time”. K9 applied a bilateral approach to the economic dimension
of cooking at home and emphasized with these words that income level is not an obvious factor in verging
to eat outdoors: “Actually, we can divide the upper-income level into two. Conscious parents, a family
that is willing to grow up their child in a healthy way… on the other side, as long as there are families who
follow the popular culture, want to show themselves and their child eating in a restaurant, or supporting
their child in obtaining a hamburger toy seen on TV, there will be consumption outdoors” (K9).
Statements of a participant underlines the solution found by the consumers who remain between
consuming home-made food and eating outdoors but also worrying about living a healthy life, and new
work branches that appear in this field: “Although working intensity increases, there are pretty much
works on the basis of home-made foods, for instance there are boutique kitchens, they make home
service. In means of cooking at home, as a working women myself, it is not always possible, I think that in
the following years there will be boutique places run by house wives or food made by house wives will be
consumed “ (K2).
Evaluation and Conclusion

Conclusions of this study, in which the reasons that direct the members of the Y generation to cook at
home are investigated, are grouped under three headings as “reasons of cooking at home”, “benefits of
cooking at home” and “opinions on cooking at home”.
Living a healthy life and caring about the hygiene conditions came to the fore among the reasons pushing
the members of the Y generation to cooking at home. Individuals have uncertainties about the
ingredients and preparation processes of the food they eat outdoors and have concerns because of this.
Another reason is economic concern. Although individuals are economically independent, they prefer to
allocate a limited budget for eating outdoors. Feeling happy about cooking at home, having a pleasing
time with the people they cook for are also among the reasons that direct the Y generation to cook at
home.
Members of the Y generation think that cooking at home will be good for them mostly for health.
Individuals stated that they do not worry about the hygiene of the foods with cooking at home. Another
benefit is on the economic side. Decreasing effect of cooking at home on the money spent outdoors is
one of the prominent benefits. In addition, individuals also feel happy with cooking at home, trying new
receipts and sharing these foods with people they love. Individuals emphasized that they enjoyed when
the food they cooked is liked.
Members of the Y generation look positively to cook at home. Participants expressed that although they
cooked by necessity at first, they liked this activity afterwards. They think that cooking at home has a
moral dimension and creates a unification environment through spending time together at home. It came
to exist that concerns about health also canalized individuals to cooking at home. However, individuals
belonging to the Y generation think that cooking at home won’t be preferred in the future. The reason is
that they think that the coming generation will consider cooking at home as a difficult activity since
women’s attendance to the working life and fast food will be preferred.
With this study conducted, it is understood that the most critical issue for the Y generation about cooking
at home is health. Y generation individuals’ investigative personality and connection with the popular
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culture may lie under this concern. It is understood that the knowledge that cooking at home is healthier
is reached through TV and doctors. On the other hand, economically independent Y generation does not
prefer to eat outdoors. As it is known, Y generation is composed of individuals grown up by the X
generation and they may be realizing this preference with future concerns. Y generation also knows how
much valuable to spend time at home with family members. Therefore, they head for activities that will
make them spend time together instead of activities that they can do separately. Cooking at home is a
preferred activity for the Y generation because of enabling them spend time together and for advantages
in the fields such as health, economy and hygiene.
As it happens in all researches, there also some points that this research is left limited. Only women were
interviewed in the research. Interviews with men can also be conducted in the following researches and
it can be understood if the reasons of cooking at home show difference between genders. Again,
ingredients of the foods used in cooking at home can be subjected to a deeper inspection in the further
research. By this means, the level of health concern can be searched through identifying whether natural
or take-home foods are used in cooking at home. Finally, cultural, psychological and sociological
dimensions of cooking were not subjected in this research. All mentioned fields are research fields in
which cooking at home can be handle in different contexts.
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Biographical Notes
Zeynep Kahya is an Eskişehir is a graduate student of tourism management in Anadolu University and is
still continuing her education.
Çağıl Hale Özel is an Associate Professor in the Department of Tourism, Anadolu University in Eskisehir,
Turkey. She teaches courses on tourism marketing and ethics in tourism.
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7399
A REVIEW ON THE EFFECT OF VOLUNTEER TOURISM ACTIVITIES TO
RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Efnan Ezenel
Eskişehir, Turkey
efnan_ezenel@hotmail.com
Cemile Ece
Eskişehir, Turkey
Yaşar Sarı
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Cities have become centres where the economic development exists who get massive immigration with
the increasing speed of production, industrialization and technological development. As an excepted
result, the reduction of employment in rural areas and the increased migration cause that these areas
lose their importance and the reduction of agricultural activities there. So that volunteer tourism within
the themes such as eco tourism, rural tourism, agro tourism has begun to reveal new tourism activities
together. In this sense, new touristic activities within the scope of volunteer tourism which has been
preferred by young travellers in recent years, has become more common in ecological and rural areas.
Volunteers can both recognise a new culture and participate in agricultural and cultural activities that
belong to that locality by means of volunteer tourism. This participation leads to cultural interaction and
the recognition of that culture naturally by another culture. As volunteer tourism activities take place in
these rural areas, the attraction to these areas are starting to increase thus economic impact gains a
positive momentum. Rural areas which are very important for the agriculture will be examined within
the scope of the volunteer tourism activities which have impact on rural development in this study in
order to emphasize that rural areas have an important role in the economy of the country.
In this context, the data which will be obtained from the interviews of 10 participants who participated
in the project “A Solution Development by Rural Tourism Approach for Employment Problem in
Agriculture: The Model of Inönü “of the ESOGU RURAL TOURISM CAMP during 1 month were analysed
through focus group discussion and descriptive analysis .
Keywords: Volunteering, Rural Development, Tourism
Introduction
Cities, sea side areas, luxury accommodations, standard sightseeing tours...etc. they all provide
traditional tourism methods for having lots of fun, forgetting the daily life challenges. All tourists are in
action in the frame of contemporary tourism. On the contrary to traditional tourism methods many
tourists, especially young tourists start to take part in “volunteer tourism or voluntourism”, i.e. they are
all in action and experience with feelings. The recent growth volunteer tourism or voluntourism focus on
meaningful holiday experiences (Bakker, M., & Lamoureux, K. M, 2008) another form of ‘continuing
education’ and ‘lifelong learning’ (Vrasti, W. , 2012), interactions during the process (N.G. McGehee and
K. Andrecek, 2008)wellbeing more than development (Butcher, J., & Smith, P., 2015). In this sense, new
309
touristic activities within the scope of volunteer tourism which has been preferred by young travellers in
recent years, has become more common in ecological and rural areas. While the experiences gained
though the traditional tourism makes no sense in interaction of the individual, volunteer tourism creates
meaningful interactions especially when it occurs in natural, local areas in the scope of rural tourism, eco
tourism and agro tourism (Wearing & Neil, 2000). The points we raise in this paper that is the volunteer
tourism activities which have impacts on rural development.
In this context, we obtained the data from the interviews of 10 participants who participated in the
project “A Solution Development by Rural Tourism Approach for Employment Problem in Agriculture:
The Model of Inönü “under the title of ESOGU RURAL TOURISM CAMP. The active process of the project
including volunteer activities took 1 month (18 June 2018 - 17 July 2018) in Inönü, Eskisehir, Turkey. We
had chance to get the feedback of the impacts on rural development through the volunteer tourism
during the project period. The volunteer tourism activities in rural areas were very rich. Project
participants consisted of students and researches from Aleksandras Stulginskis University, Lithuania.
More and more studies focus on volunteer tourism as alternative tourism; however it has very strong
relation with rural tourism. It is not possible to tackle completely problems or developing the rural
tourism totally but volunteer tourism can be a good solution in order some impacts to be emerged by
means of volunteers and the activities that they participate in for the problems in rural and developing
the rural tourism. Generally environmental issues and agricultural issues are focused on but non-
agricultural issues such as tourism activities must be centred too. So the volunteer tourism approaches
must be adapted enough to develop the rural and rural tourism together with its process. Because each
rural environment has different alternatives and volunteer tourism activities must support rural
development. Adapted volunteer tourism activities in rural provide further development to the region
and offer a way by promoting alternative experiences that are different from mass tourism (T. Young,
2008).
Volunteer Tourism Activities in Rural Tourism

Depending on the projects, there have been extensive motivational activities such as safari tours,
language courses, and adventure activities during participation in volunteer tourism. According to the
research of the State of the Volunteer Travel Industry 2009, it is pointed out that the most popular
volunteer activities which are different from in rural tourism and rates of them as below:
• Skills Based 2%
• Humanitarian 6%
• Healthcare 13%
• Conservation 17%
• Community
• Development 18%
• Building 22%
• Teaching 22%
(State of the Volunteer Travel Industry, 2009)
It is indicated that tourist product diversifications and alternative activities together with experiences of
volunteers influence the development possibilities in rural areas (Udovč A. & Perpar A., 2007). As it was
mentioned, rural areas which are very important for the agriculture are examined within the scope of the
volunteer tourism activities which have impact on rural development in this study in order to emphasize
that rural areas have an important role in the economy of the country. The volunteer tourism activities
of the “ESOGU tourism camp” led the Inonu district to be a touristic product more than being an
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agricultural environment as rural. The programme of volunteer tourism activities contains three stages
empowering the rural development.
The first stage of volunteer tourism activities involves adaptation to the rural environment and
theoretical trainings.
The second and third stages of volunteer tourism activities relate to experiencing and involve volunteer
works on farms, exploring the region, sightseeing tours.
The volunteer tourism activities which have impacts on rural development in the scope of the mentioned
project are summarized in Table 1:
Table1: Stages on Programme of Volunteer Tourism Activities

Stage Steps Purpose
ADAPTATION Local District Tour Encourage the volunteers to fast
THEORETICAL TRAININGS adaptation
Presentation of the Region and Promoting the region and country
Country to volunteers
The institute of agricultural Bring together characteristics of
research visit and training region, cultures and “volunteer
tourism or voluntourism”
Flora and Fauna training Encourage dialogue between

different cultures
Cross Culture Dialogues
Rural Dialogues
EXPLORING Rural Yoga Economical impact to the city and
region
Traditional Experiencing the real and local
Ceremonies of The Region culture
Interaction by meeting the locals
Free Times (Shopping,
discovering the city)
Tours : City Tour ; Eco Village Promoting the touristic product

Tour, Rural Tour (Rural Areas of rural tourism in the scope of
of the city where the project volunteer tourism
occurs) Increasing the motivation of
volunteer tourism
EXPERIENCE Volunteer Farm Activities: Practices to reach the main aim of
Lavender Garden; Bean Farm; the project
Tobacco Farm; Soilless Focusing on effective practices in
Strawberry Farm; Cherry the concept of volunteer tourism
Farms; Cultivating the Farms Volunteer Tourists explore what
is effective for rural tourism in the
scope of volunteer tourism and
how they are doing this
Source: authors’ field observations.
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Methodology
This research is written as an output of a Project whose title is‘’ A Solution Development by Rural Tourism
Approach for Employment Problem in Agriculture: The Model of Inönü“. The qualitative research method
was used in this research. The focus group interview was conducted with ten participants included in the
project process. Answers are obtained from questions asked about volunteering. The obtained data were
analyzed by descriptive analysis.
Collecting Data: The focus group interviews are qualitative data collection techniques and mostly used
to reveal information on the surface. In this sense, the knowledge, experience, emotion, perception,
thoughts and attitudes of the participants are important in the focus group interviews in accordance with
the general nature of the qualitative researches (Çokluk, Yılmaz&Oğuz, 2011). Information on the
participants who involved in the project process is given in the following table.
Table 2: Information on Participants

Participants(P) Age Gender Experience
P1 37 Female Fifth
P2 27 Female First
P3 21 Male First
P4 20 Female First
P5 22 Male Third
P6 22 Female First
P7 22 Female Second
P8 21 Male First
P9 22 Female First
P10 22 Female First
According to the information in the table above; 70% of the interviewed group is female, and 30 is male.
The average age of the participants is 23.6 and only %70 of them has their first experience as a volunteer.
Analyzing Data: The data obtained in the study were analyzed using descriptive analysis method.
Descriptive analysis is a kind of qualitative data analysis which is formed by summarizing and interpreting
the data obtained by various data collection techniques according to the themes. The researcher can
directly cite the conclusions of those who have seen or observed in this kind of analysis in order to reflect
the judgments of those who are realistic and striking (Yıldırım&Şimşek, 2003).
Findings
When the data obtained from the study were analyzed descriptively, findings were found in the direction
of the research; the significance of volunteering for the participants, the impact of volunteering activities
on the local people and rural development, and the contribution of tourism, which is a sector supporting
rural development.
The Significance of Volunteering

At the moment of the data obtained from the participants during the interviews are analyzed, the
common points about volunteering are as follows;
Volunteering;
• Getting new experiences,
• Getting to know different cultures,
• Making suggestions about important and specific issues
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• Personal improvement
• Helping the others.
According to Participant 3(P3) ‘’Volunteering means for me is that I have different experiences every day,
we have so many activities and facilities to see different places, we learn too many things’’, P6 said ‘’
When I decide to be a volunteer in this project I didn’t know anything about Turkey, but during the project
I learned that the cultures and differences can’t change anything but spreading love, I love here, and I can
see that sharing what you have it makes you human, it helps me to believe in myself’’.
During the project the participants has different activities and trainees every day, in the process of
trainees the participants took courses about tourism, rural development and farming, and they had
sessions for discussion. Regarding P8 ‘’ As a volunteer, when you involved in a project, you have to discuss
the important points about the project aims’’.
How to Effect Rural Development and Local People

One of the aims of the project is that empowering the development in rural areas with tourism and
increasing the welfare of local people. During the collecting data the participants discussed about the
topics. The common points of analyzing are as below;
• Promoting the area
• Taking attention of investments
• Helping the majority to take action for the development
• Creating the strategy for tourism and other sectors
• Increasing the familiarity beyond the borders
• Cross culture
• Adaptation for different culture
• Creating new employment fields
For example P7 said about the topics which is ‘’ Our dorm is located in the rural area, we help the farmers
and we talked with them and we communicate with local. It helps to get know a culture both ways’’.
According to P1 ‘’The projects may help the municipality to think making investment on tourism to creat
new employment places, and this makes the place more visible and promoting’’.
Tourism
Tourism is one of the basic elements forming the project. When the opinions about tourism how effect
to rural development are examined, the results are as follows;
• Tourism is a leading sector which is suitable to creat new touristic products
• Tourism can help the rural development with alternative tourism types
• In the sector, promotion and advertisement is very important
• Rural tourism can be a solution for development
• Tourism Types must be replicate in the rural area
• This type of project can be useful for promoting
• Accommodation system should shown the tradition of the area
According to P5 ‘’ During the project we saw different historical and touristic places, Eskişehir has a lot of
alternative tourism types. But main problem is that there is a lack of advertisement, even local people
doesn’t know the variety of the city’’. P10 said ‘’ Alternative tourism types such as agro tourism, rural
tourism, ecotourism, education tourism etc. can be a solution because people request new experiences.
Municipalities and national agencies must be effective for investments’’.
Results and Discussion

As a result; if tourism sector and volunteers work within cooperation, can bring effective results. As seen
the analyzes , volunteer tourism contributes to the region in terms of communicating with the local
people in rural areas, getting to know cultures, helping and working with locals, and also introducing the
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regions through individuals. Intercultural interaction can strengthen communication among young
people living in the region.
While the development of the regions is achieved through the projects, a tourism movement is taking
place at the same time. The development of the tourism zone, the emergence of new business
opportunities, and the development of infrastructure work. It contributes to the national economy.
Participation in tourism in rural areas with a wide range of products and dynamics is taking place at local,
national and international levels.
The municipalities of these areas for the promotion of tourism, associations, universities must work
together to take steps towards the realization of turkey 2023 tourism strategy. The contribution of the
strategies and promotional activities to be determined should not be ignored. Volunteer tourism and
projects should be supported to achieve rural development.
References
Bakker, M., & Lamoureux, K. M. (2008). Volunteer tourism-international. Travel & Tourism Analyst, (16),
1-47.
Butcher, J., & Smith, P. (2015). Volunteer tourism: The lifestyle politics of international development,
Volunteer tourism in development perspective. Routledge, pp. 17 chapter 3.
Çokluk,Ö.,Yılmaz,K.,Oğuz, E.(2011). Nitel Bir Görüşme Yöntemi: Odak Grup Görüşmesi, Kuramsal
Eğitimbilim, No:4, pp.95-107.
Lasso Communications (2009) – State of the Volunteer Travel Industry 2009 pp. 6, (VoluntourismGal.com)
Lyons, K. D., & Wearing, S. (Eds.). (2008). Journeys of discovery in volunteer tourism: International case
study perspectives. CABI. Relationship between volunteers and the voluntoured N.G. McGehee
and K. Andrecek, pp. 20.
Udovč, A., & Perpar, A. (2007). Role of rural tourism for development of rural areas. Journal of central
european agriculture, 8(2), 223-228.
Young, T. (2008). Mediating volunteer tourism alternatives: Guidebook representations of travel
experiences in Aboriginal Australia. Journeys of discovery in volunteer tourism, 195-209.
Vrasti, W. (2012). Volunteer tourism in the global south: Giving back in neoliberal times. Entrepreneurial
Education in Ghana. Routledge. 86 -4.
Yıldırım, A., Şimşek, H. (2003). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel AraştırmaYöntemleri .Ankara: Seçkin Publishing
Wearing, S. and Neil, J. (2000) Refiguring self and identity through volunteer tourism. Society and Leisure
23 (2), 389–419.
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7401
ADULT-ONLY VS CHILD-FRIENDLY: A RESEARCH ABOUT ADULT-ONLY
HOTELS WITH THE CASE OF MARMARİS
Emine Yılmaz
Muğla, Turkey
Nur Çelik
Muğla, Turkey
Funda Ön Esen
Muğla, Turkey
Salim Akçay
Muğla, Turkey
Abstract
Many tourism businesses have begun to serve child-focused products, services and activities with the
widespreading of family tourism. On the contrary, the existence of tourists who do not have any children
or do not want or stand the child-focused activities has caused some family issues in tourism sector. This
situation has led some tourism businesses to differentiation and diversify their tourism products. In this
context, adult-only concept has emerged as a new tourism product in line with these developments.
Starting from this, the aim of this study is determined as to gain information about the accommodation
businesses serving in the adult-only concept and to show how the adult-only concept was applied by
these businesses. This study was prepared with qualitative method and interview technique was used as
data collection tool from executive managers. The area of the study is Marmaris where is a tourism town
in Muğla province. Findings were subjected to content analysis. Research results show that the concept
of adult-only hotel emerges with the aim of specialization, product differentiation, inadequate physical
conditions, providing quality service, reducing costs.
Key Words: Adult-Only Concept, Family Issues, Tourism Product, Tourism Product Diversification.
Introduction
The decision not to have children represents one of the most remarkable changes in the modern family:
during the last few decades the number of couples has drastically increased around the world, becoming
an important issue for socio-economic structure. At the present time, the number of couples without
children and single person are becoming more common especially among Western society families
(Agrillo and Nelini, 2008: 347). It seems tempting to regard this development as a distinctly new and
“post-modern” phenomenon (Kreyenfeld and Konietzka, 2016:4). In addition to changes experienced in
the social structure over the years, the age of marriage and becoming parents is gradually increasing not
only in urban areas but also in rural areas due to having children being seen as a burden, a desire to take
maximum benefit from resources, freedom, financial problems, and a desire to have a career. Upon these
developments, offering a touristic product aimed at families without children has become inevitable.
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The touristic product "constitutes the whole of the experiences and purchases of goods and services from
the time the tourist leaves their place of residence to the time they return to it" (Usta, 2001: 105). Olalı
and Timur (1988: 421) define the touristic product as "a mixture of goods, services or goods and services,
or a package of both, capable of meeting the tourist's travel and temporary accommodation needs"
(Demir ve Demir, 2004: 94). According to Hacıoğlu (2000), in tourism products appear in two forms. The
first is "a tourism product created by all natural, historical and tourist resources that a country or region
has." The second is "all the services that allow consumers to change location and vacation, that is, the
type of tourist services that make up a package tour".
In order to make the most of opportunities in different areas and increase the consumer groups they
serve, businesses are diversifying products by developing their products, services and areas of activity.
Tourist product diversification simply means increasing the variety of tourist products offered to the
tourism industry (İslamoğlu, 2008). Touristic product diversification providing the necessary
infrastructure and superstructure and presenting the natural, historical, cultural, social etc. tourist
attractions in a tourism center to tourists in the form of a product (Okumuş and Topaloğlu, 2004).
According to another definition; touristic product diversification can be defined as a touristic country,
region or area to maintain the status quo or to gain a better position in an increasing competitive
environment and constantly changing consumer preferences, to gain more income, to add innovations
to existing tourist products in order to gain advantages against their competitors, by adding new products
to their existing touristic products and developing new products. (Sarkım, 2007: 157).
As a result of the economic and social developments experienced in world tourism, the increasing
population and the increasing development of world views and changing tourist expectations, the
countries who wish to have more of a share in tourism and spread their market share all year are in a
new search. As a result of this search, the traditional holiday concept is gradually changing, tourism
products are being diversified and new tourism types and concepts are emerging (Hacıoğlu and Avcıkurt,
2008). The adult-only concept is a concept emerging in line with changing consumer preferences.
However, no study on the adult-only hotel concept has been found in accessible literature.
In this context, the aim of the study is to gather information about the accommodation enterprises
serving the adult-only hotel concept and to show how the concept is implemented by the enterprises. In
this respect, it is thought that the study will contribute to literature and lead to studies related to the
adult-only hotel concept.
The Concept of the Adult Only Hotel

Adult hotel concept is predicted to grow over the next years, because of the birth rates, fertility rates,
changes in demography and social structures. Birth rates and fertility rates have declined sharply across
developed countries generally (OECD, 2011:14). Researching the family issue in tourism must it be
considered within the context of changing family structures, values, trends and life style (Schanzel and
Yeoman, 2015:25)With this change in family structures, tourists are now travelling alone or prefer hotels
without children to relax, explore, experience the moment and enjoy silence. The visitor who wants to
get away from the loud and crowded city life avoids noisy environments with the sound of children.
As world travel continues the grow, new trends in tourism are emerging. It is commonly known that the
fundamental element of marketing is consumer-based thinking with the emphasis on consumer needs
(Niemczyk, 2015). In this context, adult only conceptual hotels have emerged in order to get a share from
this market as well as to meet the needs of consumers. It is possible to define adult only hotels, which
are a thematic work of the tourism sector, as childless hotels, in which children are not included in the
accommodation. As with family trips, for individual or couple planned trips, accommodation preferences
also vary. This type of accommodation caters for those seeking a peaceful and relaxing holiday after a
busy work period, leaving behind all the chaos of the city. Comfortable rooms, and a flexible,
individualized and high quality service concept is adopted.
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Holidays with young children bring additional responsibilities and limitations. Therefore, parents and
families without children who are disturbed by children's noise, crying and the problems they create,
seek hotels without children from time to time. Although generally known as hotels that serve those over
18 years of age, adult hotels that serve as over 16 or 14 years of age have emerged as an attempt to
increase the market share.
Since the 1960s, Club Med has offered special holidays for adults on certain dates and at certain facilities.
According to a report in 2016, there are 250 such hotels in the world on the network of TUI, and a hotel
chain called Sensimar was built on this concept. There are also businesses offering adult only hotel
concepts in Mexico, the Caribbean, Majorca and Greece. For the first time in Turkey, the concept of ‘+18
hotels’ was applied in Antalya/Side in 2012 and attracted great interest. Later on, new concepts such as
'+16' and '+13' have appeared in the region. Turkey's first ‘+18 hotel’, Commodore Elite Suits & Spa Side
is open 12 months of the year. The adult only hotel concept is mostly preferred by countries like Germany,
England, Holland, Belgium and Russia.
It is a fact that the enterprises operating in the tourism field in the future will be shaped by the changing
demographic and technological structure. It is estimated that in the next 20 years there will be a decline
in the number of families without children, especially in most OECD countries (OECD, 2011). For this
reason, it would be beneficial for enterprises offering touristic products to go to product differentiation
instead of putting all their eggs in the same basket when considering these changes. Rolf Jensen,
predicting the future of the tourism industry, said that "the distinction between work and leisure time
will disappear in the future" and from this statement, we can say that the gap between leisure time and
work concept will be eliminated and this will increase the rates of those who prefer hotels that are quiet,
peaceful and inspiring. In time, the individual with children will also be able to choose adult only hotels
to conduct their work. When all this was taken into consideration, no studies were found on the adult
only hotel concept, an important tourism product, in either national or international literature.
Therefore, this study is also important in this respect.
Method
The aim of the study is to gather information about the accommodation enterprises serving the adult-
only hotel concept and to show how the concept is implemented by the enterprises. Marmaris, which is
one of the most important tourism centres of Turkey located in Muğla province has created the universe
of the study. The study was prepared using a qualitative research method and interview was used as a
data collection tool. A semi-structured interview form was prepared before the interviews and expert
opinions were used during the preparation. In the semi-structured interview form, questions for the
interviewer, such as the business age, the concept of adult-only service year, whether or not the phrase
adult is present in the name, demographic information, industry experience, adult-only hotel sector
experience, years working at the hotel in question, whether or not they are a decision maker in the
transition to adult-only service were asked. Following these, interviewers were asked questions to give
in-depth information of the implementation at the enterprise, such as about what they understand from
the adult-only concept, the services they offer in this area, their aim in starting this concept, the returns
for the enterprise of this concept, guest feedback.
In the process of data collection, the hotels to be interviewed were determined by using the snowball
sampling method it was determined that there are 10 hotels that provide services in the adult-only
concepts, and with 2 hotel managers refusing to be interviewed, a total of 8 hotel managers were
interviewed. In May-June 2018, the senior managers of 8 hotels operating in Marmaris were interviewed.
All the interviews were conducted in the interviewees' offices and personal notes and sound recordings
were kept with their consent. The average duration of the interviews was 30 minutes. The data
transferred to the Microsoft Word program was analyzed and evaluated by content analysis.
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Before the findings, some information about participants and businesses has been given. This is
important for revealing who and what the findings are about. Table 1 below provides information about
the participants, and Table 2 provides some information about the enterprises.
Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Participants

Adult
Time Adult only Time In
hotel
Participant Gender Age Education Position In The business The
decision
Sector experience business
maker
1 MALE 35 POST GENERAL 19 5 15 YES
GRADUATE MANAGER
2 MALE 54 GRADUATE GENERAL 32 4 4 YES
MANAGER
3 MALE 47 POST GENERAL 25 4 20 YES
GRADUATE MANAGER
MANAGER
5 FEMALE 39 GRADUATE SALES 21 10 3 NO
MARK.
MANAGER
MANAGER
7 FEMALE 64 GRADUATE GENERAL 32 8 32 NO
MANAGER
8 FEMALE 46 GRADUATE SALES 28 3 3 YES
MARK.
MANAGER
It was determined that 6 of the participants were general managers and 2 of them were department
managers; all of the men were found to be general managers, and women were department managers
except one. All of the participants also have at least graduate degrees. When reviewing the working
periods in the sector, it is seen that the participant with the least sector experience has been working in
tourism for 19 years. The duration of working in the enterprise in question varies between 1-32 years.
Adult-only concept hotel experience is between 3 and 10 years. The vast majority of participants are
decision-makers in the transition period to the adult-only concept. One of the non-decision makers is due
to the fact that they were not present during the transition, and the other due to the fact that the decision
comes from top management because of the fact that the enterprise is an international chain.
Table 2. Information on Enterprises Where Participants Work

Participant Board type of Period of time serving The term Adult included in name
enterprise as adult only
1 AI 5 NONE
2 UAI 4 NONE
3 AI 4 NONE
4 BB/HB/FB/AI 5 YES (online)
5 AI 10 NONE
6 AI 1 NONE
7 AI 8 NONE
8 AI 6 NONE
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Almost all of the enterprises offer their guests All-Inclusive (AI) service. One of the enterprises has just
transitioned to the adult-only concept, while the others have been using this concept for 4-10 years.
Finally, it has been determined that seven of the hotels do not have a term adult-only in the name, and
only one states it on their website.
Findings
Age Restriction
The term adult having the meaning of being an adult was given in the conceptual framework of previous
literature. In Turkey, the term adult refers to persons above the age of 18. This age limit can be seen to
decrease to 16 overseas.
When the adult-only concept hotels in Marmaris were examined in line with the purpose of the study, it
was found that they all operate at +16. Factors in the formation of this condition are given firstly as to
the physical characteristics of the hotels, not wishing to include children's activities, to avoid a drop in
income, considering a 16 year old not as a child but as a young person, and being sure they will not make
noise. The 3rd interviewee summarized the subject as follows: "...We made such a decision because the
common areas, position of the rooms are not suitable for children's facilities. The rooms are not very
spacious, they cannot take a third person...” The 7th interviewee added: "... we can say that adults over
the age of 16 are not making much noise. So 16 and up. We can also call 16 young adults, in terms of sales
for us also ..."
Only the 5th interviewee stated that they started to work with age 16 or over at the onset and then
dropped it to 14. He expressed this situation as follows: "... Normally, our minimum age was 16. We
accepted 16 as adult. But when we opened in 2015 and the continuation of the negative situation and
bad sales in tourism in 2016 , we wanted to increase the sales by dropping the 16 limit to 14 and getting
more share of this market. The reason it is 14 is that, our hotel, in terms of position, area, physical space,
we do not have a physical structure that we can cater to children from age 0 to 13, to provide
entertainment for children...” As a result, even if they reduce the age limit to increase the size of their
slice of the pie, they support the reasons for not accepting children of other enterprises.
Childless Hotel = Quiet, Calm

Children experience their desires, fun, stubbornness, displeasure in a more intense manner than adults.
Some see this as cheer, others as noise. When managers of adult-only hotels are asked what the adult-
only concept means to them, a child-free hotel has been said to be quiet and calm. The first interviewee
expressed his thoughts in the following way: "... I think of a hotel where there is not a group of children
making noise. I think of a holiday where children's animation, children's discos, and all the events that
develop due to them do not exist, where it is calm, more mature, where I can more easily access what I
want, where I can rest better.…”
Insufficient Area
In an enterprise that caters to everyone, everything from activities to common areas, from the variety of
menu to the square meter of rooms should be considered. The child-accepting enterprises must have
free space in the room where they can place additional beds, children's and infant menus and high chairs,
children's pools, playgrounds, children's animators, etc.
The purpose of determining the concept of the adult-only hotel in hotels in Marmaris was determined to
be mainly the physical deficiencies of the hotels. After making the necessary feasibility studies, it became
necessary to implement a restriction and it was decided to apply the adult-only concept after exploring
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the various concepts. This 3rd interviewee explained the process as follows: “...We began operating by
maintaining the existing structure. When we looked, we saw that the rooms were very small. The public
areas, front, there was a small pool on the front, we closed that because we did not have much space. We
considered the concepts, we were going to be all-inclusive, but we saw that in terms of customer profile
we couldn’t place a third person in the rooms. In order to ensure high profitability and for our customers
not to be disturbed, we decided not to accept children. So when we saw that the adult only concept was
appropriate for us, we decided to go forward in that direction...” The 1st interviewee also explained the
situation in a similar way: "... We did not have much space to do activities for children. Especially in this
region, hotels are built on small areas, there are no large spaces. Since we do not have such physical areas
as children's parks, water slides, children's clubs, children's playgrounds, we made this decision to
differentiate our products and meet expectations as well as create a great product…"
Calm Service
As a result of the interviews, it became clear that adult-only concept hotels did not offer any special
services. Enterprises, who have already defined adult-only as quiet and calm, have indicated that their
services during the day are the same. In this regard the 3rd interviewee emphasized the calmness: "...
Calm is important to us. For example, we play soft music in all areas. The people here take their drinks in
a minute, eat their meals, go to their rooms in a minute, there are 3000 channels in the rooms, air-
conditioned luxury and comfortable rooms. No one thinks to get up early and save a lounger at the beach,
we offer a boutique service in a calm, peaceful manner...”
The 6th interviewee also stated that their services differed in the following ways: "... So, an adult hotel is
a couple hotel. 80% of guests come as couples. We are preparing physical places specific to this, like some
corners, swings, corner groups, tables for two...”
Pros vs. Cons

Everything has certain pros and cons. The strongest aspect of this concept for enterprises is that it is
usually easier to communicate with people who know what they want and are traveling in accordance
with what they want. Having regarded this area as an area of specialization, the 1st Interviewee expressed
the following: "... Service is a very extensive area. People have a wide range of expectations. We are going
to specialize in t his area by narrowing the field to a certain extent by saying it is adult only. At least we
have a demographic criteria. We have minimized our target audience. We can provide specific services in
this area. Here, we do not work with children, so we can give more importance to other areas. We can
spare time for this. On the other hand, strong tourists who know what they want who come here. This,
honestly, is actually operationally a relief to the hotel ... " Apart from this, it has been determined that
another advantage is to be relieved of the excessive costs of the facilities to be provided for children. The
7th interviewee explained this situation by saying: "... Young children are more risky. In terms of cost,
small children are harder to serve. "The 4th interviewee, supporting this: “The cleaning, the laundry of a
room with children is more difficult. There has to be a mini club, a guide, additional beds, we have none
of these. This reduces our operating costs. It's making a positive impact. "
The weak point of specifying a special concept in this way is that it has been difficult in terms of sales.
The 2nd interviewee stated: "... Since families with children from Europe vacation mostly in July-August,
families without children do not want to fly with children even on airplanes. So we have to move our
summer market to Russia. "The 5th interviewee added: "... In terms of sales, we are in the second plan in
terms of sales of the hotel. Because of the number of people, families with children are the general
demand. We can only take a small slice of a pie...”
Guest Feedback
In relation to the concept, enterprises do not receive any criticism from their guests. The enterprises
associate this with the guests knowing what they want. The 7th interviewee expressed the situation as
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follows: "... We love children but we do not want to see children. They do not want to see someone else's
child elsewhere. So we do not get any criticism from them about this... "
Interviewees stated that there were some guests that tried to sneak their children in by raising their age.
In addition, there are also previous guests that are not accepted because they now have children who
react to the policy. The 8th interviewee described the process as: “...The facility was built in 1988.
Previously, families with children were accepted. From 2012 it has been adult-only. Guests are very
pleased. They comes as pregnant, comes as engaged, for example, then they have children and we can
not accept them later. We do not accept babies, children. We have reactions from families with children,
and we can’t understand that.” The 2nd interviewee added: "... We see guests arriving at the door without
reservations, and they have children. We remind them of the policy. We have availability but we can not
accept you because of the children. Then there are different reactions from guests from the domestic
market. Do you not like children, why do you dislike children, why do not you accept them, a variety of
reactions. What shall I do, shall I make the child sleep in the car etc...”
Alternative Hotel
According to the interviewees, each operator has a minimum of 1 hotel that accepts children. It emerged
that they did not experience major reactions because they are able to direct families with children to
their other hotels. The 1st interviewee expressed his views on this situation as follows: "... Yes, we have
one, even two businesses which accept families with children. There are many activities especially for
children. We have had a lot of guests without children move here from there...” The 4th interviewee
added: "... We have a hotel where we accept families with children. Both are the same scenarios,
depending on the purpose of the holiday. -I will definitely go here with my wife or alone, but if I go with
my children I will have to go to the other one. This is also related to the reason for going on vacation, the
preference of vacation...”
Conclusion and Recommendations

In this study, seven themes have emerged as a result of interviews with managers for hospitality
enterprises serving in the adult-only concept. These are; age restriction, childless hotel, inadequate
space, calm service, pros and cons, guest feedback and alternative hotel themes.
In the survey, it is seen that adult-only concept enterprises in Marmaris serve ages of 16+. The most
important reason for choosing the Adult-only concept is that tourists prefer a quiet environment away
from the noise of children. In terms of enterprises, the inadequacy of their physical capabilities for child-
focused activities and services is the most important factor. In an Adult-only concept hotel, it seems that
the concept does not offer any extra service, but instead focuses on more relaxing and calm products and
services. In this case, enterprises are able to provide guests with a more focused and professional service
to those who know what they want. Because, an adult-only concept hotel focuses the performance of
child products and services on adults. In addition, costs are reduced because there are no child-based
expenditures. This concept also has some disadvantages. Although European tourists are the main target
markets for these enterprises, in the July-August period, the European markets have declined
considerably, with families with children wishing to go on holiday. This situation makes it a necessity for
enterprises to re-think the sales department and to look for alternative markets.
All the feedback about the concept is positive for the visitors who receive service from the adult-only
hotels. However, occasionally families with children arrive without knowing the concept, regular
customers who were previously without children who now have children, the enterprises have hotels
that are essentially sister hotels which accept children, and families with children are directed to them.
Therefore, no negative reactions are received from the guests.
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When the tourism literature is examined, tourism types (congress, thermal, halal, golf, etc.) are included
according to their purposes. It is also seen that, in the name of diversification of tourism products,
enterprises have gone on to become concept hotels. For example, thermal tourism-thermal, spa hotels,
congress tourism-congress hotels, halal tourism-halal hotels, golf tourism-golf hotels, etc. As a result of
the literature review carried out, it has been determined that the concept of adult-only has started to be
applied in Turkey since 2012; however, there is no evidence that it has been associated with any type of
tourism covering this concept in the last 6 years. According to the ages of the participants, tourism
varieties are classified as youth, adult and third-age tourism (Kozak et al., 2017). The adult-only concept
cannot be included in youth and third age tourism because of its age limitation, or adult because of the
inclusion of families with children. Therefore, it can be said that the concept of adult-only is in a gap of
the varieties of tourism both in the literature and in the sector itself. In other words, this concept can not
be associated with any kind of tourism. For this reason, it is considered that the concept of "childless
tourism" is a suitable concept for literature.
It is possible to define the concept of childless tourism in accordance with the literature review, the study
carried out and the themes determined in this study as follows: Tourism attended without children by
those age 16 and above, desiring more intense calm and rest is called childless tourism.
Suggestions that can be made in accordance with the study are as follows:
• A standard should be set for age limitation. Since the target market is mostly Europe, this limit
should be 16 years of age.
• Enterprises should specify their adult-only concept in their name. In this way, the reaction of
families with children will be prevented in advance.
• Adult-only concept hotels should offer flexible, individualized products and services for adults.
• Enterprises should carry out promotional activities with the emphasis of being an adult hotel.
• Target markets should be expanded and enterprises should participate in international fairs in
this context.
• Considering supply and demand, an increase in the number of adult-only concept hotels should
be encouraged if necessary.
This study has some limitations. The primary limitation is that the study has been carried out in Marmaris
only. In the future it may be carried out in other destinations in Turkey. The fact that it has been
conducted by individual interviews is another limitation. Focus group interviews can be conducted.
Another limitation is that it has been discussed with senior executives working in the enterprises. In the
future, other hotel employees can be interviewed to obtain their views. In addition to this, in-depth
information can be obtained directly from the first mouth by talking with adult-only concept hotel guests.
References
Agrillo, C. & Nelini, C. (2008). Childfree by Choice: A Review, Journal of Cultural Geography, 25:3, 347-
363, DOI: 10.1080/08873630802476292.
Demir, M. & Demir, Ş. Ş. (2004). Turistik Ürün Çeşitlendirmesi Kapsamında Futbol Turizmi: Antalya
Bölgesinde Bir Araştırma, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 6 (1), 94-116.
Hacıoğlu, N. & Avcıkurt, C. (2008). Turistik Ürün Çeşitlendirmesi. Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım.
Hacıoğlu, N. (2000). Turizm Pazarlaması. Bursa: Vipaş A.Ş.
İslamoğlu, A. H. (2008). Pazarlama Yönetimi. İstanbul: Beta Basım.
Kreyenfeld, M. & Konietzka, D. (2016). Childlessness in Europe: Contexts, Causes, and Consequences,
Springer, ISBN 978-3-319-44667-7 (eBook).
Niemczyk, A. (2015), Family Decisions on the Tourist Market, Economics and Sociology, 8 (3), 272-283.
DOI: 10.14254/2071-789X.2015/8-3/19.
OECD (2011). The Future of Families to 2030 Projections, Policy Challenges and Policy Options.
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Okumuş, F. & Topaloğlu, C. (2004). Turistik Destinasyonlarda Ürün Çeşitlendirme ve Farklılaştırma: Dalyan
Örneği. Seyahat ve Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 4 (1), 54-67.
Olalı, H. & Timur, A. (1988). Turizm Ekonomisi. İzmir: Ofis Ticaret.
Sarkım, M. (2007). Sürdürülebilir Turizm Kapsamında Turistik Ürün Çeşitlendirme Politikaları ve Antalya
Örneği. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İzmir.
Usta, Ö. (2001). Genel Turizm. İzmir: Anadolu Matbaacılık.
Web References
[1] https://www.tatilbudur.com/cocuksuz-oteller Accessed in 03. 08. 2018
[2] https://www.tatil.com/yetiskin-otelleri Accessed in 03. 08. 2018
[3] http://gezzio.com/bu-otellerde-cocuk-yok/ Accessed in 03. 08. 2018
[4] https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2018/ekonomi/cocuksuz-18-oteller-moda-oldu-2389370/ Accessed in 03.
08. 2018
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7405
CULTURAL HERITAGE SUSTAINABILITY WITH THE PERSPECTIVE OF
LOCAL PEOPLE: THE CASE OF HISTORICAL AYVALIK HOUSES
Emine Yılmaz
Muğla, Turkey
Ekin Enver Yılmaz

Muğla, Turkey
Sultan Ebru Ekici

Muğla, Turkey
Hüseyin Çeken
Muğla, Turkey
Abstract
Although the origins of culture go a long way back when compared to tourism, culture and tourism are
directly related with each other. All tangible and intangible cultural heritage values are the basis of
tourism supply as cultural attractions. For this reason, cultural values are extremely important in the
increase of tourism demand for any region. Therefore, these cultural values which are inherited from
different civilizations must be protected with a sustainable perspective. In the absence of sustainability,
these mysterious attractions will soon disappear. In this context, the study aimed to explore the
sustainability of cultural heritage values from the public point of view. The area of the work was
determined as Ayvalık houses remaining from the Greeks and considered as important cultural heritage
values. The sample of the research is the people living in historical Ayvalık houses. . This study was
prepared with qualitative method and interview technique was used as data collection tool. As a result,
it is found that it is forbidden to make any amendments other than minor modifications in order to
preserve the characteristics of the historic houses. There are serious sanctions in case of changes in
houses; but the inspections are inadequate. In addition, it has been determined that people have to sell
their homes despite their desire because of the cost of caring for the houses. Also it was revealed that
since the summer residents who bought houses outside Ayvalık neglected to care for the whole year, the
houses were severely damaged and eventually left to the fate of themselves.
Keywords: Cultural Heritage, Historical Ayvalık Houses, Sustainability.
Introduction
Humankind has been in a struggle with the nature since its existence. The desire to survive and struggle
for life made humans realize some activities. These activities sometimes transformed into devices and
sometimes into languages. All the behaviors that humans realized for the sake of this struggle and that
have been models for the subsequent generations are accepted as the foundations of culture (Güvenç,
2002: 48). The morals, in which humans find themselves from the very early days of their lives, start to
shape humans’ experiences and behaviors. When a human being starts to speak, he/she becomes a part
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of his/her own culture; when he/she grows up and starts to take part in activities, the habits of his/her
culture becomes his/her own habits, beliefs becomes his/her own beliefs, and impossibilities becomes
his/her own impossibilities (Benedict, 2003: 26).
Culture consists of the elements which humans think (attitudes, beliefs, ideas and values), do (behaviors
and life styles), and create (artworks, crafts and other cultural products). Thus, culture includes the
processes (humans’ ideas and life styles) and the products (buildings, crafts, art and traditions) that are
produced as a result of these processes. From this point of view, culture tourism is not only the visiting
the sites and the monuments as it is perceived, but is learning the life style in those places. In this way
they gain both information and experience. In this respect, culture tourism is founded on not only visiting
the sites and monuments which belonged to previous cultures, but also on the life styles of people living
in a region or a country (Richard, 2001: 7). So, while mentioning about a continuity, it is necessary to
investigate local people’s point of view. Therefore, local people’s point of view is investigated in this
current study.
Until it has been totally Turkified in 1923, Ayvalık which is a tourism center with its historical and cultural
values was an Ottoman city where mostly Greek people lived and where Greek culture was dominant
throughout the 18th and 19th centuries (Özel, 2016). Thus, the cities host many cultural heritage values
on which many researches could be carried out. In this respect, in addition to many studies on
sustainability, the aim of this study is to identify the local people’s perspectives regarding the
sustainability of the historical Ayvalık houses which are inherited from various civilizations and which we
will entrust to the future generations as cultural heritage values. First, the term cultural heritage and the
sustainability of cultural heritage are investigated and several suggestions are made according to the
findings derived from the collected data.
Theoretical Framework
It is seen that the term “heritage” is highly important for the development of culture tourism which is
one of the fundamental components of tourism supply and which is required to increase the demand for
tourism. Thus, it would be appropriate to clarify the topics of cultural heritage and the sustainability of
cultural heritage.
Cultural heritage and cultural heritage tourism
According to the Turkish Language Institute, cultural heritage “is the thing that a generation leaves to the
subsequent generations” (Turkish Language Institute Dictionary, 2018). According to another definition,
cultural heritage “is a set of values that belongs to a society and any kind of artefacts which were inherited
from the past and desired to be inherited to the next generations for various reasons, and which are
physically exist and made by human beings” (Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, 2009: 3). This cultural heritage
term is recognized in various forms such as monuments, museums, palaces, national parks, geological
formations or traditions (Kozak, 2014: 31).
Cultural heritage in tourism not only means telling the things, which have been passed from one
generation to another, rural areas, natural or historical buildings, art works, or traditions but also
protecting them while using. In this vein, heritage is an important source that attracts tourists and it is
divided into two groups as natural heritage and cultural heritage (Doğaner, 2001). Indeed, there is a linear
relationship between culture and tourism. The history of tourism dates back to earlier than tourism. Yet,
tourism plays a catalyzer role in the development and spread of culture. And today this helps the
development of culture tourism and at the same time gives acceleration to the tourism demand.
While in History Protection National Safety in The United States of America, cultural heritage tourism is
defined as “humans’ discovering and experiencing the sites and activities” and it also represents humans
and stories from the past and present authentically (culturalheritagetourism.org). Ruins from the ancient
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times, museums, traditions and morals, folkloric values, crafts and so on are accepted as heritage and
have touristic product quality (Emekli, 2003). In this respect, trips made to see and know these products
and artefacts are accepted as cultural heritage tourism.
It is important to know the theoretical dimensions of a topic in order to understand its importance. But,
what is more important is that to be able to ensure the existence of these important things, that is, their
sustainability. For this reason, the term “sustainable cultural heritage” has been formed.
Sustainable cultural heritage tourism

The focal points in the development of cultural heritage tourism is to revive local economies, to increase
host society’s life standards, to be able to attract tourists to the destinations, to extend the knowledge
about heritage and to enable the protection of cultural heritage against destructions (Binoy, 2011).
Tourists attending cultural heritage tourism are interested in local characteristics and traditions while
visiting cultural values in a region. All cultural heritage values are tools, or even clues, that transfer
knowledge about cultures of local people living in that region, civilizations, and their experiences to
present. In this vein, cultural heritage tourism is both a source of attraction and an advertisement tool.
From this aspect, cultural heritage tourism helps moral values turn into tangible values and contributes
country’s economy. In addition, local cultures can resist culture erosion thanks to cultural heritage
tourism (Emekli, 2003). Thus, to enable the sustainability of cultural heritage values, which have such
important returns, is societies’ dept to history, nature and future.
To be able to mention about a sustainable culture and hence tourism mobility, the development of
cultural heritage tourism is highly significant. In this context, there are particular principles that should
be taken into consideration for the development of cultural heritage tourism (Richard, 2007). These
principles are as in the following:
• On national and local bases its inventory should be prepared by determining the cultural heritage
values.
• Cultural heritage components should be turned into touristic products and made tradable.
• Protection-survival principle should be adopted by enabling the tracing of damages and changes
that can occur while using the cultural heritage products on a continuous inventory.
• The priority should be given to local culture and local people while improving protection-survival
principle and local interest should be motivated to cultural heritage. Traditional characteristics
should be protected; local people’s awareness should be raised; and cultural tourism should be
developed with a broad participation of local administrations, non-governmental organizations,
and other related institutions and organizations in government-private sector cooperation.
In addition to these;
• Cultural tourism should not be approached as an alternative but as a supplementary element.
• The advertisement of cultural values should not be exaggerated. Values should be protected in
line with national identity.
By this means, the sustainability of cultural heritage tourism will be enabled by developing it and it can
be transferred to the next generations.
Ayvalık and Historical Ayvalık Houses

Together with Mysians, settlement started in Ayvalık and the city hosted many civilizations ranging from
Macedonians to Romans, Byzantines to Greeks. (T. C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, 2012). The texture of
the city which was inherited as a present from these civilizations is an important tourism product today.
Almost all the buildings in and around Ayvalık have common and distinct architectural characteristics.
This architecture which is called as “neo-classical” survived without losing its value against time and
carries the traces of old Roman and Hellenistic structures. There are approximately 2000 neo-classical
civil architecture samples in the center of and around Ayvalık. Moreover, many historical mosques,
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churches and monasteries exist in this environment which is called as “old city”. With their 100-150 years
old history, Ayvalık houses are taken under the protection by Council of Monuments
(www.ayvalikturizmdanismaburosu.gov.tr).
It is seen that Ayvalık, which is located in South Marmara and which is one of the important centers of
Balıkesir regarding its tourism supply, is surrounded with Mount Ida, Kozak highland, Sarımsaklı Beach,
Cunda and 24 Islands. Ayvalık, which has managed to carry its historical, natural and socio-cultural riches
to the present day, has been under protection as a protected area since 11 September 1946. It has been
detected that there are 750 types of plants 17 of which are Typical to Anatolia and 4 of which are endemic
(only grows in Ayvalık in the world). Because of these and its underwater richness, the area was taken
under protection in 1995 when it was declared as Natural Park
(www.ayvalikturizmdanismaburosu.gov.tr).
Method
This study aims at investigating the perspectives of local people regarding the sustainability of historical
Ayvalık houses as cultural heritage values inherited from various civilizations. Accordingly, data were
collected from totally 12 people living in the center of Ayvalık and Cunda Island by using interview forms
that include semi-structured open-ended questions. The questions which were prepared after literature
scanning and expert views were taken were organized in accordance with interview method. Interviews
were finished when it was seen that the answers to the questions started to be repeated. The selection
of people who would be interviewed in scope of the study was done by using snowball and convenience
sampling techniques.
Semi-structured interview form includes questions regarding residence time in historical Ayvalık house,
views about the cultural value of the house, what people have done for the restoration of the house and
what they could do, how living in this kind of a house feels like, families’ approaches to the house, their
views about the protection of the house.
Interviews were carried out in interviewees’ houses, which a significant factor showing that interviewer
is gained the trust. Thus, it would not be wrong to assume that this is an indicator of the reliability of the
answers and hence the reliability of the study. Because in qualitative study the reliability cannot be
reduced to the standard techniques (Pratt, 2008). Interviews took 20 minutes on average, all of them
were voice recorded and then transcripted by using Microsoft Word software. In addition, logs were kept
by the interviewer to collect personal observation data about the house and interviewee. To ensure the
familiarity to the data, transcriptions were read multiple times and throughout this process, small notes
regarding important topics, concepts, thoughts and relationships were written down. Then, content
analysis was carried out and the results were evaluated.
Findings
Demographic findings
To reach more sound findings some data about the participants should be given. In this way, readers can
understand interviewee’s point of views more easily. Of all 12 participants interviewed in this study, 6
were male and the other 6 were female. All of them were over 40 and they all inhabited in Ayvalık and
most of them were relatives of exchanged people. Only two of them came outside Ayvalık and settled
down there. On the average most of the participants had 2000 TL monthly income. Four of them inherited
their houses from their families, and tenants stated that they preferred that house because of the
neighborhood or because that house was suitable with their life style.
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The sustainability perceptions of local people regarding historical Ayvalık houses
In interviews, participants were first asked how living in a historical house felt, and then, if they had had
chance, whether they would have wanted to move to an apartment. Most of the participants stated that
the house made them feel true experiences and they would never feel like that in an apartment. As a
matter of the characteristics of that district, since attached houses and structure of street enabled warm
relationships, most of the participants indicated that they voluntarily and intentionally were living in that
kind of house. Only two tenants stated that they were living in that house due to their economic situation
and they would have lived in an apartment if they had had better income. One participant who was
content with his/her situation said that “…You would be afraid if somebody came and taken the photos
of the house, wouldn’t you? You would ask what’s going on? Things are not like that for us. They say sister
your house is so beautiful; can we take a photo? I take pride in. I say yes, but if you take my photo with it
as well...” (8th interviewee). Another participant who had counter views stated that “…I am here to save
the day. You see the house! Totally worn out. When I win the lottery, my first job will be to buy a new
house in Çamlık…” (3th interviewee).
In the light of questions asked to the interviewees, it was revealed that they knew their houses are in the
protected area and controls were carried out by the Council of Monuments. But, another finding was that
these controls were not carried out frequently enough. The participants whose houses were in a rather
central parts stated that there had been controls and at the slightest thing they were reported whereas
the ones whose houses were in inner parts stated they rarely came up with an inspector. Concerning to
this matter, one participant told his/her experience: “…Once I had a small change in the house without
damaging the original. My opposite neighbor who heard the sound and was jealous about me
immediately reported me. I was tried in Criminal Court. Fortunately, I had taken the pre-, while and post-
photos so the judge returned the acquittal…” (1st interviewee). Another one expressed his/her opinion
like this: “…I had bought my house years ago, I moved from İstanbul. During purchase and sale process,
documents were sent to the Council of Monuments because of the house being in protected area. They
came for inspection and that was my only encounter with them in ten years…” (4th interviewee).
Regarding the question what cultural characteristics of the house meant, it was found out that most of
the participants had no idea. They stated that they knew their houses had high ceilings, there were bay
windows, there were shutters both inside and outside in some of them, there were engravings in houses
which had cellars. However, they said they did not know the reasons. They stated that there were cultural
artefacts exemplars of historical artefacts as houses left by the Greeks. In this respect, they were asked
whether there had been anybody who knew the past of the house called at to see the house. Participants
told that it had been a long time since the exchange and the generation gap had grown. So there had not
been any visitors. Only once a participant stated that he/she could remember such an occasion: “…My
house cannot be forgotten easily due to its location. One day a couple came by while I was sitting in front
of the door. In fact, I thought that they were going to take photos again. The male one said this had been
our house in the past, I knew this place. Even he told about the pictures by saying that I could tell that this
house has a cellar, I knew this house. He had learned from his grandfather…” (10th interviewee).
When the participants were asked whether living in a historical house has negative sides. They
unanimously answered that it was quite costly. Since the buildings are too old and there are some
structural features, regular maintenance should be carried out and the buildings should be aired.
However, this can be trouble for the ones with low income. Concerning this, a participant stated that
“…What makes a fisherman happy? He catches his fish, he buys a bottle of wine on his way back to home,
oooh, and there cannot be a happier man. He airs his house, from time to time gets it painted. But when
it is the time to roof maintenance, it requires 10 thousand liras. How can this man give all of a sudden?
These houses are very cozy, but there should be money. You get it fixed once, twice; but when you cannot
afford one more, you have to sell the house…” (2nd interviewee). Again, another participant said in a
supportive manner “…It is easy to buy these houses, or rather was easy. But maintenance is very difficult.
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Your financial situation needs to be very strong. The government says here is a protected area, but it does
not support. Now that you direct, then at least support…” (5th interviewee). Participants who stated that
there was no support from the government and who complained about this answered to the question
whether they would do a restoration in the house if they could get support from the government as they
would do only in some specific places. And this included strengthening places such as inside stairs, bay
windows and so on.
Children living in the house were not aware of the fact that they were in a cultural place. According to
the participants’ statements, that place is only their house and for this reason it was only “old” for them.
4th interviewee mentioned about his/her child who from time to time abstained from the shabbiness of
the house and did not invite his/her friends to their house like this: “…When I say, son why always you
go there, let them come here. I got the response that their house is more beautiful. I asked why do you
think so? He said our house is too old. Indeed, he is right. We have never told the historical side of the
house to the child…”. Another interviewee told these: “…I am 95 years old. I was born, grew up, married,
and had children in this house. But, their children were born in other houses. The ones who got married
left the house. They visit me once in a week. Sometimes I kid around with my grandchildren and say that
this house we be yours. They say grandpa, what are we going to do in this house. Apartment is more
beautiful…” (6th interviewee).
There was desperation when the participants were asked the question about the sustainability of the
houses. They stated they there were more abandoned houses when compared to 10 years ago and the
houses were turning into ruins day by day. In addition, they said that after another decade, if
directionlessness kept going on, these houses would be totally left to their fates. Regarding this a
participant used these statements “…Recently, the number of people who are coming from outside
Ayvalık and says I am purchasing a Greek house has been increased. As a matter of fact, these houses
were quite cheap before, but the prices raised a lot. They kept raising the prices. Anyway, they come, and
immediately a restoration to the house, and for a whole year there is nobody. Look, these houses are
living. They get a history live. If you do not come and chat with this house, air it, revive it, the house is
offended, when you come the next year, you cannot find it sturdy. Then, during the 10 days of your 15
days holiday, you strive to get it fixed. You lose your interest. You either sell it or lock it. You do not look it
back again, it collapses and remains…” (2nd interviewee).
Conclusion and Suggestions

The sustainability of cultural heritage which, especially, was inherited from various civilizations is a topic
which should be taken into consideration significantly. In addition, what could be done to protect the
cultural heritage and to transfer it to the next generations must be investigated meticulously. In this study
local people’s views about the sustainability of historical Ayvalık houses which are some of the best
examples of the aforementioned issue are investigated.
As a result of the interviews carried out in scope of this study, it is found out that living in a historical
Ayvalık house is quite enjoyable, exciting and admired, but at the same time costly. Moreover, it is figured
out that restoration jobs are under the control of concerned authority but insufficient. Essentially,
enforcements are very strict but it is understood that what prevent people from doing restorations is not
the strict enforcements but their financial incapability. Unfortunately, local people do not have enough
awareness although they are living in a historical house. In addition, since they are unable to tell their
children what it is like to live with these values, children admire standard apartments. The trend of
purchasing the houses which are promoted and advertised in various ways results in an increase in the
number of people who put their house on the market. Since the maintenance jobs cannot be carried out
in time by vacationists, unfortunately big damages occur in houses. It would not be wrong to say that this
course of events will not be positive regarding the sustainability of the houses.
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To protect the sustainability of the historical houses in Ayvalık in a way and to ensure that they will be
left to next generations, following suggestions derived from study results should be taken into
consideration:
• By using the results from this study either individually or with municipal collaboration, Council of
Monuments must be informed so that the number of controls and enforcements will be
increased.
• By using the fact that Ayvalık was included into the UNESCO temporary list in “Industrial
Landscape” field as an important advertisement tool, senior management must be included in
this process.
• Because of local people’s not knowing the historical and cultural characteristics of the places they
live in, information meetings must be carried out within municipality and university cooperation.
By using various encouragements, participation of local people must be ensured.
• With the help of schools, history awareness must be given to family members and several
activities need to be planned to increase the awareness especially among children. Composition,
painting or photograph competitions can be organized in primary or secondary level schools and
participation of children can be enabled in this way.
• Projects by which the maintenance of the houses can be supported should be carried out
together with South Marmara Development Agency.
• Proposal can be done to the businessmen, who have done restorations in various places in the
city and who have opened new businesses, to be sponsors for maintenance jobs.
• Many Ayvalık houses which are not taken care because of financial incapability of the tenants or
which are purchased by outsiders and left untouched for a whole year can be integrated into
tourism by restoring them by means of various initiatives. In this way, both the sustainability of
the houses and authenticity of the city are enabled and bed capacity can be increased.
It should be indicated that this study has some limitations. In that, the data were collected within a certain
period which is an important limitation. It is suggested that future studies need to be carried out at
different times. In this way, whether the suggestions are put into practice and whether the criteria are
met could be found out. In which way the sustainability is going can only be figured out in this way.
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7406
ON SUSTAINABLE TOURISM MANAGEMENT IN THE HITTITE ROAD
Nida Özbek
BM Aktif Mimarlik
tnidaaa@gmail.com
Nevin Turgut Gültekin

Gazi Üniversitesi
Ankara, Turkey
Abstract
Cultural routes are communication networks that are classified as land, water, or some other type of
physical destination, with cultural and historical functionality, bearing their own dynamics and showing
the compatibility/contrast of these dynamics with nature. These routes of this quality are evaluated
within the scope of thematic areas determined by UNESCO in 2010 and taken to the World Heritage List
with the aim of providing sustainability. Cultural routes used for different purposes in the past are
important destinations for tourism today. The recognition of these destinations in the tourism market is
ensured by the themes determined by the attributes of the values on the route. However, with the gains
from the tourism-oriented use of cultural values, various vital factors such as the cultural heritage and
the sustainability of the eigenvalues of the local people are often neglected. Since the Hittite Road, which
is focused on the ancient capital Hattusha, is not yet an attractive destination for popular tourism, there
is a hope to maintain a conservation-use balance managed by a sustainable conservation and tourism
approach. For this purpose, the principles to guide the management plan of the Hittite Road have been
determined according to the sustainable cultural tourism.
Key words: Cultural Route, Heritage Management, Sustainable Tourism, Hittite Road, Turkey
Introduction
The relationship between cultural and natural heritage and tourism is two-sided. Heritage values are an
important source and destination for tourism sector. Tourism mediates realization of social, cultural and
economic benefits while presenting these values. On the other hand, this relationship is critical since
tourism has a high potential to damage these values. If tourism is not well managed, it poses a threat to
cultural and natural values. This problem is tried to be overcome by national and international policies
that will provide a consensus between World Heritage (WH) and tourism which have been accepted at
34th Session (2010, Brasilia) of World Heritage Committee (WHC) at the international workshop on the
subject Advancing Sustainable Tourism at Natural and Cultural Heritage Sites (2009, China)(WHC, 2010).
Sustainability of cultural values together with demands of tourism may be provided by tourism and
heritage management.
Sustainability is the prerequisite of culture tourism which composes the basic dynamics of culture
industries as the alternative to the de-industrialization that has been forced by globalization. Having
cultural heritage in the heart of cultural tourism also provides an advantage in urban competition. The
European Capitals Project and the efforts of Association of Historical Cities and even local initiatives, to
build cultural memory and image-based city brands, support the competition and consequently tourism.
United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization -The thematic studies that UNESCO has
registered and introduced cultural heritage since the 1970s and increased the recognition of cultural
values with the years of 2010 that give momentum to culture tourism. The definition of cultural routes
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(CR) and concrete and non-tangible cultural values, which are registered as WH within the thematic area,
constitute the necessary infrastructure and dynamics for cultural tourism.
In 2000's, the activities of determining and registering historical roads and routes in Anatolia as cultural
roots have been in progress. The Hittite Road, which is based on Hattusa, the capital of the Hittite Empire,
taken in the World Heritage List (WHL) in 1986, has not have CR status yet. However, the fact that this
road is not yet an attractive destination for popular-consumer tourism, is an advantage for sustainable
cultural tourism heritage and tourism management. The purpose of this study is to determine the
principles that will guide Hittite Road management process in line with CR registration criteria and
sustainable tourism principles. Thus, outstanding universal value (OUV) of this destination will be defined
with “value-focused area definition” approach and thus WH characteristics will have been assessed.
Sustainable Tourism and Heritage Management in Cultural Routes

Renewed and/or innovative initiatives in cultural heritage and conservation approaches in 2000's to
determine and heritage management principles of the Hittite Road are explained below.
Cultural Routes as cultural Heritage

In the 1960s, the concept of CR began to be discussed by Continuous Europe, a group of experts from the
Council of Europe (COE), to promote European cultural awareness through cultural visits. With Cultural
Routes of the Council of Europe Programme in 1984, "Pilgrim's Route to Santiago de Composa tela" in
Spain had been announced as the first CR of WH in 1993. Routes as Part of our Cultural Heritage which
had been published at the end of WHC meeting in Madrid in 1994 was the first international document
about CH. For the WHL nomination, the main features of these routes are defined as spatial, cultural,
time and purpose characteristics (UNESCO, 1994).
In the 1990’s with the implementation of European Institute of Cultural Routes (EICR), International
Scientific Committee on Cultural Routes (CIIC), ICOMOS-International Cultural Tourism Committee (ICTC)
and UN-Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2030, acceleration occurred in culture tourism. These
organizations develop and support local, national and international policy recommendations for the
sustainability of the CR. In the same period, UNESCO initiated regional projects such as slaves’ route and
silk route. Information and experiences related to CR management and awareness are shared with
congresses, conferences, seminars, workshops and meetings and global networks held in 2000s (2001-
Making Tracks From Point to Pathway: the Heritage of Routes and Journeys, 2012-Cultural Tourism for
Community Development: 40 Years of the World Heritage Convention, Vigan-Philippines, 2014 – Creative
Cities as World Heritage Tourist Destinations, Florence-Italy, 2015- Timber Heritage and Cultural
Tourism: Values, Innovation and Visitor Management, Bangkok- Thailand, 2016 – Who benefits? Who
cares? From the Fairy Chimneys to Fairy Tales and Consuming Passions, Cappadocia-Turkey, etc.).
Since 1975, when the World Heritage Convention entered into force, the concept of cultural heritage has
been expanded and diversified, including the cultural significance of natural features. This diversity was
classified by the three categories (Typological Framework based on categories, Chronological-Regional
Framework and Thematic Framework) that ICOMOS identified for the typological analysis of WH at WHC's
27th meeting held in 2003. CH was taken in the category of (pilgrim age routes, trading routes, roads,
canals, railways, etc.). After this development, the awareness of this heritage increased with the adoption
of the CH among the specific cultural heritage types that were assessed by the 2005 Operational
Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention and WH candidates (UNESCO,
2005). In 2008, under the leadership of ICOMOS-ICTC, the first reference source on the issue ICOMOS-
Charter on Cultural Routes had been published. According to this regulation, CH, the innovative heritage
type, reveals the heritage of human mobility and change, which has been developed in ways that have
their own unique functions and dynamics. These are routes that live and survive among countries,
regions, or continents, where multidimensional ideas, knowledge and values are constantly and
reciprocally exchanged. A route with these characteristics is a system that will not conflict or intersect
with cultural assets (monuments, cities, industrial heritage etc.) and will increase the importance of all
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these assets. Thus the whole of the route is an indication of the interaction between countries, regions
or cultures, the expression of the value set which gives greater meaning than the sum of its parts.
CR is dynamic, complex, versatile and multi-purpose (sports, entertainment, discovery etc.) dynamic
schemes that promote the cultural values of destination, not only the roads to guide the visitors.
Historical and symbolic features, functions, forms, social, economic and cultural values of CH differ
according to their geographical location. These differences have been grouped due to their regional
scopes, purposes, historical value and structural shape (linear, circular, radial) and natural environments
(ICOMOS, 2008). It is seen that CR in WHL are transport destination (rail; Semmering Railway in Austria,
channel; Du Canal du Midi in France), historical routes (pilgrimage route; the Camino de Santiago-Spain),
cultural and natural routes (Olive Tree Routes-Turkey), linear monuments-structures (Chinese Great
Wall).
With the Colmar Declaration: 25 years of Council of Europe cultural routes, which was published under
UNESCO and COE leadership in 2012, it is foreseen to use creative and innovative tools in a way that will
highlight CH's education and participation potentials and provide its visibility, along with the current
improvements about CR. In the same year, the "Crossroads of Europe" initiative was created so as to
promote the different CR of Europe to stakeholders, increase awareness and co-operation. Also, with the
COE's Cultural Itinerary, many CR (such as Megalithic Culture's European Route and Huguenot and
Waldensian Route-2013, Roman Emperors and Danube Wine Route-2015, Grande Region's Villages-2016)
are being certified and meetings of the European Silk Road Project (June 2018 - Venice) are conducted.
Sustainable Conservation, Tourism and Culture Tourism

Sustainable protection expresses the comprehensive and attended, rational and integrated protection
along with strategic spatial planning approach on realizing the transfer of the cultural and natural values,
without destroying and consuming together with the development targets. This approach includes spatial
conservation and development strategies that include socio-cultural, economic and managerial-
institutional sustainability along with heritage values (Gültekin, 2010).
The 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, South Africa) is considered to be
an interdependent and mutually reinforcing environmental, social and economic basis for sustainable
development (UN, 2002). WHC has started the World Heritage and Sustainable Tourism Program and its
initiative in 2007 to develop common policies, strategies and tools with innovative approaches and co-
operation to promote sustainable development through appropriate tourism in these areas and to
facilitate sustainable tourism management and development linked to WH. It has been proposed to
create thematic routes to promote sustainable tourism development, which is focused on heritage values
(WHC, 2007).
With WHC's May 2012 decision, on protection and presentation of WH with the World Heritage Tourism
Program, a new paradigm, it is favoured that the usage and difficulties of potential opportunities in the
name of tourism (UNESCO, 2012). The Rio + 20 Conference on Sustainable Development conducted in
June 2012 for the global vision for sustainable development and the later the special objectives of the
United Nations' Transforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of United
Nations dated September 2015it the sustainability of the entire cultural and natural heritage on the world
(UN, 2015). The policy adopted for the integration of a sustainable development perspective into the
World Heritage Convention in the 20th General Assembly of the United States in November 2015, is to
increase the contribution of the WH's potentials to the sustainable development (WHC, 2015). The WHC
has foreseen sustainable tourism as the most effective implementation tool of this common policy.
Sustainable tourism is the tourism activity that considers current and future economic, social and
environmental influences of tourism, as well as the needs of host communities' and visitors as a whole.
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On the other hand, cultural tourism consists of tours to get to know natural and historical cultural assets
and different cultures, so as to gain knowledge and experience and to raise cultural level and participate
in cultural events (Doğaner, 2013: 2-6; Pekin, 2011: 22-30). Usage of cultural destinations in the tourism
sector by the innovative and cultural industries to increase the competitiveness makes the sustainability
and management of cultural values important. Charter for Sustainable Tourism, created in 1995 at the
World Conference on Sustainable Tourism in Spain, was developed for different types of tourism. The
International Cultural Tourism Charter: Managing Tourism at Places of Heritage Significance was adopted
by the ICOMOS 12th General Assembly (1999, Mexico). The objectives of this regulation are to respect to
the host communities' heritage and culture and develop them and to improve the dialog between the
protection benefit and tourism industry (ICOMOS; 1999).
Heritage Management and Value-Driven Field Definition

Since the 1980s, the strengthening of local government and the increase in the effectiveness of cultural
heritage in sustainable development have provided for a sustainable, integrated and rational approach
to protection of natural and cultural heritage (Thomas, Middleton, 2003: 18-22). With this vision, heritage
management took place for the first time in the Guidelines for the Management of World Heritage Sites
published by the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration (ICCROM),
prepared in 1993 and revised in 1998 (Feilden, Jokilehto, 1993: 2-6). Following this guidance, the
International Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance (Burra Charter) of The
Australia ICOMOS, 1999, has been pioneering and encouraging.
Cultural Heritage Management (CHM) is a comprehensive system related to the conservation, usage and
activities affecting cultural resources. The aim of this system is to ensure sustainability of heritage values
in ways that will increase social, economic and environmental benefits even beyond their limits. In the
management process, protection-use balance, development, cooperation and control should be
provided with the participation of all stakeholders (Gültekin, 2010). The components of this system are
complex and multidimensional, intertwined according to the country's conservation policies and heritage
values. For this reason, the first stage of the process is to describe-understand-describe all the
components and attributes of the heritage site with the "value-driven field definition" described in the
Burra's Charter. The other stages are to develop protection policies in line with heritage values and to
manage the process with the management plan that will be created with these policies. The first phase
is also the determinant of the policies and strategies of the heritage management (UNESCO, 2017), as
the interaction of the first phase is necessary at this stage. The physical field limit, which is the primary
parameter in the field definition, must also include the buffer zone or domain. This limit is narrowed or
broadened according to different and complex factors such as the level of control of the physical field,
the knowledge, accumulation and cognitive properties of tangible and non-tangible cultural heritage
values (UNESCO-WHC, 2013; Gültekin, Uysal, 2018). The implementation tool of the CHM is the Strategic
Plan Heritage Management Plan, which serves as a strategic plan. This plan should be structured with
vision, targets and applicable methods determined by stakeholders for protection-restoration, visitor-
tourism, education-awareness, and recognition-awareness-promotion. It should also include action plans
that can be revaluated according to changes in the scene or periodic audits.
CHM is trying to implement in accordance with the management systems of the countries in the
framework determined by UNESCO in 2002. This system is being applied in Turkey with the Located "area
management" taking place in protection legislation in 2004.
Immovable Cultural Heritage Values of Hitit Road

The focus of the route known as Hittite Road where dated to the Hittite Empire period in the curve of
Kızılırmak River in the tourism sector has been the Hattusha, the capital of the Hittites between 17-13th
centuries BC. This route also includes traces and remains of areas settled from the end of the Early Bronze
Age (3000 BC). In the limited frame of this declaration, the values of cultural heritage in this route are
being tried to be introduced.
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Hattusha: The Hittite Capital
Hattusa has been located in the Northern Central Anatolian Mountain Region in Çorum city, in the
province of Boğazkale, at the southern tip of Budakozu Plain, 300 meters high from the plain. The city
and monumental structures (temples, royal residences, fortifications), remains of the city gates and rock
art examples have reached today. Hattusa was taken to the WHL (World Heritage List) in 1985, Hattusha
cuneiform tablets archive has been taken to the Memory of the World List in 2001. According to national
legislation, Hattusa is the 1st degree archaeological site and located in Alacahöyük Historical National Park
Area, and the area surrounding this area in the east and north-east and including Yazılıkaya is the 2nd
degree archaeological site. The area that surrounds this area from south-west to south-east and covers
Kayalı Boğaz is registered as 3rd degree archaeological site.
To the north of the city lies the Rock Sanctuary of Yazılıkaya, south of Ibikcam Forest and more than 8 km
long monumental enclosure walls and five city gates. The city is composed of different regions dated to
different periods (Figure 1).
Büyükkale (Big Castle); It is the first acropolis and Hatti settlement dated to 2000-1700 BC, located on the
north slope of the city. it is the area where the ramparts that are descending from the slope to the valley,
are built during the period of the Old Hittite (1650-1600 BC) and Middle Hittite (1600-1400 BC) Empire.
During the Great Imperial Period (1350-1200 BC), a large structure complex of large palaces, reception
halls, courtyards and eleven underground silos connected with peristilliums, was created. Along the
demolition of the Empire (1180 BC) the city and this area were abandoned.
Lower city; It is the building area in the Assyrian Trade Colonies Period to the south of the Karakayası
creek (19th-18th centuries BC). This region consists of different -archaeological- units.
• The Great Temple: BC. 14 th-13 th. It is the biggest structure of the city (the floor area: 14,500 m2)
with the cult chambers and 200 warehouses on the artificial hill as high as the 8 meters. Lion
Stone Boat and Green Stone on the entrance to the temple, a large warehouse, cult chambers,
workshops and the Fountain structure are located to the south of the road. There is a wastewater
network under the road between the warehouses and the south gate.
• Slope House: The slope extending from the Great Temple to the palace in Büyükkale (16 th century
BC) is an official structure consisting of large halls and warehouses.
• Kesikkaya: It is the remaining of building and stone pit remain on the road extending from the
south of the Great Temple to the Upper City.
• There is a rampart (8th century BC) extending from the back of Kesikkaya to the Palace on the
valley and 8 poterns.
• Grain Depot: Consists of 16 bilamellated and 118 x20-40 meters sized rooms belonging to the Old
Hittite Period. This depot, which is in the capacity to meet the annual needs of 20,000 to 30,000
people, shows the power of the state. It is the largest archeo-botanical discovery of the Near
East.
• Inner wall: It constitutes the northwest border of the Great Temple and the settlement on the
200 m. of the east of the poterned outside wall. The wall that is dated to the Great Imperial
period is reconstructed.
• Neighbourhood: It was formed from congested, yard-type houses divided by channelled streets.
Upper city; It consists of five-archaeological units on sloping area that is more than 1 km², in the south of
the Kızlarkayası creek.
• Temple Neighbourhood: The area where 24 temples that are protected by walls in the south
during the Great Imperial period.
• On the outer wall, the King, the Lion, the Lower West and the Upper West Gates, the gate room
and the towers on both sides and the inside and an outside doorway between them and the
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Hittite Doors are the plan type. Yer kapı (The ground door) is a different type that requires getting
in with potern on the artificial hill. The Sphinx Gate is the most famous monumental structure.
• Yenicekale, Sarıkale were created by processing natural rocks during the Great Empire period.
The Southern Fortress (7th-6th centuries BC) is the Phrygian Fortress.
• On the walls of Nisantepe, a rock mass was discovered with Luwian hieroglyphic structure on its
walls.
• To provide water to the city, East pools consist of two pools, and Southern pools consist of five
pools.
• 2 rooms that have royal reliefs and inscriptions on their walls and that are symbolic entrance to
the underworld, were built.
• North, South and Western Buildings and Palace Archives that belong to the royalty are official
buildings. There were 3300 bullas and 30 cuneiform written tablets in two basements of the
archive building.
Yazılıkaya Open Air Temple; hidden between the rocks, is the largest and most impressive sanctuary of
the city. More than 90 gods, goddesses, animals and imaginary creatures were processed on the rock
surface in the temple, creating the cortege of the empire's god of storm and the goddess of sun. This
temple is the "festival house" in new year ceremonies and "the house of the god of the storm" in spring
ceremonies. In these ceremonies, the god sculptures of all the temples were moved to this temple with
special rituals.
Immovable Cultural Heritage within the immediate vicinity of Hattusha and the Arch of Kızılırmak
Arrival date and direction of the Hittites, who are not native people of Anatolia, while coming to Anatolia
are not known for sure. The empire (B.C. 1650-1180) founded by Hittites who existed in Anatolia as of
Assyrian Trade Colonies (B.C. 1950-1750) is recalled with the cities within the Arch of Kızılırmak until the
period of Late Hittite States (B.C. 1200-750/700). In the Big Empire Period (B.C. 1350-1180) there are
intervals of 20-35 km. between the dwelling units on the sides of plateau generally. The intervals between
walled centres locating on the natural road routes are also one-day distance (Ökse 2000; Sevinç, 2008).
Though this geography has not changed much, as researches and excavations suitable to the methods of
modern archaeology and prehistory are not made, most of them still unrecognised. Although many
dwelling units were destroyed because of reasons such as wars, famine, new migrations, epidemics etc.,
the fact that the names of the places were changed by the tribes ruled there and the difficulties of
researching at mountainous and forested areas make it difficult to identify these dwelling units.
According to written documents, despite there are place names over 2000 in Anatolia of B.C. 2nd
millennium, the places of most of these are unknown. The total number of Hittite dwelling units at this
wide region roughly passing from north of today’s Polatlı, Kırıkkale, Yerköy, Şarkışla line and spreading
over the Black Sea’s coasts (Zalpa State where the Kızılırmak flows into the sea) and also covering the
core and capital Hattusha of the Hittites State is approximately 116 (Figure 2). Considering that the Hittite
texts did not mention about the place names that did not battle and revolt and were not important in
terms of religion, administration, and economy, it can be said that this number can be doubled or tripled
with a rough estimation though most of them unexplored or destroyed (Ünal, 1981; Erkut, Otten, et al.,
1992).
The Management of Hittite Road as A Culture Route
The Potential of the Hittite Road as a Culture Route

The fact that the Hittite cities, dated back to the period of Big Empire in the arch of Kızılırmak, are on the
caravan and army road allowed by the natural structure shows that this route was really used.
Archaeologic data belonging to Hittite cities and sacred places within this geography is tangible data of
cultural heritage. In addition, the samples (such as Çorum-Kargı District’s Hacıhamza Town) applying the
dwelling style and house planning typology of Hittite Period to today (traditional and vernacular
337
architecture) are also available (Ufuk, Eyüpgiller, 2008; Neve, 1996). On this road, the examples of
monumental sculptures and scriptures starting with Hittites in Anatolia are extant cultural values.
Culture routes should also have the immovable culture heritage belonging to the routes used in the past
and had different functions and the intangible cultural values. Such cultural heritage values are sustained
within the arch of Kızılırmak. For example, although its meaning to the Hittite world is not known for
sure, it is known that the granite (green) was used in rain prayer rituals in Hattusha and at the backyard
of Çorum-Sorgun-Aşağı Karakaya Village Mosque and thus conveyed to today. The theatrical plays told
on a scripture in Maşathöyük and its vicinity are still played. The bread (loaf, filo pastry bread, and
hardtack) consumed and presented to the gods in the Hittite world is still produced and consumed in the
same way today. And again, the name and the cooking and eating methods of the food called “arabaş”
today dates back to Hittites. The natural beauties in this geography are also among the items enriching
the Hittite Road. Consequently, it is understood from these values that the Hittite Road carries a
characteristic of Cultural Route.
Management of Tourism and Heritage on the Culture Route
The first stage of registration-recognition and sustainable management of Hittite Road as a cultural route
is to make its value-driven field definition. In this definition, all compounds belonging to the route area
and the attributes of cultural heritage should be defined with interdisciplinary (history, art history,
archaeology, socio-cultural anthropology, epistemology, ethnology, architecture, etc.) researches
regarding human and locations. Although the border of a physical location is the first parameter, the
values of intangible cultural heritage must be evaluated with the context of the spirit of the place (social,
economic, traditional, etc. vital connections) definitely. The route border, designated so, should include
the buffer zone in order to ensure its sustainability with the interaction area of the route from past to
today. This border is in the quality of the area border that should be sustained, thus, both of the borders
of heritage management area and the cultural tourism area. Above, the information given in chapter 3 is
given only for highlighting the importance of the route and for promotional purposes; it is not the route
border and is inadequate for its management.
The next stage of management is to develop protection policies in accordance with heritage values.
Sustainable culture tourism is envisaged with today’s protection approaches in the sustainability of
cultural routes. However, as the sustainability of cultural values and ensuring effective participation of
the local community in the process are prioritised, protection policies are also changeable over these
priorities according to the attributes of CR. So, only the basic principles of protection policies can be
mentioned briefly in this study. That is to say:
• Mutually interdependent tourism/travel and development/natural and cultural protection
should support each other and be integrated;
• To care for the principle of equality between generations;
• To improve the living standards of the local community, to know, support and develop its
identity, culture, and interests;
• To ensure social and cultural integration of the societies;
• To provide a high quality experience to the visitors.
The process should be managed according to short-medium-long term management plan of process
management with a management plan to be established with these policies. The flexibility and
alternatives of the plan should be estimated beforehand according to audits or possible changes.
Effective participation and the being shareholders in the favours to be gained of the local community at
every stage of the process should be ensured.
338
Conclusion
Being an attraction-appeal destination of culture tourism in a geography where it exists as a type of a
new-innovative cultural heritage, which is a kind of cultural background-consumption and an experience,
CR allows different cultures to be known by reaching growth of economic effects and large masses. CR
contributes cultural and economic wealth to the geography in which it takes place via tourism according
to its attributes and contact designated with the value-driven field definition. Although Turkey is a party
to several agreements on the sustainability of natural and cultural heritage, as the CR belonging to it
according to the national protection legislation cannot be registered, the recognition of these values
cannot be ensured. Therefore, at this notification, it is highlighted that current protection approaches
should be also considered in practise notably in legislation by highlighting CR quality of the Hittite Road.
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System of the Hittites Established in Anatolia). Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Fen-Edebiyat
Fakültesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, (17), 11-32.
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Housing Architecture and Conservation in Hacihamza). Gazi Üniversitesi Mühendislik-Mimarlık
Fakültesi Dergisi, 23(2), 96-10.
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localization of the Hittite city Ankuwa). Belleten- TTK, XLV (180): 433-455. Retrieved from
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Figure 1. The city structure of the Ancient Capital Hattusha

Prepared based on the data from Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture, Directorate General of Cultural
Assets and Museums, Branch Office of World’s Heritage Areas Archive and Construction Plan with
Protection Purpose.
340
Figure 2. Hittite Road antique settlements within the arc of Kızılırmak River
Karauğuz, G. 2016. On Yozgat and Its Environment in Hittite Period; Genz,H., Mielke, D.P. 2011. Insights
into Hittite history and archaeology; Alp, S. 1992. Prepared according to the data of Anatolian Cities In
the Age of Hittites.
341
7408
TOURISM IN ISTANBUL; PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
Sezg GEDİK
Research Asistant
Department of Tourism and Hotel Management, İstanbul University
Istanbul, Turkey
sgedik@istanbul.edu.tr
Tolga Fahri ÇAKMAK

Inst. Dr.
Department of Travel-Tourism and Entertainment Services, Bartın University
Bartın, Turkey
tcakmak@bartin.edu.tr
Füsun İstanbullu Dinçer

Prof. Dr.
Department of Tourism Management, Istanbul University,
Istanbul, Turkey
istanbul@istanbul.edu.tr
Mithat Zeki Dinçer

Prof. Dr.
Faculty of Economics, Istanbul University,
Istanbul, Turkey
mzdiner@istanbul.edu.tr
Abstract
İstanbul is one of the most important city of Turkey, in terms of tourism. With its cultural values,
geographical features and its development in the field of finance, it attracted and visited by local and
foreign tourists for years. However, with the terrorist incidents, crises and actions that have lived in
recent years, Istanbul has suffered a considerable loss in terms of tourism. Numerous reservations and
programs have been canceled, security warnings have been issued, tourism occupancy rates have fallen
and emergency plans have been developed. Positive developments have started since 2016.
The aim of this study is to reveal the changes and developments that have taken place in Istanbul tourism
especially in the last 10 years and to present suggestions for future years. Within this scope, 35 people,
including public and non-governmental organizations and private sector representatives, were
interviewed individually and 15 people were contacted by mail and a total of 50 people were reached.
The information obtained as a result of the talks and the statistical data are presented in the study, and
proposals for the next five years are presented in an approach that enables the sustainable development
of Istanbul tourism.
Keywords: İstanbul, tourism, crisis, tourism development
Introduction
Istanbul's fascination and aroused curiosity rests on Strabon, just before the start of the tourism event,
which is accepted by the present literature. The city has been the stopover point of hundreds of travelers
until the present day after Strabon, one of the first travelers. In parallel with the technological
developments, Istanbul has become a mega city that welcomes tourists from all geographies of the world
with the beginning of travel-friendly periods globally.
342
Istanbul is Turkey's most important city in terms of urban tourism, Rome, Byzantine and has made the
citizen as head of the Ottoman Empire era guiding state. It is a unique destination in the world where
many different cultures meet on a single route. This unique structure has deeply influenced the
architecture, art, city life and culture of Istanbul, which has hosted many cultures, and has left erasable
marks for centuries. As a bridge between the East and the West, Istanbul, which is the center of the bridge
function, is an important center of attraction for both European and Asian and African tourists.
Istanbul, Turkey is one of the most important city in terms of tourism. It has attracted the attention of
local and foreign tourists for many years with its cultural values, geographical features and development
in the field of finance. However, the terrorist attacks, crises, incidents and especially tourism in the recent
years have faced serious damage. While attacks, explosions and loss of lives targeting tourism centers
have caused not only national but international crises, the perception of trust in Istanbul has suffered.
Many of the experienced repeatedly the crisis, America, Germany major tourist has affected potential
and other countries of tourists to also affect the strength of the countries with the order to warn their
citizens abroad Internet and social media alerts they made about Turkey from network and proposals trip
destinations are not particularly America and European countries for their citizens dramatically. Many
tour operators as a natural consequence of this situation and cruise companies to remove their usual
route from Turkey for security reasons.
Istanbul as a Tourist Destination
Istanbul seriously started his first destination of tourism activities in Turkey. Accommodation facilities
and hotels, which have a primary priority for the realization of tourism activities, have started to be seen
in Istanbul in the 19th century. Although it is not known exactly which first hotel started to serve in
Istanbul, it is foreseen that the hotel sector started in 1830s. The first hotel in European standards was
opened in 1841 under the name of Hôtel d’Angleterre (Yakartepe ve İnan, 2011: 82).
The development period of tourism in Istanbul as a sector with all its sub-units took place at the beginning
of the 20th century. With the Orient Express that came to Istanbul in 1919, Istanbul has become an
accessible destination for European tourists and in this case, it has started a significant influx of tourists.
In 1924, the density of tourists was observed to be increasing with sleeping cars (İçöz 2014: 26). This
increase in the number of tourists has also led to an increase in the sub-sectors of tourism and has led to
an increasing number of hotel, agency and guidance activities.
Throughout the process in 1923 with the establishment of the Republic of Turkey Seyyahi Society (Touring
and Automobile Club of Turkey) was established, Istanbul has started to be controlled by the state-based
tourism activities. Within this scope, many laws and regulations have been enacted regarding the
acceptance of tourist guides who will provide guidance / interpreting services to tourists who come to
Istanbul by sea. During this period, Natta, Tutta, Pasparid travel agencies were established in Istanbul and
the Republic of Turkey has achieved very important things in terms of tourism history (Mısırlı, 2006: 16,
turing.org.tr, www.tursab.org.tr ).
Since the founding of the Republic, Istanbul, Turkey has become one of the most important trump card
in the hands of power in terms of tourism. The increasing number of tourists, accommodation, travel and
guides has also increased day by day. This increase was even higher with the support of the planned
period. In Istanbul today this point, one of the destinations with the largest capacity in terms of tourism
supply is in Turkey.
According to the statistics of Ministry of Culture and Tourism (03.09.2018) 566 operating certificated
accommodation facilities in Istanbul, 56 286 rooms and 113 370 beds; There are a total of 171 investment
certified accommodation facilities, 14843 rooms and 31 142 beds. 62 of these facilities are
343
environmentally friendly accommodation establishments. The facilities are mainly clustered on the
European side (http://www.istanbulkulturturizm.gov.tr).
Bringing tourists to Turkey and planning of tour including eat, drink, entertainment needs, is extremely
important in terms of maximizing tourism income. For this reason, the presence and intensification of
travel agencies is a very important competitive power in terms of the relevant destination. 35% (3.391)
of the 9.836 travel agencies in Turkey (2017) are located in Istanbul. 97.6 % of 3391 tourism travel
agencies in Istanbul are Group A, 1% are Group B and 1.4% C Group (https://www.tursab.org.tr).
Another important profession is the tourist guides. In accordance with the law numbered 1618, tours can
be organized by travel agencies, but these tours cannot be organized without guidance. When examining
the figures of the year 2017 it is observed that all tourist guide Tourist Guide Associations in Turkey due
to a ratio of total 10283 units guide found that about 40% of the members of the Chamber of Istanbul
Guide tourist guides that figure. According to the 2017 statistics announced by the Tourist Guides
Association, it is seen that 38% of the tourist guides to the Istanbul Chamber of Guides are inactive, is not
on tours. The fact that the rate of inactivity, which was 25% in the previous year, increased by 50% to
38% in a year, is seen in relation to the decrease in the number of tourists and the fact that the tours are
made less than in the past (http://tureb.org.tr)
This Day of Istanbul Tourism
The international and national crises in Turkey, acts of terrorism, the wars in the border region, migration
and crises with neighboring countries, especially recently has become a serious problem for Turkey.
Refugee crisis in Syria, economic crises, ISIS and PKK attacks which happened in Turkey, especially in the
last 5 years, have directly affected the Turkish tourism and has created a negative image.
According to the European Commission's July 2017 report, the total number of refugees in Turkey is over
3.4 million, and only 9% of these refugees remain in camps (the ec.europa.e). As part of this report,
Istanbul is the city where most refugees living in Turkey. Refugees who do not live in any camps in Istanbul
are mostly living in the streets and parks or living in low-income neighborhoods by creating their own
conditions.
The Center for Middle Eastern Strategic Studies (ORSAM) in its report on the situation of Syrian refugees
in the neighboring countries states that Syrian migrants are met with reaction by indigenous people due
to lower labor prices. We can observe this situation very clearly in the Istanbul tourism market. For
example, the daily wage of tourist guides was determined as 338 TL by the Ministry of Culture and
Tourism. According to the information received from the tourist guides in the Arabic language, it was
found that the Syrian refugees who were illegally guided received a daily wage of 35-60 TL daily. It is also
reported that there are serious security problems in these regions.
Especially in the last five years, terrorist activities in Istanbul damaged the image of the city, has been an
important problem in terms of security. In the last five years, 112 people died and 359 people were
wounded in the five different bomb attacks carried out in Iraq and the Islamic State of Damascus (ISIS) in
Istanbul. Similarly, in the last five years, 4 terrorist attacks by PKK terrorist organization in Istanbul, 105
people were killed and 376 people were wounded (compiled from AHA). When we look at the regions of
the attacks, it is noteworthy that there are tourism centers. Sultanahmet, Taksim, Istanbul, such as the
absolute stop of tourists visiting Istanbul and the important entertainment centers such as Reina has
been attacked. İstanbul is one of the most important tourism centers of Turkey, experienced adversely
affected by these events and this is reflected in the tourism statistics.
344
Results
After 2016 began to positive developments in terms of tourism in Turkey and this situation it has also
affected the tourism Istanbul. An increase in the number of tourist arrivals and tourist spending has begun
to be seen. In the course of these developments, in order to carry Istanbul to a more important place in
terms of tourism, to use its existing potential and to adapt to the changing world conditions, interviews
were held with civil society organizations and sector representatives, especially TUROB, TÜRSAB, TUREB,
TURYİB. The data obtained within the framework of these interviews and the predictions for the next 5
years are given below.
• Separation of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism; such as Turkey, tourism potential is very high
and when payments are considered to be a great role of tourism in the balance, leaving the
ministry to ensure more rapid adaptation to the world in terms of development can take place
within the scope suggestible subjects. The fact that tourism is directly connected to the
administration with a single Ministry branch can make decisions faster, especially in times of
crisis, and these decisions can be implemented and control is easier. In addition, the presence of
experts in the ministry and the fact that they are in unchanged positions can provide accurate
statistical data retention, storage and accurate analysis for the future.
• Creating a current, applicable tourism plan; In the framework of Turkey Development Plans,
under the leadership of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, public institutions, civil society
organizations, universities and cooperation with the local population the development of a new
tourism plan in are among the suggestions. Within the framework of the General Tourism Plan
to be established, development of regional tourism plans is important. For tourism destinations
such as Istanbul it is suggested that different tourism types as cultural tourism, religion tourism,
business tourism, cruise tourism, congress and exhibition tourism and even gastronomic tourism
should be planned separately and brought together under a single master plan. In the regional
tourism plans, the changing city structure, the tourist profile and the tourist behaviors that
change according to the tourism trends should be taken into consideration.
• Developing products and services suitable for changing conditions; When the tourism statistics of
Istanbul are examined, it is seen that the tourist profile has changed especially in the last five
years. It has begun to change in this direction in the products and services offered by the Istanbul
destination, which the Middle East tourist preferred more. Looking at the demands of the Middle
Eastern tourists, it is observed that they spent most of their time in shopping centers, visited the
Sultanahmet area where religious tourism is intense, preferring to stay in hotels in Taksim area
and like to be in the city. Even in times of crisis, it is recommended to develop appropriate
products and services to increase the number of the Middle East tourists who continue to visit
Istanbul.
• Determination of new publicity policies; Promotional policies should be developed urgently by

taking into account the changing tourism movements. In recent years, marketing activities aimed
at Middle East tourists who have increased in Istanbul should gain momentum. In addition, the
potential tourists in China and India should come to Istanbul. These new regions, such as the
Middle East market, attract the attention of the whole world and create a serious competitive
environment. For this reason, marketing activities for the Middle East, China and India market,
where Turkish tourists are increasingly interested, should be carried out. Participating in fairs in
these regions and developing bilateral relations should be developed. In this context, Istanbul
Gastronomy Association invited representatives of this region to sample Turkish cuisine Turkey
has developed bilateral relations by visiting representatives of related associations have also
made presentations. Again, Turkish agencies have been developing their relations with these
regions and increasing their promotion in congresses and fairs.
345
• Developing relations with neighboring countries: Tourism is a sector that can create warm
relations between countries and open to development. Turkey's foreign policy is within the scope
of the development of friendly relations with neighboring countries. This situation allows the
development of tourism. In this context, it is possible to assist in the development of these
relations by continuing the visa-free transitions implemented, increasing the number of flights
with THY and creating campaigns, developing agreements that include discounts for tourism in
one-to-one neighboring countries, and increasing the promotional activities.
• Issuing new laws for operations; In particular, new laws on agencies and guidelines should be
issued and existing laws should be updated. Within the scope of these laws, it is possible to plan
and increase the number of operations carried out in travel and subsequent operations.
Conclusions
The data obtained in the study showed that the city of Istanbul had a rising momentum in terms of the
number of tourists and tourist expenditures that came up until 2015, but in 2016 there was a significant
decline. It is among the predictions that this acceleration which has increased in 2017-2018 will continue
in 2019 as well. In the interviews, it was stated that the tourism potential of the city of Istanbul was
further increased by the new investments made especially and suggestions for the reflection of this
development on tourism revenues were also presented. These recommendations include the creation of
an emergency tourism master plan for Istanbul, the promotions for the Middle East, India and China, the
creation of new laws, the development of public-private sector cooperation. It was seen that the same
expectations were made not only in the private sector but also in the public sector, and the studies were
carried out in this direction but it was slow.
References
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Bir Değerlendirme, Ege Akademik Bakış, C: 10, S:4, 1245-1256.
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_syrian_crisis_tr.pdf Erişim Tarihi: 12.09.2018.
İ. O. (2014) Seyahat Acentaları ve Tur Operatlüğü Yönetimi, Ankara: Turhan Kitabevi.
M. İ. (2006) Seyahat Acentacılığı ve Tur Operatörlüğü, Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık.
ORSAM, http://www.orsam.org.tr/index.php/orsam/reports?s=orsam|turkish (12.09.2017)
Y. Ç. E. B. C. (2010) İstanbul’un Modernleşme Dönemi Otelleri (1840 – 1914), Megaron C:6, S:2, 79-94
http://tureb.org.tr/tr/Page/Detail/91 (12.08.2018)
https://www.tursab.org.tr/tr/seyahat-acentalari/dunden-bugune-seyahat-acentalari_501.html
(12.08.2018)
http://www.turing.org.tr/tarihce/ (12.07.2018)
http://www.kulturvarliklari.gov.tr (12.07.2018)
http://www.istanbulkulturturizm.gov.tr/TR,71515/turizm-istatistikleri.html (06.08.2018)
346
7419
AN ASSESSMENT OF SLOW CITIES AS SUSTAINABLE TOURISM TOOLS
IN THE CONTEXT OF HISTORICAL URBAN LANDSCAPE APPROACH:
CASES IN TURKEY
Aysun Tuna
Assistant Professor
Faculty of Fine Arts and Design, Department of Landscape Architecture, İnönü University,
Hulisi Binbasioglu
Assistant Professor
Department of Tourism and Hotel Management, Malatya Turgut Özal University
Kale, Malatya, Türkiye
hulusi.binbasioglu@ozal.edu.tr
Bilge Hatun Ay
Graduate Student
Faculty of Fine Arts and Design, Department of Landscape Architecture, İnönü University,
bilgehatunay01@gmail.com
Abstract
Historical urban landscapes encompass the social and cultural practices of the built environment and the
communities that interact with them, as well as the values and meanings community attached to the
built environment. In this context, historical urban landscapes are the sources of information that have
been shaped and developed by the societies with the tangible and intangible characteristics that extend
to today. Now, these sources of information are at risk in terms of concepts such as rapid urbanization
and industrialization. This issue necessitates the development of strategies for the preservation of
historic urban landscapes. Cittaslow movement is nowadays on the agenda of the world as an alternative
to the negative effects of rapidly operating cities, where people live in a very fast pace, and consume
more than they produce as a result of the globalization. The purpose of Cittaslow basically offers an
alternative and quality lifestyle to the communities by resisting the loss of identity in the cities the post-
globalization era where uncontrolled growth, uniformity of the lifestyle of the society and the loss of
cultural values and the resulting unidentified identity. Therefore, the Cittaslow has the similar aims with
the sustainable tourism approach that is based on the approach of protecting and developing natural and
cultural landscape resource values of the region where it exists economically, ecologically and
environment-friendly. In this paper, the tools and action plans outlined in the UNESCO Historical Urban
Landscape Approach recommendation are examined and the 14 residential sites participating in the
Cittaslow network will be studied. Qualitative analysis method will be employed in this study. Practices
made on the basis of data received from the relevant local administrations of Cittaslow will be examined
in the context of historic urban landscape approach tools. Present situations have been primarily stated
to carry out the Cittaslow criteria in the settlements involved in the union of Cittaslow in Turkey in this
paper. After membership, the projects developed by local administrations within the scope of Cittaslow
movement, have been evaluated in the intersection of sustainable tourism and historical urban
landscape, and the influences of the implementations on Cittaslow have been set forth.
Keywords: sustainable tourism, historical urban landscape, Cittaslow
347
Introduction
Slow city movement started in 1986 at the opening of McDonald’s, held at Spanish Stairs in Rome, to
make a protest by throwing plates of Italian macaroni by the group led by the gastronomy journalist Carlo
Petrini with the notion that “city square aesthetics would be damaged and eating is not feeding with junk
food”. Following the establishment of “Slow Food Guild” in the Barolo City of Italy, the Guild had attained
an international characteristic in Paris in 1989 (Karadeniz, 2014; Üzümcü et al, 2016). This counteraction,
shaped spontaneously and called as “slow food”, has spread gradually and become a movement fed by a
common slowness cognizance, not only in food but also in living, travelling, education, reading, money
and other fields during the following years. This movement was developed as a “slow city movement”
and gained an institutional identity. According to the Cittaslow International Charter (2009), Cittaslows
are “non-profit entities and their objectives are to promote and spread the culture of good living through
research, testing and application of solutions for the city organization”. Cittaslow Charter provides
suggestions to reduce many negative effects of globalization including monotony and standardization by
popularizing the sustainable development principles in cities. Nilssoni et al., (2011)express the purpose
of the Cittaslow charter as both improving life quality of city dwellers and creating guest- friendly cities
and protecting and improving cultural heredity, architecture and traditions. Mayer & Knox (2006) define
the slow city as an alternative urban development cognizance and positioned it against the main
movement urban development cognizance. Radstrom (2011) emphasizes that the slowness concept
corresponds to better life quality, transcending from slow movement. On the other hand, Honore (2008)
states that slowness does not mean quiescence or provinciality but, on the contrary, it means protecting
the traditions and adapting the good sides of the modern world to the end.
The framework of the code consists of the establishment and organs of Cittaslow Charter and the
structure of these organs and the terms to be fulfilled by member cities to become a member of the
Charter. These terms, called as Cittaslow criteria, are a list specifying plans, projects, organizations and
programs that need to be attained by a city to become a member of Cittaslow Charter. These criteria are
described in sub-articles under the main headings of energy and environmental policies, infrastructural
policies, quality of urban quality policies, agricultural and touristic and artisan policies, social cohesion
and partnership (Table 1). The requirement for the city population to be less than 50 thousand has been
emphasized in the membership process (Keskin, 2012).
The criteria, to be fulfilled to become a member of “slow city” and included in Table 1, will prompt the
existing tourism potential of a region as well as ensure sustainability of tourism activities by promoting
the protection of its existing tourism potential. Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) forms 32
sustainability criteria under four main headings to achieve sustainability in the tourism sector and
designate the social responsibility of the sector, its environmental interactions and negative and positive
economic and cultural effects. These criteria are listed under four headings, namely policies of
sustainable administration systems, policies of socio-economic effects, policies of cultural interaction,
and policies of environmental interaction (Global Sustainable Tourism Council, 2018). Güneş et al. (2015)
describe the common relations between the criteria of sustainable tourism and being a slow city by using
the quantitative design method in their study. They conclude the results of their study that the
sustainable tourism criteria and slow city criteria are parallel to each other and environmental and social
policies have common characteristics.
Historical Urban Landscape Approach

The requirement for adapting some factors is prominent in the sustainable protection of historical
landscapes including the interaction between natural and structured environments, historical cities to
become the subject of new developments due to the layering of old and new city dynamics,
popularization of modern architecture in historical sites and development of awareness for this,
considering that change of economy and city roles occurs through micro and macro scale tourism
strategies, the concepts of specificity and completeness to become prominent for the protection of living
historical landscapes, use of the buffer zone concept as a protection strategy, and moral values (Tuna,
348
2016). The historical city landscape recommendation of UNESCO, suggesting the development of the
practice of a new city heredity protection that is able to cope with today’s globalization dynamics, was
approved by the UNESCO General Assembly on 10/11/2011 (UNESCO,2011).
The recommendation submits a landscape approach, considering the relations between physical forms,
spatial organizations and connections, natural features and positions and social, cultural and economic
values within a larger city concept to designate, protect and manage historical areas. This approach
consists of the issues of policy, administration and management where various partners participate,
including local, national, regional, international, public and private actors in the city development process
and develop the approach of “holistic urban protection” (UNESCO, 2011). The recommendation defines
historical city landscape instruments and action plans for accomplishing these criteria and integrating
them with the approach of city heredity protection (Table 2). These instruments have been set as civic
participation, informing and planning and regulating systems and financial instruments. The instruments
aim to achieve spatial and temporal sustainability of the settlement identity, which is a part of city
heredity. These instruments can be defined as elements, which shape protection codes by directing the
interventions and achieving employment by encouraging participation for the protection of society and
hence, contributing to the regional economy and which need to be integrated into city planning (Tuna,
2016b).
It is seen that the criteria, which are necessary to be a slow city, are parallel to each other by comparing
the Cittaslow criteria and historical city landscape approach. Cittaslow movement, based on the main
target of achieving sustainability of local identity, denotes activation of historical city landscape
instruments, which are necessary to protect cultural heredity and integrate it into the city planning
process. In this context, it can be concluded that a settlement, included in Cittaslow charter and have the
title of slow city, has fulfilled the main criteria defined in UNESCO’s recommendation and has committed
to fulfill them.
Table 1: The Cittaslow Membership Process Criteria

Air quality conservation* Development of agro-ecology**
Water quality conservation* Protection of handmade and labelled artisan
Drinking water consumption of residents production (certified, museums of culture, etc.)*
AGRICULTURAL, TURISTIC AND ARTISAN POLICIES
Urban solid separate waste collection* Increasing the value of working techniques and
ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES
Industrial and domestic composting traditional crafts*

Purification of sewage disposal* Increasing the value of rural areas (greater
Energy saving in buildings and public systems accessibility to resident services)*
Public energy production from renewable sources Use of local products, if possible organic, in
Reduction of visual pollution, traffic noise communal public restaurants (school canteens,
Reduction of public light pollution* etc.)*
Electrical energy consumption of resident families Education of flavors and promoting the use of
Conservation of biodiversity local products, if possible organic in the catering
industry and private consumption*
Conservation and increasing the value of local
cultural events*
Additional hotel capacity (beds/residents per
year*
Prohibiting the use of GMO in agriculture
New ideas for enforcing plans concerning land
settlements previously used for agriculture
349
Efficient cycle paths connected to public buildings Good welcome (training of people in charge, signs,
Length (in kms) of the urban cycle paths created suitable infrastructure and hours)*
over the total of kms of urban roads* Increasing awareness of operators and traders
POLICIES FOR HOSPITALITY, AWARENESS AND TRAINING

Bicycle parking in interchange zones (transparency of offers and practiced prices, clear
Planning of eco-mobility as an alternative to visibility of tariffs)*
private cars* Availability of “slow” itineraries (printed, web,etc.)
Removal of architectural barriers* Adoption of active techniques suitable for
Initiatives for family life and pregnant women* launching bottom-up processes in the more
Verified accessibility to medical services important administrative decisions
INFRASTRUCTURAL POLICIES
“Sustainable” distribution of merchandise in urban Permanent training of trainers and /or

centers administrators and employees on Cittaslow slow
Percentage of residents that commutes daily to themes**
work in another town* Health education (battle against obesity, diabetes,
etc.)
Systematic and permanence information for the
citizens regarding the meaning of Cittaslow (even
pre-emptively on adherence)*
The active presence of associations operating with
the administration on Cittaslow themes
Support for Cittaslow campaigns*
Insertion/use of the Cittaslow logo on headed
paper and website*
Planning for urban resilience** Minorities discriminated

Interventions of recovery and increasing the value Enclave / neighbors
of civic centers (street furniture, tourist signs, Integration of disable people
aerials, urban landscape mitigation conservation* Children care
SOCIAL COHESION
Recovery/creation of social green areas with Youth condition

productive plants and/or fruit trees** Poverty
Urban livableness (“house-work, nursery, company Community association
hours, etc.”) Multicultural integration
Requalification and reuse of marginal areas* Political participation
Use of ICT in the development of interactive Public housing
services for citizens and tourists* The existence of youth activity areas, and a youth
QUALITY OF URBAN LIFE POLICIES
Service desk for sustainable architecture (bio- center

architecture, etc.)* Support for Cittaslow campaigns and activity
Cable network city (fiber optics, wireless)* Collaboration with other organizations promoting
Monitoring and reduction of pollutants (noise,
PARTNERSHIPS
natural and traditional food

electrical systems,etc.)* Support for twinning projects and cooperation for
Development of telecommuting the development of developing countries covering
Promotion of private sustainable urban planning also the spread philosophies of Cittaslow
(passivhouse, mater.construction, etc.)
Promotion of social infrastructure (time-based
currency, freecycling projects, etc.)
*= Obligatory requirement
Promotion of public sustainable urban planning
**= Perspective requirements
(passivhouse, mater. construction, etc.)*
Recovery/creation of productive green areas with
productive plants and/ or of fruit within the urban
perimeter**
Creation of spaces for the commercialization of
local products*
Protection /increasing value of workshops-creation
of natural shopping centers*
Meter cubes of cement (net infrastructures) in
green urban areas
Source: Cittaslow International Charter (2017)Retrieved from http://www.cittaslow.org p.25-27.
350
Table 2: Historical Urban Landscape (HUL) toolkits
HUL Approach Toolkits

Civic Engagement Tools Knowledge and Planning Regulatory Systems Financial Tools
Tools
-Accessible, multiplatform -The holistic planning - Zoning ordinance - Private Public Partnership targeted
urban planning vision process that incorporates underpinned by urban funding for Urban Heritage
process urban heritage & values heritage database - Public Capital Improvements
- Public forums about - Documentation of - Conservation - Ongoing Public Maintenance
aspects of the urban tangible & intangible easement law Staffing & Budgets
future community heritage - Historic district - Private Building & Property
- Web-based local - Urban viewscape commission law Maintenance
heritage games mapping for building - Traditional, - Purchase Y Resale with
- Urban heritage issues envelope, height, location customary systems, Conservation Restrictions
web exchange blogs, chat -Planning for the indigenous peoples - Revolving Loan Fund addressing
rooms conservation of natural & - Legislated climate Historic Structures
- Planning charrettes with cultural resources change targets - Long-Term Lease of Heritage
open dialogue - Targeted urban - Tree protection Properties
-Documentation projects, preservation, ordinance - Mutual Covenants
oral interviews, videos management, tourism - Green - Outright Purchase of Key Properties
-Community heritage plans Infrastructure, - Conservation Easements
stewardship skill - Green infrastructure Renewable Energy - Transfer of Development Rights
development, workshops, knowledge applied with Codes - Donations of Heritage Property to
projects heritage considered - Multi-purpose Reliable Stewards
- Volunteer efforts to - Plans incorporating overlay districts, for - Funding for Urban Heritage
sustain local historic heritage values to the economy, Conservation Agencies
places address streets, public heritage, aesthetics, - Grant Programs for Urban
facilities, storm-water, conservation Intangible and Tangible Heritage
parks, etc. - The legislation Actions
specifically addressing - Taxation Laws Favoring
urban heritage Preservation Investments
stewardship/manage
ment
- Urban viewscape
controls
Source: O’Donnel& Turner (2016)The Historic Urban Recommendation: A New UNESCO Tool for
Sustainable Future, IFLA Cape Town, Retrieved from http://www.heritagelandscapes.com
It is crucial for the destinations to carry their tourism activities with sustainable development principles
in cities. The aim of this study to research the Cittaslows in Turkey if they meet the criteria of UNESCO
Historical Urban Landscape Approach in the context of sustainable tourism. There are many studies about
both sustainable tourism and Cittaslow. But there is no research studying Cittaslows with meeting the
criteria of UNESCO Historical Urban Landscape Approach. Because it is the first study to investigate the
Cittaslows in Turkey in the frame of UNESCO Historical Urban Landscape Approach, it is thought that this
study will contribute to the literature.
Material and Method

The qualitative research method was selected in this paper not to consider the selected subject as
separate from human and the process and to facilitate access to information. Multiple case study was
applied for choosing the slow cities. The data was collected by face-to-face and email environment
interviews with local administration representatives. A literature search was conducted during the study
and brochures, CDs, catalogues, articles, books, thesis and projects on the subject were reviewed and the
necessary information was collected. Furthermore, a detailed internet search was performed to access
up-to-date information.
There are 236 Cittaslows in 30 countries in the world and 15 of the Cittaslowsare in Turkey. The Slow City
Movement in Turkey started on November 28, 2009, when Seferihisar of Izmir City was included in Slow
City charter as the first city of Turkey and the 129th city of the world. As a result of the studies conducted
to popularize this movement in Turkey, Taraklı (Sakarya), Gökçeada (Çanakkale), Yenipazar (Aydın), Yalvaç
(Isparta), and Akyaka (Muğla) have earned the title of slow city in 2011, Vize (Kırklareli) and Perşembe
351
(Ordu) in 2012, Halfeti (Şanlıurfa) in 2013, Şavşat (Artvin) in 2015, Uzundere (Erzurum), Eğirdir (Isparta),
Göynük (Bolu), and Gerze (Sinop) in 2017, and Mudurnu (Bolu) in 2018(CittaslowTürkiye, 2018). Because
Mudurnu has just earned this title, it could not possible to collect data from this Cittaslow. So, in the
current paper, there are 14 Cittaslows to study.
Results
Natural and cultural landscape resource values of the mentioned slow cities in Turkey, activities
conducted in the area, local gastronomy, local economic resources and projects performed by the local
administrations during and after the Cittaslow membership process are outlined in Table 3. The data
shown in Table 3 were collected by interviews held with the authorized technical team of local
administrations involved in the follow up of the process.
352
Table 3: Natural and cultural landscape resources of slow cities and projects performed by the local
administrations
Natural and cultural Local gastronomy Local economic Projects performed by the local
landscape resource and festivals resources administrations
Beaches (in West, Azmak, Sıyırma dessert Agricultural products Women’s Cooperative
KüçükAkkum, BüyükAkkum, Tarhana and village bazaar Seferipazar.com
Akarca, Ekmeksiz, Bahadır, Yuvalaça (Armola goat cheese, Seed bank project
Çıfıtkalesi; in South, Ekmekdolması, satsuma mandarin, Sustainable Fishery Project (AB)
PayamlıDoğanbey, İpekkum Mandarin dessert Alfons type of grape, Vegetable gardens at schools
and Ürkmez), Thermals- EnginarDolması house wine, olive oil Sığacık Landscape Project (İZKA - İzmir
thermaes (Doğanbey, Tuzla, Samsades dessert Development Agent)
Karakoç, Cumalı, Uyuz, Nohutlu Mantı Atatürk Avenue Improvement Study
Ahmetçi, Gelinboğan, Traditional Armola Children-Friendly Seferihisar Project (UNICEF)
Hamamönü), Wetlands Ecological Branding in Tourism (IZKA)
(Azmak), Agricultural lands Blue Flag Projects
(Ulamış-Düzce-Seferihisar Project of Monumental Olive Trees
plains, Doğanbey-Payamlı- Project of Home for Street Animals
Ürkmez plains), Forested Children’s Municipality Project
lands (forested areas Nature School Project
around Gödence, Beyler, Dutlaraltı Square Project
and small forest area in Young Bank Project
Teos), Rivers and dams Project of Women’s Labor Centers
(major rivers such as Ulamış Beach soccer field project
creek, Yassıçay, Karakoç, Teos wetland dune support project
and Seferihisar, Kavakdere, Project of Fairytale Centers
SEFERİHİSAR
Ürkmez dams). Ancient Project of treatment plant establishment

settlements (Teos, seed swap festival, Fishery eco-tourism, Project of wise tree olive oil production
Herakleia, Lebedos, Mandarin festival, coastal tourism Tangerine jam – canned artichoke project
Myonnesos), the Seljuk and SeferihisarlılaExhibiti (İZKA)
Ottoman settlements on Street luminaries with solar energy
(Karaköse, Sığacık Castle, Carbon emission estimation
Seferihisar), Historical Compost facility
Turkish baths-"Hamam" in Construction of solar energy plant
Turkish (Büyükhamam,
Küçükhamam,
Ulamışhamam,
Düzcehamam,
SığacıkKaleiçiHamam),
Mosque and madrasahs
(Hereke Mosque,
KasımÇelebi Madrasah and
Social Complex, Ulamış
Mosque, Güdük Minaret
Mosque, Hıdırlık Mosque,
Turabiye Mosque,
Ulu(Great) Mosque, Sığacık
Mosque), Water aqueduct
(seven girls aqueduct)
Tumuli (Güneşlikent
tumulus, Hıdırlık Tumuli)
Karagöl Plateau, Keşkek culture tourism, Taraklı Thermal Touristic Springs

Güngörmez Waterfall, YaprakDolması Thermal tourism, Producer markets
ÇilePınarı, monument EtliNohut-Köpük tableland tourism, Restoration of traditional houses and
sycamore, Halva speleological commercial building
TARAKLI
HacıyakupPaşalar Village, tourism, paragliding City square landscape project,

YunusPaşa Mosque, Taraklı tourism
Houses, historical Vegetable-fruit
bath,Taraklı streets, growing,
Küçükhan, Çakırlar, Manufacture and
Orhangazi Bazaar, Hark sale of traditional
353
Canyon and Cave, fortress, Camping and handicraft products
water mill. Caravanser Festival, such as scalloped
Nature-culture and cloths and wooden
handcrafts festival, spoons, boxed combs
Hıdırlıkpilav festival
Beaches; Aydıncık, Gizli Seafood dishes, Trekking, diving, Slow Food Convivium
Liman, KuzuLiman,LazKoyu, kuzukapama windsurfing tourism Gökçeada Gastronomy Research Center
Marmaros, MaviKoy, Viniculture, Organic Agriculture Project
YıldızKoy, Yuvalı, Vegetable-fruit Earth Market within the scope of
Lakes:TuzGölü, Kaşkaval, 15 August Mary's growing, bee CittaslowGökçeada Earth Market Project
Waterfall: Marmaros, main festival culture, honey Valentina Hiking Trail
Villages: Şahinkaya, Gökçeada motorcycle production, coastal Kaleköy Landscape Work
Dereköy, Eşelek, Şirinköy, festival Gökçeadaot tourism, fishery
EskiBademli, Kaleköy, festival
Tepeköy, Uğurlu, Gökçeadanaish open
GÖKEÇEADA
YeniBademli, Zeytinli, cup festival Easter

Historical places: holiday Gökçeada
Mosques:Central Mosque, Gastronomy and
historcial laundry, İskitler Agriculture Festival
castle,, rock tombs,
churches and monasteries:
Church of AyaPanayia,
Metropolitan, Aya Varvara,
AyaMarina, AgiosGeorgios,
EvangelismosTeotoku,
HagiaMarina,KoimesisTisTh
eotokos, YeniBademli
Mound
Gökova Valley, UlaKebap, seafood Organic bazaar, Project of surf tourism, Geyik Canyon Project,
Sedir Island, and olive oil dishes, tobacco, cereals, protection Project for Gökova Gulf,
Cleopatra beach, yaprakciğer, sesame growing, eucalyptus road Project, Kanunui road
Idyma Ancient City, EkşiliTavuk poultry farming, Project, arrangement projects for disabled,
Hüsamettin Efendi Mosque Vegetable-fruit Karia walking road project
Yeni Mosque, Agalar growing,
Ula Culture and Art
Mosque, Kitesurfing,
AKYAKA
Festival Garlic and

Gölova-Akyaka, windsurfing, sea
Cherry Festival
traditional houses canyon, bike tours,
Bullfighting events
rock climbing, river
canopy, paragliding,
sailing, canyon pass,
horse riding, fishing,
bird atlas work, bird
watching tourism
Yörük Ali Efe Museum, EkmekDolması Organic bazaars, bee Municipality Energy Saving Project by using
Beyler Tower, YenipazarPidesi culture, ginnery, olive alternative energy resources (renewable
Donduran Castle, Et Lelengisi oil fabric, Vegetable- resources, green hydrogen, mini-
AlhanHamam, Hurma(Yuvarlama) fruit growing (cotton, hydroelectric energy plant) and producing
Aşağı Dip Natura Park, KarnabaharMücveri, corn, wheat, olives), renewable resources and heat from
Çamlık Recreation Area, Keşkek production of biomasses.
historic windmill YavruKavurması traditional folk arts Solar furnace project
YENİPAZAR
such as folk dolls, Natural Products Market Project

Traditional
iğneoyası Ottoman “sospesopiantare” project
KaraçakalYörükleri
telkırma, “Women’s Environment
Culture and
mountaineering, Culture and Operation Cooperative
Promotion Festival
trekking, paragliding, Seed trade project
Traditional Camel
bird watching “Student Gardens” project
Wrestling Cycling
Aşağıdip Lake Nature Orthosia Cultural
Festival Spring
Center
Festival
“Aşağı Dip Lake Natural Park” project
preparations are ongoing
354
Hoyran Lake, Ayıini Cave, "YalvaçPsidiaAntiokh Precious handicrafts - Solar energy plant project
Çınaraltı eia Culture Tourism Ironmongery Clear Yalvaç Project
Devlethan Mosque, and Art Festival Semercilik Leather Skateboard park project
Psidia Ancient City, House Hıdırellez festivals Saddlery Urban Transformation Projects Park
of Tıraşzade, House of Keçe, Bike Races Embroidering Horse Municipality Square Landscape project
Leather Industry Open Air car construction
YALVAÇ
Museum, Mustafa Bilgin Art Yalvaç bazaar

House, Traditional Dining
House, Yalvaç Museum,
rock toms, Ay Tanrısı Men
sanctuary, Ottoman
Hamam,
Kacakoçak hill, Linden honey Vegetable-fruit Wind plant project for clean energy
Çiftekaynakalar, Vize cheese, growing (Wheat, production
Asmakayalar Cave, oğlakçevirme, sunflower, sugar Street Development Project in collaboration
Yenesu Cave, kiremittemantarlıalab beet, corn, legumes, with Thrace Development Agency
Kıyıköy, alık, stinging nettle onion), bee culture, Cultural Heredity for Cross-Border Harmony
Cehennem Waterfall, soup fishery, and Prospect
GaziSüleymanPaşa Mosque Diving, kite surf, Project of Improvement of Vize Country
(LittelAyasofya), Thrace gastronomy paragliding tourism Waste Management Infrastructure
VİZE
Serbetdar Hasan bey festival Bicycle” Project

Mosque, To borderless Equality – Youth Camp Project
Vize Castle and rampart, Improvement of Haliçi Region by
Ancient theather, accomplishing “Local Project” of Vize’s
FerhatBeyHammam and Attraction Center
fountain, Cross-Border Youth Cultural Center
Asmakayalar monastery
Koçboynuzu (Kral) path Hamsilipilav, Fishery, Establishment of the Sewage Treatment

Hoynat Island, melocankavurması, Diving, kite surf, Facility
Medreseönü jonycake, ret beet paragliding tourism Ivy geranium distribution to all porches
Afırlı Mosque, soup and sarma, Vegetable-fruit located at seaside and poles located at
YasonburnuFeneri, sakarcakayganası, growing (hazelnut, central refuge
Çaka, Aktaş, Efirli Beach, Galdirikkavurması, kiwi, strawberry) Building approximately 10 km of bicycle track
Çamburnu, Çeşmeönü, from OrduKumbaşı District till
PERŞEMBE
pickle
Kışlaönü, PerşembeKaleyaka District
Mersin Villages, Perşembe spring Building birdwatching places at Hoynat Island
Şenyurt waterfall, festival bird heaven and rearrangement of
Babalı rock tombs, Koçboynuzu (Kral) path as a hiking trail in
Belicesu, collaboration with the Nature Association
Büyükağız Street Development Project and Perşembe
City Square Project
Organic market
Birecik Dam, Rumkale, sablefish kebab, Cattle-raising, sheep Organic market

Barşavma Monastery, eggplant tomato and goat breeding Halfeti city park
Gürkuyu Church, onion fig kebab viniculture, District sports fields
House of Kanterma çağırtlak kebab Olive cultivation Halfeti Pier and Marina project
Mezrası, dolma eziği, plum Peanut breeding, Project of electric production from garbage
tava, mukaşerli pilav,
HALFETİ
Aziz Nerses Church, cereal planting,

Birdhouse constructed with sargıburma tatlısı, Boating tourism
traditional cut stone semsek, cheese halva
Fruit Food Festival

Fragrance Festival
Black Rose Festival
Villages: Maden, Haşuta,kaysefezurfiy Cattle-raising, sheep Project of building vegetable, fruit and plant
Tepeköy, et, sinor, kuymak, and goat breeding, desiccation machinery with solar energy in
Otluca, gendima, şilay, Bee culture, the county
ŞAVŞAT
Yavuzköy, Karagöl, pekmez, cheese Vegetable-fruit Local product market

Veli, Plateau: eritme, iron dessert, growing (potato, Tepeköy Traditional Life Cultural Museum
Sahara, Arşiyan, pickles pear, apple, quince, Life Campus solid waste association studies
Arşiyan lake, plum, cherry,
Children’s Municipality project
355
Suatan waterfall, Sahara Culture and cranberry and Clear Living Center
Cevizli monastery, Art Festival walnut) Animal shelter studies
Şavşat castle, ŞavşatYavuzköy local product bazaar Women’s living center
Satlel Church and cemetery, Winter festivals local woodworking Domestic seed bank
Tamara rooms, ŞavşatVeliköy snow hydro-tourism and Honeysuckle Center
VeliKöy Wood Mosque, wrestling festival thermal tourism, Project of Making Shop Signs Adaptable to
Tepeköy Traditional Life MeydancıkSateve tableland tourism
the vernacular architecture
Cultural Museum festival
Meydancık stone arch KarüstüKarakucak
bridge, Yavuzköy viewing wrestling festival
platform Marioba festival
Çavdarlı village
Saparkule festival
Tortum waterfall, Tandır bread Vegetable-fruit Uzundere Boutique Hotel and Welcoming
Yedigöller, Uzundere, growing (Barley, Center Project
Çağlayan Cave, DAP-Young-Festival, Wheat, Onions, Project of Supporting Yıkıklar Natural
Chimney Rock, Traditional Karakucak Potatoes, Corn, Environment Protection and Process of
UZUNDERE
(peribacaları) Wrestling Clover and Sauce) Joining of Çoruh Valley to Eurovelo European
Öşk monastery, Bird Watch Festival trout farming, bee Bicycle Network
Sapanca (Eşkisor) castle, East Anatolian Youth culture, greenhouse, Project of European Tourism Indicators of
Engüzel castle, Festival forestry, rafting, Sustainable Management (ETIS) at
İnçer Mosque Destination
Uzundere tourism master plan 2023
Eğirdir lake, A kitchen where Handmade products Cittaslow Local Market

Eğirdir castle, apple is used in Cattle-raising, sheep Project of city tour with a parachute
Eğirdir Caravanserai, different dishes and goat breeding, Recycling projects
Green Island, Forest product, apple Village bazar to sell village products of Pınar
Kovada Lake product, Bazar street fair
Nature Park, Triathlon races carpet weaving, Cittaslow square
Bridge tournaments,
EĞİRDİR
Altınkum beach, tableland tourism, Nostalgic train study

Bedre village, Classical Music hunting, water sports Smart water meter construction
Prostanna Ancient City, Festival, Moral tourism, fishery Handmade products sale shop
Dündaybeyhammam and Festival Motorcycle Stamp construction with Cittaslow logo
madrasah and Bicycle Festivals Study of bicycle track construction along the
Classical Music seaside
Festival Optimist Prize Sirkeci project
Races for Children Eğirdir market project
Çubuk lake, Tarhana, Erişte, , Religious tourism, GaziSüleyman Pasha Boulevard arbor,
Sünnet lake, Düğün Soup, Thermal tourism, greening and landscape studies (3 parks,
Şarlahan waterfall and Keş (Kesik), Güveç, poultry farming, namely Akşemseddin, Çeşme and Kepkebir
canyon, kuzu doldurma, fixingCattle-raising, parks and children playgrounds have been
Akşemseddin shrine, Oklava dessert sheep and goat renewed).
Zaferturm, baklava, höşmerim, breeding, Historical Çınaraltı tea garden environmental
BıçakçıÖmerDede shrine, Potato, aubergine, Bee culture, planning and construction of new fishery and
GaziSüleymanPaşa Mosque curd, cheese, squash, forestry produce shops at Municipality Square
and hammam, spinach, Göynük Municipality Local Handcraft
GÖYNÜK
DebbağDede shrine, mancourished, Education Center

Gürcüler City museum precious pide Digital City Development Plan and Smart City
Management System, CBS and city
Cittaslow Turkey surveillance camera system
Festival Putting healthy living club into service
Historical Hz. Akşemseddin Mosque
restoration and historical SofualiMosque
restoration
Restoration of the existing ‘village products
bazar’ building according to the county
architecture
Yelken hill, Sorku waterfall, Kaşıkhamuru, Organic bazaars, Ecological agricultural product bazar
Sökü plateau, Değirmenli nokul, saltfish, tableland tourism, Project of sign transformation according to
waterfall, Derecuma Nuri DedeSimidi, woodenworks (toys, the traditional architecture
mosque, the house of Zıbıdık, Kulak hamuru shipbuilding, City design directory project
GERZE
Yakupağa, Çeçe Sultan with meat, carving), the art of Project of old historical monument
shrine, İskele mosque, Kazıyak,düğün halvah tile-making, nature protection cultural center opening
Stonehouse, Köşk mound, tourism Cultural Center Project
356
Tümüleinecropol, July 18-20 Gerze Disabled People Friendly Say Beach (renewed
lighthouse Festival temporarily)
International Recycling projects
children's theater Project of clear living parks
festival Illumination of Gerze Ecologic Village Parks
Culture and art with Solar Energy
festival City Design Project
Grease Wrestling Gürleyik Creek Route Pedestrian and Bicycle
Festival Track Landscape Project
Children's Festival Coastal Road Project
and Traditional Kite Dereyeri and AlaattinŞahin Avenue Beach
Festival Building Design Project
As seen in Table 4, the activities performed by local administrations in slow cities that joined the Cittaslow
Charter during and after the Cittaslow membership process are assessed according to the tools
determined by UNESCO in the historical city landscape approach.
357
Table 4: Comparison of slow cities according to the tools determined by UNESCO in the historical city
landscape approach.
Slow Cities in Turkey
SEFERİHİSAR
YENİPAZAR
GÖKÇEADA
The tools determined by UNESCO
UZUNDERE
PERŞEMBE
GÖYNÜK
TARAKLI
AKYAKA
EĞİRDİR
HALFETİ
YALVAÇ
ŞAVŞAT
GERZE
VİZE
Accessible, multiplatform urban planning vision process + + + + + + + + + + + - + -
Civic Engagement Tools
Public forums about aspects of the urban future + - + - - + - + - + + + + +

Web based local heritage games - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Urban heritage issues web exchange blogs, chat rooms + - + + + - - + - - - + + -
Planning charrettes with open dialogue + + + + + + + + - + + + + +
Documentation projects, oral interviews, videos
Volunteer efforts to sustain local historic places + - + - + - - + - + - + + -
Community heritage stewardship skill development, + - + - - - + + + - - + + -
workshops, projects
Holistic planning process that incorporates urban + + + - + - + + + + + - + -
heritage & values
Knowledge and Planning Tools
Documentation of tangible & intangible community + - + + + + + + - + + - + +

heritage
Urban viewscape mapping for building envelope, height, + + + + + + - + - + + + + +
location
Planning for conservation of natural & cultural resources + + + + + + + + - + + + + +
Targeted urban preservation, management, tourism + + + + + + + + - - + + + -
plans
Green infrastructure knowledge applied with heritage + - + + + + + + - - + - + -
considered
Plans incorporating heritage values to address streets, + + + + + - + + - + + + + +
public facilities, storm-water, parks, etc.
Zoning ordinance underpinned by urban heritage + - - - + - + + + + + + + -
database
Conservation development plan + + + + + + + + - - + + + -
Traditional, customary systems, indigenous peoples + + + + + + + + - + + + + -
Regulatory Systems
Legislated climate change targets - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Tree protection ordinance - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Green Infrastructure, Renewable Energy Codes + - + - + + - + + + + + + -
Multi-purpose overlay districts, for economy, heritage, + - + - + + - + + - - + + -
aesthetics, conservation
Legislation specifically addressing urban heritage + + + - + - + + + + + - + -
stewardship/management
Urban viewscape controls + + + + + + - + + - - - + -
Private Public Partnership targeted funding for Urban + + + - - - - + + + + - + -
Heritage
Public Capital Improvements + - + - + + + + - - + - + -
Ongoing Public Maintenance Staffing & Budgets + + + + - + + + - + + - + +
Private Building & Property Maintenance + - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Financial Tools
Revolving Loan Fund addressing Historic Structures + + + - + + + + - + - - + -

Long-Term Lease of Heritage Properties + - + - + - - + + - - - + -
Legal facilities in the protection actions + + + - - - + + - + - - + -
Donations of Heritage Property to Reliable Stewards + - + - - - - + + + + + + +
Funding for Urban Heritage Conservation Agencies + + + - - + - + + - + + + -
Grant Programs for Urban Intangible and Tangible + - + - + + - + + + + + + -
Heritage Actions
Conclusions
358
Studies conducted at public spaces by local administrations in slow cities of Turkey can have multiple
aspects encompassing various headings in the membership criteria. However, landscape design in public
spaces may be assessed within more definitive limits in the framework of the target of the easy and
convenient use of public spaces by city dwellers and achieving sustainable local progress and attaining
good living quality. In this context, as a result of a general assessment based on the impressions obtained
in field studies, the organizations of public spaces in slow cities in Turkey can be grouped in the lights of
the membership criteria under the headings of, pedestrianizing /vehicle-free road, street
improvement/development, square landscape design, park and sports field organization, providing areas
for local producers/producer markets, cultural centers/city museum, alternative transportation roads
(bicycle tracks, etc.), restored/transformed structures as open to public, studies conducted for the
involvement of women and youngsters in public spaces, access of disabled people to public spaces,
establishment of public communication areas through internet/ social media use, blue flag beaches for
counties located by seaside (Yavuzçehre&Donat, 2017).
Considering the general assessment in addition to the city assessment, despite it is indicated that there
are specific arrangements in any slow city, it is common knowledge that these arrangements occur in
considerably different numbers and characteristics in slow cities. It is seen that relatively specific studies
in locations have been conducted excluding Seferihisar in the framework of slow city criteria for
improving sustainable local development and life quality.
Considering slow cities in the context of historical city landscape approach, it is seen that nearly all
planning tools have been put into practice in Seferihisar slow city but, only a small part of them has been
adopted in Gerze slow city. Considering the distribution of HLC toolkits in slow cities, knowledge and
planning tools have been applied yet regulatory tools have not been applied adequately. This case can
be explained by deficiencies in national protection policies or more substantial effect of defects in local
scale.
Among the tools proposed in the development of Historical Urban Landscape (HUL), while the
applications made in Seferihisar and Gökçeada Cittaslows under the scope of Civic Engagement Tools
stand out, it has been determined that the studies conducted in Gerze are generally insufficient. This
situation is thought to be related to the year of obtaining the status of a Cittaslow.
It is seen that especially the conservation practices concentrated in slow cities of Seferihisar, Gökçeada,
Yenipazar, Uzungöl, Perşembe and Göynük but Halfeti is behind. The lack of development plans for
protection in the slow city of Halfeti is an important deficiency in planning studies aimed at preserving
deficiencies in tourism master plans and infrastructure plans.
Regulatory systems tool within the frame of global climate change in all slow cities due to the risk analysis
(erosion, carrying capacity, etc.) was not done and in this context, the protection regulations were not
required to determine the legal regulations were determined. Within the scope of the green
infrastructure system in slow cities, only the applications to benefit from solar energy have been
determined.
In the context of financial tools, it is determined that the necessary budgets for conservation practices
are supported by local administrations through protection implementation and audit offices,
development agencies, sponsorship and donation campaigns. However, it is known that non-
governmental organizations, in general, are not actively involved in this process.
Generally, it is well known that having the title of Cittaslow is not a conclusion but a process. It is seen
that the success of applications to be performed in the context of Cittlaslow criteria and historical city
landscape approach depends on achieving sustainability of activities and applications that are to be
conducted by local administrations as the most critical actor of the application and management of the
process. The process progresses uninterruptedly and based on the means of the local administration in
slow cities, where the management and administration staff have not been changed by elections,
however, this process has been interrupted in cities, whose administrators have been changed. This
359
situation can be clarified by adopting Cittaslow cognizance by public and awareness improvement
(Özmen et al., 2006).
References
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BasımYayımDağıtım.
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Keskin, E.B. (2012) Sürdürülebilir Kent Kavramına Farklı Bir Bakış: YavaşŞehirler (Cittaslow), PARADOKS
Economics, Sociology and Policy Journal, 8(1), 81-99.
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Destination Development, Current Issues in Tourism, 14(4), 373-386.
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Sustainable Future, IFLA CapeTown, 1-16, Retrieved fromhttp:
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Bakmak: Türkiye’deki Cittaslow Şehirleri Üzerine Bir Araştırma, Online Journal of the Faculty of
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of Cittaslow, Italian Journal of Planning Practice, 1(1), 90-113.
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Historical Environment in Turkey.InR. Efe, İ. Curebal,A. Gad & B. Toth (Eds.), Environmental Sustainability
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Tuna, A. (2016b) Tarihi Kentsel Peyzaj Yaklaşımı Kapsamında İyi Uygulama Örnekleri (Best Practices in the
context of Historical Urban Landscape Approach). Paper presented at the 6th Landscape Architecture
Congress, Antalya, Türkiye.
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Biographical Notes
Aysun Tuna is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Landscape Architecture, İnönü University,
Battalgazi, Malatya, Türkiye where she teaches courses on the historical landscape and landscape design
and application techniques. Her research focuses on the sustainable historical urban landscape.
Biographical Notes
HulisiBinbasioglu is an Assistant Professor of the School of Kale Tourism and Hotel Management at
Malatya TurgutÖzal University in Turkey. He received his BSc in Tourism and Hotel Management at
Anadolu University, Eskisehir, and MSc and PhD in Marketing from Inonu University, Malatya. His
teaching and researches related to tourism, cultural heritage, mobile technology and social media.
Biographical Notes
Bilge Hatun Ay is a graduate student in the Department of Landscape Architecture, İnönü University,
Battalgazi, Malatya.
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7425
ANALYSING THE RESEARCHES ON DESTINATION LIFE CYCLE IN SSCI

JOURNALS: A META SYNTHESIS STUDY
Birgül Aydın
PhD Candidate
Eskişehir, Turkey
birgulaydin@anadolu.edu.tr
Begüm Önem
Postgraduate Student
Eskişehir, Turkey
begumonem00@gmail.com
Emre Ozan Aksöz

Associate Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to analyze the 25 studies that were conducted on “destination life cycle”
using meta-synthesis method and reveal what kind of a trend exists on destination life cycle. In this
context, 25 studies that were conducted on destination life cycle between the years 1990 and 2015 were
analyzed. It was determined that “qualitative research methods” were used to a great extent in these
studies. Additionally, it was detected that “overnight stay ratio,” “number of resorts,” “number of tourists
" had been used in determining at which stage the region was in the destination life cycle. In conclusion,
it was put forth that destination life cycle model could be used in revealing tourism development process
and the model was applicable.
Keywords: Destination, Life Cycle, Studies, Meta-Synthesis.
Introduction
With the development of tourism in destinations, the destinations undergo changes in terms of
economic, environmental and social aspects. Parallel to this change, differentiation begins in tourists’
preferences and needs, and popularity and attractiveness of a destination may decrease. However, the
destinations should preserve their charm and attractiveness under all circumstances despite all the
negativity that have been experienced. Life cycle models take an important place in comprehending the
destinations’ role in the development of tourism and their current situations, and in addition to that in
providing the development of tourism in a planned and sustainable way.
It is known that there are various models related with tourism development in the literature (Gilbert,
1939; Christaller, 1963; Plog, 1974; Doxey, 1975; Butler 1980). Various researches suggest Butler’s (1980)
tourism area life cycle model as a temporal oriented development cycle model that best examines the
processes of tourism areas from their exploration to consolidation (Cooper, 1994; Tooman, 1997; Garay
and Canoves, 2011). The reason for this is that it provides an analytical framework to study the evolution
of destinations within their complex economic, social and cultural environments, and allows the synthesis
of many changes (Cooper and Jackson, 1989). Tourism area life cycle model (TALC) explains the stages of
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development and change that destinations experience as a product beginning from their exploration
(Butler, 1980).
When the literature is reviewed, it is seen that there are various studies on the life cycle model that Butler
(1980) offered. Although the model was criticized by authors in terms of its difficulties in application and
deficiencies (Choy, 1992; Agarwal, 1997; Zimmerman, 1997; Coles, 2006), it is seen that the studies
conducted regarding the model increased significantly after it was suggested by Butler (1984) (Hovinen,
1981; Oglethorpe, 1984; Haywood, 1986; Weaver, 1988, 1990, 1992; Cooper, 1990; Martin and Uysal,
1990; Cooper, 1992; Choy, 1992; O’Hare and Barrett, 1993; Cooper, 1994; Braunlich, 1996; Meyer, 1996;
Agarwal, 1997; Tooman, 1997; Russell and Faulkner, 1998; Priestley and Mundet, 1998; Oppermann,
1998; Agarwal, 1998; Baum, 1998; Knowles and Curtis,1999; Agarwal, 2002; Hovinen, 2002; Moss, et
al.,2003; Darma et al., 2006; Oreja Rodriguez et al.,2007; Brooker and Burgess, 2008; Zhong et al., 2008;
Kozak and Martin, 2011; Baidal et al., 2013; Lee and Weaver, 2014; Lundberg, 2015). These studies are
generally about the applicability of the model and at which stage an area is in the life cycle model. In this
context, main purpose of the study is to examine the studies that were conducted within the scope of
destination life cycle by using meta-synthesis analysis. It is important to examine the studies in terms of
obtaining a general evaluation in context of research methods, research areas and results obtained in the
studies on destination life cycle. In this regard, 25 studies that were published between the years 1990
and 2015 were analyzed through meta-synthesis analysis.
Literature Review
The concept of life cycle has been applied in many fields in examining the process of development and
change. At the beginning, it was used in biology in explaining the circular cycle of individuals of a species
which include the stages of regeneration, conception, birth, reproduction and rebirth among different
generations. In the 1960s, growth curve was used by the business world to model a sales curve of a
product on a temporal basis (O’Hare and Barnett, 1997 as cited in Levitt, 1965).
Geographers have made it popular by putting forth the concept of destination life cycle. It was accepted
that tourist destinations also advance through a typical S-shaped growth curve or life cycle. Geographer
Gilbert (1939) was the first person who suggested this idea for the island and shore health institutions in
England on the Scottish Geographical Journal. Later, Christaller (1963) stated that comprehensive tourism
development models should take into account the temporal and spatial evolution of destinations. These
two geographers, both biology and physical geography life cycle and growth curve models (Davies, 1899),
revealed a three-stage evolution of tourism which includes exploration, development and old stage in an
area. Butler (1980), basing on product life cycle and applying considerations on life cycle, created a six-
stage evolutionary model which monitors exploration, development and saturation of an area and later
shows decline.
Butler’s tourism area life cycle model handles destinations as a product. It is stated that destination
development models closely reflect classical life cycle curve (Choy, 1992). Like products, destinations
experience a growth period, then a rapid progress and development period, after that a slow growth and
ultimately decline. In product life cycle model, a product remains unchanged and different marketing
efforts and strategies are applied for each period. If the product changes, then the cycle starts again.
However, destinations experience the evolutionary process of change depending on the changes in
supply and demand. When the characteristics or supply of destinations change, life cycle starts again
(Butler, 2009).
“Tourism Area Life Cycle” model (TALC), which was suggested by Butler (1980), is a model that explains
the position of a tourism area throughout a cycle starting from scratch, then rapid development and
boom periods, and till final stagnation and decline. Butler’s (1980) Tourism Area Life Cycle model is a
model that is used most in the studies on tourism geography and that describes the evolution of tourism
areas (Gabon, 2008). Tourism area life cycle model (Butler, 1980) describes general changes in tourism
363
areas over time including the stages as evolutionary trajectory, effective factors and S-curve (Figure 1) in
tourism areas (Ma and Hassink, 2013).
Figure 1. Tourism Area Life Cycle Model

Source: Butler (1980:7)
According to the model, tourists visit an area in small numbers due to the reasons such as transportation
problems and not having adequate information on the area. However, the number of visitors and the
popularity of the area increase over time with marketing, dissemination of the information and further
facility provision. The increase in the number of visitors also leads to exceeding the capacity. Capacity are
the elements such as environmental factors (Land scarcity, water quality, air quality); physical plant
(Transportation, accommodation, other services); or social factors (Crowding, resentment by the local
population). As the attractiveness of the area declines relative to other areas, because of overuse and
the impacts of visitors, the actual number of visitors may also eventually decline (Butler, 2006).
Although there are various models regarding the development of tourism areas, tourism area life cycle
model that Butler (1980) proposed is more preferred by the researchers. One of the core values of TALC
is that it integrates economic and regional interpretation of tourism. The model analyzes the
developmental phases of a tourism area resulting from changes in infrastructure expansion in the number
of tourists visiting the area (demand), accommodation (supply) and communication (transportation)
(Garay and Canoves, 2011).
Method
In the study, it was aimed to examine 25 articles that were written on destination life cycle between the
years 1990-2015 through meta-synthesis analysis. In context of the purpose of the study, the questions
to which answers are sought are as follows:
 Which subjects were handled in the researches on destination life cycle?
 What are the research methods used in examining destination life cycle model?
 Which parameters were used in examining the stages of destination life cycle model?
 Which conclusions were reached on destination life cycle model in the researches?
Meta-synthesis analysis is one of the methods that provide to make a generalization the results obtained
in the studies conducted on a specific field (Sandelowski and Barroso, 2003). Meta-synthesis analysis
364
produces new and integrated findings which are more important than individual studies analyzed by a
from an interpretative point of view (Walsh and Downe, 2005). In evaluating the findings of studies in
meta-synthesis analysis, inclusion criteria are used. Basic criteria are determined according to the
purpose of the research and the researches are included in the analysis according to these criteria (Noblit
and Hare, 1998).
In this study, in order to determine the articles to be included in the analysis, searches were conducted
on science direct, google scholar, Sage, Taylor Francis databases through the keywords of destination, life
cycle, tourism area. Following the investigations made, it was determined that there were 120 articles
published on tourism area life cycle between the years 1981-2015. With the determination of the studies,
25 articles, which were published between the years 1990-2015, of which the full texts were accessible,
and which meet the inclusion criteria, were selected to be analyzed. The studies that were selected to be
analyzed in this study were included in the analysis in context of following criteria:
• That the research is accessible and full text of the study is available;
• That the research was conducted and written clearly in a way including problem, purpose,
method, data collection techniques, data analysis, findings and conclusions;
• That the research was conducted between the years 1990-2015;
• That the studies consisted of articles;
• That the research sample represents a destination abroad;
• That the studies were published on SSCI journals.
Findings
After the articles that met the inclusion criteria in meta-synthesis analysis were selected, studies were
conducted in the context of the main themes and subthemes discussed in the studies. As a result of the
investigations, themes were examined in a detailed way in the form of main and subthemes. To provide
the integrity of the subject and synthesize the results, coding was conducted. In consequence of the
investigations made, 14 themes were created. Created themes were presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Themes of the Researches
Theme Code Themes
T1 Tourism Development
T2 Reorientation
T3 Capacity
T4 Product Life Cycle
T5 Sustainability
T6 Evolutional Economic Geography
T7 Accumulation
T8 Planning
T9 Rural Tourism
T10 Travel Balance Approach
T11 Rejuvenation
T12 Regulation Theory
T13 Entrepreneurship-Chaos
T14 Destination Management
In the study, information on the studies that meet the inclusion criteria for meta-synthesis analysis were
presented in Table 2 under the code, author, publication year, method and research field of the research.
When the Table 2 were examined, it was seen that the studies that met the inclusion criteria for the
analysis have started after the years of 1992. When the research methods applied in the studies were
365
examined, it was seen that qualitative research methods were applied the most. Besides, in the analysis
of research data, it was seen that secondary data were mostly utilized and the researches were conducted
in the form of case studies depending on the research areas. When the stages of destination life cycle
were examined, it was detected that number of resorts, number of tourists and overnight stay ratios
were utilized the most. When the areas that the researches were conducted were examined, it was seen
that these areas consisted of mostly consolidated and well-known tourism destinations.
Table 2: Methods Used in the Research Studies and Research Fields

Research Author Method Research Field Theme
Code Code
A1 Getz (1992) Quantitative Research Niagara Falls T11
Methods (Canada)
 Survey
 Descriptive
Statistics
A2 Oppermann (1995) Quantitative Research Tübingen and T4
Methods Reutlingen
 Survey (Germany)
 Descriptive
Statistics
A3 Agarwal (1997) Secondary Data Torbay T1
(Number of Tourists) (United Kingdom)
A4 Tooman (1997) Secondary Data Smoky Mountain T1
(Number of Resorts) (North Carolina,
ABD)
A5 Priestley and Mundet  Qualitative Lloret de Mar, T2
(1998) Research Methods Torroella de
 Secondary Data Montgri-l’Estartit
(Number of and Sitges
Tourists) (Catalonia, Spain)
 Case Study
A6 Akama(1999)  Qualitative Kenya T1
Research Methods
- Case Study
 Secondary Data
(Number of
Tourists)
- Interview
- Observation
A7 Lundtorp and Wanhill  Secondary Data T1
(2001)  Mathematical
Data
 Literature Review
A8 Toh, Khan and Koh Secondary Data Singapore T10
(2001) (Number of Tourists)
A9 Hovinen(2002) Qualitative Research Lancaster County T8
Methods (United States)
 Interview
 Focus Group
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 Secondary Data
(Sales Rates and
Annual Change
Percentages)
Quantitative Research
Methods
 Survey
A10 Faulkner (2002) Secondary Data Gold Coast T11
(Number of Tourists) (Australia)
A11 Agarwal (2002) Qualitative Research Minehead, T2
Methods Weymouth, and
 Case Study Scarborough
 Secondary Data (United Kingdom)
A12 Moss,Ryanve  Time-series Mississipi T4
Wagoner(2003) decomposition (United States)
model
 Polynomial
regression
A13 Russell and Faulkner Secondary Data Surfers Paradise T13
(2004) and Coolangatta
(Australia)
A14 Pulina,Dettori and Secondary Data Sardinia (Italy) T9
Paba(2006) (Number of Resorts)
A15 Zhong, Deng and Xiang Qualitative Research Zhangjiajie T3
(2007) Methods National Forest
 Interview Park (China)
 Secondary Data
(Newspaper,
Magazine,
Environment
Reports)
Methods
 Survey
A16 Brooker and Burgess  Literature Review Niagara (Canada) T11
(2008)  Secondary Data
(Number of
Tourists)
A17 Rodríguez, J. R. O., Qualitative Research Tenerife (Canary T5
Parra-López, E., & Methods Islands, Spain)
Yanes-Estévez, V.  Case Study
(2008)  Secondary Data
(Number of
Tourists)
A18 Brau, Scorcu and Vici Quantitative Research Rimini (Italy) T8
(2009) Methods
 Survey
 Descriptive
Statistics
 Regression
Analysis
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A19 Diedrich and Buades Qualitative Research Belize T3
(2009) Methods
 Etnographic
Approach
 Observation
 Interview
 Secondary Data
Methods
 Survey
 Kruskal-Wallis
 Mann- U Whitney
 t test
 Spearman test
A20 Garay and Cánoves Qualitative Research Catalonia (Spain) T12
(2011) Methods
 Case Study
 Secondary Data
(Hotel Statistics)
A21 Cole (2012) Secondary Data Caribbean and T7
(Number of Tourists) Other Islands
A22 Baidal,Sánchez and Qualitative Research Benidorm (Spain) T1
Rebollo (2013 Methods
 Observation
 Interview
 Secondary Data
(Rates of Staying
Overnight)
 Grounded Theory
A23 Romão,Guerreiro and  Secondary Data Northeastern T5
Rodrigues (2013) (Geographical Europe (Italy,
Location, Rates of France, Portugal
Staying Overnight) and Spain)
 Panel Data
Analysis
A24 Ma and Hassink (2013) Secondary Data Gold Coast T6
(Number of Tourists) (Australia)
A25 Hernández- Secondary Data T12
Martín,Álvarez-Albelo
and Padrón-Fumero
(2015)
The data concerning the objective and results of the studies examined in the framework of meta-
synthesis are given on Table 3. When the objectives and results of the studies are evaluated; the
applicability of the destination life cycle model and the stage of the area at the life cycle model are
observed, and it is understood that it is aimed at explaining the model with different approaches. It is
also observed that the Touristic Area Life Cycle (TALC) model, which was suggested by Butler (1980), is
used in examining the development of tourism in these research studies which are conducted
independent of each other.
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Table 3: The Results Obtained in the Research Studies
Research Author Objective Results
Code
A1 Getz (1992)
A2 Oppermann The objective of the study is to It was determined that changes
(1995) examine the travel change have occurred in the travel
process and travel cycle of the preferences in the last 30 years.
German tourists. An increase was detected in the
frequency of the travels of tourists
for discovering new places.
It was identified that age factor
was important in selection of
destination, objective, and
duration of the travel.
It was determined that the young
travel much more compared to
the previous generations.
A3 Agarwal
(1997)
A4 Tooman
(1997) To make comprehensible the According to the results of the
economic effects of the research study, the life cycle
tourism industry in time, the model determined that the area
Smoky Mountain area was complied with the analyses of
examined with destination life secondary and tertiary economic
cycle model. effects.
It was stated that the policies of
that kind should be applied for the
local population to benefit from
the tourism and emphasizing the
economic diversity.
A5 Priestley and The objective of the study is to It was detected that three tourism
Mundet examine the tourism evolution areas were in post-recession
(1998) of three tourism areas located stage.
on the Catalan shores. "Restructuring" strategies were
suggested in the rejuvenation
process for abstaining from
recession.
As the conclusion, it was
determined that, as the change
took place, the characteristics that
define appropriateness should
also change and a long-term
tourism planning is needed.
A6 Akama (1999) It was aimed to examine the In the study, it was revealed that
development of tourism in the model was successful in
Kenya from historical and estimating the development
contextual point of view. process of tourism; however, it
was determined that the model
was unprepared for unexpected
cases such as Kenya.
369
Since Kenya was perceived in the
West as an insecure Center it loses
international tourists. This case
caused Kenya to experience an
early drop in tourism.
A7 Lundtorp and The objective of the study is to The study shows how the
Wanhill test the life cycle model by mathematical processes evolve in
(2001) means of time series. order to form the "ideal" life cycle,
which supports Butler's theory. It
was determined that, by
developing the model in that way,
it could only be applied thoroughly
when the five phases of Butler's
life cycle model are realized.
However, it was concluded to be
practically a low possibility to
transition from a phase to
another.
Under a uniform market
assumption suggested by various
authors ignoring the changing
models of the tourist arrivals, life
cycle curve may be a true
representative community if all
the tourists are repeated.
A8 Toh, Khan and The objective of the study is to Using the Travel Balance
Koh (2001) try to understand the basic Approach, which is a model
causes and models of the suggested as an alternative for the
travel. Destination Life Cycle model, it
was determined that Singapore is
about to enter a decline stage
considering the calculations
concerning the economic income
levels and elasticity of price and
demand.
It was determined that Travel
Balance model is more
advantageous in explaining the
development of tourism
compared to the life cycle model.
A9 Hovinen It was aimed to examine the In the study, the five phases of
(2002) development of tourism in Butler's life cycle model are used.
Hungary from destination However, it was concluded to be
image point of view. practically a low possibility to
transition from a phase to
another.
A10 Faulkner The objective of the study is to In the study, it was determined
(2002) test the life cycle model by that, completely complying with
means of visiting days. the Butler's model, after first step
all the life cycle model had been
declined.
370
A11 Agarwal It was aimed to examine the In the study, it was determined
(2002) tourism development of that there were theoretical
Minehead, Wey-mouth, relationships between the
Scarborough areas by destination life cycle and
integrating the destination life restructuring.
cycle and restructuring Some important issues are being
theories. emphasized concerning the
reasons of declines of destinations
and restructuring. Firstly, the
decline is the result of the
interaction of inner and outer
forces; while the second one
increases the competitive power
of the market conditions, the first
one decreases the competitive
power of a target. Second, decline
is a continuous threat that is
related with neither the process of
life cycle nor a certain capitalist
stage. Third, restructuring is a
continuous process. This should be
based on a higher appreciation of
the uniqueness of the location.
After the decline of the
destination and restructuring,
these issues indicate a need to a
more in-depth examination of the
relationships between the inner-
outer change forces and
contingency of the place.
A12 Moss, Ryan The objective of this study is to In the study, it was determined
and Wagoner present a life cycle model, that, completely complying with
(2003) which can be used in assessing the Butler's model, there was a
the revenue of the casino by sudden increase in gambling at the
both the casino managers and early periods and that it was
the government officials. impossible to revive it without an
intervention.
It was determined that the casino
industry was in the maturation or
even, probably, close to the
commence of the decline phase.
A13 Russell and The objective of this study is to It was determined that, to each
Faulkner examine the area, there were development
(2004) chaos/entrepreneurship patterns and different
approach, which was entrepreneurship levels. It was
combined with the tourism also determined that there were
area life cycle model of Butler numerous entrepreneurship types
(1980). Besides, it was aimed appearing in different stages of life
to comprehend the dynamics cycle.
of the tourism systems more It was determined that the
effectively and to understand synthesis of life cycle model and
the principles of the chaos theory
371
the roles of the entrepreneurs provided a more comprehensive
in this process. and realistic view of the
destination development
emphasizing its paradoxical
nature. It was also determined
that the evolution of the
destinations both shows a linearity
and a complexity; and reported
that it experiences both
predictable and unpredictable
triggers.
A14 Pulinaa, The objective of this study is to The island has been determined
Dettori and comprehend the causes of the first 4 stages stated in the
Paba (2006) decline in the numbers of the Tourism Area Life Cycle Model. It
visitors in the island was determined that the
destination. rejuvenation of island tourism is
depended on some climate
changes such as storm, food, and
seasonal labor force.
A15 Zhong, Deng In the study, it was aimed to The park experienced the first 4
and Xiang examine the applicability of stages stated in the Butler (1980)
(2007) touristic area life cycle model model. Since the park could not
of Butler to the Zhangjiajie complete its development, it was
National Forest Park in China. stated that it was quite early to
mention whether it complied with
the Butler (1980) model.
It was determined that
governments, celebrities, and
entrepreneurs at all level played
important catalyst roles since
1978, when China adopted the
open-door policy and lived a
macro economic change and a
rapid transformation.
Inner and outer factors affecting
the development of the park were
stated, and environmental, social,
and economic changes were
observed.
A16 Brooker and The objective of this study is to It was determined that there was
Burgess comprehend the causes of a decline in the number of the
(2008) decline in the numbers of the visitors to Niagara based on outer
visitors in the destinations, and factors and some inner causes.
to determine the strategies It was determined that the
concerning what to do in rejuvenation of tourism is
transition to the revision depended on some changes such
phase. as cooperation, strategy
formulation, and developing the
brand of the destination.
A17 Rodríguez, J. The objective of this study is to In the study, Tourism Area Life
R. O., Parra- suggest and develop an Cycle model, which focuses on
López, E. and integrated model, which product, and Teleology Model,
372
Yanes- embraced sustainability as a which focuses on strategy, were
Estévez, V. strategic target or as a discussed. It was determined that
(2008) decision-making process in a the life cycle model could not
destination. explain the sustainability, which
Besides, to test the was commonly sought for in many
applicability of the life cycle places and perceived as a strategy
model in Tenerife (Canary to overcome the recession. It was
Islands), which is one of the concluded that the sustainability
leading touristic sites of the should be explained with a
Europe. combination of two or more
models.
Concerning the strategic activities
of Tenerife tourism, it was
revealed that there were
problems such as tourist activity,
excess of supply and demand, lack
of consensus over environmental
issues, and security.
A18 Brau, Scorcu The objective of this study is The main result obtained from the
and Vici the explain the development analysis is that the current
(2009) of tourism with different condition of Rimini cannot meet
modeling methods based on the demands of the experienced
Rimini example, which is a visiting tourists.
mass tourism destination. Based on the general quality of the
Northwest Adriatic coasts, it is
quite possible that the tourists
visiting the area today will not
seek for a environment friendly
tourism.
It is emphasized that the tourism
product should be created
considering the characteristics,
demands, and needs of the
tourists.
A19 Diedrich and In the study, it was aimed to In the study, it was determined
Buades (2009) examine the perceptions of the that the local population believed
local population about tourism that the tourism level of the
using the data obtained from destination was not too high. This
the five coastal communities in result is an indicator that the social
Belize. capacity of the destinations might
not be reached yet.
It was detected that tourism may
cause positive and negative
changes and it was only a small
portion of the residents, who
emphasized only the negative
changes.
It was determined that there were
economic, negative social impacts,
positive social impacts, and
positive and negative
environmental impacts with a
373
developing tourism in the
destination.
A20 Garay and The objective of this study is to The study proved that life cycle
Cánoves re-design the life cycle model model, in conjunction with the
(2011) of Butler. Moreover, to regulation theory, is able to form a
understand how and in which framework for understanding and
directions are the touristic defining the history of a regional
centers of attraction are touristic destination.
supported in the area. It also revealed that life cycle
model was able to form a valid
framework for understanding and
defining the historical
development of a regional tourist
destination. However, since it was
not sufficient in explaining how
the TALC transition from a life
cycle to another, Regulation
Theory came into play.
A21 Cole (2012) The aim of the study was to It was determined that, , there
determine the tourism were development patterns and
development process in New different entrepreneurship levels
Zealand. in New Zealand. It was also
determined that there were
numerous entrepreneurship types
appearing in different stages of life
cycle.
A22 Baidal, In order to examine the In the examinations concerning
Sánchez and tourism development of the TALC model, it was
Rebollo (2013 Benidorm, in the study, determined that the area was in
statistical data were analyzed maturation phase.
concerning the 1988-2010 It was stated that product
period. differentiation can be applied in
rejuvenation of tourism.
A23 Romão,Guerr As the result, in development of
eiro and In the study, it was aimed to tourism in these regions, it was
Rodrigues determine the tourism suggested that the capacity of the
(2013) development process among region should be considered,
Southwest Europe (Italy, future strategies should focus on
France, Spain, and Portugal) product diversification, and in
regions. order to gain more benefits per
tourist, the quality of the
presented products should be
increased.
A24 Ma and The objective of this study is The main result obtained from the
Hassink the explain the development analysis is that the current
(2013) of tourism with different condition of Napoli cannot meet
modeling methods based on the demands of the experienced
Napoli example, which is a visiting tourists.
mass tourism destination.
A25 Hernández- The objective of this study is to It was concluded that in the
Martín, examine the accommodation mature tourism destinations,
Álvarez- capacity controls, which is one Moratoria can play an important
374
Albelo and of the rejuvenation policies in role as a part of rejuvenation of
Padrón- the tourism literature, based accommodation capacity strategy.
Fumero on the Moratoria example. Capacity controls limit the over
(2015) widening of the tourism and
contribute to remove some of the
unwanted outcomes. However,
these controls can cause
numerous and unpredictable
impacts on the rejuvenation
process, which was handled in this
study, and the rest of the
economy.
When the findings concerning the destination life cycle are generally evaluated, it is determined that the
articles examined in this article have been published after 1990s. another finding obtained in this study
is that the research methods used in the research studies are mainly qualitative research method designs.
As per the examination of the phases of the life cycle model, it is detected that mostly the number of
tourists, the number of resorts, and overnight staying rates are used. Besides, it is determined that the
articles concerning the life cycle are on the regions known as mature and famous tourism destinations.
Another finding obtained in this study is that, when the findings concerning the results of the studies are
examined, it is observed that they are mainly about the applicability of Butler's life cycle model and about
determining in which stage the region is according to the model.
Conclusions and Evaluations

The purpose of the study is to examine the studies on destination life cycle model through meta-synthesis
analysis. In this context, 25 articles that meet inclusion criteria for meta-synthesis analysis were selected.
After that, these articles were examined in terms of purpose, method, research area and conclusions.
When the results of the studies were evaluated, one of the conclusions obtained is that the studies
regarding at which stage an area exist in terms of the life cycle model predominate. In these studies,
tourism development process of an area was examined in terms of exploration, involvement,
development, consolidation and stagnation which are the stages of life cycle model. When the stages of
the model were examined, another conclusion that has been reached is that number of tourists, number
of resorts, and overnight stay ratios were utilized in examining tourism development process. These
results that were obtained reveal that the parameters that were used in measuring the stages of life cycle
model are among the basic elements that can be referred to in explaining tourism development process.
It was also concluded from the study that mostly qualitative research design was used in the studies as
research method. This indicates that an in-depth and detailed process is required in examining the stages
of the model. Destinations have a complex structure that include multiple elements. Therefore, it can be
argued that in-depth and detailed investigations are more effective in understanding how tourism
development process occurs in destinations.
It was detected that Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) model which Butler (1980) proposed was addressed
mostly from different aspects in the researches. These are one of the results of the study on the
applicability of the model and at which stage of the life cycle model the area is. In a few studies, different
models were used to explain the model and analogies were made with the life cycle model. This
conclusion indicates that life cycle model can reveal the conclusions about the life cycle of an area alone
in terms of certain parameters.
When the results of the studies regarding the life cycle model were evaluated, the fact that the model is
adequate in explaining the tourism development process of an area was proved by the studies (Tooman,
375
1997; Lundtorp and Wanhill, 2001; Moss-Ryan and Waganer, 2003; Garay and Canoves, 2014). In some
studies, it was stated that in the application of life cycle model, tourism development process can be
realized in a better way by getting support from different approaches (Russel and Faulkner, 2004;
Hernández-Martín, Álvarez-Albelo and Padrón-Fumero, 2015). The model is criticized for its challenges
and deficiencies by other authors (Agarwal, 1997; Toh, Khan and Koh, 2001). Agarwal (1997) suggested
that “reorientation” stage is included after “decline” stage in the model. Toh, Khan and Koh (2001)
examined life cycle model and travel balance approach together in their studies. The authors stated that
travel balance approach is more advantageous when compared to life cycle model in explaining tourism
development. Although life cycle model has been criticized for its challenges in application and
deficiencies, the results obtained in the study indicate that it can be used in explaining tourism
development process of an area.
When the themes that were handled in the studies on life cycle were examined, the fact that the themes
varied was another result of the study. It was determined that the themes were generally about tourism
development, capacity, planning, sustainability, rejuvenation, reorientation-structuring. Besides, it was
also determined that the model was examined in terms of the themes of chaos-entrepreneurship,
accumulation, rural tourism, evolutionary economic geography, destination management, regulation
theory, travel balance approach. Starting from these results that were obtained, it is possible to say that
life cycle model can be explained by different themes. Also, the complex structure of the destinations
and that many variables are effective in tourism development are among the reasons for the variation of
the themes.
In this study, which was conducted on destination life cycle, the findings of the studies that meet the
inclusion criteria were evaluated in line with certain parameters and the results were revealed. Therefore,
in order to reach more specific results regarding the life cycle model, further researches can be conducted
by examining studies related with life cycle models that other authors suggest. Besides, additional
researches can be conducted by increasing the ratio of number of studies examined. Meta-synthesis
technique was used in analyzing the data of this study. Meta-synthesis analysis provides to analyze over
qualitative results. At that point, researches can be conducted by utilizing meta-analysis in order to obtain
statistical data regarding the life cycle model.
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7430
THE EVALUATION OF TOURISM POTENTIAL OF BILECIK CITY, TURKEY

Hilal Kahveci
Doctor Lecturer
Department of Interior Architecture and Environment Design, Faculty of Art and Design, Bilecik Seyh
Edebali University, Bilecik, Turkey.
hilalakkaya_61@hotmail.com
Parisa Göker
Doctor Lecturer
Department of Interior Architecture and Environment Design, Faculty of Art and Design, Bilecik Seyh
Edebali University, Bilecik, Turkey.
parisagoker@gmail.com
Abstract
Historical cities are areas of material and spiritual values that convey the traditions, customs, culture,
understanding of art and thought of today's society to the future generations. Bilecik city is a settlement
where the Ottoman Empire was established, has important cultural heritage in which the historical
remains are located, and these values are transmitted to the future. There are many archaeological and
historical monuments within the borders of the province. Most of the historical and cultural assets in
Bilecik consist of mosques, mausoleums, hans, baths, examples of civil arhitecture, almshaouse and
similar structures or from structural residues. Interest in the city increased because due to being the first
important castle (city) to be conquered by Osman Gazi and presence of the Seyh Edebali Türbesi, It is
among the cities to be visited and seen by people. In addition, Bilecik city has become a rapidly developing
center of population, due to its being both a mining area and a transition zone between Thrace and
Anatolia.
Bilecik city has also valuable elements in terms of natural environmental resources. Natural vegetation,
urban forests, ponds and recreational areas, along with improving urban ecosystem, provide recreational
opportunities for the local people and visitors. In this context, the historical, cultural and natural areas in
Bilecik city have been determined and examined in terms of tourism potential by making use of on-site
observation, photography, data collection from related institutions and SWOT analysis methods.
As a result, it is seen that Bilecik city is open to tourism-oriented developments in terms of both historical,
cultural structure and natural elements which have in and around the city center. In addition, Bilecik city
increases its tourism potential with its accessibility and transit zone while offering advantages to
domestic and foreign tourists. To have this potential reach larger masses and increase the recognition of
the city, it is deemed as a must by the authorized institutions to ensure protection-utilization balance,
while raising the bar on the awareness of local people, conducting the urban planning approaching
holistically to historical textures and urban elements.
Key words: Bilecik city, historical cities, historical and natural tourism elements, Turkey
Introduction
Today, the economic, social and cultural effects created by tourism have important consequences in the
country's economies, especially in the international economic and political relations. This situation
increases the importance given to tourism in developing countries as well as in developed countries with
379
a large share in international tourism movements (Giritlioğlu and Avcıkurt, 2010; Mamun and Mitra,
2012). While the tourism priority stands out only in terms of economic contribution, it is now in the
forefront because it forms a source of tourism with its ecological, social and cultural riches. As a result of
the problems caused by mass tourism and different quests, interest in tourism has turned to natural,
historical and cultural riches as an alternative to sea-sand-sun (Aklanoğlu, 2010; Doğancili and
Tarakçıoğlu, 2018). In this scope; on the national and international level, Preserving existing natural,
social, cultural and historical resources is more convenient to develop from the perspective of tourism
potential.
Historical cities are environments that contain material and spiritual values that convey elements such as
tradition, life, thought and art to a present day and communicate them to future generations. These cities
are made up of works belonging to the socio-cultural structure, architectural and aesthetic character and
philosophy of life of the past civilizations. For this reason, the greatest physical manifestations of
civilizations are found in urban spaces (Koçan and Çorbacı, 2012). The sustainability of these physical
indicators, called 'local elements', must be ensured. In historical cities that reflect the rapid change
process in the most effective way, sustainability requires the preservation of cultural and historical
values, as well as the maintenance of economic and social qualities. This situation is also important in
terms of social continuity (Çetin, 2011; Yücel, 2005).
Bilecik province is one of the important cities with its cultural and historical qualities in Turkey. has been
described as the 'City of Establishment and Liberation' due to its being host to the establishment of the
Ottoman State and to the Inönü Wars. Bilecik city was founded by the Ottoman Empire and It bears the
cultural heritage by the reason of the presence of important cultural assets. The Neo Ottoman movement
in recent periods has positively affected in city tourism. Recently, the increase in the number of visitors
to Bilecik is attributed to the use of the historical values in the scope of destination marketing (Vatan,
2017). There are many archaeological and historical monuments within the borders of the province.
Historical monuments in the city of Bilecik generally consist of mosques, tombs, inns, baths, examples of
civil architecture, charitable or forms of the structural residues. Besides these, the city of Bilecik also has
valuable elements in terms of natural environmental resources. Natural vegetation, urban forests, ponds
and recreation areas improve the urban ecosystem, and provides a variety of recreational opportunities
while local residents and visitors coming to the city.
In this context, the purpose of the study can be summarized as follows;
* To reveal the tourism potential of Bilecik city

* To specify the characteristics of tourism items there
* to evaluate in an integrated manner in the scope of historical, cultural and natural tourism elements
* Making people aware about tourism
* Create data for planning future which will be held.
Material and Method

Material
The main material of the study is the historical, cultural and natural tourism elements in Bilecik city.
Bilecik is a small Anatolian city located at the intersection of Marmara, Black Sea, Central Anatolia and
Aegean Regions in the southeast of the Marmara Region. The city lies between 39 ° and 40 ° 31 'north
latitudes and 29 ° 43' and 30 ° 41 'east longitudes. It is surrounded by Bolu and Eskişehir in the eastern
part, Kütahya in the south, Bursa in the west and Sakarya in the north. Bilecik with 4.302 km² is one of
the smaller provinces of Turkey. İn terms of ranking The area is ranked 65 (Vatan, 2017). Because; Bilecik
city is a transit point between Thrace and Anatolia has been hosted by many civilizations and has been
referred to as the 'City of Establishment and Liberation' since it has hosted the Inonu wars in the
foundation of the Ottoman state and in the war of liberation.
380
TURKEY
BILECIK CITY
(Study Area)
Figure 1. Study area
Method
In order to evaluate the tourism potential of Bilecik city, analysis and surveys were conducted in the
research area. At this stage, historical items were photographed and their properties were recorded. In
addition, data from related institutions were evaluated. The data obtained by the SWOT analysis method
used in tourism and planning studies are taken in a holistic manner.
The SWOT analysis is a decision support method which aims at organizing decision processes.The theory
was developed in the 50’s in the domain of business administration with the objective of supporting the
definition of management strategies . The method has been then applied in the context of regional and
local programming in order to evaluate alternative development scenarios . Nowadays, the method is
widely employed in many research fields, with particular reference to spatial planning and environmental
assessment (Bottero, 2015; Uçar and Doğru, 2005; Pirselimoğlu, 2007). As a result of this evaluation; It
has been determined that the city of Bilecik has the potential of tourism, at what level it is strong and
weak, and at what level it presents opportunities and threats. As a result; in terms of tourism, solutions
for transportation users and tourism related to the natural and socio-cultural structure of the area, which
will contribute to the quality of life of the local people towards the users of the area.
Results
Bilecik province has a city center where the historical elements are located and the surrounding area is
integrated with nature. But it has lagged behind expectations in terms of tourism development in the
shadow of developed cities around it. Therefore it is important for the city to have historical, cultural and
natural features in the foreground and to make the necessary decisions. The tourism values of the city of
Bilecik are listed below.
Historic items
-Seyh Edebali Tomb: It is the place where Seyh Edebali, who is accepted as a spiritual founder in the
Ottoman state, is buried. The tomb, which is located in the valley of the city of Bilecik, was built in a
domed form in the previous periods. However, since it was destroyed by the Greeks, the roof was covered
with tiles in later periods. The tomb consists of a hall and two rooms. The large room is designed as a
mosque with a mihrab, the other room is designed as a guesthouse and a sohbethane. The dome of the
room where Seyh Edebali and his relatives are located has a rectangular dome. There are four small,
seven large coffins here. (URL, 1).
-Orhan Gazi Mosque: Orhangazi Mosque which is one of the early Ottoman period religious architectural
constructions, is located in the sources of historical foundations as 1331-1332. Orhangazi Mosque is a
381
valuable historical monument built during the reign of Osmangazi's son Sultan Orhangazi and built in his
own name. The mosque is one of the first religious architectural structures built as a single dome of the
Ottoman Empire (URL 2).
-Orhan Gazi’s İmaret; It is known that Imaret, located to the east of Bilecik, was built during the reign of
Orhan Gazi. These places, which are covered with a dome, are built from rubble stone walls. Orhan Gazi
is a ceremony organized to distribute food to the poor people. This buildig is one of the first architectural
building of Ottoman so, It carries historic significance and value. This structure, destroyed by the Greeks
and not restored, is inside the Old Kabristan, opposite the Orhan Gazi Mosque.
-Bala Hatun tomb: Bala Hatun is one of the spouses of Osman Gazi and the daughter of Seyh Edebali, the
Anatolian cleric. The tomb is located right next to the Seyh Edebali tomb.
-Chained rock: There are various rumors about the chains on these rocks. According to some reports,
Şeyh Edebali was wanted to be hanged in these chains, and according to some people, these chains were
tied by Ottoman soldiers to prevent the fall of the rock fragments that were there during the war.
-Clock tower: It was made during II: Abdülhamid period in 1907,. 16 meters high and 4 storeyed with
wooden stairs, was restored in 1987. The height of the curtain is 16 meters and consists of 4 floors. This
wooden staircase of tower was restored in 1987.
-Municipality building: Constructed by II. Sultan Abdülhamid as an Rüştüiye Mektebi (secondary school)
in 1905, today it is used as a municipal building. The process is characterized by being an example of
formal architectural design(CURL 3, URL 4).
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1a 1b 1c
2a 2b 2c
3 4 4b
383
Figure 2. Historical items of Bilecik city (1a,1b,1c: Seyh Edebali Tomb; 2a,2b,2c: Orhan Gazi Mosque; 3:
Bala Hatun tomb; 4a, 4b Orhan Gazi’s İmaret) (Kahveci, 2018)
5 6a 6b
7
Figure 3. Historical items of Bilecik city (5: Chained rock; 6a, 6b: Clock tower, 7: Municipality building)
Cultural Items
- Culture lane of the Ottoman sultans: The life stories of the sultans of the Ottoman Empire, which was
built by the Bilecik Municipality, half-crescendo 165-meter History Strip with three-dimensional images
is located in the area of Seyh Edebali tomb and Orhangazi mosque.
-Waterfall: The waterfall built by the Bilecik Municipality in the city center attracts people's interest
visually.
-Culture and congress center: It was made in cooperation with the Municipality and the Ministry of
Culture and Tourism in 2013. The confrence center with a capacity of 160 people, a multi-purpose hall
with a space of 500 square meters, a conference room with 650 people, 4 workshops and a 360 m2
terrace, it serves as a cultural and activity center in Bilecik.
- Ottoman army monument: The monument depicts the Ottoman armband in three dimensions, and on
three sides there is the word "Living a human being, living in a state" belonging to Seyh Edebali.
-Museum: Archaeological and ethnographic artifacts belonging to Bilecik and its surroundings are
exhibited in the museum. Chronological display techniques were applied in the halls and in 3 exhibition
halls; Artifacts dated to the Paleolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman
Periods, mainly Roman Period, are exhibited. In the 10 exhibition halls, sections about the establishment
of the Ottoman State, oba and home life are presented; weapons, daily use containers made of ceramics
and metal, clothes belonging to Bilecik region, ornamental items are exhibited. (URL 3).
384
Figure 4. Cultural Items of Bilecik (1, 2: Culture lane of the Ottoman sultans; 3: Ottoman army monument,
4: Waterfall, 5: Culture and congress center; 6:Museum) (Kahveci, 2018)
Natural items
- Pelitözü pond: The pond, surrounded by Pinus sp. trees , is 7 km away from the city center. The pond
with an area of 213.50 hectares is designed for irrigation purposes. Due to its ease of access and wide
area, it is particularly popular on weekends. Around the lake there are nomad tents, tea gardens, a
pancake house and barbecue areas. You can hire a bicycle with the aim of traveling around the lake and
also have a chance to ride with water bicycles in the lake.
- Bilecik city forest: Located in the Yediler Hill area, the urban forest is a private business that serves in
the 'self-catering, self-catering' area. The city forest which has started as a tea garden has children and
young playgroups and continues to expand the service area. It also hosts wedding ceremonies and
entertainments (URL 3).
- Topographical features of the city and its surroundings: The rugged topographic structure of the city
of Bilecik creates visual dynamism from the entrance of the city by the east.
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1 2
Figure 5. Natural items of Bilecik (1: Pelitözü pond; 2: Bilecik urban forest; 3: Topographical features of
the city and its surroundings)
SWOT Analysis
The Swot analysis method, which supports the planning studies that show the tourism potential of Bilecik
city and respects the ecological values and reveals the current tourism usage, is used.
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Table 1: SWOT Analysis factors
Internal Factors External Factors
Positive Negative Positive Negative
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
* Hosting the rich * There is heavy traffic in * Climate Features * Tourism items
historical and cultural the city * Hospitable people that are hard to
structures * Inadequacy in the * Tourism items close to reach
* It has a significant hospitality sector the main transport * Deterioration
tourism potential in * Inadequate parking area network of historical
terms of proximity to * Inadequate promotion of * A wide variety of items due to
large and developed local products, economic tourism activities time
cities and being a transit income can not be * Significant * Interaction of
zone obtained contributions of the people with the
* Natural characteristics * No facilities for disabled local government to the structure
of urban and nearby users to reach tourist tourism sector (unconscious
environment attractions * A high-quality visit)
* Incorporation of congress center for * Be unqualified
historical and natural * narrowing of the passage important meetings and and insufficient
structures area of cars after parking events reinforcement
* It is a preferable area on the street *Economic contribution element as
for tourists and day- * Construction works done of the students and staff promotion,
trippers because they in the city of the university in the guidance, etc. in
can serve all seasons in city the tourism
terms of climate areas.
* The eating-
drinking and
souvenir places
in tourist areas
are inadequate
and insufficient
Conclusions and Recommendations

Today, due to the fact that Osman Gazi is the first important fortress to conquer and the tomb of Seyh
Edebalı tomb is also located here, the interest in Bilecik has increased and it has become one of the cities
to be visited and seen by people. In this study, the necessary approaches to determine the tourism
potential of Bilecik city and make it sustainable are evaluated. In this context, 7 historical elements were
examined and contributed to urban tourism. These items include Seyh Edebali Tomb, Bala Hatun Tomb,
Orhan Gazi Mosque and chain rock. In order to reach this area, a different ground floor is used to go to
the vehicle road which is the historical building next to the Bilecik Municipal Building. This road among
people is called 'Tomb road'. In addition, the Cultural Strip of the Ottoman Sultans from cultural items
was built on this area. Besides, eating and drinking places and shopping opportunities are offered for the
visitors coming to this area. Therefore, this is the most important tourist center of the town of Bilecik.
Other historical, cultural and natural items in the research are located in and around the city. Access to
these items is provided by pedestrians and vehicles with the existing guide plates available.
Bilecik is not known for its other tourist values because it was introduced as the 'City of Establishment
and Salvation' of the Ottoman Empire. Whereas it possesses forested areas, ponds, valleys and so on.
They are areas for tourism mobility. In addition Bilecik Seyh Edebali University, which has 17498 students
and 544 academic staff, located 6 km from the city center, is a fact that contributes to the urban economy.
During the education semester, Bilecik city and the surrounding area should be developed in line with
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the usage of the students in the historical, cultural and natural areas, qualities should be given to spaces
where they can socialize. The prestige of the university students and staff in the city should not be
overlooked. The evaluation of these opportunities will further increase the tourism opportunities of the
city.
Although the historical, cultural and natural structures in Bilecik increase the tourism opportunities, it is
determined that the structural elements of the city are not at the level to meet the tourism opportunities.
There are problems in accessing both historical and cultural areas as well as natural areas. In addition,
the number and quality of accommodation and food and beverage facilities are insufficient (Vatan, 2017).
SWOT analysis was used to determine the tourism potential of the city, as well as to support planning
studies that respect ecological values and to reveal existing tourism uses. It is an important city with its
rich natural, cultural values, location and strong tourism potential. But it is also found that infrastructure
and superstructure within the scope of tourism are faced with threats due to insufficiency.
In summary, in this study, the lack of introduction of the Bilecik city which has a historical, cultural and
naturally significant potential, inadequacy in the food and drink sector, disconnection between touristic
items and environmental problems should be considered and resolved by the authorized units. In the
direction of these results, we propose solutions for Bilecik city tourism possibilities as follows;
• Şeyh Edebali Tomb, OrhanGazi Mosque, Chain Rock, Bala Hatun Tomb and Ottoman Sultans Culture
Strip are the best items in terms of accessibility. Access to other tourist attractions should be increased.
• From the entrance of the city, it is necessary to increase the number of introducer and guide board.
• lower cost car rental facilities for visitors that coming for tourist purposes should be provided from the
bus station and fast train station.
• A safe pedestrian route should be arranged for the users who want to reach the areas on foot.
 Constructions and the surroundings that are under construction in the city should be visually
screened and protection measures should be increased.
 Regulations should be made to serve tourism for disabled users.
 For the purpose of tourism, meetings, congresses, exhibitions etc. events should be increased, to
reach a larger audience of these activities should be ensured.
 Local governments and the public should be informed about tourism
References
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Fakültesi Dergisi, 2010, 10 (2): 125-136.
Bottero, M. (2015) A multi-methodological approach for assessing sustainability of urban

projectsManagement of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, Vol. 26 No. 1
Çetin, S. (2011) Dönüşüm sürecinin tarihi kent merkezleri üzerine etkileri: Isparta örneğinde bir inceleme,
Erciyes Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 27(2): 185-199.
Doğancili, O. S. and Tarakçıoğlu, S. (2018) Alternatif Turizm Bağlamında Göller Bölgesi Eko Turizm Değişim
Planının Beyşehir Gölü Milli Parkı Açısından Değerlendirilmesi, Journal of Recreation and Tourism
Research, 5 (1), 89-97 .
Giritlioğlu, İ. and Avcıkurt, C. (2010) Şehirlerin Turistik Bir Ürün Olarak Pazarlanmasi, Örnek Şehirler Ve
Türkiye’deki Şehirler Üzerine Öneriler (Derlemeden Oluşmuş Bir Uygulama), Adıyaman
Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü,S:4.
Koçan, N. and Çorbacı, Ö. L. (2012) Tarihi Çevreleri Koruma Sürecinde Yeni Yaklaşımlar: Kongre Turizmi,
388
Safranbolu Çarşı Örneğinde Bir Araştırma, Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü
Dergisi 3(2): 31-36 (2012) .
Mamun, A. A. and Mitra, S. (2012) A Methodology for Assessing Tourism Potential: Case Study
Murshidabad District, West Bengal, India, International Journal of Scientific and Research
Publications, Volume 2, Issue 9, ISSN 2250-3153.
Pirselimoğlu, Z. (2007) Ekolojik Temelli Rekreasyon ve Turizm Planlama İlkelerinin Araştırılması; Trabzon
Çalköyü Yayla Yerleşimi Örneği, KTÜ Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Trabzon.
Uçar,D. and Doğru,A. (2005) CBS Projelerinin Stratejik Planlanması ve SWOT Analizinin Yeri, TMMOB
Harita ve Kadastro Mühendisleri Odası 10. Türkiye Harita Bilimsel Teknik Kurultayı, 28 Mart-
1Nisan 2005,Ankara.
URL 1. https://www.turbe.gen.tr/seyh-edebali-turbesi.html
URL 2. http://www.bilecikhaber.com.tr/osmanlinin-kalbi-bilecikte-orhan-gazi-camii-239763h.htm
URL 3. http://bilecik.com.tr/?link=mekan_kategori&kategori_id=3
URL 4. http://www.cografya.gen.tr/tr/bilecik/turizm.html
Vatan, A. (2017) Bilecik İlinin Turizm Envanteri, ASOS Journal, Yıl:5, Sayı:53, s:183-205.
Yücel, C. (2005) Korunacak alanların planlanmasında güncel yaklasımlar, Erciyes Üniversitesi Sosyal
Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 18, 223-235.
Biographical Notes
Hilal Kahveci is a Doctor Lecturer in the Department of Interior Architecture and Environment Design,
Faculty of Design and Fine Arts, Bilecik Seyh Edebali University, Bilecik, Turkey. She recieved her PhD.
form Karadeniz Technical University of Trabzon. Her research interests are planting design, urban
landscape, plant material and horticulture, coastal landscape.
Parisa Göker is a Doctor Lecturer in the Department of Interior Architecture and Environment Design,
Faculty of Design and Fine Arts, Bilecik Seyh Edebali University, Bilecik, Turkey. She completed her
doctoral degree from agriculture faculty, department o landscape Architecture. Her research interests
are historical and cultural landscape, cultural heritage, garden design, Islamic architecture, Persian
gardens and Turkish-Anotolian architecture.
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7487
THE PERCEPTION OF SAINT NICHOLAS BY ITALIAN, RUSSIAN AND
TURKISH PEOPLE IN TERMS OF CULTURAL HERITAGE
Irina Lobas
M.A. Graduate Student
Ondokuz Mayıs University and Community of Mediterranean Universities
Samsun, Turkey
irina-191@hotmail.com
Nalan Kiziltan
Associate Professor
OMU Faculty of Education Head of the English Language Education
OMU School of Foreign Languages Director
Ondokuz Mayıs University
Samsun, Turkey
kiziltannalan9@gmail.com
Abstract
The study discusses the level of perception of Saint Nicholas by people with different cultures from Italy,
Russia and Turkey. The study aims to determine the cultural awareness of nationally different people and
its potential impact on creating sustainable tourism destinations based on Saint Nicholas’ cultural
heritage. The perception of Saint Nicholas by culturally different people has been determined according
to their nationality and gender. Therefore, a questionnaire of 20 questions has been given to 100 people
in total living in Russia, Turkey and Italy. Findings of the study have indicated that the image of Saint
Nicholas should be promoted to the population of areas with Saint’s heritage sites. Cultural and historical
reasons are indicated as the most motivating for participants to learn more about Saint Nicholas and
heritage sites related to him. The results of the study should be taken into consideration of local
administrations of areas with Saint Nicholas’ heritage sites to choose the right directions in promoting
programs.
Keywords: Saint Nicholas, sustainable tourism, heritage tourism, cultural awareness, pilgrimage
Introduction
There is a lot of research nowadays devoted to the study of tourism. These studies define various aspects
of tourism, its types, its impact on the economy, social and cultural spheres of people’s lives. One of the
main ideas of these studies is the necessity of creating the sustainable tourism products based on the
cultural values, ecological, historical, religious interests, which will satisfy the needs for both foreign and
native tourists, and, at the same time, sustainable tourism will not affect the host side in a negative way,
but it will be useful for the development of the area.
Saint Nicholas is a significant saint in Catholic and Orthodox Christian religions, his image as Santa Claus
is also very popular in non-Christian countries, traces of Saint Nicholas’ cultural heritage can be found in
different countries. In this regard, cultural awareness of Saint Nicholas and perception of his figure as a
symbol of common cultural heritage could play a great role in creating sustainable tourism destinations.
The figure of Saint Nicholas has a great value for Italian and Russian people as the Saint is among the
most important saints of the Christian religion, which was reflected in tangible heritage as famous icons
and churches and intangible heritage as the traditions of veneration, holidays and festivals in honour of
Saint Nicholas. Image of Saint Nicholas has transformed into the globally well-known Santa Claus, which
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is also very popular in non-Catholic countries like Turkey. Additionally, Demre, Turkey, is the place where
Saint Nicholas was born and lived. The Church where the relicts of Saint Nicholas were originally buried
is located in Demre. Bari, Italy and Demre, Turkey are the places of heritage sites of Saint Nicolas. Both
cities attract tourists (mainly from Russia) because they are related to figure of the Saint. The areas have
opportunities to use their heritage to create sustainable tourism products and get benefits from it. In
this study, we define the ways of perception of Saint Nicholas by Italian, Russian and Turkish people so
we can trace the connection between the awareness of Saint Nicholas and capability to create attractive
sustainable tourism destination based on the heritage related to the saint.
The Aim of the Study
The aim of the study is to determinate the cultural awareness of nationally different participants on Saint
Nicholas’ figure.
The Research Questions of the Study
The research questions of the study are as follows:

1. Do the participants have cultural awareness of Saint Nicholas?
2. Is there a significant difference in cultural awareness on Saint Nicholas of the participants according to
their nationality?
3. Is there a significant difference in cultural awareness on Saint Nicholas of the participants according to
gender?
Figure of Saint Nicholas in Terms of Cultural Heritage
Saint Nicholas is an important figure in Christianity. As religion is considered to be a part of the intangible
cultural heritage, the image of Saint becomes an important element of heritage in the areas where the
majority of the population are Christians, such as Italy and Russia. The story of Saint Nicholas has begun
in the city of Demre, Turkey where the heritage sites related Saint Nicholas can be found. The character
of Santa Claus, which was created based on Saint Nicholas’ personality, became famous all over the world
due to the cultural popularization, which has started in the USA. Therefore, Saint Nicholas could be called
a symbol of common cultural heritage for people in different countries with different cultures.
Nowadays Saint Nicholas is venerated as Wonderworker in Russia and as a patron saint of children,
sailors, travellers, scholars, captives in the western tradition. He is known as the friend and protector of
all in trouble or need. Sailors, claiming Saint Nicholas as patron, carried stories of his favour and
protection far and wide. Saint Nicholas chapels were built in many seaports. As his popularity spread
during the Middle Ages, he became the patron saint of Apulia (Italy), Sicily, Greece, and Lorraine (France),
and many cities in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, Russia, Belgium, and the Netherlands.
Saint Nicholas became very popular in the West again in the 19th century, when writers, poets and artists
rediscovered the old stories. In 1823 the famous poem “A Visit from Saint Nicholas” or “It was the Night
before Christmas” by Clement Clark Moore, was published. In 1863 the magazine “Harper's Weekly”
published the first illustration of St Nicholas/St Nick by Thomas Nast. Over the next 20 years, Thomas
Nast continued to draw Santa every Christmas, so his modified image became famous (Bennett, 2009).
Saint Nicholas is vastly popular in Russia. With Saint Andrew the Apostle, he is regarded as the patron
saint of the nation. This special attitude towards the Saint has a long history started in 11th century.
The name of Saint Nicholas as ‘Russia God’ was found in the evidence of foreigners in the 16th century,
who were amazed by this feature of Russian Orthodoxy. The idea of St Nicholas as a god was widely
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spread in the folk environment, where Nicholas was associated with ancient still pagan deities. In
addition, there were cases when he was revered as the ‘forth’ face of Holy Trinity, and the days of his
memory were honoured above the main Christian holidays.
The latest example of that special attitude and veneration of the saint was the event conducted in
collaboration with Russian Orthodox and Italian Catholic Churches in May-June 2017. Pope Francis and
Patriarch Cyril agreed that a part of the relics of St Nicholas would be delivered to Russia in February 2016
during the meeting in Cuba.
The relics were in Russia for 69 days, 53 of which in the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow. In
early July the relics were taken to the Alexander Nevsky Lavra of St. Petersburg. During the stay in Russia,
about 2.5 millions of people have visited and worshipped the relicts of the saint.
Russian people talked about the event, the news about the shrine of Saint Nicholas was shown on prime
time on main television channels. It was on first pages of the newspapers and internet news resources.
Event indicated the great importance of the figure of the saint for people not only in religious context but
also in the context of the cultural heritage. Traditions of veneration of Saint Nicholas had a significant
influence on cultural consciousness of Russians. Not only devoted Orthodox Russian people were
involved, but also non-religious people have realized the importance of the organization and tried to be
part of the event of such a grand scale.
Bringing the relics of Saint Nicholas from Bari to Russia has also shown that two Confessions successfully
could act together and unite people of different cultures and countries. It was a very positive
accomplishment of the whole event.
Nowadays, the relics of Saint Nicholas are located in Bari, Italy. The Basilica di San Nicola (Saint Nicholas)
was founded in 1087 to receive the relics of this saint, which were brought from Myra in Lycia, and now
lie beneath the altar in the crypt. It is situated in the old town of the city.
There is a long history of special “warm” relations between Russian Church and Bari, Italy. Russian
community had approved and supported the transfer of Saint Nicholas relicts from Demre, Turkey to Bari,
Italy in the 11th century even though it was kind of an ambiguous act; the relics were taken by Italian
merchants without any permission from Turkey.
Since 1915 (the date is approximate), the Orthodox Church of Nicholas the Miracle-Worker has been
operating in Bari. The church and the courtyard were built on money collected throughout Russia.
There is a special festival in honour of Saint Nicholas which takes place in Bari and attracts a lot of tourists.
The holiday lasts three days - from 7 to 9 May.
According to regional tourism statistic reports, Puglia region where the city of Bari is located was in 9th
place in Italy (among 20 regions) in terms of the number of visitors in 2016 and hosted 3,6% of all tourists.
Tourism in Puglia region has the seasonal specific; the number of visitors is higher during summer months.
In January 2017 the number of tourists, including local, was 192.314, in July 2017 it increased to
3.624.149. Russian tourists make about 1,5% of the whole tourist flow to Puglia, most of them stay in
Bari (Osservatorio nazionale del turismo, 2017).
Another heritage site related to Saint Nicholas is located in Demre, one of the cities of Antalya region.
The ancient city of Myra is very near to modern Demre. The distance from Antalya to Demre is 140 km.
The city of Demre received its wide popularity mainly due to the fact that the church of Saint Nicholas is
located here. It is considered the third most important religious construction of Byzantine architecture in
the East. Saint Nicholas, after his death, was buried in his church.
Annually, on December 6, the day of the death of St. Nicholas, Christians from all corners of the world
gather in the temple for funeral services and to worship the holy relics.
Today, the church of St. Nicholas in Demre (Turkey) functions as a museum, everyone can visit it for a
modest fee.
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The region of Antalya is a well-known tourist destination. Every year tourists from all over the world come
to Antalya. The major tourist flow is from Russia. One of the popular tourist products is an excursion,
which includes a visit to Demre and Church of Saint Nicholas. The standard tour called ‘Demre-Mira-
Kekova’ also includes visiting other attractions like the ruins of the ancient city of Myra and rocky Lycian
tombs.
Antalya is a popular destination but tourism has strictly seasonal character. According to data, collected
by Antalya Provincial Culture and Tourism Directorate, the total number of visitors of Antalya region in
January 2015 (low season) was 117.746, 13% (12.870 visitors) were Russian tourists. In July 2015 (high
season) the total number of Antalya visitors was 2.036.137 and 29% (567.887) were from Russia.
Naturally, attendance of Saint Nicholas museum complex in Demre also depends on the touristic season.
In January 2015 total number of visitors of the complex was 4.633 and in July 2015 it increased to 63.510.
During the summer season, Saint Nicholas church becomes one of the most popular attractions for
tourists among museum complexes in Antalya, 15,75% from the total number of museum complexes
visitors (T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Antalya İl Kültür ve Turizm Müdürlüğü, 2016).
Method
The quantitative method was used in our research as we attempted to collect comparable standardised
information from people in Italy, Russia and Turkey so it would be possible to collate the results, define
the patterns and analyse it according to the possible cultural distinction of people with different
demographic characteristics.
Quantitative data collection method included paper and online questionnaires. The target sample of the
study was people from Italy, Russia and Turkey. Random sampling was chosen as the sampling strategy.
Numbered data was analysed using statistical procedures. The results of the questionnaire have been
analysed with SPSS Statistics 21. Parametric statistical methods are used as the awareness score has a
normal distribution. A t-test is used to analyse the distribution of the awareness score according to
gender and nationality.
Demographic Characteristics of Participants
100 people filled in the questionnaire in total. 33% of participants are from Italy, 33% are from Russia
and 34% are from Turkey. The equal division of responders according to their nationalities was made on
purpose to make the results more comparable in terms of cultural differences. 39 men and 61 women
took part in the survey. Gender distribution in three countries does not show any specific characteristics.
Most of the respondents are between 21 – 60 years old (21-40 years old – 41%, 41-60 years old – 29%).
Respondents show a university level of education, 48% of all respondents have Bachelor degree and 14%
of all respondents have Master’s degree and PhD. Distribution of participants according to their religion
is not accidental. Italian responders indicated Catholic Christianity (29% of all participants) as their
religion, Russian responders pointed Orthodox Christianity (29% of all participants), and Turkish
responders designated Islam (32% of all participants). 10% of survey responders indicated themselves as
Atheists.
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Findings and Discussion
Cultural Awareness on Saint Nicholas
Part of the questionnaire directly related to cultural awareness of participants consists of multi-choice
questions about facts of real life of Saint Nicholas, his deeds and cultural heritage related to him.
Participants had to choose the right answer from 5 suggested options.
The question about Saint Nicholas as a patron saint got more correct answers than other questions (92%
of all responders gave the correct response). Questions about the date of the Day of Saint Nicholas and,
where the image of Santa Claus was formed, had the smallest number of correct answers. For the rest
questions, the ratio of correct and incorrect responses was 61%-67% correct and 33% - 39% incorrect.
Responders from Russia gave generally correct answers to all questions. High cultural awareness of Saint
Nicholas caused by a long tradition of veneration of the Saint by Russian people, which was described in
studies of foreign and local authors. Questions which caused difficulties were about the place where Saint
Nicholas spent his life (30% incorrect answers) and about the famous deed of the Saint (42% incorrect
answers). Italian respondents gave more correct answers to the question about Saint Nicholas as a
patron saint of children and sailors (90% correct answers). 75% of participants from Italy answered
correctly to the question about the place where you can visit the relics of Saint Nicholas. As the relics of
the Saint are located in Bari, Italy, it was expected to get high per cent of correct answers from Italian
respondents. Respondents from Turkey had high per cent of correct answers to questions about Saint
Nicholas as a patron saint (100% correct answers), the place where the Saint spent the most of his life
(82% correct answers) and the most known deed of Saint Nicholas (70% correct answers). Saint Nicholas
has spent the most of his life in Demre which is located in Turkey, thus, it is logical, that majority of Turkish
participants gave the correct answer to this question. On the other side, 73% of Turkish responders gave
the incorrect answers to the questions about the place where the relics of Saint Nicholas are located and
when the Day of Saint Nicholas is celebrated. The big number of incorrect answers is an indicator of lack
of promotion of Saint Nicholas figure as part of multicultural heritage.
The results of t-test showed that gender of respondents do not impact on their cultural awareness of
Saint Nicholas. But, on the other side, nationality of the participants has influence on the level of cultural
knowledge about Saint Nicholas. Russian participants gave more correct answers, then participants from
Italy and Turkey.
For most of the participants from Russia and Turkey Saint Nicholas is associated with Christmas: 48,5%
of the Russian respondents and 79,4% of the Turkish respondents. For most of the Italian respondents
(48,5%) the name of Saint Nicholas is connected with miracles. In general, Saint Nicholas is associated
with Christmas (48% of all respondents). It is the evident result of a connection between the image of
Santa Claus (Saint Nicholas) and Christmas, which was formed in the 16th-19th centuries in western
tradition and later had a great development all over the world by extension of popularity of western
cultural values.
Most of the participants would like to learn new information about Saint Nicholas due to cultural reasons
(54%), then due to historical reasons (29%). Cultural reasons were more significant for Russian
respondents (60,6%) and for Turkish (73,5%). For Italian participants, historical reasons are more
important (36,4%), religious and cultural reasons affect the motivation in learning new facts about the
Saint of 27,3% of Italian respondents each.
Cultural reasons to visit the places related to Saint Nicholas would be more significant for most of the
participants (55% of respondents), historical reasons would be more important for 30% of all participants.
Comparing answers of the participants by nationality, the most of the Italian respondents (42,4%) picked
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historical reasons as more motivating to visit Saint Nicholas’ heritage sites. Religious reasons to visit Saint
Nicholas’ places would not be significant for Turkish participants at all and most of the respondents
(76,5%) chose cultural reasons.
Conclusions
Saint Nicholas has a great importance for Italian and Russian people as he is considered as one of the
most important saints in Christianity. For Russian people, this special attitude towards the Saint has a
long history started from 11th century. There are heritage sites related to Saint Nicholas in Bari, Italy and
Demre, Turkey. Russian tourists make up a certain part of the touristic flow to these regions. Both areas
have potential to develop sustainable tourism based on cultural heritage.
According to the findings of the study, despite on popularity of Saint Nicholas (and especially his image
as Santa Claus), the cultural awareness of the Saint is not that high. Most of the participants correctly
indicated that Saint Nicholas is a patron saint of children and sailors, but more than 30% of all
respondents do not know about heritage sites related to Saint Nicholas in Demre, Turkey, where Saint
Nicholas spent the most of his life, and in Bari, Italy, where relics of the Saint are located since 11th
century. The results of T-test and ANOVA showed that gender of the participants do not significantly
affect the cultural awareness. The nationality of participants has a statistically significant influence on
cultural awareness. Russian participants are more culturally aware on Saint Nicholas then Italian and
Turkish, which shows that Saint Nicholas should be better promoted for the local population of the areas
with Saint Nicholas heritage sites.
The results of the study show, that the disposition of participants towards Saint Nicholas does not
significantly change according to their nationality. In general, participants would like to learn more
information about Saint Nicholas and visit places related to him, more than 75% of all respondents.
Respondents can see the cultural value of Saint Nicholas for people in different counties and consider
him as the symbol of common cultural heritage. The study detected that mostly cultural and historical
reasons would affect the motivation of participants to learn more about Saint Nicholas and visit places
related to him. Popularisation of Saint Nicholas’ image should take into account these findings.
Suggestions
Participants suggested that organising tour and events related to Saint Nicholas, education and media
activities, financial support of heritage sites related and advertising should advance the image of Saint
Nicholas in terms of tourism and culture. These ideas could be a good contribution in creating effective
promotion program of Saint Nicholas and places related to him.
The results of the study should be taken into consideration by the administrations of the areas with Saint
Nicholas heritage sites. Our study offers suggestive evidence that image of Saint Nicholas and locations
of heritage related to the Saint should be promoted to create sustainable tourism destinations. It should
give positive effects to the areas and local people, who should become aware of their cultural past, thus,
it should unite them in cultural terms and bring benefits to economic-social life. The realisation of the
figure of Saint Nicholas in terms of common cultural heritage for different countries with different
cultures should make a large contribution to international communication and cooperation.
395
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397
Table 1: Cultural awareness on Saint Nicholas: number of correct and incorrect answers according to
nationality of participants
Number of correct answers Number of incorrect answers

Italian Russian Turkish Italian Russian Turkish
1. Where did St. 16 23 28 17 10 5
Nicholas spend most
of his life?
15 26 21 18 7 12
2. What did St.
Nicholas do in real life?
19 19 24 14 14 9
3. What was one of the
most known deeds of
St. Nicholas?
30 29 33 3 4 0
4. St. Nicholas is the
patron saint of?
5. Nowadays you can 25 28 8 8 5 25

visit relics of St.
Nicholas in?
6. When is the St. 16 27 8 17 6 25
Nicholas Day
celebrated?
7. In which country 15 20 15 18 13 18
modern image of Santa
Claus (based on
personality of Saint
Nicholas) was formed?
Table 2: T-test: Impact of the gender of participants on cultural awareness on Saint

Nicholas
gender N Mean Std. Deviation s value
Awareness_score male 39 4,4615 1,46622 0,95*
female 61 4,4426 1,44366
*s>0.05 indicates that impact of gender on the awareness score is not statistically significant. Gender of
the participants does not affect awareness score.
398
Table 3: T-test: Impact of nationality of participants on cultural awareness on Saint Nicholas
awareness score
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error s value
Russian 33 5,2121 1,47389 ,25657
Italian 33 4,1212 1,34065 ,23338 0,001*
Turkish 34 4,0294 1,24280 ,21314
*s<0.01 indicates that there is a statistically significant difference between Italian, Russian and Turkish
participants in terms of their awareness scores. The awareness score of the Russians is higher than the
Turks and Italians.
Table 4: What do you associate more with name of St. Nicholas (Santa Claus)?
Nationality Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Russian Valid Miracles 4 12,1 12,1 12,1
Christmas 16 48,5 48,5 60,6
Christian religion 6 18,2 18,2 78,8
Certain place / city 4 12,1 12,1 90,9
Historical character 3 9,1 9,1 100,0
Total 33 100,0 100,0
Italian Valid Miracles 16 48,5 48,5 48,5
Christmas 5 15,2 15,2 63,6
Total 33 100,0 100,0
Turkish Valid Miracles 4 11,8 11,8 11,8
Christmas 27 79,4 79,4 91,2
Total 34 100,0 100,0
399
Table 5: What kind of reasons could affect your motivation for learning new information about St.
Nicholas the most?
Cumulative
Nationality Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Russian Valid Religious 2 6,1 6,1 6,1
Historical 11 33,3 33,3 39,4
Cultural 20 60,6 60,6 100,0
Italian Valid Religious 9 27,3 27,3 27,3
Historical 12 36,4 36,4 63,6
Cultural 9 27,3 27,3 90,9
Others 3 9,1 9,1 100,0
Turkish Valid Religious 2 5,9 5,9 5,9
Historical 6 17,6 17,6 23,5
Cultural 25 73,5 73,5 97,1
Others 1 2,9 2,9 100,0
400
Table 6: What kind of reasons would be more significant for you if you would decide to visit the places
related to St. Nicholas (Santa Claus)?
Nationality Frequency Per cent Valid Per cent Cumulative Per cent
Russian Valid Religious 4 12,1 12,1 12,1
Historical 10 30,3 30,3 42,4
Cultural 19 57,6 57,6 100,0
Total 33 100,0 100,0
Italian Valid Religious 7 21,2 21,2 21,2
Historical 14 42,4 42,4 63,6
Cultural 10 30,3 30,3 93,9
Others 2 6,1 6,1 100,0
Total 33 100,0 100,0
Turkish Valid Historical 6 17,6 17,6 17,6
Cultural 26 76,5 76,5 94,1
Others 2 5,9 5,9 100,0
Total 34 100,0 100,0
Biographical Notes
Irina Lobas has completed her post graduate education at the Community of Mediterranean Universities
(CMU) located in Bari, Italy. Her programme was entitled Euromediterranean Cultures and Tourism and
was jointly run by CMU and Ondokuz Mayis University (OMU). Her research focuses on cultural heritage,
tourism, and religious tourism in Italy, Russia, and Turkey.
Assoc. Prof. Nalan Kiziltan graduated from Ondokuz Mayıs University in Samsun. She received her M.A
and Ph.D. in the Department of English Linguistics from Hacettepe University in Ankara. Then she
conducted her postdoctoral studies on Foreign Language Teacher Education at the Ohio State University
in the United States of America between 1996-1997. She has been working as an Assoc. Prof. Dr. for the
Department of pre-service English Language Teacher Education at the Faculty of Education and she is the
director of the School of Foreign Languages at Ondokuz Mayıs University. She was a visiting scholar to
teach Turkish as a foreign language at the University of Salento, Lecce in Italy between 2008-1013. During
the Academic years of 2009, 2010 and 2011, she also gave some CUM-EMUNI-CIRCEOS Master degree’s
courses on Tourism and Cultures at University Of Bari.
401
7530
UNDERSTANDING OF ISLAMIC HOTEL CONCEPT THROUGH THE

MUDZAKARAH OF ISLAMIC SCHOLARS
Shamshor Mohd-Zın
Malaysia
mr.shamshor@gmail.com
Norliza Aminudin
Malaysia
Salamiah A. Jamal
Malaysia
Hassnah Wee
Malaysia
Abstract
In spite of the interchangeable uses of the terms such as Sharia, Islamic, Halal and Muslim friendly, there
is still no clear and consistent use of terminology among destinations which resulting in numerous
organization glitches. Numbers of studies have been done to investigate Islamic hotel concept (IHC)
attributes, practices and challenges. Howbeit, not many of these studies were done accordingly to the
Islamic scholars’ perspectives. Purpose: The study attempted to establish an understanding of Islamic
hotel concepts through the Mudzakarah (discussion/convocation) of Islamic scholars (Ulama’).
Methodology: Qualitative research methodology had been chosen to gain a comprehensive
understanding by interviewing five Sunni Muslim jurisprudence Islamic scholars. Findings: This research
concludes that there are important components of Islamic hotel concept which are a separation of
gender, emphasis on halal and public awareness. Research Limitations: Islamic scholars interviewed in
this study were five Sunni Islamic school lecturers expertizing in Islamic Jurisprudence (fiqh) practising
madhab Shafie’. Hence, this study has not interviewed other mazhabs’ Islamic scholars’ point of view or
other Islamic figures from various Islamic organizations. Practical Implication: This study enriches the
existing literature on IHC by underlining the components governing IHC as described by Islamic scholars
and therefore, could be used as a guideline for many parties. Academic Implications: This study provides
more insight into a field little explored. It encourages other researchers to study in-depth about IHC
development as in fact, the study on IHC is rather fundamental. Originality/Value: The current study
contributes to the existing body of knowledge by providing a comprehensive review of the components
and Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) guidelines underlying Islamic hotel concept while previous literature
focuses on the attributes and requirements.
Keywords: Islamic hotel concept, mudzakarah, Islamic scholars
Introduction
Muslims are ruled by their Islamic religious law (sharia) that rules not only religious rituals, but aspects
of daily life in Islam (Majid, Denan, Abdullah, & Noor, 2015) and its teachings in their daily lives, and
402
unquestionably they are inclined to keep an eye on the same rules and regulations even during their
vacation to international destinations (Mohsin, Ramli, & Alkhulayfi, 2016). A study conducted by Shah
Alam, Mohd, and Hisham (2011) had proven that religion has a bigger impact on purchase decision of
Muslim consumers which explains that in Islam, a consumer's behaviour is ruled by religious commands.
Mujtaba (2016) stated that the natural expectation of practising Muslims is that the tourism industry
makes an effort to recognize their dictum since the Islamic rule is an established standard that surpasses
all conducts of life. The result of comprehending the dictums of their faith should be applied and mirrored
in the business tactics, procedures and behaviour (Mujtaba, 2016).
With the development of Islamic hospitality in Malaysia, there are many upcoming possibilities for hotel
managers to comply with Islamic Hotel concept due to the demand from the Muslim travellers (Abu-
Karim, Ahmad, & Zainol, 2017). It is highly encouraged for hotels to implement the right Islamic themes,
Islamic ambience and Islamic architecture in order to make the travellers feel at ease in performing their
religious obligations which are five times a day daily prayers, zakat, obligatory fasting in Ramadhan and
optional fasting in certain days in a month, later helps in creating value, image and brand for the hotel
(Samori, 2013). For that reason, it is necessary to develop and endorse Malaysia's universal image as the
manufacturer of high-quality halal 1 products and services (Azmin, Khalifah, Ismail, & Salleh, 2015).
Yusof and Muhammad (2010) stressed that in order to bring more innovation to the hospitality industry
the concept should be clear and can be measured. However, there is a lack of agreement about the
features of Islamic Hotel (Razalli, Abdullah, & Hassan, 2012). Muslim-friendly motto, slogan, logo, and
other creative promotional advertisement are strongly recommended as effective marketing
communication tools (Boediman, 2017). In spite of the interchangeable uses of the terms such Islamic,
Muslim friendly and halal, Khan and Callanan (2017) contended that there is no clear and consistent use
of terminology among destinations. This has led to numerous organization glitches to the industry players
such as capacity management, Muslim and non-Muslim guests misunderstanding as well as conflict
among hoteliers (Henderson, 2010; Razalli, Abdullah, & Hassan, 2012).
Numbers of studies have been conducted in order to investigate Islamic-related hotel concept, attributes,
practices and challenges. However, Mckercher (2018) outspokenly stated that having more papers
published do not certainly contribute more knowledge, and more knowledge does not certainly
contribute to better understanding (McKercher, 2018). Specifically, not many of these Islamic hotel
concept studies were done accordingly from the Islamic scholars’ perspectives. According to El-Gohary
(2016), good mutual understanding of tourism development in a country which offers Muslim-friendly
facilities cannot be established without having a good understanding of religion, practices and its impact
on the tourism activities and also on the tourists. It is common knowledge that the Islamic scholars
(Ulama) are well acquainted and divinely inspired of the spiritual needs of the masses. Hence, the advice
of these Islamic scholars should be studied over and over again with deep deliberation. It is rather odd
not to have mudzakarah (discussion) with the scholars about religious practices, which has caused many
assumptions and conflicts in developing Islamic guideline for many facets of hospitality and tourism
industry.
Islamic scholars are diamonds of the Muslim community as a whole, therefore regardless of what issue it
is – it should be referred to them. Especially, not many of these Islamic hotel concept studies were done
accordingly from the Islamic scholars' perspectives but instead circling around among investors,
accommodation providers, associations, regulators and tourists. This situation has resulted in more and
more study seems to be muddying the waters rather than adding insights. But it is also something we
must fight against to ensure our field remains vibrant and legitimate! Therefore, this research attempts
to establish an understanding of Islamic hotel concepts through the Mudzakarah
(discussion/convocation) of Islamic scholars (Ulama’) by having two main objectives to investigate the
1
Halal is ‘permissible’ or ‘lawful’ in Arabic (Mukhtar and Mohsin Butt, 2012; Rehman and Shahbaz Shabbir, 2010).
403
various Islamic hotel concepts on the market and to identify components of an Islamic hotel concept
according to the Islamic scholars.
Sharia Hotel or Islamic Hotel

Shariah compliances or Islamic concept have been adopted in various industries namely the financial,
hospitality, services, insurance and manufacturing (Jais, 2016). The term Shariah-compliant hotel
generally refers to hotels which strictly adhere to many other requirements (CrescentRating, 2015). The
sharia-compliant hotel can be defined as a hotel establishment that provides all the services in
accordance with the sharia principles (refers to the totality of Allah 2 commands that regulate the life of
every Muslim in all aspects) including food and beverage and all the operation and management (Mohsin
et al., 2016; Samori, 2013). On the same token, Islamic Hotel concept tagline is then created for
international marketing strategies as a majority of the non-Muslim hotel guests quite scared when they
read about word of sharia because of the misleading information (Abu-Karim, Ahmad, & Zainol, 2017;
Ibrahim & Jamal, 2016). A number of the hotel operator's states that they did not want to be fully sharia
compliance, for them Islamic Hotel concept is more marketable and did not scare the non-Muslim
customer (Abu Karim, et al., 2017).
Muslim-Friendly Hotel
The hotel has taken into account some faith-based needs of Muslim travellers but not all their needs
(CrescentRating, 2015). Although "Halal-friendly hotel" may also convey the same meaning, the term
"Muslim friendly hotel" is more appropriate. Muslim friendly hotel complies with the needs of Muslim
travellers but doesn't benchmark itself to a certain legislation, law, and standards (Jais, 2016). For an
example, Muslim friendly hotel provides halal food and Muslim amenities in the room but has an
entertainment outlet such as a nightclub and separate bar services. Muslim friendly hotel denotes that
the hotel does provide all the necessities for Muslim such as prayer mats, bidet in the bathroom as well
as halal food (Jais, 2016).
Halal Hotel
Indeed the very terminology of ‘halal tourism’ appears to be quite recent in the academic literature (Ryan,
2016), with Scopus revealing that one of the earliest papers appeared as recently as 2010 (Battour et al.,
2010). Prior to that, the common terminology was that of ‘Islamic tourism,’ as used, for example, by
(Henderson, 2009). Therefore, it is not surprising that minimum studies are found in literature about a
halal hotel. Halal hotel is a hotel which has taken into account all the key needs of Muslim travellers
including having only Halal food & beverages at the Hotel (CrescentRating, 2015). Batrawy, (2015)
provides examples of a rental company in Orlando, Florida, that provides ‘halal vacation homes’ complete
with curtained pools, rooms with prayer mats and copies of the Koran. Some studies have shown that
halal hotel is also similar to Muslim friendly hotel and may convey the same meaning (CrescentRating,
2015; Jais, 2016).
Dry Hotel
The dry hotel can be defined as the hotel establishment which does not provide alcohol in its food and
beverages outlet while other operations and services maintain with conventional style (Rosenberg &
Choufany, 2009). Some ‘dry hotels’ called themselves as a sharia-compliant hotel by only emphasizing on
the prohibition of selling alcoholic beverages in the hotel but not imply a full commitment as Sharia-
compliant hotel requirements (Henderson, 2010). According to Abu-Karim et al., (2017), the operators
are willing to provide more facilities better than the dry hotel concept, in fact, the needs and wants of
the Muslim travellers in the guest rooms and at the public area also will be provided.
Methodology
2
The name for God, the Supreme Being, in the Arabic language; the common name for God in Islam.
404
A qualitative research methodology has been chosen to gain a comprehensive understanding regarding
the area of study. The sample of this study was five Islamic scholars in Klang Valley, Malaysia. The
selection of Islamic scholars began with the identification of Sunni Muslim jurisprudence scholars that
used to travel and stay at Sharia-compliant hotel, Islamic hotel or any conventional hotel or have never
stayed at any type of hotel for some reasons whether for leisure, academic or missionary activities. In
order to meet the research objective, semi-structured interviews with several questions were developed.
This study used interview protocol or guide as the instrument to collect data.
After finalizing the questions, the questions were reviewed by four experts. Three were holding doctorate
degrees, have been lecturing for more than 10 or 15 years and actively involved in qualitative research.
Since the interview questions could only be answered by Islamic scholars expertizing in fiqh (Islamic
jurisprudence), the other one who reviewed the questions was an Islamic scholar who helped the
researcher in identifying these fiqh Islamic scholars. The process was done to ensure that the questions
are aligned, relevant and valid to answer each research questions.
Data Collection Process and Data Analysis

Interviews were audio recorded at the informants’ administrative office, with informant permission, and
lasted between 50-60 minutes. The interview audios were then transcribed and analysed. The transcript
was systematically and thoroughly read through to identify the outcomes with codes allocated to
portions of the text codes concerning various outcomes will be group based on their similarities into a
small number manageable themes (Creswell, 2012).
The data collected were analysed using the thematic analysis to manage, describe and explore the
original data in relation to the underlying Islamic hotel concept. Braun and Clarke (2006) defined thematic
analysis as identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns within data. Each period of interviews was
recorded, and the data gathered was codified. The interview transcripts were indexed and mapped on
the basis of recurring themes. The synthesized data were examined to identify explanatory accounts, and
a preliminary set of themes were developed (Lewis, 2003). Although only a small number of interviews
were conducted, data saturation (i.e. where no new themes were emerging) was achieved after only five
interviews and confirmed with the two final interviews. Fifth interviews can be considered as favourable
as too many opinions from various Islamic scholars could result in disagreements, prejudice and difficulty
in arranging the overlapping information.
Results and Discussions
After analyzing the transcript meticulously, all the research questions were answered accordingly.
Overall, there are three themes emerged from all the research questions. Three themes emerged are
separation of gender, emphasis on halal and public awareness.
Separation of Gender
The main idea of Sharia hotel by separating guests based on their gender captured the Islamic scholars’
interest very well. They were mainly interested in the separation of the gender in many aspects such as
health facilities, floors and pathways. The Islamic scholars also highlighted how important it is to separate
guests and staff according to their gender in order to avoid ikhtilat (intermingling between women and
men either individually or collectively).
“If they manage to do that (separation of gender), it is very complying with the sharia.”
(Informant: IS1)
There is a hadith from the prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) who
described on one occasion that he had seen the mix between men and women on the street, and he
ordered women to walk by the roads to avoid the 'ikhtilat' between them.
405
“One particular hadith stressed the separation of gender is when women walk alongside men in a way
that can cause intermingling (ikhtilat) which possibly bound to happen in pathways and building floors.”
(Informant: IS1)
Islam restricts ikhtilat because of its ability to encourage them (men and women) to meet each other,
look and talk about who they are without stone solid purpose. Allah Almighty stated in the Holy Quran:
“Tell the believing men to reduce [some] of their vision and guard their private parts. That is purer for
them. Indeed, Allah is acquainted with what they do.” (Quran 24:30)
Then, it is furthered emphasis by the prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) in
following hadiths:
"Do not let one of you be with a woman because the devil is the third person among them." (Ahadith)
“And whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day shall not be without a woman who has no mahram
with her, for the third one is the devil” (Ahadith)
"Whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day should not be with a woman without any mahram the
woman, because Satan becomes the third person among them." (Ahadith)
A famous Yemeni Islamic scholar, Dr Majid Zindani explained the type prohibited ikhtilat is the gathering
of men and women who have doubts that things may plunge into unlawful things. On the same note,
another prominent Islamic scholar Sheikh Abdul-Karim Zaidan in his book al-Mufassal Fi al-Ahkam al-
Mar'ah remarks the law of association between men and women are illegal, and then it is something
obligatory to be avoided except in forced or the urgent need.
However, there are two opinions among the Islamic scholars regarding ikhtilat. First opinion states it is
counted as prohibited. Secondly, it is allowed for the required matters such as learning, community
service, and charity/welfare activities etc. that require the merger between two parties. Prohibition for
women who are travelling alone without being accompanied by their mahram (ineligible to marry) and
prohibition of intermingling between genders is confirmed through the sayings of the prophet
Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) as below:
“No women can travel outside unless she is accompanied by her mahram, and no one can be together
with the woman unless the woman is accompanied by her mahram.” (Ahadith)
“No man can be with a woman unless the woman is accompanied by her mahram.” (Ahadith)
The above arguments clearly show the 'ikhtilat' is prohibited between men and women. The essence of
the prohibition of 'ikhtilat' is its capability to stir fitnah (trials) which is the root cause many unlawful
things such as promiscuity, adultery, problems at the workplace, household problems and divorce. The
effect of ikhtilat is long evident way over fourteen years as reported by the Counseling Unit report by
Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development of Malaysia, 70 percent of the cause of divorce
in workforce in society due to the relationship with a third person representing 80 percent of the total,
the relationship it was built among colleagues (Utusan Malaysia, 2004).
406
Emphasis on Halal
Muslims are highlighted to eat whatever is Halal-un-Tayyaban meaning ‘permissible, allowable and
wholesome’. Muslims are free to eat whatever they like as long as they observe the food and beverage
permitted by the sharia rules underlined by the Holy Quran and the hadith.
“O ye who believe! Eat of the good things wherewith WE have provided you and render thanks to Allah if
it is He whom you worship” (Quran 2: 172).
“O mankind! Eat of that which is lawful and wholesome on earth....” (Quran 2:168)
“He hath forbidden you only carrion, and blood, and swineflesh, and that which hath been immolated to
(the name of) any other than Allah…” (Quran 2:173)
“Forbidden unto you (for food) are carrion and blood and swine flesh, and that which hath been dedicated
unto any other than Allah, and the strangled, and the dead through beating, and the dead through falling
from a height, and that which hath been killed by (the goring of) horns, and the devoured of wild beasts
saving that which ye make lawful (by the death-stroke) and that which hath been immolated unto idols.
And (forbidden is it) that ye swear by the divining arrows. This is an abomination.... (Quran 5:3)
When it comes to beverages, alcohol and other intoxicants are also prohibited as it is evidently banned
by Islam as stated in the Holy Quran. It seeks no further elaboration or justification as Allah Almighty has
clearly stated one verse below is out of many:
“O ye who believe! Strong drink and games of chance, and idols and divining arrows are only an infamy
of Satan’s handiwork. Leave it aside in order that ye may succeed” (Quran 5: 90)
The Arabic term for alcohol is ‘khamr’ means that whatever is fermented including everything this affects
the consciences of someone like all whiskey, beer, brandy, liquor, drugs and wine etc. Henceforth, when
briefed about Muslim – friendly hotel, Islamic scholars were found displeased with it due to its association
with alcohol. They encourage avoiding haram food or beverages at all cost.
When asked whether or not they would stay at Muslim – friendly hotel, they rather not if they had other
options. The Islamic scholars further advised Muslim travellers to opt another type of Islamic hotel
concept on several factors such as price, distance and accessibility. Consequently, from the interviews
among the Islamic scholars regarding the status of dry and Muslim – friendly hotels (specifically their
associations with/without alcoholic beverages) the hierarchy of Islamic hotel concept (IHC) choice for
Muslim travellers can be demonstrated as available after reference. On top of that, inspired by Figure
4.3.1 (The Hierarchy of Islamic Hotel Concepts Choice for Muslim Travellers), classification of Islamic hotel
concept can also be illustrated as well.
407
Sharia /
Islamic
Hotel
Halal Hotel
Dry Hotel
Muslim - friendly Hotel
Figure 4.3.1 - The Hierarchy of Islamic Hotel Concepts (IHC) Choice for Muslim Travellers
By referring the hierarchy of Islamic hotel concepts (IHC) choice for Muslim travellers (figure 4.3.1), Sharia
hotel is located on the highest tier due to its prominent virtue in upholding Islamic attributes in the hotel
followed by Islamic hotel and halal hotel. Meanwhile, Muslim – friendly hotel located at the bottom tier
due to its association with alcoholic drinks. As result, Muslim – friendly hotel cannot be classified as
Islamic hotel.
By the same token, dry hotel also cannot be placed under Islamic hotel as it caters no special needs for
Muslim travelers even though they (dry hotels) claimed themselves as a sharia-compliant hotel
(Henderson, 2010) by only emphasizing on the prohibition of selling alcoholic beverages in the hotel but
not providing key needs of Muslim travellers. Hence, the study confirms that any dry hotel cannot fall
under Islamic hotel category as well.
The Islamic scholars stated that they (dry hotel operators) cannot claim themselves as Islamic or even
close sharia compliance hotel. They (dry hotel operators) are highly encouraged to upgrade their offerings
as they are in fact way better than Muslim – friendly hotel which has an association with an alcoholic
drink. Therefore, it is highly advisable for them (dry hotel operators) to grab this golden opportunity to
install more Islamic hotel attributes in their dry hotels. Or, they can just be regarded as a conventional
hotel.
“Some investment should be made in order to venture your hotel (dry) to a whole new level. It is worth a
try.”
(Informant: IS3)
Public Awareness
Generally, customers are not really aware of the Islamic hotel concept (especially sharia-compliant hotel)
due to misconception even though the demand is sky high (Nur’Hidayah Che Ahmat, Ridzuan, & Zahari,
2012). Parallel with that notion, Huang, Qiu, Bai, & Pray (2006) theorized that customers’ attitude
towards (Syariah Compliant) concept could be influenced through the effective use of knowledge and
information. Thus, the hotel operators need to educate their guests by putting a clear status/stand about
their Islamic hotel concepts and offerings. In fact, these Islamic scholars collectively agreed on pushing
408
hotel operators on putting a clear status about their hotels such as sharia, Islamic, Muslim- friendly, halal
or dry as it enhances guests’ understanding and awareness.
“They (hotel operators) need to portray themselves and how their business works in order to enlighten
guests.”
(Informant: IS2)
Customers’ awareness (We (Islamic scholars) are also not aware of their (Islamic hotel concept) existence.
It is important for us (customers/guests) to know the existence of these types of Islamic hotel concepts. It
(awareness) will guide us in decision making when checking in into a hotel. And it will also boost demand.
(Informant: IS4)
Responding to the terror of Sharia word reported by previous studies due to deceptive
information (Abu-Karim, Ahmad, & Zainol, 2017; Ibrahim & Jamal, 2016), Islamic scholars mutually agreed
that, Islamic word brings more warmth, openness and friendliness which can be used as effective
international marketing strategies on non-Muslim travellers.
“The misunderstanding of the word ‘sharia’ cannot be solved in a short time. It takes time. Thus, the right
step to take now is to portray our hotels as Islamic hotel. Which will attract customers.”
(Informant: IS5)
“Islamic word sounds more familiar to non-Muslims customers compared to sharia word.”
(Informant: IS1)
Moving on to the Halal hotel, when the Islamic scholars were informed that halal hotel is a hotel
which has taken into account all the key needs of Muslim travellers including having only Halal food &
beverages in the Hotel (CrescentRating, 2015), they were not expecting that it was only referring to food.
According to them, an interaction of different gender between staff and guests is also not halal (which
we have covered in the first theme – separation of gender). Thus, they suggested using a proper label
indicating which aspect of halal they (operators) are referring to.
“The common misconception about halal and haram status is that it covers about food and beverage only.
But, the interaction of different gender is also haram. The concept (halal and haram) extends to great
length.”
(Informant: IS5)
The Islamic scholars affirmed that it is fine to a word halal to a hotel or any other establishment
but they (operators) need to clarify which aspect of halal they are referring to. For example, putting on a
sign “We serve halal food and drinks only here”. Che-Ahmat et al., (2012) conclude that the higher
customers’ awareness about the concept and practices, the higher percentage of customers’ acceptance.
409
Islamic Hotel
Concepts
Islamic Non-Islamic
Sharia / Muslim-
Halal Hotel Dry Hotel
Islamic Hotel friendly Hotel
Figure 4.3.2 - Classification of Islamic Hotel Concepts (IHC)
Limitations of study
There were a few limitations that need to be considered in this study. Islamic scholars interviewed in this
study were five Sunni Islamic school (Madrasa) lecturers expertizing in Islamic Jurisprudence (fiqh)
practising madhab Shafie’. Hence, this study has not interviewed other mazhabs’ Islamic scholars’ point
of view or other Islamic figures from various Islamic organizations. Also, these Islamic scholars are Sunni
Muslims who hold mazhab Shafie’. This study has not covered other mazhabs’ Islamic scholars’ point of
view due to several reasons such as research length, clashes between the school of thought and time-
bound. Therefore, it is highly recommended for researchers from other countries with different mazhabs
to take this opportunity and compile Islamic scholars’ thoughts on various Islamic hotel concepts around
the world. Plus, more Islamic scholars from various study background and organizations should also be
approached qualitatively in order to elicit more remaining understanding, knowledge and wisdom.
Conclusion
Islamic hotel concept is very rich, clear and beautiful to implement. The beauty of Islam itself can be
translated into the hospitality industry. Islamic scholars have stepped up to enrich the understanding of
Islamic hotel concept. Their willingness to contribute knowledge to the hospitality industry is truly noble
and praiseworthy. Investors, accommodation providers, associations, regulators and tourists should be
taking enormous benefits from their wisdom and knowledge. The main results of this study should be put
forward into implementation as it all contributes highly to the industry and Islam specifically. On top of
that, both government bodies and practitioners need to understand well the needs and wants of Muslim
travellers to set a good environment for Islamic tourist destination. Islamic hotel concept is not new, but
currently fine-tuning itself in the industry. Therefore, it is undeniably tough to understand, shape and
execute it properly but in time, it (IHC) will flourish beautifully. It is also hoped that in the future, there
will be more mudzakarah (discussion/convocation) with Islamic scholars regarding all facets of industries.
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7560
HAND HYGIENE EXPERIENCE OF GASTRONOMY STUDENTS: CASE OF

ANADOLU UNIVERSITY
Pınar Şenel
Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
pinargoksu@anadolu.edu.tr
Sibel Önçel
Assistant Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
sguler@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
The increase in food based illnesses and poisonings in the world has also led to an increase in the intake
of food. Today, when safe and hygienic food laws and practices are increasing, hand hygiene is the
mainstay of personnel hygiene, a stage of food safety. The aim of the study is to examine the hand
hygiene experience of gastronomy and culinary arts students who will be responsible for food and
beverage and food and beverage businesses in the future. In this context, research type was identified
as phenomenology from qualitative researches and research place was chosen as Anadolu University.
Purposive sampling method was used in the research and the collected data were analyzed by descriptive
analysis. As a result, the findings show that participants' knowledge and behavior towards hand hygiene
was inadequate and in the direction of the findings some proposes were offered to food and beverage
sector and institution provide education on food and beverage.
Key Words: Hygiene, Food Safety, Food Hygiene, Hand Hygiene.
Introduction
Eating and drinking is a must for human health as it is to be done with healthy food. Direct food intake
into human body, and serious health issues from simple food poisoning to complicated health issues
deriving from this, underlines the importance of hygiene. Human is the most important element in the
creation of necessary hygiene in kitchens and food. Kitchen, in spite of the industrialization we are faced
today, appears as a working field which directly utilizes human factor.
On the other hand, despite the increasing information, technology and quality control practices today,
the amount of diseases and poisonings based on food also increases. According to the researches, 1 out
of 1000 persons in the United States falls in food based diseases every year, while this amount is 10 per
cent in developing countries, including ours. Increase in the number of collective nutrition places such as
hospitals, schools, working places and restaurants, which is a result of urbanization, also increases the
risk that many people can get poisoned or sick (Barten, Fustukian, and Haan, 1996).
Considering these facts, food safety is explained as a precautionary concept controlling all the phases
related to food from purchasing to stock and from processing to preparation. Personnel hygiene as an
important phase of providing food safety ensures the control of microbiological factors that food may be
exposed to until arriving at consumer. Hygiene is defined as avoiding any kind of living organism, object
or activity that may be harmful to human health. Hand is an important element in providing personnel
and food hygiene (Pittet, Simon, Hugonnet, Pessoa-Silva, Sauvan, and Perneger, 2004).
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While there are numerous studies about health and general hand hygiene of kitchen personnel (Ayçiçek,
Aydoğan, Küçükkaraaslan, Baysallar, and Başustaoğlu, 2004; Pragle, Harding, and Mack, 2007) no studies
were found about the hand hygiene experience of gastronomy and culinary students, that will favor the
development of food sector in the future. In those studies conducted on kitchen personnel’s food and
hand hygiene, it is generally found out that their knowledge and behavior is inadequate. Jevsnik, Hlebec,
and Raspor (2008) were found that there are some gaps of food handlers’ knowledge on microbiological
hazards. especially for those working in catering and retail. Garayoa, Vitas, Diez-Leturia, and Garcia-Jalon,
(2011) were found that hygiene practices were apllied with systematic incorrect procedures in 60% of
the kitchens.
The aim of the study is to search the hand hygiene experiences of gastronomy and culinary arts students
at the 3rd and 4th grade of university. Gastronomy and culinary arts undergraduate programs’ mission of
educating chefs and food and beverage sector supervisors outlines the importance of the study. In
addition, expanded effects related to educational institutions and food sector are expected with the
study findings.
The research type was identified as descriptive phenomenology from qualitative researches, as the
method used in accordance with the purpose of this study and data are collected via observation and
interview. Collected data are analyzed with descriptive phenomenology and findings about students’
hand hygiene experiences are gathered. As a result, throughout the time spent in the kitchen, it is found
out that attendants did not have adequate knowledge and correct behavioral attitudes about personal
and exterior contamination for hand hygiene, and not washed their hands correctly and adequately
during the cooking process.
Food Safety, Hygiene and Hand Hygiene
Food is an easy tool that the personnel can pass respiratory system diseases such as flu and quinsy, and
digestion system diseases such as typhoid, to the customers (Malagie, Jensen, Graham, and Smith,1998).
Considering the risk it can compose, food safety and hygiene in collective food centers has an important
place and secured via legal rules. Food Hygiene Regulations and Hygiene Education Regulations,
published in accordance with the law no: 5996 dated on 11th of June 2010, are among the regulations
that indicate rules on implication (Karaman, 2012).
Food safety is defined as the precautions that require the control of physical, chemical and microbial
factors which foods are exposed from purchasing to fork. It is indicated that the possibility which foods
lead up to diseases because of microbial factors is more widespread than of physical and chemical factors
(Scott, 1996).
Hygiene is defined as “all the cleaning precautions and practices for defending from insanitary
environment” as the word-meaning (Whitby, McLaws, and Ross, 2006). The fact that it is the personnel
factor which minimizes microbial factors for food hygiene and provides food safety, requires both
personnel hygiene and control of the food preparation process. In this context, hand is an organic kitchen
tool which necessitates hygiene as the organ to contact food most frequently, as of being very important
for personnel general hygiene. In the studies carried on hand hygiene, it is discovered that the number
of bacteria on the hands of the personnel working at common food and meat facilities and food and
beverage companies is pretty much more than of other people (Cordoba M.G, Cordoba J. and Jordano R,
1999; Seligman and Rosenbulth, 1975).
Contamination reasons of the micro-organisms on hands expand beyond food. Exterior factors such as
existing permanent or temporary microorganism on hands and nail gaps, wound and boil liquids,
microorganisms on face, eye, nostril and scalp, ornaments on hand and wrist such as watch, ring, bracelet
and nail polish, contaminated clothes, apron, fabric and tools, and door handle, rubbish, food packages,
increase the number of microorganisms on hands and pose a risk of contamination to food (Marriott and
Robertson, 1997). Things to ensure hand cleanness are possible with eliminating all these contamination
sources.
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Methodology
The research type is descriptive phenomenology from qualitative researches. Main purpose of the study
is to search the hand hygiene experiences of gastronomy and culinary arts students at the 3rd and 4th
grade. The reason of choosing 3rd and 4th grades is that they are at the stage of graduation and to find
out which experiences they have about hand hygiene in the kitchen, where is their practicing area. Within
this context, attendants are chosen through purposive sampling. Implication place of the research is
determined as Anatolian University. In the research, observation and interview technics among
qualitative methods are used and data are collected during practical classes in the kitchen. Related
literature is analyzed while composing the observation form and interview questions and 3 Gastronomy
and Culinary Arts, 1 Hygiene and Sanitation experts were consulted. First, 10 students were observed
through nonparticipant observation technique in the practical classes and then same students were
interviewed face-to-face. Observation was carried out as 3 hours per week for 4 weeks between 16 April
2018 and 16 May 2018. During the interviews, semi-constructed questionnaire form was used, and these
10 students were interviewed between 16 May 2018 and 30 May 2018. Data collected through
observation and interview methods were themed about research purposes and analyzed with descriptive
analysis method. Sub-purposes and themes set down about research main purposes:
- Finding out if students have taken education on food safety and hygiene at or out of the school
before, and stating the benefits of such education for hand hygiene,
- Measuring the knowledge and experience of students about achieving hand hygiene in the
kitchen,
- Measuring the knowledge and experience of students about the correct way of hand washing
and drying,
- Measuring the knowledge and experience of students about cross-contamination between foods
and equipment,
- Measuring the knowledge and experience of students about personal contamination,
- Measuring the knowledge and experience of students about exterior
- contamination,
- Measuring the experience of students about smoking in general and in the kitchen specifically.
Findings
Findings on the participants’ gender and educational background
Table 1 presents information on the participants’ gender and educational background.
Place where the participant

Participant’s Participant’s Participant’s Participant’s education on
received the education on
code gender grade food safety and hygiene
food safety and hygiene
A Female 4th grade Yes School/ as separate lesson

B Male 4th grade Yes School/as separate lesson
C Female 3rd grade No
D Female 3rd grade Yes School/ in other lessons
E Male 4th grade Yes Internship
rd
F Female 3 grade Yes School/ in other lessons
G Female 3rd grade Yes School/as separate lesson
rd
H Female 3 grade Yes School/ in other lessons
I Male 3rd grade Yes Internship
J Male 4th grade Yes School/as separate lesson
Table 1. Participants’ gender and educational background.
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When Table 1 is analyzed, it can be seen that 4 of the participants are male and 6 of them are female. 4
of the participants are at the 4th and 6 of them are at the 3rd grade. Most of the 3rd grade students have
taken the food safety and hygiene course as a separate course. In addition, most of the students have
not taken a separate course on food safety and hygiene but get related information within the context
of other courses. The fact that food safety and hygiene course is selective in the gastronomy and culinary
arts department explains the phenomenon. Participants A, G and I among those who took the food safety
and hygiene course talked about the education they took about hand hygiene, correct way of hand
washing, use of glove, common hygiene rules and smoking within the framework of the course, on the
other hand participant B made the comment that the course was not intense and focused. Participants E
and I, who took the food safety and hygiene education at the internship, indicated that it did not made a
practical contribution and the possibility to reflect the theoretical information to practice is low.
Findings on the participants’ knowledge and behaviors about common hand hygiene
All of the participants expressed opinion about the rules on hand hygiene that must be followed by
kitchen personnel. They have information on at least two of the rules that must be followed while going
in the kitchen like eradicating contamination sources from hands such as short nails, nail care and nail
polish, covering of infections and wounds, washing hands, prevention of cross contamination. While
participants B, C, D, E, G, H, I and J mentioned the necessity of washing hands, and shortening and
cleaning nails to provide cleanness in the kitchen, participant D also added that nail polish is a source of
contamination. The fact that all female participants had no nail polish and others’ short and well-cared
nails during the observation period supports this finding. However, it was seen that participants’
knowledge about regular hand washing was not put into practice in the kitchen. Except participants A
and E, it was discovered that while practicing, participants were weakly habited in washing hands and
other behaviors that can cause contamination such as smoking, touching uncooked meat, phone or
product package.
While participants G and H declared that the infection and wounds on hands had to be covered with a
band-aid or glove, it was observed that participant H did not covered his wounded hand, and the finding
that theoretical knowledge was not put into practice was also supported in this field.
Participant A provided the most limited information about ensuring hand hygiene. This data was
supported during the participant’s observation period. Participant A’s behaviors about shortened and
cleansed nails and hand washing habits were observed to be very weak.
Findings on the participants’ knowledge and behaviors about the correct way of hand washing and
drying
Most of the participants provided information about using soap and rubbing fingers and nails for a while,
which are important criteria of correct hand washing. Participants A, B, C, D, E, F, I and J declared that
hands must be washed at least 30 seconds; participant B gave the full information about the subject and
said “Correct hand washing, the most important thing is time, and what we disregard is foaming, we take
some soap and wash hands very shortly. Right amount of soap and at least 20 seconds… time is actually
about the period required for bacteria to die. This is what we aim. In addition, nails must be well rubbed
and rinsed. We mostly dry without rinsing adequately and we work with chemical residue on our hands.”
Participants A, E and I never mentioned to use of antiseptic while washing hands. This finding about the
participants was also observed during implication. It was observed that participant I did not wash hands
in the kitchen even when it was necessary or washed with only water for a short period, and participants
A and E used dish washing liquid despite the existence of antiseptic soap in the kitchen. Apart from
participants A, E and I who did not mention that hands must be washed with soap; it was observed that
the information given by the participant G who declared that hands must be washed with a disinfectant
soap and participants B, C, D, F and H who declared that hands must be washed with soap was not
417
reflected to their hand washing behaviors. Among the data that were observed was that these
participants washed their hands in the dish washing basin with dish washing liquid for a very short period
of time. About these data, it can be interpreted that nearly all the participants did not wash their hands
in the correct way and time.
All participants, but I, declared that hands must be dried with a clean, paper, single-use napkin or drier,
but it was observed that this information was not followed all the time and they dried their hands on the
kitchen clothes and apron and pants they wear outside. An additional important finding about this was
that the participants did not wear the apron only in the kitchen but also went out with it. Participants not
taking care about the cleanness and tidiness of the apron is also among the observed data.
Findings on the participants’ knowledge and behaviors about preventing cross contamination between
food and equipment
All participants have correct knowledge about cross contamination between food and equipment. All of
them mentioned that cooked-uncooked meat and food, vegetable and meat-milk products must not be
processed on the same bench and with the same equipment, and hands and equipment must be washed
after each process. However participants I and J continuously and participant C rarely were observed to
have the risk to contaminate between uncooked-cooked meat and food, vegetable and baked products.
In this context, it can be said that participants have knowledge about cross contamination but some of
them did not reflect this knowledge to their behaviors from time to time.
Findings on the participants’ knowledge and behaviors about preventing personal contamination
It was found out that participants could not satisfyingly explain the relationship between personal
contamination and hand hygiene. All participants underlined the importance of washing hands frequently
and participants G and H added the necessity of routine health controls. In addition to frequent hand
washing, participant F added that infections and wounds on hands must be covered and participant D
mentioned the importance of washing hands while going in and out the toilette and kitchen. Participant
I declared the importance of personal cleanness apart from hand washing. Only participant B mentioned
the existence of bacteria on organs such as face, nose, hair, ear, which is important in personal
contamination. The participant said “It is important where we put our hands on. Touching to our hair or
nose. Because, even if it is a very small moment, contamination to our hand occurs. Then, is there a flux
when we enter the kitchen? Our nose? Nasal? Are we coughing? Do we let something out of our body?
Do we touch with our hand?” This finding about the participant was supported during the observation
process. It was observed that the participant washed hands while going in and out the kitchen and after
touching to his organs such as hair, nose, face, wore a bonnet and cared his personal and equipment
cleanness. Inadequate knowledge of all other participants’ was supported by observation. Among the
data observed are participants A, C, D, E, F, G, I and J frequently touched their organs such as face, nose,
hair and did not wash hands afterwards, males did not wear bonnet from time to time and women only
used hair band. In addition to participants’ inadequacy of knowledge and practice, some missing
knowledge in the rules of getting in and out the kitchen can also be interpreted. Another point that was
observed was that participants protected their hands while sneezing and coughing.
Findings on the participants’ knowledge and behaviors about preventing exterior contamination
All participants, but A, expressed idea about exterior contamination. While participants C, D, E, G, H and
J mentioned smoking, exterior clothes, shoes and slippers about exterior contamination, participants B,
G and I added the product package factor to that. Participant F is the only one who mentioned cosmetics
factor. The participant said “Actually cosmetic products do matter. It is forbidden to use but people use
perfume and deodorant, etc. I mean, I can give that example. They contaminate to what we wear and to
418
our hands from there. We dry our hands or equipment to these clothes.” Despite their knowledge about
exterior contamination, it was observed that participants’ behavior did not support the data. Smoking
participants A, C, D, G, H and I went out to smoke during course breaks but did not wash hands while
coming back into the kitchen. In addition all participants, except B, brought their phones into the kitchen
and touched them frequently while cooking. Participants C, D and E even put their phones on the
chopping boards, which was another observed data. None of the participants washed their hands after
touching exterior contamination sources such as pants they wear outside, door handle, receipt, food
package etc. and continued the cooking process. Participants wearing only top apron, going out and in
the kitchen with their aprons and slippers, using phone while cooking and touching the receipts came
from outside are all those that reveal the inadequacy of knowledge and behavior obtained about exterior
contamination. In addition, about the finding, it is also seen that inadequacy of kitchen rules caused
exterior contamination.
Findings on the participants’ behaviors about smoking
All participants, but A, expressed that they use cigarettes. Also it was observated that all participants who
used cigarettes except participant J continued to smoke during to breaks of practice lesson.
Conclusion
Hand hygiene is the most important prerequisite for ensuring hygiene of the kitchen and the food
prepared in it. Although hand hygiene is the most important prerequisite for the preparation of healthy
and hygienic food, it is also seen that this is disregarded most of the time. Either the speed requirement
of the working conditions or the limitations of the working field cause this fact to be ignored usually.
The aim of the study is to examine the hand hygiene experience of gastronomy and culinary arts students
who will be responsible for food and beverage businesses in the future. In relation to the aim, 3rd and 4th
grade students of the Anadolu University Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Undergraduate Program were
observed, and face-to face interviews were conducted with these students.
As a result, findings were reached about the main purpose and defined sub-purposes of the research. 6
out of the 10 participants were female. 4 of them have taken the food safety and hygiene course as a
separate course, 3 of them have not taken this education at school. Most of the participants have opinion
on how the hands of a person’s hands has to be while going into the kitchen. Although all the participants
have knowledge about eliminating contaminate sources from hands such as nail shortness and care,
cleanness of hands, nail polish and washing hands after smoking, it was observed that this theoretical
knowledge was not realized in practice. While it was found out that most of the participants get into the
kitchen with clean, un-polished and well-cared nails, the evidence was that they also did not get used to
wash hands as a primary hand hygiene rule in the kitchen. It was discovered that most of the participants
did not usually wash hands after entering the kitchen. Köksal, Soysal, Ergör ve Kaner (2016) are among
the researchers who found out that the personnel working in the kitchens of health businesses are pretty
weak in hand washing despite the very much qualified education they were given about that.
While having deficient knowledge about the correct way of hand washing, it was discovered that
participants have knowledge about the period of hand washing and the use of disinfectant, a clean rubber
or single-use napkin. However, it was also discovered that the knowledge the participants have was not
practiced in their behaviors. It was observed that nearly all of the participants washed their hands with
the dish washing soap for an insufficient period of time, despite the existence of antiseptic liquids and
single-use napkins in the kitchen and dried their hands with different clothes such as the apron and
clothes they wore outside. Participants are wearing their kitchen apron and clothes also outside of the
kitchen.
It was found out that all of the participants had knowledge about cross contamination and most of them
cleansed the equipment and their hands after processing with different foods and equipment. Their
419
knowledge and behavior about personal contamination is, on the other hand, very weak. In addition to
not explaining personal contamination subject satisfyingly, they frequently expressed behaviors that may
cause personal contamination in the kitchen. It was observed that most of the participants touched their
organs such as nose, hair and face, and did not wash their hands afterwards. About this finding, it can be
said that female participants used hair band instead of bonnet and this caused them to touch and fix their
hair. It was discovered that knowledge of participants about exterior contamination was limited. All of
them mentioned some points about exterior contamination. While most of the participants have
knowledge about the necessity of washing hands after smoking to prevent exterior contamination, they
did not practice this rule in their behavior. The finding was that most of the participants had smoking
habit and did not wash their hands after smoking. In addition, it was observed that most of the
participants have touched to exterior contamination sources such as phone, lighter, paper receipt, food
package that are used outside and door handle during the implementation period in the kitchen and did
not wash their hands. Absence of a rule about not bringing exterior contamination sources into the
kitchen, such as receipt and packed food, is another important finding. These findings were also
encountered in other studies. In his study that searched the sanitation and hygiene knowledge of hotel
kitchen personnel, Can (2008) explored that the personnel did not have enough knowledge about
personal cleanness and practices. Demirel (2009) have reached the finding that the personnel working in
fast food sector have inadequate knowledge about both personal and exteriorr contamination.
In accordance with all these findings, about hand hygiene, it was discovered that participants have
general knowledge about general hand cleanness and care, cross contamination between food and
equipment, but did not have adequate knowledge about personal and exterior contamination. Compared
to their knowledge about exterior and personal contamination, their frequent behaviors that may cause
exterior contamination can be explained with this lack of knowledge; but it can be interpreted that their
habits were not developed enough considering that they have not washed their hands often enough
while entering the kitchen. It is thought that it would be convenient to make some suggestions to both
education institutions and businesses that cover food and beverage services, as a result of the findings
of the study:
- For a healthy society, healthy individuals, healthy food and beverage and tourism businesses,
hand hygiene must be a mandatory education course to those working in all related institutions.
- Because gastronomy and culinary arts students have to be equipped with full knowledge about
food and personnel hygiene, hygiene and sanitation must be a mandatory course at the 1st grade.
- Antiseptic soap, hand washing basins and paper tissues must be placed at the entrance of
kitchens and hand washing behaviors must be observed with cameras if necessary.
- Kitchens must be entered only with clothes, aprons and slippers used in the kitchen.
- Hair must be fully covered with bonnet while going into the kitchen.
- Phone use must be forbidden during the time spent in the kitchen.
- In the kitchen, smoking must be forbidden during the breaks.
- Foods must be taken into the kitchen within a gastronomy, after uncovering from packages.
- Sources that may cause exterior contamination such as napkin and equipment must be kept out
of the kitchen.
Literature must contain other studies that will support the research. More detailed studies must be
conducted that will lay down the rules of going in kitchen in means of equipment, personnel and food;
personnel behaviors of kitchens that apply correct and strict rules and others must be comparatively
searched, and studies about increasing hygiene habits must be expanded.
References
Ayçiçek, H. Aydoğan, H, Küçükkaraaslan, A. Baysallar, M. & Başustaoğlu, A. C. (2004). Assessment of the
bacterial contamination on hands of hospital food handlers. Food control, 15(4), 253-259.
Barten, F. Fustukian, S. & de Haan, S. (1996). The occupational health needs of workers: The need for a
new international approach. Social Justice, 23(4),152-163.
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Cordoba, M. G., Cordoba J. J. & Jordano, R. (1999). Microbiological hazards during processing of
croquettes. Journal of Food Safety, 19,1-15.
Garayoa, R. Vitas, A. I. Diez-Leturia, M. & Garcia-Jalon, I. (2011). Food safety and the contract catering
companies: Food handlers, facilities and HACCP evaluation. Food Control, 22(12), 2006-2012.
Jevsnik, M. Hlebec, V. & Raspor, P. (2008). Food safety knowledge and practices among food handlers in
Slovenia. Food Control, 19(12), 1107-1118.
Karaman, A. D. (2012). Food safety practices and knowledge among Turkish dairy businesses in different
capacities. Food Control, 26(1), 125-132.
Malagie, M. Jensen, G. Graham, J. C. & Smith, D. L. (1998). Food industry processes. Encyclopedia of
occupational health and safety, 67, 2-7.
Marriott, N. G. & Robertson, G. (1997). Essentials of food sanitation. New York: Chapman & Hall.
Pittet, D. Simon, A. Hugonnet, S. Pessoa-Silva, C. L. Sauvan, V. & Perneger, T. V. (2004). Hand hygiene
among physicians: performance, beliefs, and perceptions. Annals of internal medicine, 141(1), 1-
8.
Pragle, A. S. Harding, A. K. & Mack, J. C. (2007). Food workers’ perspectives on handwashing behaviors
and barriers in the restaurant environment. Journal of Environmental Health, 69(10), 27-33.
Seligman, R. & Rosenbulth, S. (1975): Comparison of bacterial flora on hands of personal engaged in non-
food and industries: A study of transient and resident bacteria. Journal of Milk and Food
Technology, 38, 678- 677.
Scott, E. (1996). Foodborne disease and other hygiene issues in the home. Journal of Applied Bacteriology,
80(1), 5-9.
Whitby, M. McLaws, M. L. & Ross, M. W. (2006). Why healthcare workers don't wash their hands: a
behavioral explanation. Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology, 27(5), 484-492.
421
7579
HISTORICAL CONSERVATION AND TOURISM IN SAMSUN CITY,
TURKEY
Ali Yılmaz
Prof. Dr. Uşak University Faculty of Science and Literature
Uşak/Turkey
Seyfullah Gül
PhD. Ondokuz Mayıs University Faculty of Tourism
Samsun /Turkey
seyfullah.gul@omu.edu.tr
Abstract
In this study, discussesed the conservation of historical buildings and places and the significance of these
in terms of tourism within the modern development process of Samsun city. The purpose of the study is
to discuss the conservation of the historical structure inheritance that has survived so far, the inclusion
of these to the modern life of the city to create attractions in the city tourism and to make suggestions
on these issues. Hittite, Persian, Roman, Byzantine, Seljuk, Ottoman Empire in the history of the Samsun
region has a rich historical and cultural history. However, as a result of the urbanization and
modernization movements, a great part of historical and cultural assets of the city’s past was destroyed.
The conservation works on the historical heritage that have survived to the present day have started
recently. The conservation works (restorations) aim to re-use historical heritage (to participate in the
modern life of the city) and increase the tourist attraction of the city. The restoration and inclusion of
some historical buildings to modern life of the city has increased the attraction of the city in terms of
tourism. Historical heritage which are important in terms of the historical and cultural identity of the city
should be conserved within the sustainable development of the city. The restoration of historical
buildings in the city reveals the potential value of tourism. This situation revives tourism, contributes to
the city’s economy.
Keywords: abstract, tourism, urban heritage tourism; heritage conservation; Samsun
Introduction
The historical heritage is the historical and cultural assets that link the past and the present to the socio-
economic and cultural structure of a certain period in the past, giving messages about the concept of art.
Factors such as rapid population growth and construction in cities, public improvements and
industrialization damage and destroy historical textures. On the other hand, an environmental awareness
is being developed in order to understand and protect the value of our losses. Today, with the
development of historical environmental consciousness, it is accepted that historical textures in cities are
an integral part of the whole city, the idea of preserving the historical texture in cities' development and
renewal plans becomes increasingly important. Heritage tourism can be important in cities and towns
due to their concentrations of heritage resources and also because these urban centres attract many
visitors (Law, 2002; Murphy & Boyle, 2006; Selby, 2004). In this study, discussesed the conservation of
historical buildings and places and the significance of these in terms of tourism within the modern
development process of Samsun city. Samsun city is located in Black Sea coast of Turkey (Figure 1).
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Historical Heritage, Historical Conservation and Urban Tourism in Samsun City
Hittite, Persian, Roman, Byzantine, Seljuk, Ottoman Empire in the history of the Samsun region has a rich
historical and cultural history. The remains of the first known settlements in the Samsun region were
removed from the excavations at the Dündartepe mound located in the Kılıçdede neighborhood in the
present settlement area of the city. These excavations yielded settlement remains and items from the
Chalcolithic, Old Bronze Age and Hittite period (Kökten, Özgüç, & Özgüç, 1945). The artifacts on the
mound are displayed chronologically in Samsun Archeology Museum. One of the most important
archaeological remains of the first known settlements in Samsun is located in the Karasamsun
neighborhood, northwest of the city center. The ruins of the ancient city of Amisos, which is believed to
have been founded in the 6th century and survived until the beginning of the 15th century (Bilgi, 1990;
Atasoy, 1997). Some ruins from the walls surrounding the ancient city, which is estimated to be built by
the Genoese in the area where the ancient city is located, have survived until today.
Figure 1. Location map of Samsun city.
In the area where the ancient city is located, no archaeological excavation has been carried out, however,
due to illegal excavations and road works etc. rescue excavations were carried out by the Samsun
Museum recover some of the remains. The floor mosaics that appeared in these excavations, a cistern
belonging to the Byzantine period, column capitals, and the remains of a building with towers, various
objects and gold ornaments found in five ancient rock tombs are exhibited as Amisos treasures. While
the city was in the hands of the Turks, it is estimated that the Genoese settled and destroyed many
buildings in the settlement. Recently, Amisos ancient ruins on the hill where an arrangement has been
done for the purpose of recreation by providing transportation from the beach to the top with ropeway
has been a development that has increased the city’s attraction.
423
The oldest building of the Turkish period in Samsun, which was founded by the Seljuks at the end of the
12th century by the sea, is the Seyyid Kutbeddin Mosque and Tomb in Kökçüoğlu neighborhood. Although
the construction date is unknown, it is estimated that it has a history of seven hundred years. The Mosque
of Jesus Baba (Ese Baba) and the Mosque in Kılıçdede are estimated to be one of the oldest buildings of
Turkish existence in Samsun. Although there is no definite information, it is believed that they came to
the region during the conquest of Anatolia (1078-1116) and were martyred. Tombs were built in the
places where they fell into martyrs and mosques were built on their names. However, they have lost their
original building characteristics with subsequent repairs and alterations in the mosques and tombs.
However, these places with historical meanings are visited today. The oldest buildings that have survived
until the present day in the original shape of the city in the 14th century Ilhanlılar period in the Castle
District near the Covered Bazaar are the Jewelers Mosque and Pazar Mosque Important buildings
belonging to the early periods of the Ottomans in Samsun: Yalı Mosque (1485) in Hançerli Neighborhood
(Figure 2), Şifa Hamam (15th century) in Neighborhood and Acem Monastery in Selahiye Neighborhood.
Acem Islamic monastery, located on 100. Year Avenue has been restored after being ruined for many
years.
Although Samsun is a city founded by Turks, it has become a city where people from different cultures
and nations have come and settled. Especially after the second half of the 19th century, with the
development of trade in the city, Greeks and Armenians and a number of European merchants settled in
Samsun (Darkot, 1966; Yolalıcı, 1998). Non-Muslim population they built structures such as churches,
schools, dwellings, graveyards reflect their culture and faith values. The Mother Dolarosa Church (1846),
located on the 100th Anniversary Avenue in Ulugazi District, has a special importance in the historical
buildings of the city. The priests of the Italian Capucin, who were expelled from Tbilisi Church by Tsar
Nicholas in 1845, first founded the Santa Mariya Church in Trabzon and the Mater Dolorosa Church in
Samsun. Today, the church, which is open to worship, has existed as a good example of people from
different religions and cultures living together in the city since the past (Figure 3).
Figure 2. Yalı Mosque
Figure 3. Mater Dolorosa Church

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As a port city, where trade has long been important, Samsun has historical commercial buildings in the
form of inns covered and Ottoman bazaars. Today, Taşhan (1508) near Saathane, Süleyman Paşa
Ottoman-Covered Bazaar (1807) and many historical shops and workplaces in the Hançerli neighborhood
are important commercial buildings of the city's past. Taşhan, a two-storey building, stands as a fine
example of civilian architecture in the Ottoman period. This structure is now being restored within the
Sathane Square Project. Again, in the neighborhood of Kale, the Süleyman Paşa Ottoman-Covered Bazaar,
which is still in the commercial center of the city with jewelers, is a building consisting of shops and
interconnected gates. It was used by people who work on goldsmiths, antique shops, and people in gold
and silver business for a long time. The covered bazaar (Sarısakal, 2017), which was also used as Beyat
Bazaar for a while, is a marketplace where apparel and various products are sold today. Important
historical buildings of the commercial life in the city are the consular and bank buildings. As a result of
the development of trade from the 19th century onwards, France, England, Germany, Italy, Austria-
Hungary, Russia and Iran opened consulates in the city. Consular buildings, which constitute an important
part of the historical heritage with their functions and architectural features, are now used for
administrative, cultural purposes. The French Consulate Building at the entrance of Çiflik Street, the
Austrian-Hungarian Consulate Building in the Republic Square, the German Consulate Building near
Mecidiye Street and the Italian Consulate Building on Banks Street have been used for cultural and
administrative purposes since the past. The important building heritage of the late 19th and early 20th
centuries in Samsun is the bank buildings. The Safety Fund (Ziraat Bank), the Ottoman Bank, the Bank of
Athens and the Bank of Thessaloniki are located in the historical buildings. A significant part of the
historical buildings in the city were built during the reconstruction of the city after the 1869 fire. One of
them, the Town Hall (1913), building whose exterior side is covered with Ünye Stone is a fine example of
the chipped and ornamental art. Today, it is used as the Metropolitan Municipality Building.
An important part of the historical building heritage in the city is Samsun Tobacco Factory in Kale District.
Founded in 1887, the factory is one of the first cigarette factories in Anatolia. In the second half of the
nineteenth century, it was established by the French (registrar's office), which had the privilege of buying
and selling tobacco at that time with the development of tobacco agriculture and trade in Samsun. For
more than a century (1887-1994) the factory building, where production was maintained, is an important
witness to the historical identity of the city. Many people from Samsun worked in this factory and retired.
This historical building, which forms nostalgia for the city's inhabitants in the city center, has been
restored after being abandoned for a long time (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Samsun Tobacco Factory (after restored).
In addition to the applications for the conservation of single buildings in Samsun, a building group in the
neighborhood of Kale and the street improvement (Art Street) in the form of a complete conservation of
the place became an important application (Figure 5). Street workplaces and five historic mansions have
been restored to urban life with administrative, cultural and commercial uses. A large part of the
historical heritage in the city consists of residential buildings. The historical houses of Samsun are usually
425
built on two floors of the ground, and the interior walls of the facade are made of chunking brick in
plasterboard. The examples of civil architecture in the city are better preserved than other public
dwellings. These structures, which are generally considered in the central part of the city, have been
preserved by both their owners and most of them by the central and local authorities due to the fact that
most of them are public. Former French Consulate building in Samsun, Provincial Culture Directorate
building, Directorate of Cultural and Natural Heritage Preservation Building, Çarşambalı Association
Building, Elmas Hanım Mansion.
Figure 5. A building group in the neighborhood of Kale (Art Street)
Fountains and baths are important structures in terms of Turkish culture and history with their functions
and architectural features. However, very few of the historical fountains and baths have survived to the
present day. Today, in the neighborhood of Cedit in the late 19th century, two historic fountains are
under conservation. On the other hand, the Şifa Bath on the Necipbey Avenue of Pazar Quarter is a 15th
century building. The other one is the Tiled Bath in Saitbey District. A significant part of the historical
heritage in Samsun is the historical monuments that witnessed the struggle for independence of the
Turkish nation in recent history. Sheik Sadi Monastery, where members of the Samsun Defense of Rights
Association held meetings, is one of the structures that have an important place in the history of national
struggle of Samsun (Sarısakal, 2002). The building, which was in a state of disrepair for a long time and
the example of civil architecture near it, was restored by the Metropolitan Municipality and put into
service as the Kuva-i Milliye Museum. These structures, which are organized as a complex, consist of
three sections: Kuva-i Milliye Museum, Gazi House and the Martyrs Museum, where animation shows of
important events in Anatolian history are made. Again, the Mıntıka Palace Hotel on Mecidiye Street
where he stayed when Atatürk came to Samsun on 19 May 1919 was transformed into a museum (Gazi
Museum). In the museum, the objects and photographs of Atatürk are exhibited (Figure 6). The Atatürk
Monument (1928 M1938), which is located in the Cumhuriyet Square park, consists of a sculpture of
Atatürk on a horse and the figures that emphasize the National Struggle on all sides of the pedestal. The
memorial of 19 May 1919, built by the Austrian sculptor Heinz Kreppel, became the emblem of the city
of Samsun. Again, the İlkadım Monument (1981) near Cumhuriyet Square was built by the people of
Samsun on the 100th anniversary of Atatürk's birth. The monument implies that Atatürk and his retinue
first set foot in Samsun and the struggle for liberation from here.
The first conservation order in Samsun was taken in 1972 for the ruins of the ancient city of Amisos
(archaeological site). The most comprehensive study on the historical building and other assets to be
protected was made in 1985. Today, the total number of historical and cultural assets in Samsun city is
291. In addition to this, three areas where historical buildings and places are concentrated in the city are
designated as urban sites.
Although Samsun is an old settlement, few buildings of the past have survived to the present day. Since
the past, the tendencies of building and modernization have caused the destruction of many historical
426
buildings in the city. Migrations from the environment accelerated the destruction of historical heritage
by rapidly increasing urban population, ignoring the conservation of unplanned and historical texture.
Until recently, we cannot talk about conscious conservation of the historical heritage in the city. Studies
on the conscious conservation of the historical heritage in the city have recently begun. Recently, the
studies carried out under the conservation of the local government and the restoration is positive
developments. There are certain difficulties in preserving the historical heritage. First of all, there are
corrosive and disruptive effects of climatic conditions. There is a need for a financial source for restoring,
maintenance and so on. In addition, construction (rent) pressures are another challenge to be overcome.
The historical and cultural heritage of the city should be restored to the city life as attractive and
functional parts of the city. Uses that will facilitate the conservation of historical buildings (tourism,
traditional trade and handcrafts, housing, hotels, boarding houses etc.) should be encouraged and their
use should be determined by spatial planning. The preservation of the historical heritage contributes to
the economic and cultural development of the city by creating appeal for tourism as it is important in
terms of the city's continuity and city identity. The restoration of historical buildings in the city reveals
the potential value of tourism. This situation revives tourism, contributes to the city’s economy.
References
Atasoy, S. (1997). Amisos: Karadeniz kıyısında antik bir şehir. Samsun: Samoto Otomobil Ticaret AŞ.
Bilgi, Ö. (1990). Bafra İkiztepe kazılarının ışığında Samsun bölgesinin protohistoryası, Birinci tarih boyunca
Karadeniz kongresi bildirileri (1988), Samsun, Turkey.
Darkot, B. (1966). Samsun. İslam Ansiklopedisi, Cilt 10, İstanbul: MEB Yayınları.
Kökten, K., Özgüç, N.,& Özgüç, T. (1945) 1940-1941 yılında Türk Tarih Kurumu adına yapılan Samsun
bölgesi kazılarını hakkında ilk kısa rapor. Belleten, IX/35, 361-400.
Law, C. (2002). Urban tourism. The visitor economy and the growth of large cities. London: Continuum.
Murphy, C., & Boyle, E. (2006). Testing a conceptual model of cultural tourism development in the post-
industrial city: A case study of Glasgow. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 6,2, 111–128.
Selby, M. (2004). Understanding urban tourism. Image, culture and experience. London: I. B. Taurus.
Sarısakal, B. (2002). Bir şehirin tarihi Samsun. Samsun: Büyükşehir Belediyesi Yayınları
Sarısakal, B. (2017). Samsun’un tarihi mekânları hakkında öneriler, Retrieved from

http://www.bakisarisakal.com/rapor.pdf
Yolalıcı, M. E. (1998). XIX. yüzyılda Canik (Samsun) sancağının sosyal ve ekonomik yapısı. Ankara: Türk
Tarih Kurumu Basımevi.
Biographical Notes
Ali Yılmaz is a Professor in the Faculty of Science and Literature, University of the Uşak in Turkey where
he teaches courses on tourism geography, Hıstorıcal Conservatıon and Tourism and economic geography.
His research focuses on urban conservatıon, tourism and cultural geography.
427
Seyfullah Gül is a PhD in the Faculty of Tourism, Samsun Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey, where he
teaches courses on tourism geography, cultural tourism and cultural geography. His research focuses on
culture and tourism in Turkey.
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7583
AN EXAMPLE OF TOURISM POTENTIAL OF KARSTIK HERITAGE: MAN
ROCKS (GÖLLER SUMMER RESORT AREA-KOZAN-ADANA)
Dr. İsmail Ege
Assistant Professor
Department of Geography, University of Usak
ismail.ege@usak.edu.tr
Dr. Selahattin Polat

Assistant Professor
spolat@usak.edu.tr
Dr. Ali Yılmaz
Full Professor
Abstract
Karstic areas are getting more and more attractive every day with their visual characteristics they have
in terms of tourism. In particular, caves, karstic tunnels-bridges, travertines are mainly karstic tourist
attractions. Recently man rocks from karstic ruinform landforms have become a major tourist
attraction. These landforms which are developed on the Miocene conglomerates are rare karstic
structures. Karstic landforms, which are described as man rocks on the Göller Highland in the western
part of the Eastern Taurus Mountains, are located in the Adana District of the Mediterranean Region,
north-east of Kozan District (50 km from Kozan District). This area has great potential for tourism. Rapid
karstification and physical decomposition of conglomeratic limestones at sea level at the height of 930-
2230 m are the resultant landforms. The lapies, ruinforms, sinkholes, caverns formed on the
conglomerates are of interest in terms of tourism. These figures, which are subject to different myths
and stories by the people of the region, are visited by Kadirli, Osmaniye, Kozan and Adana, which are
very hot in the summer, and by the people who are on the plateau for the highland activities. The area
where these figures are located is also the subject of activities such as mountain climbing, paragliding,
camping, trekking, festival. These landforms of karstic heritage are damaged by anthropogenic
influences (housing, transport, agriculture, livestock, etc.), depending on the activities of the plateau.
The purpose of this work is to draw attention to this karstic heritage, including elements of cultural
heritage, to ensure that it is assessed in the context of sustainable tourism and to provide suggestions
for preservation.
Key Words: Karstic landforms, conglomerate, man rocks, karstic heritage
Introduction
Interesting shapes in karstic areas constitute an important potential for ecotourism and nature tourism
(Atalay etc. 2015; Hamilton-Smith, 2006; 2007; Hall, and Day, 2014). Such places are known by stone
forest (Knez, & Slabe, 2001; Knez, Liu & Slabe, 2012), man rocks and fairy chimneys in the world. In
429
particular, these karst ruinform shapes are defined as mysterious places and are likened to various
shapes by people and are believed in various stories. These areas, which are integrated with the most
interesting stories, are becoming a popular destination for both domestic and foreign tourists.
The Göller Highland and its Surrounding Area are located in the Adana Region of the Mediterranean
Subregion, in the north of the province of Adana, north of the Kadirli district in the North-Northeast and
in the northeast of the Kozan District. Study Area, Savrun River in the east of Gezit Mountain and
Seyhan (Göksu) River in the west is an area with natural boundaries (Figure 1). With the effect of the
Mediterranean climate, there are many highlanders coming from Adana-Kozan-Kadirli and Osmaniye to
Göller Highland and its Surroundings.
Figure 1. Location Map of Göller Highland and Its Surroundings Yakın
Purpose
The main aim of this study is to determine the tourism potential of karst ruinform landforms located on
Hopka Mountain-Göller Highland and to raise awareness about the region. Again, the people of the
region by a large influx of visitors in this area to offer suggestions for a more regular ecotourism
activities.
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In recent years, in the highlands of the Göller and in the immediate vicinity of the terrestrial activities to
be carried out very intensively, and thus especially destroyed by housing construction, this man is to
offer suggestions for the protection of rocks.
These shapes formed as a result of karstic solution have an important geomiras.
Methods
Research is mostly based on interpretation by observing on-site. For this reason, especially in summer,
when climatic conditions were suitable for inspection, field studies were conducted. In addition to
geomorphological research during the field surveys, tourists were interviewed and interview questions
were asked. As a result of interviews conducted with both visitors and locals, the tourism potential of
the region has been tried to be extracted. At this stage the stories about the man rocks have been quite
impressive. In order to help the visitors to benefit from GIS technology, tourism map was created.
ArcMap10.2.2 package program was used to create the images of the study. First of all, digitization of
topography maps and TIN map were generated from the digital map. Raster (DEM) from TIN was
produced by using the package program. Using the DEM map hillshade, slope, aspect maps are
produced. This data obtained with the help of ArcMap, location, physical, geology and tourism map is
drawn.
Causes of Man Rocks in the Göller Highland and its Near Surroundings
The emergence of man rocks in the Göller Highland and its Surroundings is related to the presence of
conglomeratic limestone in the region. There are different opinions on the exact age of this lithology
stored in a completely high energy shallow marine environment. Yılmaz and Gürer (1994) are
considered to be the same formation as the Middle Miocene age in the Andırın region. However, its age
is thought to be Upper Miocene (Ege, 2015a). According to Yılmaz and Gürer, this formation is mainly
composed of conglomerate, sandstone, marl alternations and reef limestone intercalations. This unit
covers all the units under an angular unconformity. It is a unit consisting mainly of conglomerate and
sandstone (Yılmaz & Gürer, 1994).
There is no doubt that the climate also has a major role in the emergence of karst ruinform (man rock)
forms in the region. As a result of the precipitation amount and lithology which is suitable for
karstification, carbonate rocks are formed (Photo 1A-B).
Tectonism is another factor that influences karstification in the region. There are very young and old
faults in the region, which have been in the case of continuous compression rising since the Upper
Miocene. Faults have led to much more expansion of the karstic shapes and at the same time to the
deep (Ege, 2016).
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Photo 1. A-Conglomerate B-Lapies on the Conglomerates
Tourism Potential of Ruinform () Landforms (Man Rocks)
These figures, which in the first appearance resemble towers, can be compared to a number of human
forms, are basically karstic landforms. The physical decomposition elements, which occur with both
karstization and physical separation, prevent the karstification from moving deeper, leading to more
lateral separation. These figures are known as fairy chimneys, which develop in a much more
characteristic way on tuffs, which are relatively resistant to abrasion and which are volcanic external
spraying. In the Göller Highland, Hopka Mountain and its surroundings, some of the people who are
completely symmetrical and asymmetrical in some of its surroundings and some of them are closed
middle part, some of them are called “Kaklik”. In the end there is an interesting karstic topography
resembling a tower in this area. In addition to this which are interesting shapes like mushrooms, it is
possible to see natural bridges formed as a result of karstification (Photo 2,A,B,C,D).
These karstic figures, whose scientific explanation has been explained above, have made a variety of
myths by simulating various human forms by local people. A very famous story about banditry, which
was widespread in the last period of the Ottoman Empire and the first years of the Republic, provided
an adaptation to the area. The famous story about Rock Mans in the region is as follows:
A happy wedding procession moves on with drums and clarions. All villagers are in there except for
elder grandmothers, grandparents, babies in the cradle and mothers nursing their babies in the
wedding ceremony. So a joy is a happiness!! everyone was so happy. Because this is a merger of a
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couple and the establishment of a happy family. Eaten, drunk, enjoyed, one after the other danced
during two days. Third day, jewelry were weared and one after the other danced. Finally, It's time for
the boy (güvey) to get home. Mother of the bride was crying, mother-in-law were began to rejoice. On
the white horse, the wedding dress with the bridal gown, red veil and jewelry were going in front of the
wedding procession. As we approach the groom's house, the enthusiasm has increased more drummer
clapper, clarions began to blow more forcefully and played fingers faster: wedding procession were
coming, mother-in-laws were dancing on the way. Youngs, teens, ladies, children, were playing as if
were not tiring, playing sprightly on the way. But suddenly what happened… drums and clarions were
remained silent and weddenig prossetion was saddenly stopped. People were curiously wondering
what's going on with each other, the front on were seeing blain fate itself. At an unexpected moment
tung army too crowded sarcastic horsemen and infantry were embarressed. This is tung army, their
intentions are worse, don’t know. During the sound of the last gavel voice on the air; started arrows
catapults were throw on the wedding procession . The bride knew that moment, the most powerful
one can help them and started to burn. Oh!!! my God, you can either stone us or bird. So it happened,
the bride first wish was occurred and they were stone. In many parts of Anatolia, it is told in many
different ways this folk rumor. But this story is a mountain at the tip of the Antitoros Mountains, which
is standing in the north of Adana, which is standing up against the eastern extension of the Taurus
Mountains. According to some, the Hokka, Okka by some, but also by the child is the rumor of the
mountain known as Hopka. Approximately 40 km from the Kozan direction, the southern part of Hopka
Mountain, which reached to Tokmanaklı village, appears with all its glory. The first section is called
”Gavur Hopka’’. Generally and foreign tourists coming to the region, this story is explained to the
exaggerated expression. In the minds of people listening to the story. Hopka Mountain is becoming
more meaningful and people are beginning to look at the land differently. Listeners begin to compare
each of the rocks to a peasant, a waterhole, an infantry. In this way, creating a very different charm,
this area accepts a large number of domestic and foreign visitors.
The area where the Man Rocks are located is currently being evaluated in areas such as photo safari,
hiking, trekking, camping, horseback hiking, paragliding, plateau tourism, mythology tourism. There are
lot kinds of Man Rocks which have different morphology. Some of them are as a like mushrooms. The
lower part is larger and the upper part is narrower. There are knuckles on the Man Rocks (Figure 1A).
Some of them are also similar fairy chimneys (Figure 1B). Some are naturel bridges (Figure 1C). Highs of
them are nearly 5-6 meters. The other shapes of man rocks are as a like cone. These are the most
common figures on the study area (Figure 1D). They are concentrated in light sloping pit areas similar to
valleys.
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A B
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C D
Photo 2. There are a lot kind of Man Rocks which have different morphology A- As a like mushrooms
Man Rocks; B- fairy chimney Man Rocks, C-Natural Bridge Man Rocks, D-Cone Man Rocks
Conclusions and Recommendations

Karstification is larger as known in the Turkey. Upper Miosen conglomerate is found horizontally and
incongruously on the other formation which are older Upper Miocene formations the karstic forms
developed on the conglomeratic limestones are very different and interesting.
Ruinform (ruin relief) shapes, similar to the tower- mushrooms (Adam rock), have a fairy chimney look.
Therefore, this area is named as a Cappadocia of Adana.
These images on the Hopka Mountain, along with the visual beauties, have created a special charm with
a famous story.
In this area, which is a frequent destination for domestic and foreign visitors, it is mandatory to plan for
a regular tourism activity. These rare karstic landforms of erosion should be put into the service of
tourism by making necessary efforts to make it a tourist attraction center.
The promotion of the region in the vicinity should be done very well and the local people should be
trained. Today, irregular and random tourism activity should be made more regular and controlled.
This area again is very important extrem sports and other sportive activities: hiking, paragliding,
observation, trekking, snowboard etc.
It is necessary that the visitors do not harm these natural formations and these shapes should be
preserved as geoheritage. This area can be got coverage Geo Park.
References
435
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Üzerinde Karstlaşma ve Ekolojisi (Antalya), Karstification and Ecology of Conglomerate in
Köprü Basin (Antalya), UJES-2015
Ege, İ. (2015a). “Gezit Polyesi (Kozan/ADANA)”, Gezit Polje, Asos Journal, Akademik Sosyal Araştırmalar
Dergisi, Yıl: 3, S. 17 s. 177 – 199, Doi Number :http://dx.doi.org/10.16992/ASOS.816
Ege, İ. (2015b). “Paşalı Polyesi (Fe-ke/ADANA)”, Paşalı Polje (FE-KE/ADANA), Uluslararası Sosyal
Araştırmalar Dergisi, The Journal of Inter-national Social Research, Cilt: 8 Sayı: 40, Ekim
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Bilimler Dergisi, (TUCAUM) Cilt: 1, S. 2, s. 103 – 122
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the Folded Molasse zone of the Northern Alps (Austria/Germany), Geomorphology ,130,
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Vol. 36, No: 6 Special Issue (2015)
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7584
EVALUATION OF PARTICIPANTS' GAINS OF COOKING COMPETITIONS
Sema Ekincek
Research Assistant
Eskisehir, Turkey
Merve Özgür Göde

Research Assistant
Eskisehir, Turkey
Abstract
Cooking competitions organized by institutions and organizations have an important place in gastronomy
activities. Cooking competitions provide that the creation of unique flavors in terms of gastronomy, and
the emergence of young talents. At the same time, gastronomic students are able to express themselves,
to hear their names in the field, and to communicate with people in the gastronomy. In this respect,
cooking competitions are important tools that contribute to participation in many ways. When the
literature is examined, it is seen that there is a significant lack of this issue. The aim of this work is to show
the gains that the cooking competitions provide for the participants. For this purpose, the answer to the
question "What are the gains of participants for cooking competitions"? Qualitative research methods
were used in the study. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with participants participating in the
contest through a semi-structured questionnaire. Descriptive analysis was performed with the data
obtained at the end of the interview. As a result of the study it was seen that the participants had gains
in terms creativity, motivation, social, cultural, and career. It also turned out to be a positive contribution
to the competitors' careers.
Key words: Gastronomy, cooking competitions, gains, International İstanbul Gastronomy Festival.
Introduction
With the increasing popularity of gastronomy, many people have begun to develop themselves.
Gastronomy education schools, courses and activities in the field of gastronomy have increased. Food
preparation practices have changed dramatically in the past fifty years (Soliah, Walter and Altosh, 2006).
Thus, the activities and competitions related to food started to be organized more.
Yangın and Kirca (2013) found that students who did not participate in social and scientific activities were
dissatisfied among students. In this context, it can be said that students taking gastronomy education
affect the satisfaction levels of the competitions they participate. In their study, Gül, Erdemir and Gül
(2017) stated that competitions play an important role in revealing and developing the skills of university
students related to cookery.
Gatenby et al. (2011) argue that cooking activities in schools improve students' cooking skills, gain healthy
eating habits, and increase their respect for different local and international culinary cultures. Fisher et
al. (2011) also suggest that activities related to cooking with a similar approach stimulate students'
imagination, inspiration and abilities. Petruzzelli and Savino (2014) also argue that researching the old
dishes and their contents in such competitions triggers the innovation of the food inventors. Svejenova
et al. (2010) emphasize that individuals who can better use external activities, organizations and
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resources based on individual interests and motivations are able to gain gains such as income, fame and
competence more easily.
Frey and Gallus (2016) claim that award-winning competitions have the potential to raise the intrinsic
motivation of competitors. In a similar approach, Rudd (2015) also states that cooking competitions
increase the number of participants, competition and curiosity about what the champions do. Şanlıer
(2005) emphasizes the importance of cooking competitions in introducing Turkish cuisine abroad and
draws attention to the role of cooking competitions in the preservation and sustainability of Turkish
culinary culture. In this context, the participants provide double benefits with cooking competitions.
Participants can also learn about other cuisines while promoting their kitchens. Professional activities and
competitions improve participants' skills, creativity, productivity, motivation and research spirit
(Büyükparmaksız, 2013). From this point of view, the aim of the study is to reveal the gain of cooking
competitions for the participants.
Methodology
This study employed a qualitative approach to understand the cooking competitions participants’
opinions about the gains. Qualitative researches stand out with their characteristics of revealing the
viewpoints and semantic worlds of the subjects (Unisen and Kaya, 2015). The study population consists
of the participants of 16th International Istanbul Gastronomy Festival. Data were collected through the
festival between 22-25 February 2018. A total of eight responses were received. Data were collected
through a questionnaire consisting of open-ended questions. The questionnaire used in this study was
developed through literature review. The questions in the form were as follows:
1. How do participating in cooking competitions affect your artistic and creative development?
2. What are you influenced when preparing for cooking competitions?
3. Will it be effective to participate in your meals competitions?
4. How do you influence your motivation to enter a degree in cooking competitions?
5. How do food contests affect your social life?
6. How do food contests affect cultural development?
7. How do food contests affect your career?
8. What did the cooking competitions personally add to you?
Descriptive analysis method was utilized for data analysis. According to this approach, the data obtained
are summarized and interpreted on the basis of pre-determined themes. In order to conspicuously reflect
the opinions of interviewed or observed individuals, direct citations are frequently used in descriptive
analysis. The purpose of this type of analysis is to present the findings in a revised and interpreted
manner. For credibility of the study, the data were first presented without any interpretations, and the
data were analyzed by more than one researchers. The researchers of this study adhered to the
hypothetical circle through continuous comparisons during data analysis (Ersoy and Anagun, 2009).
The study used each question as the main theme: motivation, cultural, social and personel gains. The
data was processed in accordance with these four themes, and the results were presented and discussed.
In the quotations, respondents were labeled as K1, K2, K3…K7 to ensure their anonymity.
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Findings
In this study, which aims to present the achievements of the cooking competitions to the participants,
when the data were analyzed, five main themes were reached. These;
1. Creativity Gains
2. Motivation Gains
3. Social Life Gains
4. Cultural Gains
5. Career Gains
1. Creativity Gains
When the answers of the cooking competition participants to the effects of the competitions on their
artistic and creativity are examined;
“My friends increased. I meet more chefs. I got ideas from other chefs. Everyone introduces each
other to their chefs.” (K1)
“The competitions are affecting me well. I'm designing a plate. It also makes an artistic contribution.”
(K2)
“I think that the plates we see here open up our horizons, see and learn new things and create new
things in our minds.” (K3)
“Cooking competitions are a great opportunity for us. I apply immediately when there is a
competition. These competitions make me very motivated. I have the ability to draw pictures. I see
the plate as paper. For me food presentation is like a painting and I'm preparing my food. This is
something artistic for me.” (K5)
“We think of what we can add to our dinner plate presentations. Cooking competitions improve the
human horizon. For those who are not chef but want to be chef, competitions are more important.”
(K6)
“Cooking competitions affect my creativity positively.” (K8)
When these findings are examined six participants stated that they had a positive effect on their creativity
(K1, K2, K3, K5, K6, K8), while two participants did not declare any ideas (K4, K7).
2. Motivation Gains
The main theme of the gains for motivation has four sub-themes: preparation phase, decision-making
process, degree and personal.
Preparation phase
When the participants were asked what affected them in preparing for the cooking competitions six of
them (K1, K2, K6) from famous chefs. For example;
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“We give importance to plate presentations. We do research to find original ideas. We meet chefs.
We make plates with the help of chefs who are in national team.” (K1)
“I'm impressed by my chefs and my thoughts about the future”and K6 “I pay attention to what people
in the field say.” (K2)
K3, K4, K5 emphasized that they were influenced by social media and the internet as well as the famous
chefs. For example:
“People's beautiful plate designs increase my desire. I examine the famous chef plates especially from
the internet and the contributions of my chefs are huge.” (K3)
“I get contributions from famous chefs, social accounts, photos and videos.” (K4)
“I'm very much influenced by social media. I look at the plates of my teacher and the famous Michelin
star chefs. I'm looking at the color harmony of the materials and plate I will use.” (K5)
K8 stated that only the internet affected him. and K8 "Doing research on the internet." On the other hand
one participant K7 stated that he was impressed by the people around him by saying “I was impressed
by the confidence of the people around me.”
Impact of environment in the decision-making process
The question of “Do you think your enviroment will be effective for you to participate in the cooking
competitions?” participants answered as follows:
“My parents and school teachers are very influential.” (K3)
”It is important to participate in such competitions. My chefs and family provided the biggest
contribution.” (K4)
“My teacher and my family supported me. I have an excellent teacher. I am very lucky.” (K5)
“My family and my teacher supported.” (K8)
Four of the participants (K3, K4, K5 and K8) stated that they got the support for competitions from both
their parents and their teachers. Two participants (K1 and K7) stated that they only received support from
their friends in the decision to participate in the competition, and one participant (K2) his family only
supported. Another participant (K6) stated that someone is behind me is good and that the environment
is effective in joining the competition.
Degree
Seven of the participants (K1, K2, K3, K4, K5, K6 and K7) mentioned the positive effect of the degree to
the motivation of entering into competitions. Participants used the following statements to indicate the
positive effect of entry in the competitions;
“When we receive an award, our motivation is increasing. Getting a good rating allows us to be
noticed in the businesses we work in.” (K1)
“It increases my motivation.” (K2)
“Motivation influences the degree, but we should not be too sad when we can not enter. The
important thing is to gain experience.” (K3)
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“ It affects both motivation and CV.” (K4)
“Qualification is of course influencing positively. But it's important to come here and represent the
school. Gaining experience.” (K5)
“Important for motivation. If I could get this rating in this competition, then I think I would do better.”
(K6)
“It raises motivation. I am the first person to rank in my university and this will be a long time
motivation source for me.” (K7)
One participant (K8) stated that it does not affect the motivation of “entering the degree by entering or
not entering the degree does not affect my motivation.”
Personal
Participants in the question of "what did food competitions give you personally" gave the following
answers:
“Increases self-confidence. It's not easy to eat in front of so many people. You break out in a cold
sweat at first. You're quite responsible. Because you're gonna design a plate alone. Materials have
responsibility. As soon as he gets here, there's a responsibility. You get used to competitions.
Experience is growing, and then you're having fun.” (K1)
“It increases my motivation.” (K2)
“In a short time we learned to work faster and tried new things.” (K3)
“Self-confidence. I've learned to meet new people. I learned to talk to the chefs. I learned to work as
a group.” (K4)
“We had a great time and we learned to prepare something in time. If the jury likes the taste, it
increases our confidence. I cry out of happiness.” (K5)
“Adding nice friendships. Professional experience.” (K6)
“It strecht my imagination. My self-confidence has increased. He made me use the time fast.” (K7)
“My sense of responsibility has increased. I'm trying not disappoint people who trust me.” (K8)
3. Social Life Gains
To the question of how cooking competitions affect your social life seven participants (K1, K2, K3, K4, K5,
K7 and K8) have responded that they have positive gains for social life as follows.
“It makes it fun, I'm having a good time with others.” (K1)
“I am developing my environment in my social life.” (K2)
“I am from Izmir. I'm travelling and make new friends.” (K3)
441
“I've met new people. I contacted people from social accounts. I took pictures.” (K4)
“For example, I joined here with my friends from different universities. I meet the chefs.” (K5)
“My friends increase. My family is proud of me.” (K7)
“It has a positive impact on my social life. It is life experience for me.” (K8)
Only K6 from the participants said, "I have a negative effect on my social life because I have to cook
constantly."
4. Cultural Gains
All of the participants stated that there is a positive contribution to the cultural development of the
competitions.
“We see and learn cuisine of every region.” (K1)
“Seeing the plates of people from all over the world contributes to my cultural development.” (K2)
“I made meatballs, I made humus for the first time here. Getting something from the local cuisine of
other cities.” (K3)
“The kitchen is a versatile profession. Many local food is served here. I also review the plate of people
from abroad.” (K4)
“Affects culturally. We are trying to remove the delicacies that are used in Ottoman world cuisine
recipes while researching. I made a raspberry souffle with tahini. The souffle and tahini are hardly
used. I tried to make a difference using tahini. The Ottomans used too much of tahini. Thus, the
blending of two cultures emerged.” (K5)
“We are also affected by world cuisine.” (K6)
“We find the opportunity to meet people from every country and culture.” (K7)
“It definitely adds. I learned about the Ottoman cuisine.” (K8)
When the opinions of the interviewed participants about their cultural achievements were taken, they
stated that they obtained cultural gain as a local and world culinary culture. Only one participant (K4)
stated that the competitions did not contribute to the careers of the people who are in the start-up stage.
5. Career Gains
Seven of the participants (K1, K2, K3, K5, K6, K7 and K8) stated that they had a positive contribution to
the careers of the competitions.
“In a good way. I meet famous chefs, I communicate. I'm on the phone. He's supporting me in terms
of career.” (K1)
“I hope my career will benefit.” (K2)
442
“I can get a good job because it contributes to a good degree of CV.” (K3)
“Competitions don't have any contribution because I am at the beginning of work.” (K4)
“I write especially on my resume. I'm gonna work at a five-star hotel instead of 4 stars.” (K5)
“We meet chefs. Step allows me to jump.” (K6)
“I got the opportunity to enter the national team for entering the degree.” (K7)
“Have a nice effect. It's gonna work for me in the future.” (K8)
Only one participant (K4) stated that the competitions did not contribute to the careers of the people
who are in the starting phase.
Conclusion
In this study aims to show the gains of food competitions to the participants. According to the results of
the findings of the participants; It was seen that cooking competitions contributed to the creativity,
motivation, social, cultural and career gains of the participants. Participants emphasized their
contribution to the creativity of designing plates and preparing for competitions. They stated that they
obtained cultural gain as a local and world culinary culture. Also there had a positive contribution to their
careers, professional experience and their CV. Besides, the competitions have helped the participants to
increase their motivation, responsibility and self-confidence. The participants got acquainted with new
friends and new chefs and achieved social gains. The participants stated that get awards was important
for them. However, they emphasized that the most important thing was the experiences they gained. It
was observed that the study was in parallel with the studies in the literature. For example; Frey and Gallus
(2016) claim that award-winning competitions have the potential to raise the intrinsic motivation of
competitors. Similarly, in this study, it was concluded that cooking competitions had an effect on
increasing the motivation of the contestants. In addition, Fisher et al. (2011) stated that the activities
related to cooking activities stimulate students' imagination, inspiration and talents. Şanlıer (2005)
emphasizes the importance of cooking competitions in promoting Turkish cuisine abroad.
As a result of the study, it is seen that cooking competitions increase the cultural gains of the participants.
After that, the participants in different themes can be examined as well as the participants can be
examined with the dimension of organizational competence in order to evaluate the competitions as a
whole.
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Şanlıer, N. (2005). Yerli ve Yabancı Turistlerin Türk Mutfağı Hakkındaki Görüşleri [Native and Foreign
Tourists' Opinions About Turkish Cuisine]. Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 25(1), 213-227.
Unisen, A., & Kaya, E. (2015). An investigation into teachers’ views on placement of science education in
primary 3rd grade. Adıyaman Universitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsu Dergisi, 8(20), 546-571.
Yangın, H. B., & Kırca, N. (2013). Antalya Sağlık Yüksekokulu Hemşirelik öğrencilerinin memnuniyet
düzeyleri ve etkileyen faktörler [Antalya School of Health Nursing students satisfaction levels
and affecting factors ]. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi, 2(1).
Biographical Notes
Sema Ekincek is a research assistant in the Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Anadolu
University, Eskisehir, Turkey. Her research focuses on Gastronomy and Culinary Arts.
Merve Özgür Göde is a research assistant in the Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Anadolu
University, Eskisehir, Turkey. Her research focuses on Gastronomy and Cost Accounting.
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7593
DETERMINATION OF ACTIVITIES OF FOOD AND BEVERAGE

BUSINESSES IN ACTIVITY BASED COSTING
Vedat Ekergil
Professor
Distance Learning, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Merve Özgür Göde

Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
In order for businesses to survive in an intensely competitive environment, it is important to calculate
their costs in a way that is reasonably priced, as well as to increase their sales. In this point, they may
prefer modern cost management accounting approaches instead of traditional cost accounting
approaches for the calculation of business costs. The purpose of this work is to determine the action
steps and activities that occur in the design stages of the activity-based costing system (ABC), which is
one of the contemporary cost management approaches. In this way, activities for cost centers that will
help to calculate costs in a more realistic manner for food and beverage businesses will be put forward.
This study was designed as an observational case study. In such studies, the primary data collection
technique is participant observation. In order to determine the activities according to the activity-based
costing method, the 1st class restaurant was chosen as a wedding cocktail in a restaurant. The
investigator made observations by pre-cocktail, after cocktail time and after cocktail. Thus, activities and
process steps were observed and noted according to the activity-based costing system in the cocktail
where the observation was made. Subsequently, the obtained data was presented to the business
manager and approved. Menu of eight items was prepared at the cocktail and 240 people were served.
As a result of the work, five main activities for cocktail have emerged. These; making the contract with
the customer, cocktail preparation, kitchen preparation, cocktail time and after cocktail. There are six
transactions in the contract with the customer, 13 transactions in cocktail preparation phase, seven
transactions in kitchen preparation, six transactions in cocktail time and four transactions after cocktail.
Keywords: contemporary cost management, activity based costing, food and beverage business, cocktail,
case study, Eskişehir.
Introduction
Businesses need new costing systems in order to provide cost-effective technological suitability (Karacan,
2000: 37). The activity-based costing method has emerged as an alternative method to avoid the
inaccuracies of traditional costing methods to produce accurate cost information (Köroğlu, 2013). The
share of direct labor costs in total cost, which is seen as an important cost element for the enterprises,
has decreased. Developments in information technology have increased the share of overheads costs.
This has resulted in the distribution of indirect costs increasing in size to products / services becoming
more important. This has led to the diversification of allocation measures and the development of new
distribution approaches. Activity cost pool is the total cost of an activity. Each cost pool refers to the
activity or set of activities carried out at the activity center (Ülker and İskender, 2005: 199). In allocating
costs to products, the traditional cost (accounting) system follows a simple framework. Direct product
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costs, such as material and labor costs, are traced directly to products. Indirect overhead costs are
allocated to products based on a firm-wide overhead rate or multiple departmental overhead rates
(Huang, 2018). While traditional cost accounting (TCA) was developed to comply with external financial
reporting requirements, it falls short in providing public sector organizations with the strategic
information needed in today’s environment (Oseifuah, 2018). Cooper and Kaplan (1987) are recognized
with developing the activity based costing methodology. Activity-Based Cost systems to solve the
problems of traditional cost management systems; that is systems are often unable to identify correctly
the true costs of processes. Activity-Based Cost systems assign costs to products on the basis of multiple
"cost drivers," which may or may not be propotional to the volume of output (Noreen, 1991). The
advantages of ABC over the traditional cost system have been documented in various industries (Huang,
2018). In the traditional cost system, there is only one cost pool for all production costs. There are
multiple pools of costs for each factor affecting the use of resources with activity-based costing. In the
ABC method, a two-stage distribution process is used. In short, costs allocate to activities. The costs that
accumulate in the activities are loaded on the products or services (Köroğlu, 2013). Different from
traditional costing system, in the allocation of costs, the cost drivers that are directly related to the
products or services produced are used. Cost drivers measure how much a product or service consumes
from each activity. Afterwards, activity costs are charged to the goods or services consumed from these
activities (Erden, 2004: 191-192).
Design of ABC method; it is important to identify and group the activities and to calculate the operating
costs in detail (Gunasekaran and Sarhadi, 1998: 231). Although the design of the ABC method differs from
business to business it generally consists of five steps. These steps can be listed as follows (Öker, 2003:
37): Determination of activities, grouping of activities, costing of activities, selection of cost drivers,
loading costs into products / customers / zones.
Briefly, in the traditional cost system, products consume resources while activity-based cost system
consumes activities resources and consumes activities (Özkan and Aksoylu, 2002: 55). In this study, it is
aimed to determine the activities from activity-based costing design stages in the cocktail organization
which is organized in a food and beverage business.
Methodology
This study employed a qualitative approach to determine the action steps and activities that occur in the
design stages of the activity-based costing system, one of the contemporary cost management
approaches. A case study was conducted in the study. Case Study is that the detailed examination of a
single example of a class of phenomena, a case study cannot provide reliable information about the
broader class, but it may be useful in the preliminary stages of an investigation since it provides
hypotheses, which may be tested systematically with a larger number of cases (Abercrombie, Hill and
Turner, 1984: 34). With this method, the data required for the research were obtained as a result of
observations and interviews with the selected food and beverage business. The research has been
conducted with one of the first class restaurants in the food and beverage business, which is the tourism
operation license in Eskişehir. On 13.07.2018, observation and interview were made for the wedding
cocktail. Observation is a method used to describe in detail the behavior that occurs in any environment
or institution (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2012: 199). In this study, an unstructured field study was used from
observation types. Because unstructured field trials are conducted in the natural environment in which
the behavior occurs, and in most cases the "participant observation" method is used, in which the
researcher participates (Yildirim and Şimşek, 2012: 201). An observation form was prepared for the
observation carried out on the restaurant. Food and beverage activity centers emerged as a result of the
literature review on the observation form. After observation, an interview was held with the business
manager regarding the observation. A semi-structured interview form has been prepared. Descriptive
analysis method was utilized for data analysis. According to this approach, the data obtained are
summarized and interpreted on the basis of pre-determined themes. In order to conspicuously reflect
the opinions of interviewed or observed individuals, direct citations are frequently used in descriptive
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analysis. The purpose of this type of analysis is to present the findings in a revised and interpreted
manner. The data were analyzed in four stages in descriptive analysis method: (1) forming a frame for
descriptive analysis, (2) finding the themes, (3) identifying the findings, (4) interpreting the findings.
The obtained data are summarized and interpreted according to the previously determined theme. In
descriptive analysis, direct citation is often given in order to reflect the views of the interviewed or
observed individuals in a striking way. The purpose of such analysis is to present the findings to the reader
in an organized and interpreted way. The answers to the questionnaire were reported. For credibility of
the study, the data were first presented without any interpretations, and the data were analyzed by more
than one researchers. The researchers of this study adhered to the hypothetical circle through continuous
comparisons during data analysis (Ersoy and Anagün, 2009).
Findings
The findings of the study were given in two sections as interview and observation findings.
Observation Findings.
Based on the data obtained from the literature during the observation phase, the activities and cost
elements of food and beverage business were evaluated. In this context, a total of four codes were
generated. These codes are: Cocktail preparation, culinary preparation, cocktail time and cocktail.
Cocktail preparation: On the day of observation, a meeting was held primarily with staff for the cocktail.
Each staff member was informed of his position and duty. Missing supplies in the restaurant was
identified. The topic of outsourcing was discussed and it was decided not to use it. Suppliers were
selected for each material to be purchased. They went to the suppliers and missing supplies were
received. After the material were purchased, materials were stored in the store. There are three stores
in restaurant. The first store has deep freezers and refrigerators. The second store keeps pulses. In the
third store, non-food items are stored.
Preparations have been started in the restaurant after the purchasing process. The restaurant was
cleaned. According to the customer's request, table setting was established. This wedding cocktail took
place in the open area of restaurant. Bistros were used. Bar table was set up to serve drinks. Glasses were
brought to bar table. After all these preparations, the music system was established. When the cocktail
time was approaching, dried nuts and fruits were first placed and then cold appetizer plates were placed.
Kitchen preparation: At this cocktail, 240 hot and cold appetizers were prepared. First of all, the foods
that will be served cold were started to be prepared. For each meal, material preparation, cleaning and
chopping of the ingredients, cooking and dishing up were carried out. After all cold appetizers were
prepared, dried nuts and fruits were prepared. When the cocktail time is approaching, hot appetizers to
be served are being prepared. The cocktail menu is: veal ham canape, chicken ham canape, party bread,
cigarette burgers, potato croquettes, marbled meatballs, carrot salad and dried nuts and fruits. While
cooking in the kitchen, the dirty dishes were collected in the dish washing area and started to wash.
Cocktail time: When the guests arrived, service staff began to bring hot appetizers. The service staff were
constantly checking tables and collecting empty plates and glasses. During the cocktail, the customer
drinks were served both by themselves and by service personnel. During the cocktail time, food was
cooked and served in the kitchen.
After the cocktail: After the cocktail was over, all the dirty dishes and glasses were collected and taken to
the dish washing area. Dirty dishes and glasses were started to be washed in the dish washing area. The
covers of the tables were gathered. The rest of the drinks on the bar table were brought to storage.
Finally, the cocktail area was cleaned.
Interview Findings
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In the study, the person who is the owner and manager of the restaurant was interviewed. The first
question asked to the manager is to get information about how they prepared cocktails. One more code
is added to the four codes obtained from the observations by the answer given by the manager to this
question. This code is that making the contract with the customer.
Making the contract with the customer: The first stage is that receiving event request. The manager said
“The customer comes here, says how many people come event and we offer them our menus.” The
manager stated that there are three different menus for cocktail services. Co-decision is reached with
the customer after the menus are presented to the customer. The manager confirmed that the price was
set at this stage by saying, "After the decision is made, it will be passed on to the negotiation phase." The
price per person for each menu is certain but the price is variable if it is added and removed food
according to the customer's request. For this reason he stated that it is difficult to get a certain price for
cocktail in the business. Asked how they got their cocktail orders, he said, "Cocktail orders should not be
over the phone, it must be face to face."
Because they said they signed the contract after the agreement and they took some of the cocktail fee
as a deposit. The manager pointed out that the rest of the fee was taken at the end of the cocktail. After
observing the purchase, the manager was asked where they were going to buy. When asked about the
idea of buying a manager, he said “we just do not stock fruits and vegetables. So we are obligated to buy
before every cocktail.” When asked how to arrange the staff, the manager said, "We are a la carte
restaurant and we are serving the evening menu. For this reason, our chef comes in the evening, but
when there is a cocktail, they will be here according to the cocktail hour." He said that the staff's working
hours could change according to the cocktail. There are three kitchen staffs and according to the intensity
of the cocktail, the number of service personnel has changed. One person is responsible for the dish
washing area. When the manager asked the suppliers, he said that the manager himself was going to buy
all the stuffs. They purchase all the stuffs from 11 different suppliers.
Conclusions
In this study, five activity centers were identified to enable activity-based costing in cocktail organization
in food and beverage business. These are: making the contract with the customer, cocktail preparation,
kitchen preparation, cocktail time and after cocktail. Four activity center observation results were
obtained. Making the contract with the customer occured after interview with the manager. There are
six transactions in the making the contract with the customer. These; taking the event request, submitting
the menus to the customer, deciding the event with the customer, setting the price of the event and
getting the event fee. At this stage, a part of price is taken. For this reason, this transaction is also in the
after cocktail. Pre-cocktail meeting, determination of suppliers, decision to outsourcing, taking of the
needs, storage of the received materials, cleaning of the restaurant, placing table, ornamentation of the
tables, cover turnover, organize bar table, bringing in cups and glasses from the kitchen and bringing
drinks from storage to bar table are transaction in the coctail preparation. Processes in kitchen
preparation activity include both dish washing area and kitchen. Preparation for cold and hot appetizers,
cooking, tanning and preparation of dried nuts and fruits are processes related to the kitchen. Finally,
there are six transactions for after cocktail activity. These are: collecting empty spaces from tables, taking
vacancies to the kitchen, washing dishes, organize tables, cleaning the restaurant and getting the rest of
fee. Washing of the dishes is the same transactions as cocktail preparations.
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7594
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TRAVEL

AGENCIES EMPLOYEE’S CYBERLOAFING BEHAVIORS AND WORK
MOTIVATION
Cihan Seçilmiş
Associate Professor
Department of Tourism Management, Eskişehir Osmangazi Unıversity
Eskişehir, Turkey
cihansecilmis@gmail.com
Barış Yılmaz
Student
Tourism and Hotel Management, Eskişehir Osmangazi University
Eskişehir, Turkey
byy_peace@hotmail.com
Abstract
The internet, which has an important place in the lives of people in today's conditions, is an indispensable
part of business life, causing the business to not run without internet connection at work. When
evaluated in this context, the relation between cyberloafing behaviors and work motivation which are
the result of internet usage at workplace of travel agency employees was investigated. The purpose of
this study is to determine the relationship between cyberloafing behaviors and job motivation of the
travel agencies employee’s in Eskişehir. In the study, cyberloafing is considered as one dimension and
work motivation is evaluated by management style, salary and rewarding, security, team work and self-
development sub-dimensions. The scope of the study consists of all the employees employed in all the
travel agencies in Eskişehir. A complete inventory was carried out in the study as access to the whole
scope was possible. Questionnaire technique was used in the study as an instrument for data collection
in the study. Data were conducted with 205 employees at the travel agencies and 196 of them which
were found to be appropriate for the study was submitted to statistical analysis for reliability analysis, t
test, factor analysis and correlation analysis. According to the finding of this study, there is significant and
positive relationship between cyberloafing behavior of travel agencies employees and salary and
rewarding and self-development as sub-dimension of job motivation.
Key Words: Cyberloafing, Job Motivation, Travel Agency, Internet
Introduction
The tourism sector is rapidly growing and developing together with the globalizing world. The number of
travel agencies that have an important position among the enterprises in the tourism sector is increasing
day by day and the activities are diversified. In order to realize the activities of the travel agencies, they
need to make investments in technological infrastructure, follow the developments in the market,
analyze competitors, new products and services, complete the requests and needs of the customers and
incorporate the necessary equipment. In the tourism sector, where competition is very intense, travel
agencies that can not follow new developments and can not develop themselves are destined to
disappear. At this point, the human factor, which is one of the most important sources that travel agents
have, comes to the forefront. Agencies are in need of qualified labor to maintain their position within the
competitive environment and to move forward by improving their position. Agencies employing qualified
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employees have to keep their work motivations at the highest level to get maximum productivity from
their employees. The internet, which has an important place in the lives of people in today's conditions,
is an indispensable part of business life, causing the business to not run without internet connection at
work. When evaluated in this context, the relation between cyberloafing behaviors and work motivation
which are the result of internet usage at workplace of travel agency employees was investigated.
Conceptual Framework
With the impact of technological developments, the widespread use of internet and the increased use of
personal computers in the workplace, new types of behaviors such as production herber or virtual heresy
began to emerge in employees. These behaviors, which are realized by means of work facilities during
working hours, reveal the concept of cyberloafing.
Cyberloafing is, in its simplest terms, the use of computers and the internet for personal purposes by
employees during working hours. In other words, it refers to the computers and internet access offered
by the workplace for their employees during working hours, for employees to use for personal purposes
not related to the work, and to perform these actions voluntarily (Lim, 2002). According to another
definition cyberloafing is the act of controlling personal e-mails during working hours by abusing the
workplace internet where employees are offered job use by utilizing the technological opportunities at
the workplace and circulating on internet sites not related to the business. Along with the innovations
offered by technological developments, cyberloafing also includes behaviors with all technological
devices that allow personal internet access, not only with workplace facilities (Kaplan and Öğüt, 2012:4).
Lim (2002) categorized cyberloafing activities into two main groups: web activities and e-mail activities.
Web activities; news site browsing and shopping on the internet, while evaluating e-mail activities such
as reading, sending-receiving, checking in e-mail activity classifications. Although Lim defines cyberloafing
as the use of the internet and computers for personal use by employees during working hours, there are
some activities that fit this definition but are not included in the classification. Non-business activities
such as downloading data, playing games, participating in chat rooms are not included in the
classification. For this reason, in later studies on this subject, researchers have made many different
classifications. When the studies on the types of cyberloafing are examined, the most detailed
classification is drawn by Blanchard and Henle (2008). Blanchard and Henle (2008) examined cyberloafing
activities in two dimensions as minor and serious cyberloafing activities. Minor cyberloafing; visiting e-
mails that are not related to business, exchanging e-mails, browsing and shopping on internet shopping
sites, following news and sports sites, visiting bank or finance pages. Serious cyberloafing activities are;
betting and gambling on the internet, visiting sites with this content, downloading music, participating in
chat rooms, playing games and entering sexually explicit adult sites (Blanchard and Henle, 2008: 1067-
1084).
Motivation is the energetic forces that determine the intensity, direction and maintenance of this
behavior, which originate from the inside and the outside of the person, initiating the behavior towards
the work (Pinder, 1998: 11). Technological developments, innovations, globalization, demographic
changes, increase in knowledge accumulation and intensification of competition create pressures on
businesses and employees. Businesses have to continually improve and defeat their products, services,
systems and processes in the face of ever-changing conditions and increasing competitive pressures
(Jones, 2005). In this process, it is very important for employees to be motivated. In particular, institutions
operating in the service sector need to assess their employees in a different position so that they can
achieve a sustainable competitive environment. Even though the developments that are taking place
under changing conditions every day are monitored and included in the production process of the
operator, the importance of employees in establishing personal communication with customers for
service companies and reaching a successful result of the service process is huge. The concept of
motivation is at the forefront in order that employees at this point can successfully perform their jobs
and sustain these achievements. While working towards the goals and objectives set by the companies,
working with well-motivated workers will be of great benefit in reaching them. On the contrary, although
451
successful in all functions of the production process, it is not possible for the operators to achieve
successful results with well motivated staff and make them sustainable.
Purpose, Methodology and Data Collection

The aim of the study was to examine the relationship between cyberloafing behaviors and business
motivation of employees in the travel agencies and to interpret them in the direction of the findings
obtained. The study population consist of employees of A, B and C group travel agencies in Eskişehir,
which is connected to Turkey Travel Agencies Union. TÜRSAB Regional Executive Committee and Travel
Agencies were interviewed and the total number of employees was 205. It was determined that the 205
workers constituting the main sample of the survey were accessible and did not constitute a disadvantage
in terms of cost. A complete census has been made in this direction because the entire population is
accessible. 205 questionnaires were distributed to the travel agencies in Eskişehir and 196 of the collected
questionnaires were found suitable for the evaluation. The " Cyberloafing Scale" used by Örücü and Yıldız
(2014) in their work was used to measure the cyberloafing behavior of the employees. A total of 20
questionnaire motivational scales were used by Özgür (2006) to measure job motivations of employees.
The motivation scale consists of five sub-dimensions: "management style", " self-development ", "salary
and rewarding", "security" and "teamwork".
H1: There is a statistically significant relationship between the cyberloafing behaviors and
business motivations of travel agency employees.
H1a: There is a statistically significant relationship between cyberloafing behaviors and
management style dimension of travel agency employees.
H1b: There is a statistically significant relationship between the cyberloafing behaviors of the
travel agency employees and the salary and rewarding dimension.
H1c: There is a statistically significant relationship between the cyberloafing behaviors of the
travel agency employees and the security dimension.
H1d: There is a statistically significant relationship between the cyberloafing behaviors of the
travel agency employees and the dimension of team work.
H1e: There is a statistically significant relationship between the cyberloafing behaviors of the
travel agency employees and the dimension of self-development.
Findings
Participants Demographic Characteristics
Table 1: Participants by Gender

Gender n Percentage (%)
Female 101 51,5
Male 95 48,5
Total 196 100
When the findings in Table 1 were examined, it was seen that 101 of the participants were composed of
females (51.5%) and 95 of them were males (48.5%). In this context, it is possible to say that the data are
balanced.
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Table 2: Participants by Educational Status
Education Status n Percentage (%)
Primary school graduate 4 2,0
High school graduate 46 23,5
Associate Degree 38 19,4
Undergraduate degree 91 46,4
Graduate degree 17 8,7
Total 196 100
Among the findings obtained from the analysis made within the scope of the research, it was found that
4 of the participants in the survey had graduated primary education (2,0%), 46 of them were high school
graduates (23,5%), 38 of them were associate degree graduates (19,4% (46.4%), 17 (57.7%) were
graduates of graduate school. According to these results, most of the employees who participated in the
research are graduates, undergraduate and graduate graduates. In this respect, it is possible to reach the
result that the training levels of the employees in the travel agencies operating in Eskişehir are high.
Table 3: Participants by Age
Age n Percentage (%)
Less than 20 6 3,1
Between 20 and 29 years 94 48,0
50 years and over 7 3,6
Total 196 100
When the age of the participants were examined, it was found that 6 persons were younger than 20 years
(3.1%), 94 were between 20 and 29 years old (48.0%), 59 were between 30 and 39 years old (30.1%) 30
participants were between 40 and 49 years old (15,3%) and 7 participants were over 50 years old (3.6%).
When the average age of participants is taken into consideration, it can be said that the majority is
composed of young people. It is observed that the proportion of young population at the same level is
higher in Eskişehir as well as in the ratio of young population in our country. In particular, the two state
universities in Eskişehir, together with the city becoming a student city, cause more concentration of the
young population. Students who come to Eskişehir in order to complete university education do not want
to leave Eskişehir when they have finished their education and want to continue their lives in this city. In
this direction, as the newly graduated students begin their working lives, the city's work force becomes
younger. It is supported by the fact that the average age of the majority of the employees participating
in the survey is low and at the same time the level of education is high.
Table 4: Participants by Marital Status
Marital Status n Percentage (%)
Married 75 38,3
Single 121 61,7
Total 196 100
As a result of the analysis, it was determined that 75 of the respondents were married (38.3%) and 121
were single (61.7%). The fact that the majority of the participants are single can be considered in
connection with the formation of the young population in large part of the employees participating in
the survey.
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Table 5: Participants according to Their Experience in Workplaces
Year n Percentage (%)
Less than 1 year 66 33,7
16 years and over 7 3,6
Total 196 100
When the study participants' experiences were examined according to their work experience, it was
found that 33.7% worked in the same work place (66 people), 44.9% of them worked in the same work
place (88 persons) between 1 and 5 years, 12,8% of the same work place between 6 and 10 years (25
people), 5,1% worked in the same work place between 11-15 years (10 people) and 3.6% were working
in the same workplace (7 people) for 16 years or more. When examining the work experience of the
current workplaces of employees in this data, it is seen that the majority of those who have a duty period
of less than 1 year and between 1 and 5 years. This situation can be interpreted as the fact that one of
the biggest problems of the tourism sector is the fact that the speed of transfer of the work force is high
and that the same situation applies for the travel agencies operating in Eskişehir.
Correlations Analysis of Variables
Table 6: Cyberloafing and Work Motivation Sub-Dimensions Correlation Analysis Findings
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. CYBERLOAFING 1
2. MANAGEMENT
,013 1
STYLE
3. SALARY AND
,851** ,046 1
REWARDING
4. SECURITY ,040 ,692** ,073 1
1
5. TEAMWORK -,013 ,690** ,025 ,645**
1
6. SELF-DEVELOPMENT ,671** -,155* ,412** -,069 -,096
** Correlation is significant at 0.01 level. (2-tailed)
* Correlation is significant at 0.05 level. (2-tailed)
Table 6 gives the correlation values between cyberloafing, management style which is sub-dimensions of
work motivation, salary and rewarding, security, teamwork self-development dimensions.
When the values in Table 6 are taken into consideration, statistically significant and positive relationship
was found between cyberloafing and salary and rewarding dimension (r = 0.851, p˂0.01). H1b hypothesis
was accepted for this study. There is a statistically significant and positive correlation between
cyberloafing and self-development dimension (r = 0,671; p˂0,01). Accordingly, the H1e hypothesis of the
research was accepted. H1a, H1b and H1d hypotheses were rejected.
Discussion and Conclusions
Within the scope of the research, it is aimed to measure the level of internet usage, which is one of the
most important issues of information and technology era, which travel agents have an important position
within the tourism industry. In this respect, it is aimed to determine the level of motivation of non-
business internet users at the workplace during intensive work breaks. When the findings of participants'
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demographics are examined, the gender distribution of the employees in travel agencies operating in
Eskişehir are close to each other. When the educational status of the participants is examined, it is
noteworthy that more than half of the employees are graduated and undergraduate. When the age
distributions of employees are taken into consideration, it is seen that the majority is composed of young
employees. When the marital status variable of the participants is examined, it appears that the majority
is single. In addition, it has been found that when the terms of office of the employees at the workplace
are examined, it is less than 1 year and the majority of the ones having 1-5 years work experience. From
this point of view, it can be said that the employees of the travel agencies operating in Eskişehir have a
high education level, young and single majority. Because the majority of the employees have low work
experience in the existing work places, it is revealed that the employee turnover rate in the travel
agencies operating in Eskişehir is high.
According to the results of correlation analysis; a positive relationship was found between cyberloafing
and self-development, one of the sub-dimensions of job motivation. There are also factors such as
research, learning, personal development, increasing knowledge and skill levels among the reasons why
employees are involved in cyberloafing activities.
In the light of the findings of the research, it is generally possible to present the following suggestions.
Travel agents managers should inform employees about internet use at work cyberloafing activities.
Employees' awareness of this issue can provide advantages for businesses. Employees can be made
aware of the opportunities and threats that may arise in their environment. Employees can position
themselves against the developments in their sector, competitors, competitors 'products and services,
customers' potential, and today's rapidly changing demands and needs.
References
Blanchard, A.L. ve Henle, C.A. (2008). “Correlates of Different Forms of Cyberloafing: The Role of Norms
and External Locus of Control”, Computers in Human Behaviour, C:24, ss.1067-1084.
Johns, G. (2006). “The Essential Impact of Context on Organizational Behavior”, Academy of Management
Review, C:32, No:2, ss.386-408.
Kaplan, M. ve Öğüt, A. (2012). “Algılanan Örgütsel Adalet İle Sanal Kaytarma Arasındaki İlişkinin Analizi:
Hastane Çalışanları Örneği”, İşletme Fakültesi Dergisi, C:13, No:1, ss.1-16
Lim, V.K.G. (2002). “The IT Way of Loafing on The Job: Cyberloafing, Neutralizing and Organisational
Justice”, Journal of Organisational Behaviour, C:23. No:5, ss.675-694.
Örücü, E. ve Yıldız, H. (2014). “İş yerinde Kişisel İnternet ve Teknoloji Kullanımı: Sanal Kaytarma”, Ege
Akademik Bakış, C:14, No:1, ss.99-114
Özgür, E. (2006). “Performans Yönetimi ile Motivasyon İlişkisi Bir Uygulama”, Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal
Bilimler Enstitüsü, Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi
Pinder, C. C. (1998). Work Motivation in Organizational Behavior, Pretice-Hall. İnc, NJ
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7598
A QUALITATIVE STUDY ON THE BRANDING POTENTIAL OF THE
TURKISH CITY “BARTIN”
Aybegüm Güngördü Belbağ
Research Assistant
Production Management and Marketing, Bartın University
Bartın, Turkey
aybegum.gungordu@gmail.com
Abstract
investments, companies, residents and workers. When the city’s name is mentioned, the first things that
come to minds constitute the city’s brand. The purpose of this study is to examine the branding potential
of the Turkish city “Bartın (Parthenios in ancient times)”. Data was collected from 18 participants.
Dimensions of the city brand hexagon (in particular, presence, potential, people, place, pulse,
prerequisites) are used in the study. Using qualitative method, the study found that Amasra, a sub-
province of Bartın has got ahead of Bartın. Even though Bartın has many traditional, cultural and historical
aspects, consumers are not aware of them due to the lack of sufficient promotion and infrastructure
problems. Other sub-provinces such as Çakraz, Kurucaşile, Inkumu along with the center of Bartın has to
be renovated for satisfying the needs of consumers. Furthermore, educational and job opportunities
should be increased. City is seen attractive due to its nature and the sea. Festivals should be diversified
and promoted. Residents of the city are seen unfriendly for younger visitors.
Key words: City Branding, Turkey, Bartın, Qualitative Study, Anholt-Gfk Roper City Brands Index.
Introduction
The history of Bartın lays upon Parthenios in ancient times. The city is a harmony of green and blue with
full of timbered houses. Çakraz, Amasra, Inkumu are popular regions of the city. The city hosted a number
of civilizations such as Hellens, Romans, Byzantines, Genoeses and Ottomans (Bartın-Amasra Museum,
2018). Its sub-province, Amasra’s fortress has been added to the UNESCO World Heritage tentative list
(UNESCO, 2018). However, the number of tourists has remained low, near 250000 in 2010 (Tourism
Action Plan of the Bartın City, 2012-2016). Bartın has positioned itself as the city of water referring to the
ancient times, but are people really aware of the history behind the current concrete constructions? Paris
means romance, Milan means style, New York means energy, Washington means power, Tokyo means
innovation, Barcelona means culture and Rio means fun. While being the brands of these cities, these
concepts are tied to the cities’ history and fate (Anholt, 2006). City brands can be identified accurately
and each one contributes to the consumer’s decision making process. Brand names are intangible and
valuable assets. Companies can associate themselves with cities even if they are not related, such as:
Chicago Pizza (Parkerson and Saunders, 2005). People can attribute greater characteristics to cities than
they already have, as a reason of the cities’ powerful brands (Anholt, 2006).
Cities’ effort to be an international brand is mainly based on economic reasons such as the desire to
attract fixed capital investments and capital in circulation (transportation, tourism, cultural activities etc.)
(Ozdemir & Karaca, 2009). Cities are mostly combined with activities in the consumer mindset –e.g. Rio
Carnival, Rio de Janeiro and landmarks –e.g. Eiffel Tower, Paris. When the city’s name is mentioned, the
first things that come to minds constitute the city’s brand. Various indexes have been developed to
measure city brands. Among these indexes, Anholt-GfK Roper City Brands Index is the first study to
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measure city brands. Anholt-GfK Roper City Brands Index presents a city brand hexagon which has
dimensions such as presence, potential, people, place, pulse, prerequisites (Anholt, 2006). Only Istanbul
take parts in these Index from Turkey and it is examined in central/Eastern Europe.
In the context of the present study, first, city branding studies in the marketing literature and city brand
indexes will be reviewed. After that, the city of “Bartın” will be examined based on the data of the
qualitative study. Results will be interpreted through the city brand hexagon.
Literature Review
City Branding
investments, companies, residents and workers. Therefore, the image of the city gains importance,
nowadays. An image can be defined as a whole which consists of knowledge, ideas and feelings about
anything (Uner et al., 2006). A destination image can be formed with knowledge based on the destination,
factors related to the perceiver and information collected from independent resources (Uner et al., 2006).
The image has a crucial role in city marketing (Kavaratzis, 2004). Along with image, city branding is also
an essential step for city marketing and local industrial policies; therefore, cities should be profiled
(Anttiroiko, 2014). Since many cities have quiet similar characteristics, a strategy of city branding is to
create unique values to distinguish one city from another (Zhang & Zhao, 2009). It can be best understood
with its physical aspects, its promotion tools, and people and media’s thoughts on that city (Zhang &
Zhao, 2009). City branding provides a basic for a sustainable economic policy and it enables residents to
identify themselves with their city (Kavaratzis, 2004). During the implementation of city branding, factors
such as the majority view on city branding, the inclusion of city branding into political practices,
unambiguous political responsibility, stakeholder management, genuine and credible city branding,
umbrella city branding versus sub-brands, strategic co-branding with strong brands in the city, the
balancing act between distinctiveness and wide support for the brand should be considered (Braun,
2012).
Scholars used qualitative methods (Sahin & Baloglu, 2011), quantitative methods (Uner et al., 2006;
Demirbag Kaplan et al., 2008; Sahin & Baloglu, 2011; Gómez et al., 2018), case studies (Zhang & Zhao,
2009; Hayden & Sevin, 2012), “Define-Visualize-Measure Model” (Sevin, 2014) to test the perceptions
about city brand images. Furthermore, city brand indexes were developed (Anholt, 2006). Scholars who
examined Turkish city brands chose cities such as: Istanbul (Uner et al., 2006; Demirbag Kaplan et al.,
2008; Sahin & Baloglu, 2011), Adıyaman (Akci & Uluisik, 2016), Ankara (Demirbag Kaplan et al., 2008;
Hayden & Sevin, 2012), Bolu (Cop & Akpinar, 2014), Duzce (Cop & Akpinar, 2014), Sakarya (Cop & Akpinar,
2014), Kocaeli (Cop & Akpinar, 2014), Elazıg (Yucel & Ozturk, 2018), Erzurum (Serceoglu et al., 2016),
Eskisehir (Ozsoz, 2018), Nigde (Iri et al., 2011), Mugla (Marangoz & Tayçu, 2017), Izmir (Demirbag Kaplan
et al., 2008), Usak (Gokerik & Tekin, 2016), etc.
City Brand Indexes

When people think of a city, they consider deeper subjects such as: Pollution, climate, transportation,
leisure activities etc. City brands are measured with indexes such as Anholt-GfK Roper City Brand Index
and Saffron City Brand Barometer Index. Anholt-GfK Roper City Brand Index measures brands of cities
with a city brand hexagon. Dimensions of this hexagon are (Anholt, 2006):
1) Presence: This dimension represents a city’s international position and reputation. It involves
questions related to the scientific and cultural contribution of the city, city’s management style, being
familiar with the city, frequency of visits to the city and the city’s famous symbols.
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2) Place: Place represents perceptions related to the physical aspects of the city such as: The
beautifulness of the city, being satisfied to travel the city and the climate of the city.
3) Potential: This dimension involves the economic and educational advantages that a city has to offer
to visitors, businesses and immigrants. It also represents the easiness to find a job in the city.
4) Pulse: Pulse indicates the perceived attractiveness of the city.
5) People: This dimension shows the friendliness of the city’s public. It involves the adjustment to the
city in the context of language and culture. This dimension also represents the city’s safety.
6) Prerequisites: Prerequisites point the basic characteristics of the city. It is about the perceived
thoughts of people regarding the living style in that city and beliefs about the standards of public
spaces such as: Schools, hospital, sports centers and transportation.
On the other hand, Saffron European City Brand Barometer measures the strength of European cities
according to their asset and brands. A city’s asset strength shows that the possible degree of
powerfulness of a city brand. A city’s brand strength represents the powerfulness of a city brand at the
moment (Saffron, 2018). Although these models use different methodology, the rankings show the same
cities finishing in the top (Papp-Váry, 2011).
Method
Snowball sampling method was used in the current study. Data were collected from August to September
in 2018. Totally, 18 people participated in the study. Semi-structured guide is created through Anholt-
GfK Roper City Brand Hexagon. Interviews were carried out in cafes. An average interview lasted about
50 minutes. Table 1 represents the characteristics of the sample.
Table 1. Sample Characteristics

No Gender Age Marital Status Education Income (Turkish Liras) Job
1 Woman 27 Married Bachelor’s degree 6000 Housewife
2 Woman 23 Single Bachelor’s degree 500 Student
3 Man 23 Single Bachelor’s degree 1600 Student
6 Woman 32 Married Master’s degree 6000 Doctor
7 Woman 32 Married Bachelor’s degree 1000 Housewife
8 Man 26 Single Bachelor’s degree 3000 Public servant
9 Man 24 Single Bachelor’s degree 470 Student
11 Woman 35 Married PhD 4000 Academician
12 Man 35 Married PhD 5000 Academician
14 Man 32 Married Master’s degree 4000 Academician
15 Woman 31 Married Master’s degree 4500 Public Servant
16 Woman 64 Married Bachelor’s degree 2500 Teacher
17 Man 66 Married PhD 3900 Academic
18 Man 27 Single Master’s degree 500 Student
Findings
General brand images of Bartın and Amasra are tested through the first three words that come into the
participants’ minds when thinking Bartın and Amasra. Top words for Bartın are listed such as: Relatives
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(1 time), peacefulness (3 times), university (3 times), Amasra (14 times), Kampüs Café (University’s only
café, 2 times), friendship (3 times), Inkumu (1 time), Agdaci village (University’s location, 1 time), red
street (central street in the city, 1 time), Yalı (one of the regions of the city, 1 time), Blacksea (3 times),
Zonguldak (neighbouring city, 1 time), history (1 time), flood (1 time), chocolate baklava (1 time), tel
kırma (a traditional handwork, 1 time), sea (1 time), rain (1 time), fish (1 time), job (1 time), blue (2 times),
tradition (2 times), nature (4 times), sun (1 time) and uncertainty (1 time).
“Deep blue sea, green woods, virgin soils. Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror had said: “Is this the eye
of the World?” when he saw Amasra. Old and new Bartın coexisting with tradition. Traditional
simit [a kind of bagel] sellers, bakeries selling soapwort bread, gözleme [a kind of pancake], white
baklava, su böreği [a pastry made with water], water buffalo yoghurt, hardworking women,
friendly people, fish houses, fisheries, historical timbered houses, main street, Kemer bridge made
in 1887, tel kırma, street fountains are important too.” [No 16]
Top words for Amasra are listed as follows: Rabbit Island (an island close to Amasra, 1 time), vacation (3
times), tourism (1 time), crowd (1 time), sea (8 times), nature (8 times), air (1 time), fish (7 times),
friendship (1 time), salad (3 times), bazaar (2 times), crying tree (a famous tree in Amasra, 1 time), history
(2 times), shopping (1 time), Baris Akarsu (singer, 4 times), marina (1 time), Bartın (1 time), Blacksea (1
time), tradition (1 time), day tripper (1 time), beach (2 times), Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror (1 time),
castle (1 time) and peacefulness (1 time).
Presence
Reasons for visiting Bartın are listed as follows: Relatives (3 people), education (4 people), traveling (8
people) and job (4 people). Reasons for visiting Amasra are listed as follows: traveling (14 people), being
with friends (1 person), as a leisure time activity (1 person), sea (1 person) and vacation (1 person).
Famous symbols of Bartın are listed such as: water buffalo yoghurt (2 times), nature (1 time), port (1
time), bakeries (1 time), black cabbage (2 times), çiftetelli (a folk dance, 1 time), Amasra (4 times), Inkumu
(1 time), Galla Bazaar (3 times), fish (2 times), tel kırma (2 times), salad (1 time), bridge (1 time),
strawberry (1 time), agda (lemon and sugar syrup, 1 time), starflower (1 time), simit (1 time), inland
navigation on the river (1 time) and nougat (1 time). 6 participants indicated that they don’t know the
famous symbols of Bartın.
When participants were asked whether they know about Bartın’s contribution to culture and science, 8
of them said that they did not know and 2 of them said that the city has no contribution to culture and
science. Noted contributions were indicated such as Çeşm-i Cihan (The eye of the World, 1 time),
historical Kemer Bridge (1 time), timbered houses (1 time), Prof. Semavi Eyice (2 times), Barış Akarsu (1
time), university (5 times), the history when Romans and Genovese were inhabitants (1 time). One
participant commented on this issue:
“The city has a contribution to tourism culture. It is one of the beautiful cities of West Blacksea
region. It is a developing city with the contribution of the university. For instance, the university
has been the 6th in 92 vehicles with its vehicle that is working with alternative energy.” [No 4]
When festivals and activities held in Bartın was asked to participants, 8 of them told that they don’t have
any information on this issue. One of them indicated that there is not any activity in the city, two of them
told that the activities were either bad or insufficient. Five of the participants mentioned Strawberry
Festivals and 3 of them indicated the Spring Festival held by the university.
Some examples can be made as follows:
“Actually, I have no idea about the activities held in Bartın. University students should promote
the city. In my opinion, it’s important for cities. For instance, students who travel to Eskisehir,
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praise Eskisehir and create a perception about there. There is a lack of creating perception about
activities held in Bartın.” [No 1]
“Every year, the city hall organizes festivals such as the strawberry festival. Each year, different
famous people come to the city and the public enjoy those evenings. Furthermore, the university
arranges Spring Festivals. There has to be more famous people in the festivals.” [No 2]
“I have been to the theatre. The cultural center is neglected like a coffee house. I wish there were
any social activities, it does not matter what it will be.” [No 11]
“I’m aware of activities arranged in the city from billboards. I don’t think the festivals has a
contribution to the public culturally. Scientific and cultural activities filled with knowledge will
have a positive impact on the younger generation. I cannot think of any activity that stuck in my
mind.” [No 12]
The comparison of Eskisehir with Bartın remains important according to the findings of the study.
Eskisehir can be a role model for Bartın. Similarly, Bartın is compared with other Turkish cities such as
Kastamonu, Eskisehir and Amasya in the Tourism Action Plan of the Bartın City (2012-2016).
Information about the city’s history was indicated as follows. Six of the participants told that they do not
have any information on this issue. Four of them indicated that they have little information. One of them
noted that only Çeşm-i Cihan is known. Three of them mentioned Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror. Two
of them accessed historical information from Bartın and Amasra museums. Three of them stated that
Bartın was a province of Zonguldak. Two of them mentioned about the Genoese. One of them said that
Bartın is a port city. One of the participants told that:
“The city’s old name is Parthenios. Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror wanted to conquer the city
without fighting and his wish came true. The river has been used as a shipyard.” [No 3]
Perceptions about the management style of Bartın are as follows:

“Management style of Bartın is not good. Even if it is city or water, there is always water cut in
the city. Transportation is hard and expensive in the city. But, I can say that the mayor is student
friendly.” [No 3]
“Bartın is managed as if it is a town not a city. Management should feature the timbered houses
and natural beauties such as: City’s river, waterfalls. Investments in the city are only made for
pulling votes. When there is an example such as Eskisehir, I think the resources in Bartın are
wasted for nothing.” [No 12]
“Services of the city hall are satisfying, as a reason of the city has a safe city image. But, the river
of Bartın should be reclaimed and repositioned as a touristic asset. There has to be a square in
the city.” [No 17]
On the other hand, 5 participants noted that it could be better; 5 of them stated that it is not good; 5 of
them said that they do not know and two of them said that is good. Some participant mentioned the city
as a village more than a city and a management that does not value the city’s lands.
When it comes to the beautifulness of the city, 10 of the participants told that the city is beautiful;
4 of them noted that it has a mediocre beautifulness; one of them said that it has not that good; one of
them told that it is a small but pretty city. Most of the participants mentioned the beautifulness is because
of Amasra. Some examples can be seen as follows:
“At first every student wants to leave the city immediately but then, you get used to its beauties
and stay. Actually, the harmony of sea and green is an advantage. When you compare it to
different cities, it is beautiful even if you don’t like it when you are staying in it.” [No 3]
“Even Bartın is a highly rich region in terms of natural beauties, it has been too late to handle
these beauties. The river that pass through the city, has been left as a ruin. While most of the
European cities promote themselves as brands with the help of their rivers, Bartın refuse this
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unique resource, strictly. On the other hand, one of the greatest wounds of Turkey which is brutal
urbanization is seen widely in the city just like any other city in Turkey.” [No 12]
Place
The climate of the city is mentioned by participants such as being rainy and cool (2 participants), has a
wet air (2 participants), similar to Ankara’s climate (1 participant), a typical Blacksea climate (2
participants), hot (2 participants), warm (4 participants), unexpected temperature degrees such as
sudden rain or hot (5 participants). Some examples are:
“You can leave with a t-shirt in the morning, and you can freeze or get wet in the evening or it can
be otherwise.” [No 3]
“We wear a jacket than the weather becomes sunny. We wear a cardigan, then it purs down.”
[No 9]
Being satisfied while traveling to the city is indicated as mediocre (7 participants), bad (4 participants),
good (4 participants) and nostalgic (1 participant). People who seem traveling to the city as a bad
experience, say that traveling to the provinces such as Amasra and Inkumu are satisfying. Some examples
are:
“I like it because of its calmness. It is not complicated; it does not suffocate you. The crowd in
Amasra should be decreased. There is not any effort on this issue. It is not cool at all.” [No 1]
“It’s a one-time city. Maybe you come twice, but it is meaningless to visit any more, except for the
sea.” [No 3]
“City center is place that you can travel in half a day. Two days are enough if you go to provinces.
Touristic places are limited in the city center. Even if the new museum and parks are valuable for
the city, the city will not be able to free itself from being a little city in the Blacksea, unless the
secret history brought to light.” [No 12]
Potential
Easiness to find a job in the city is perceived as hard by 9 of the participants and easy by 5 of the
participants. Three of them indicated that they did not know. Some of the participants noted that they
did not see any beggars in the streets; thus, they relate this to the easiness to find a job. One of the
participants stated that:
“Job opportunities in the city are limited. Finding a job is hard for the people who live here because
there is not a mall, factory or well-functioned industrial zone in the city. Natural beauties are
preserved in the city; thus, job opportunities should be aimed at industries such as: Modern
agriculture, stock farming, forest products, sea and yacht production. It would be the right
decision if he city can be a pilot region for these industries. Furthermore, tourism investments can
prevent younger generation to migrate to bigger cities such as Ankara.” [No 12]
Educational opportunities are noted as mediocre (5 participants), good (3 participants) and bad (8
participants). 2 of them had no information on this issue. One of the participants said that:
“Educational opportunities are not much good. There is a developing university but it has time to
develop more. Other schools are more standard.” [No 3]
Pulse
Comments on the attractiveness of the city are as follows. Nine participants consider Bartın as an
attractive city but mostly, because of Amasra. Five participants see the city as unattractive. While one
participant sees the city partially attractive, one participant has no information on this issue. On the other
461
hand, one participant mentioned that the promotion of the city is insufficient. Some examples on this
issue are as follows:
“Of course it is attractive. Otherwise, students won’t come to Bartın when googling it and seeing
Amasra.” [No 3]
“Bartın is far away from being attractive because of not enabling social, cultural, educational and
health benefits, sufficiently. First, the river of the city has to be reclaimed. The quality of the
university has to be improved. The need of lack of infrastructure has to be fulfilled. Thus, the city
can turn into a livable city.” [No 12]
“The city is attractive because of Amasra.” [No 14]
People
Eight participants noted that the people who live in the city are friendly and warm. Four participants told
that the people are partially warm and friendly. Six of the participants said that the people are not
friendly, they see the people in Bartın as money grubbers mostly because of tradespeople. One of the
participant indicated that:
“The people in Bartın are not much familiar and warm. They look at students as if they are money
similar to every little city.” [No 4]
Fourteen participants reported that they easily fit in the city’s society, while one participant did not. On
the other hand, 2 participants told they partially fit in. One of the participants told that:
“I partially fit into Bartın but it is not a city that I can maintain my whole life.” [No 12]
For 15 participants, the city is safe; while for one participant it is not safe. Some participants mentioned
that:
“I feel safe in the city. For me, it is beautiful and comfortable.” [No 3]
“I think Bartın is very safe. Families let their children play in the streets even midnight, and they
do not have any trouble. Children leave their toys, bicycles, scooters outside.” [No 12]
Prerequisites
Living in Bartın seems to be fun (1 participant) and beautiful (7 participants). 2 participants reported that
the city is good for saving money because there is not much to do in the city. For 2 participants, it is easy
to live in the city. For 4 participants, the city is boring. One of the participants mentioned that:
“Bartın is mostly a boring city for those who grew in metropolises. Furthermore, it is livable city
for those who do not have any desire in terms of social or cultural activities.” [No 12]
Accommodation opportunities in the city are affordable for 11 participants and expensive for 5
participants. One participant noted that:
“Accommodation opportunities in Bartın are very limited. Primary accommodation is the
Öğretmenevi (a guesthouse for high school teachers) and a number of hotels. The number of
accommodations is higher in Amasra.” [No 12]
The standards of public spaces were rated as poor quality by 7 participants. For 4 participants, the quality
is mediocre and for 4 participants the standards of public spaces have good quality. One participant [No
1] indicated that even though the state hospital is good, transportation is very bad.
Conclusion
City branding is a popular practice adopted by many cities around the world in the context of intensified
urban competition (Zhang & Zhao, 2009). Current study employs the dimensions of the city brand
hexagon for examining Bartın’s city brand image. While only Istanbul is in the radar of city brand indexes,
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Bartın case illustrates that the city has valuable resources unless they are not wasted. If Amasra gets into
the UNESCO World Heritage list, the tourist population of the city will increase. However, infrastructure
problems and especially the reclamation of the river has to be solved immediately. Amasra becomes
prominent rather than Bartın itself according to the visitors and residents. Other sub-provinces such as
Çakraz, Kurucaşile, Inkumu along with the center of Bartın has to be renovated for satisfying the needs
of consumers. Nature and sea are the most important factors for consumers. Therefore, Bartın should
focus on its slogan “the city of water” and create a city logo based upon it. Festivals should be diversified
and promoted. According to the study, core values and the identity of the city are neglected. Therefore,
consumers are not aware of the city’s various aspects. Stakeholders and target audiences such as
companies, residents, travelers and the university should be consulted in order to create a long-term city
branding process. One limitation of the study is that the sample mostly consists of consumers under 35
years old. Another limitation is the selection of only Turkish consumers. Future studies can compare the
observations of the city with the studies of other competitor cities such as Kastomunu, Amasya and
Eskişehir.
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7603
HYPERREALITY CONCEPTS IN TOURISM AND RECREATION
Selin Kama
Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
kamaselin@gmail.com
Abstract
Today, along with the changes in consumption patterns, societies are oriented towards more active and
more innovative products and services that touch more to their emotions. With this orientation the
touristic paradigm of sunbathing by the sea left its place to new elements and activities with excursion,
struggle, and even risk, which have become the paradigm of tourism, for tourist destinations. In this
context, destinations and various businesses, have highlighted the hyper realities and they have built up
from the beginning to the end of the experience with an integrative approach. Hyperreality is a balance
element and the main element of tourism in today's conditions. The main purpose of this study is to carry
out an in-depth research on hyperreality and related concepts. The data were compiled by using
secondary sources in the study. Therefore, in addition to hyper realism, concepts such as simulation,
simulacrum, images, enhanced reality and phantasmagoria are discussed in the context of data which is
obtained from previous studies. These consepts are also discussed in terms of Universal Studios theme
park.
Key words: Reallity, Hyper Reallity, Augmented Reality and Simulation.
Introduction
When the postmodernist approach is taken into consideration, the spaces that create the destinations
have their meanings in the minds of individuals. In other words, destinations represent a rich sensory
environment, composed of memories and meanings resulting from the events happening in it (Coyne,
2007). In tourist destinations, surrealistic items are processed into products and services with various
motifs that create hyperrealism and they transferred to tourists. This transfer is done in particular with
simulation and simulacrums, phantasmagories and augmented reality items. Indeed, postmodern
tourists, who are in a constant formation, move their senses through these items. Thus, tourists perceive,
interpret, understand and influence their environment as well as they attract their surroundings with
their actions, attitudes and opinions (Karaduman, 2010).
There are various concepts emerging in the studies about hyper realism concept. Table 1 shows some of
those consepts:
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Table 1: Concepts Related with Hyperreality
Concept Explanation
Simulation With a fake appearance or an imitation, they
often encourages pleasure for tourists. The
simulation often represents the inaccurate truth
in the themed places such as Disneyland or Las
Vegas.
Simulakr The appearance that needs to be perceived as a
reality. It is a simulacrum when it is perceved as
existent even if there is no event or object.
Configuration The process of combining ideas and symbols to
achieve a coherent understanding. Creating a
special brand for a destination.
Marking Communicating with signs to transfer meaning in
symbolic ways. Nike's 'swoosh' is used to
communicate its durability and performance.
Phantasmagoria Amazing relationship and dreamlike images.
İmagery The ability to design an object without it.
Imaginatively design.
Augmented reality Systems that enable objects and spaces in the
physical world to be enriched by using artificial
intelligence or digital technology.
Source: Fırat and Dholakia (2006), Altınpulluk and Kesim (2015)
Each of these concepts are techniques which addresses hyper-reality in a different direction in tourist
destinations and they also allow to create new spaces and events. In this context, in the study, firstly the
concept of hyperrealism is examined and then the concepts of simulation and simulacrum,
phantasmagoria, imagery and augmented reality are defined and their usage patterns at destinations are
examined. Secondly, these concepts have been evaluated through the facilities and events in Universal
Studios Themed Park in America.
Hyper Reality
Reality perception is precisely the result of subjective judgments of people. Yücedağ (2013) defines the
reality based on the view of everyday life. Daily life is a subjectively meaningful reality in the sense of a
consistent world interpreted by people. This means that reality changes in people’s mind in terms of their
conditions and perceptions. It may be easier to explain this change by Plato's cave analogy. This analogy
is related to the fact that if you capture any person in the cave for a while his reallity will become the
reflection of the cave. Those prisoners, are the chief actors of a world of fantasies and illusions. However
when you relise him, his perception will change immediately. According to Platon, in this world everything
is flawed and constantly changes. The world outside the cave represents the "world of being". Things that
are perfect, eternal, and unchangeable are in this reality universe (Wright, 1906). This analogy shows that
both the objective and subjective factors are in the core of reality (Yücedağ, 2013).
In the simplest sense, hyper realism is a concept that can be defined as supreme reality or extreme reality.
The concept, first appeared in Bourdrillard's work. According to Bourdrillard (2017) there is not an
absolute truth. Reality has been accepted by simulating or constructing the fake with hints and images
and imagined things accepted as reality by vitalization with images. Thus, it can be said that while hyper
reality is not related to reality, it is a concept that is regarded as real in the world of imagination by being
portrayed through various images or icons.
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The hyperrealism that emerges through the signs and symbols in the human mind has emerged and lived
in different forms since the early ages. As a matter of fact, the existence of gods and goddesses and the
stories about the ancient world continue to exist since the early ages. The stories of the Greek God and
Goddess can be regarded as turning point of the debate between the truth and the fake, or the difference
between truth and hyperreality. However, as the stories of the Greek gods and godnesses are not taken
seriously, the earthly factors and the fantastic factors interrogated and separated from each other
(Karapinar, 2017).
In the post modern era, the tourism sector uses this distinction from the early ages to build a world of
fantasies and illusions for the visitors. Karapinar's expressed that "The ancient was recalled, it combined
the modern and built its own truth". That means; reconstructing the existing world with a new touristic
perspective (Karapınar, 2017). In other words, the reality or the hyperrealism that has been glorified or
idealized is revealed.
Although it is recreated, hyper realism can be perceived as the actual reality for the individual which is a
formation that emerged during the process of transforming the reality with the view (Şentürk, 2003). This
formation is described by Bornstein (2012) as being glorified or idealized reality. Indeed, hyper-reality
creates the image of something that does not exist at all and, in so doing, sets the standards of its own
reality. In this case fantasy is not the image on the surface presented with hyperrealism. And fantasy can
not be separated from reality.
Imagery
Image can be described as something that is imaginatively designed in mind and sensed as a long-waited
thing for fulfillment. Psychologists states that image is the analogue of an object reflected to the
consciousness that sensory organs perceive from outside of the sensory organs. Atasoy (2016) describes
the meanings of image in Turkish, Arabic, English and Latin as follows:
In Turkish the image means imagination and dream. In Arabic, the meaning of something that is
thought to be true or analogous to the truth. In English it means that appears in the human spirit,
a reflected image, a copy or a screen image. The Imagine and Imago words derive from the Latin
imitation word. It means that an imitative object is copied in three dimensions.
Imagination, considered by Holbrook and Hirschman as one of the reflective means of hedonic
consumption, can be both creative and reflective. Reflective imagery is called historical imagery that
reveals some remembrances and idioms from the past. On the other hand, creative imagery reflects the
fantasy world created by one's consciousness (Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982).
According to Baudrillard, fantasies are the forerunners of experience. The fantasy imagery presented in
various destinations, in other words, non-reality-related events and experiences, creates a multi-sensory
images. These features are born from glorified and idealized hyper realities and simulations. For example;
a false accessibility is provided to the people in shopping malls. Some people who come to these malls
actually experience the pleasure of buying a commodity. However others can only feel the happiness of
touching, watching, or even experiencing to try these commodities that they can not afford.
Even if this happiness is a fake genius, it can create some hope with a momentary change and a hope that
symbolizes what can be experienced in the future. Therefore the expectation of tourists is much more
than ordinary imagery, so it is expected that the images will have a unique and enchanting power
(Boudrillard, 2017). In this context, the person who always submits to the idea of a variable truth provides
himself with an enchanting ambience at various stages.
Various stages of image specificity are listed by Baudrillard as follows:

467
- image as a reflection of a real reality
- an image that changes and hides a deep reality
- the image that hides the absence of a real reality
- not interested in any kind of reality, but only an image
Simulation and Simulakr

According to Baudrillard (2017), reality can be reproduced in infinite numbers by miniaturized cells,
matrices, memories and command patterns. Every reproduction plays role in the emergence of
simulations of reality. Moreover, every simulation of the truth leads to transfer more characteristic or
symptom of the simulation to the real object. This situation causes the dream power to fall off with the
simulation in time. In such a vicious cycle, simulations usually try to destroy the difference between
reality- fake or real- imaginary (Baudrillard, 2017).
Disappearance of the real world with the artificiality and imaginariness, is one of the important issues
that Baudrillard addresses when describing the concepts of simulation and simulacrum. The philosophy
that reflects this point of view brings another important question to mind: "What shall we say to the rest,
if we destroy the real world?". Güzel (2015) discloses this philosophy of Baudrillard in two points:
1- Processes of "knowledge" which are continuous and aim to pursuit the truth can not produced
as an isolated subject-object relation as discussed in the modern period.
2- The reality has vanished in a vicious circle of simulacra reproduction, in a way that can never be
reached. This annihilation of reality, has become hyperreality at the top of the line.
Simulations are designed much more realistic than the original one to be hyperreal. In such a service
environment, everything should be in written form just like the relations between custumers and
employees or the routes to visit (Williams, 2011). For example; Elgün, Babacan, Kozak and Babat (2013)
are expressed airports as places not really related with reality, but in the chain as hyper real areas that
are part of the simulated universe. The airports, which serve as a part of the destination, have an
important place in the experience from the first moment of the journey until the last moment. In airports
each employee knows what to say to the customers exactly. That is because in the airports, another world
is created where the conversations between visitors and employees are determined. And this
conversations seem to be realistic for customers. That provide entertainment and pleasure for the
customers as well as providing transportation in the airports.
Just as in the case of the airport, the expectation of post-modern tourists is to experience simulated
environments that can accommodate many functions at the same time. Indeed, postmodern
consumption in the service sector is associated with the preference of tourists simulated or created
hyperrealism to the expanded reality. Today, simulation is a complementary feature of contemporary
service consumption, and these simulations are designed solely to encourage mass consumption that is
not bound to an end or consequence (Baudrillard, 2017, 206).
Phantasmagoria
Phantasmagoria emerges with the reflection of various images, such as hallucination of a highly heated
individual. It represents a complex group of sequential and rapidly changing real or imaginary icons
(https://dictionary.cambridge.org). If it is evaluated sectorally, it is a matter of distorting the exchange
value of goods or services. This distortion leads to a false alienation of the visitor and leads to an illusion.
While the word does not take place in the Turkish dictionary, when it is questioned four expression are
reached. These are;
- A series of inconsistent imaginations as in the dream
468
-Shapes that project a wall with a projector and suddenly grow and shrink
-Ghost
- A visual game created with the projector (http://www.nedirnedemek.com/)
The concept was derived from the Greek word "phantasma" and first introduced in 1801 . It was used by
the French dramaist to refer the "magic lantern" display (https://www.vocabulary.com).
In the Oxford dictionary, the origins of the concept is explained as follows:
Early 19th century (originally the name of a London exhibition (1802) of optical illusions produced
chiefly by magic lantern): probably from French fantasmagorie, from fantasme ‘phantasm’ + a
fanciful suffix. (https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/)
Also it has been said that the origins of the Phantasmagoria have come to life in Marx's studies of
capitalism. Marx, discussion of capital fetishism describes the capitalism as a concept that offers
satisfactory behavior and produces diversity, even though it is fictional in character. For him, what
capitalism offers is a limited source of partial satisfaction and can not be changed with the artificial,
synthetic, turbulent commodity world of the natural world. For Walter Benjamin, who worked on the
phantasmagoria subject after Marx, this commodification was the construction and warning of the urban
Phantasmagorya (Rojek, 2004). Therefore, according to Benjamin, the environment in which modern man
lives in is a phantasmagoria. When we think the human being within the entertainment industry, people
create an environment in phantasmagoria in which they feel alienated to themselves and others and
experiencing a "splendid life" with the consumption it has realized (Wikipedia.org).
Phantasmagoria in tourism has been used to intensify consumption as a result of the effort to invent new
means to increase consumers' interests, dreams and desires. According to Jansson (2002); Instead of
physical journey, indirect spatial phantasmagoria has strengthened the desire of "first hand tourism" by
contributing to the "creative hedonism" or even "hyper tourism". As a result, it has become an
increasingly fascinating fantasy and phantasmagoria issue to go on seaside tourist trips or adventure
winter trips.
Spatial phantasmagoria depends on a creative hedonism that potential tourists enter into the
representations of marketing, popular culture, literature, photography and other socio-spatial sources of
information. Through such mediators, individuals develop not only a reference framework for planning a
trip, but also a scenario for how to carry out and reconstruct their identities in the desired environment.
Tourism phantasmagoria also provides a combination of sensory and emotional experiences in an
indirect, visual and auditory way that creates imaginative texture with touristic representations. For
instance, the combination of photographic slides or animated pictures with words which describe voices,
scenes and smells that a visitor expects to encounter on their journey (Jansson,2006).
Augmented Reality
Augmented reality is a technologic system which allows the user to see the real world via objects
assembled with virtual world or with the objects combined with virtual world, complementing it with
reality and displaying both real and virtual within the same space (Azuma, 1997). There is a complex
relationship between the virtual world and augmented reality concepts. While some scientists define
augmented reality as a special issue of virtual reality state, others denote that augmented reality is a
more general concept and view virtual reality as a special issue of augmented reality state.
Virtual Reality is a three-dimensional simulation model which allows to the participants to communicate
with a dynamic environment created by computers that gives a sense of reality (Bayraktar and Kaleli,
2007). In augmented reality, unlike virtual reality, the real environment is not completely suppressed but
still plays a dominant role. As a totally synthetic world augmented reality tries to place synthetic
reinforcements into the real environment. According to Azuma, there are three important characteristic
469
features of augmented reality. Firstly, there is an integration between real and virtual. Secondly, it is
interactive with the real time. Lastly, it is registered in three dimensions.
In a virtual world, augmented reality can be used to increase the overall experience of the site and to
provide a clearer perspective on specific events. For example, personalized electronic guides or tour
assistants are able to mark the attractions according to the position of the individual and direct them to
the attraction. Also, the augmented reality glasses can offer a variety of displays in three-dimensional
imageries (Noh, Sunar and Pan, 2009).
Augmented reality is potentially applicable to all senses, including hear, touch, and smell. To create a
vision-related foresight; image-forming systems can be exemplified which use a series of optical,
electronic and mechanical components between the eye of the observer and the physical object to be
augmented. Depending on the optics used, the image may be formed on a plane surface or on a more
complex non-planar surface. (Bimber and Raskar, 2005).
On the other hand, some augmented reality applications require the addition of virtual objects as well as
the removal of real objects from the perceived environment (Azuma, et al., 2001). For example, in some
national parks in the United States, augmented reality practices have been used to see archeological
remains in remote and inaccessible areas. While these applications have removed some of the nearby
elements, they have overlaid animations, virtual animations, and other information on remote fossil
remains (Fritz, susperregui and Linaza, 2005).
Discussion- Universal Studios’ Theme Park

Themed parks are commercial entertainment centers where hyper-reality is introduced to the visitors in
the most intensive form possible. Universal Studios serves as one of America's best known themed parks.
Visitors experience the three-dimensional king kong shows, attack of Jaws and many occasions that can
be seen in cinema, such as earthquakes, explosions and floods. Therefore whatever any person may have
seen in cinemas, becomes memories of the real life in Universal Studios.
When the first step is taken to plan the trip, Universal's web page, a phantasmagoria about the Universal
studio shapes in visitor's mind. As a matter of fact, the web site includes information about the rides and
routes in the parks. With this information it becomes possible to plan the travel. This plan is the starting
point of a phantasmagoria in visitors’ minds. Also, along with images, sounds, smells and feelings as they
travel towards the space the phantasmagoria gets stronger.
3D and 4D technologies are most widely used in the theme parks. This technology activates different
sensory organs such as sight, hearing, feel and smell. In Universal Studios, The Mummy and Transformers
activity areas are examples of 3D and 4D applications. For example, in The Mummy event visitors face
with insect invasion while they ride on a rail system. Transformers, on the other hand, assign certain tasks
for the visitors. While visitors try to perform their jobs, bombs explode and visitors watch and feel the
flames. In both activities augmented reality technology have been used to attract all the senses of visitors.
In the areas where various simulations are created by blending with the characteristics of hyper reality,
each facility and activity is simulated by being removed from its real state. Even a simple boat ride
changes the perception of the individual's reality with different attachments and superimposed themes.
Universal Studios has created this kind of simulation with Jurrasic Park attraction. Visitors are confronted
with various activities while riding boats in the water as they travel in Jurassic Park. On the other hand,
with The Simpsons Ride, visitors experience the most extreme experiences that the human mind can
perceive as a feeling of being in a real roller coaster.
470
Universal Studios created in the city or in the middle of a deep reality with full of imageries. Inside of the
park, visitors do not interested at any kind of reality but only an image. In addition, every experience in
the park is processed in the sensory organs and become memories. In the course of time, these memories
come out both as historical imagery and fantasy imagery.
Conclusion
In an environment where there is less commitment to any product, service, or brand, constant
reproduction, remodeling, repositioning and imagery is required (Firat ve Shultz, 1997). In tourism
reproduction, remodeling, repositioning and imagery is essential to attract visitors. Therefore, surrealistic
items are needed to be processed in products and services with various motifs to create hyperrealism in
destinations. This development and change, which provides a competetive advantage, is dependent of
the right implementation of techniques such as simulations and simulacrums, images, phantasmagories
and augmented reality items.
Each of these techniques, which addresses the hyper-reality in a different direction in tourist
destinations, allows creating the new spaces and events. As a new type of tourism that shaped in new
spaces and events, Hyper-tourism emerged from hyperreality. In the most general sense hyper-tourism
created via symbolic elements in a simulated environment (Jansson, 2002). These elements open the
doors of an alternative life and influence the imagination of tourists (Rickly and McCabe, 2017).
In this study the concepts of hyper reality, simulation and simulakrum, imagery, phantasmagoria and
augmented realities are briefly discribed and examplified in the case of Universal Studio theme park.
These consepts needs to be searched to understand consumer behaviour. Tourist behaviours and
tendencies are very important issues to learn about hyper-tourism and develop it.
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472
7611
LEGAL CHANGES IN TURKISH LABOR LAW REFLECTED ON TOURISM
WORKERS
Özgür Oğuz
Assistant Professor
Department of Law, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
ooguz1@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
The latest legal amendments in Turkish labor law have naturally affected all working life and therefore
also tourism workers. Within the Turkish labor law system, mediation law has become compulsory. it is
now necessary for a tourism worker to complete the mediation phase before going to the labor court.
Business Law is a law where legal changes are frequent due to the fact that it is an area that constantly
develops and renews itself. Among the factors that cause this situation are the effects of the developing
technology on business relations, emerging new needs, case-law changes in the judiciary, cancellation
decisions of the Constitutional Court. The legal amendments made in the field of Labor Law have recently
been intensified with the enactment of the Labor Courts Law No. 7036. Significant changes were made
in terms of labor law, in particular mandatory mediation envisaged in the law and regulations for
applications to the Social Security Institution; Under this law, the Labor Law no. 4857 required the
necessity of making new regulations in other labor laws.
Key words: Tourism workers, Mediation, Labour, Law
Introduction
At the beginning of the recent changes in Labor Law, changing business judgments are in order. The Law
on Labor Courts numbered 7036, which brought substantial changes in this context, was adopted on
12.10.2017 and entered into force upon publication of the Official Gazette dated 25.10.2017. The most
fundamental issue that has changed in terms of Labor Law with the entry into force of the Labor Courts
Act has been the provision of the mediation institution as a trial condition. This substantial change in
business disputes has been found in the Law No. 4857, which is the basic law in relation to business
relations, and necessary amendments have been made in order to ensure unity between the two laws.
In this study, the innovations and changes made in terms of the Labor Code and the Labor Law will be
examined and the results and evaluation of the subject will be presented.
Amendments and Innovatıons Relevant to "Busıness Councıl Law" Number 7036

A. Generally
The Law on Labor Courts No. 5521, which has been in effect since 1950, has been abolished as of
25.10.2017, when the Labor Courts Law No. 7036 was adopted. It has been argued that the law was
enacted in order to reduce the concentration in the labor courts, to get quick results, and to ensure that
the parties have the ability to define themselves easily 3. The amendments made within the scope of the
3
Hasan Özkan “İş Davalarında Dava Şartı Arabuluculuk”. Legal İş Hukuku ve Sosyal Güvenlik Hukuku Dergisi, Yıl:2017,
C: 14, S: 56, s. 1881; Ali Güzel “İş Mahkemeleri Kanunu Tasarısı Taslağı Hakkında Bazı Aykırı Düşünceler!...” Çalışma
ve Toplum Dergisi, İstanbul 2016, N: 2016/3, p. 1131-1132; Salim Yunus Lokmanoğlu “İş Mahkemeleri Kanunu
Işığında Arabuluculuk Kavramı”. Türkiye Adalet Akademisi Dergisi, Ankara 2018, Y:9, N: 33 (Ocak 2018), p. 867;
473
law are the introduction of compulsory mediation for certain disputes and the requirement to apply to
the Social Security Institution before filing a lawsuit against Social Security and General Health Insurance
Law and other social security legislation.
B. Regulation on the Establishment, Duties and Authority of the Labor Courts and Other Provisions
Regarding the establishment of the Labor Courts, which was first included in the judicial organization in
1950, in Article 2 of the new Law No. 7036 of the Labor Courts, unlike the article 5521, the labor courts
were in the primary custody and in the places where there were no labor courts, In addition, it is included
in the 7036 number that the distribution of work will be done by HSK and distribution will take into
consideration the density of work, specialization and the nature of the works 4.
In parallel with the order of duty, the regulation of powers in the labor courts was also clearly settled and
reconsidered in parallel with the provisions of the HMK. According to the arrangement, the general
competent court has shown the case as a settlement on the date the case is opened or a court of place
where the work / transaction is made; If there are more than one case, the settlement of one of them is
the court. Regarding the compensation claims arising from work accidents, the settlement court of the
worker who has suffered a work accident or damage and the damaged worker has been designated as a
court of competent jurisdiction in accordance with the TBK tort. In the event of disputes in the Labor
Courts in accordance with the foreseen duties and rules of procedure, the judicial procedure shall be re-
examined and judged to be in accordance with the simple judicial procedure.
In accordance with Law No. 7036, Paragraph 5521, Paragraph No 5521, the provision of HMK is applied
to the provisions of HMK (HUMK), but the provisions of HUMC and HMK are quite different, In this
context, unlike the sphere of labor law, labor court decisions do not constitute a definite provision as a
rule and are subject to appeal examination in this respect; in cases other than those expressly mentioned,
can also be passed through the appeal examination. In this respect, lawsuits and works that can not be
measured by money, and the law which has closed the road of appeal in terms of cases not exceeding
3000 Turkish Lira, has not been properly taken into new blood.
C. Mediation as a Condition for Litigation

Article 3 of the Labor Code stipulates the mandatory operation of the mediation institution in order to
prevent the bringing of employee-employer disputes directly before the court in respect of certain
business disputes and stipulated that the case would be decided to be rejected if the parties proceeded
without operating the mediation institution. In this context, according to the first paragraph of the first
clause of the law, workers 'or employers' claims based on individual or collective labor disputes and
compensation claims have been accepted as a condition of appeal to the parties. On the other hand, the
legislator did not foresee the application of mediation as a condition for any business dispute and
excluded certain disputes. In the third paragraph of the Article, it should be noted that the pecuniary and
non-pecuniary damage claims arising from work accidents and occupational diseases and their
determination, appeal and mediation are not prescribed as a condition for mediation, it is also possible
that the parties arbitrarily apply mediation. The point of importance at this point is not only the
employees of the regulation under the Labor Law No. 4857, 5953 and 854 of the Press Labor and Maritime
Labor Laws 5.
Cumhur Sinan Özdemir “İş Davalarında Zorunlu Arabuluculuk Sistemi”, Mali Çözüm İSMMMO Dergisi, N: Kasım-
Aralık 2017, p. 245.
4
Bektaş Kar, “7036 Sayılı İş Mahkemeleri Kanunu ile Getirilen Düzenlemeler”. Türkiye İnşaat Sanayicileri İşveren
Sendikası Dergisi, İstanbul 2018, N: January February 2018, p. 18.
5
Hakan Pekcanıtez/ Oğuz Atalay/ Muhammet Özekes, Medeni Usul Hukuku Ders Kitabı, 2. Baskı, Ankara 2014,
p.241
474
It is clear from the third and subsequent articles of the law how a mediation procedure can be followed
in terms of the mentioned business disputes 6. According to the law, the plaintiff must first apply to the
mediation office at the place of settlement of the opposite party or place where the work is done, if the
mediation office is not available. The general rule is that when a mediator is appointed by the mediation
office upon application, it is also possible for the mediator to engage in activities if the parties agree on
another mediator in these lists.
The next step is for the mediator to invite the parties to the first meeting on the basis of the information
given by the requesting party and the information he will obtain upon the survey. In paragraph 3 of Article
3 of the Law, it is foreseen that the parties to the mediation proceedings, their legal representatives or
lawyers may also participate; an employee who has been given written authorization for the employer is
also allowed to be represented. That the parties (or persons authorized to represent them) do not attend
the meeting without a valid excuse and that, in the event of a mediation event, even if the non-party is
justified, the costs of the proceedings will be fully respected and the attorney's fee will not be awarded
in favor of that party; if both parties do not attend, the parties shall be entitled to leave the costs incurred
in respect of the lawsuits to be filed. In this regard, the legislator is able to say that the parties do not
allow them to participate in the process.
The last stage of the process is the stage in which the parties have agreed on the disagreement. According
to the court, at this stage, the mediator will conclude the activity and the mediator will immediately notify
the office and keep the final minutes. In the event of a concluding agreement, the mediator shall be paid
no less than the two hourly wage set forth in the Minimum Wage Scheme of the Mediator and, if not
otherwise agreed, the mediator's fee shall be paid equally to the parties; if the process relates to work,
it shall be the sum of the non-commencement indemnity to be paid in the event that the worker fails to
start work and the remuneration and other rights to be payable for the duration of the worker's absence,
unless otherwise agreed. If the proceeding is concluded without an agreement, the mediator's fee is
foreseen to be met from the Ministry of Justice budget for the first two hours' wage, that the
remuneration for the two-hour negotiations will be equal to the parties unless otherwise agreed and
both amounts counted from the costs of the proceedings. The compulsory expenditures of the mediation
branch, other than the mediator's fee, will be met from the Ministry of Justice budget in the first instance;
in the event of an agreement between the parties, they will be ultimately dealt with by the parties, and
in case of disagreement, from the unfair party.
Obligation to apply to Social Security Institution

A. Procedure of Appeal to Notice of Withdrawal (Art 20)
According to Article 11 of the Labor Courts Law No. 7036, amendments have been made in Article 20 of
the Labor Law. The first amendment envisaged in the Article has been foreseen to require mediation in
relation to the request for return to work in relation to the compulsory mediation institution which
entered into force in respect of the business disputes we have discussed above.
According to the Article 20 of the Labor Law, there is a need to apply for a mediation request for disputes
of extradition, and the duration of the application must be within one month from the date of notification
The old regulation and if the result of the mediator action can not be obtained, within two weeks, a court
order could be filed at the labor court. The possibility of applying the special tribunal to the party before
the court changed before the law was also protected in the new regulation. If the court decides to reject
the procedure due to non-appeal of the mediator, it can be applied to the mediator within 2 weeks from
the date of finalization of this decision. It is in this case that the Court of Justice will be given definitively
to the Court of Justice.
6
Ersin Erdoğan, “7036 Sayılı İş Mahkemeleri Kanunu’nda Öngörülen Zorunlu Arabuluculuk ve Hak Arama Özgürlüğü
Açısından Değerlendirilmesi”. Legal İş Hukuku ve Sosyal Güvenlik Hukuku Dergisi, Y: 2017, C: 14, N: 55, p. 1215.
475
B. Arrangement of Termination Result Made With Invalidity (Article 21)
Two different regulations have been introduced under Article 21 of the Labor Code. In these cases, it is
the ruling that the worker shall be based on the remuneration not to be awarded in the event that the
worker fails to start the work despite the fact that the work contract is terminated regardless of the valid
reason and the invalidation of termination is determined by court or special arbitrator 7.
The other regulation is related to the possibility of the parties having to make a decision to start work on
the basis of the forced mediation activity. If the parties decide to start work, the final amount of the date
of commencement of work shall be determined in accordance with the total amount of the wages and
other rights to be paid to the worker and the non-initiation compensation to be paid in case the worker
is not started. In the case of failure to comply with this provision, an agreement was reached between
the legislative parties. On the other hand, the obligation to apply to the employer within 10 working days
from the notification of the court or arbitrator's decision in the old regulation has also been abolished
and parallel to the previous regulation, it has been stated that the worker's failure to start work on the
prescribed date will constitute a valid termination and the employer will only be responsible for its legal
consequences.
C. Authorization of the State (Article 91)

Regarding the competence of labor inspectors, Articles 91 and 92 of the Labor Law No. 4857 have been
amended to limit these authorities 8. It has been stated that the State fulfills its duties related to working
life as stated in Article 91 of the Labor Code in labor inspectors and that the applications of the workers
concerning the individual receivables arising from the law of labor and labor and collective labor
agreements may be carried out on condition that the employment contract continues. In addition to this,
in addition to the clause "the officers of the regional directorate examining the workers' complaints" and
"the officers of the regional directorate responsible for examining the workers complaints" in the third
paragraph, which are included in the second paragraph of Article 92 of Law No. 4857, In this context,
while the employment contract is in progress, it has been decided that if the work inspector related to
the worker is determined, he can not go to the mediation related to this receivable.
D. Additional and Provisional Article Regulations

With respect to the additional requirements arising from the third clause of the Labor Law and the work
contract, the time limits have been changed. According to the law, the period of time limit is foreseen to
be five years regardless of the annual allowance fee arising from the employment contract, the severance
indemnity, the indemnity due to termination without due process, the indemnity arising from the
indemnity, The provisional period of time limit of five years shall be provided in the event that such
provision is requested in the end of the business relationship after the date of entry into force of this
Temporary Article 8; but it is stipulated that the old regulation will prevail in terms of the statute of
limitations which had begun to be processed before this substance entered into force. On the other hand,
if the rest of the time-limit, which has been started for processing, is over 5 years, the estimated 5-year
statute of limitations will apply.
Conclusion and Evaluation

Current developments in business law have been mainly based on mandatory mediation arrangements.
Besides this, the amendments made under the Law on Unions of 6356 and the Law on Mediation in Legal
Disputes No. 6325 are noteworthy. It seems that the amendments made under these two laws focus on
7
Muhittin Astarlı, “7036 Sayılı İş Mahkemeleri Kanunu’nun 4857 Sayılı İş Kanunu’nun İş Güvencesi Hükümlerinde
Öngördüğü Değişikliklerin Değerlendirilmesi”. Sicil İş Hukuku Dergisi, İstanbul 2017, N: 38, p. 52.
8
Kar (2018), Ibid p. 25
476
the revision of the legislation that was left in periods when the mediation regulations were not in force
as a result of the new developments stemming from the finding of more application areas compared to
our legal system and the appeal proceedings were fully active. When it is considered that all of the
enacted regulations are brought by the Labor Courts Law, the law regulates only matters other than the
procedural laws, the labor courts and the procedures to be envisaged here; In this respect, it is almost as
if it is considered as a bag law. These regimes, which are procedural laws for business proceedings, would
be better suited to the legal system than we would have considered independent and separate from
other regimes.
The inclusion of clear regulations on the duties and powers of the labor courts under the law has been a
positive development. Although the provisions on the application of HUMC and HMK regulations which
are in the nature of the general procedural law in the absence of a provision in the law since the time of
the covenant law have been included in the labor courts law, it is appropriate to include in detail the
separate duties and powers of the covenant as in other procedural laws. Under the amendment, we are
of the opinion that the business courts are in the first place and in the places where there is no court of
business, it is necessary to evaluate positively in terms of ensuring compliance with the other laws, even
if there is no need for judicial review of court proceedings. The fact that the work laws specified in Article
5 of the Law on the application area of the Law have been explicitly covered as well as the obligations
under the Law of Obligations have been a necessity; termination of the employment contract and service
contract distinction should be seen as an extremely accurate arrangement. As a matter of fact, the fact
that there was no determination in the law of labor courts in this respect was a favorable arrangement
to create doubts as to whether the general civil service law courts were in charge of the business relations
fulfilled in accordance with the provisions of the TBK service contract.
In this respect, the Law No. 7036 on Labor Courts seems to have equality in terms of business relations
with the employment contract and the service contract by eliminating the doubts. In addition, parallel to
the general practice that the application of the law, the application of the law, and the precise decision
are exceptional, by removing the facts of the labor disputes as a rule from the appeal and appeal
examination, the appeal and appeals can be appealed.
It is also necessary to address the regulation of "mediation as a condition of trial" brought under the law.
In the case of this new method, in which the legislator has adopted as a method to avoid increasing the
number of files, it will be necessary to resort to mediation in a "compulsory" manner by removing the
possibility of direct application to labor courts if the parties are parties to disputes. In our opinion, it is an
extremely appropriate choice for the legislator to assess and disseminate alternative dispute resolution
methods in the face of business disputes and other disputes. At this point, we should not point out that
dissemination of mediation and arbitration arrangements in terms of legal disputes is in place because
both the workload of the judiciary allows the disputes of the parties to be resolved in a friendly manner
without any disagreement. Alternative solution methods also provide savings in time and material
resources by serving as one of the basic principles of the civil code, "the principle of procedural
economy" 9. Mediation, as it is known, is an alternative method of dispute resolution, aimed at resolving
disputes between the parties, with the support of an impartial third party, where both parties are
reconciled, bringing together the disputed parties to speak and negotiate 10. The law which contains the
basic rules and regulations regarding mediation in Turkish Law is the Law on Mediation in Legal Disputes
No. 6325 and it is stated in Article 3 of the Law that the parties are free to apply for mediation, to continue
the process, to conclude the process and to give up the process. As can be seen, "aged" is one of the basic
elements of the mediation in terms of the law no.
9
Zeynep Şişli, “Bireysel İş Uyuşmazlıkları ve Yargısal Çözüm”. Ankara Barosu Dergisi, Ankara 2012, N: 2012/2, p.48
10
Melis Taşpolat Tuğsavul, Arabuluculuk Kanun Tasarısı Çerçevesinde Türk Hukukunda Arabuluculuk. Bahçeşehir
Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Özel Hukuk Programı Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul 2009, p. 8.
477
6325 which is the basic legal regulation on mediation. However, the mandatory mediation practice
envisaged by the Labor Court Law ignores the element of agility which constitutes one of the most basic
points of the mediation, and seems to have come out of the parties' will. From this point of view, although
it is possible to say that it is a great benefit to support alternative dispute resolution methods, it would
be much more beneficial for us to believe that this will be left to parties. It should also be kept in mind
that the practice of mediation, which emerges as "necessity", introduces a precondition for resorting to
judgments from the main functions of the state, and that the costs of mediation may be left to the parties,
and that the mediator may be free of limitations. In our opinion, recognition of mediation as a matter of
preference between the parties in a manner consistent with its application; but the application of some
incentives in this way (for example, leaving all expenditures on the treasury, especially the mediator fee)
and most importantly the training of the parties, especially at the point of consulting the community
mediation, will increase the incentive to mediate.
In our previous explanations, with the law no. 7036, only regulations on labor courts were not brought;
and that different regulations besides the labor courts and the related regulations are also covered by
the law and are not in conformity with the law system. In this context, another law amended by the
provisions of the Labor Courts Act has become the Labor Law No. 4857. The amendments made to Law
No. 4857 have also been focused mainly on the integration of the mandatory mediation system envisaged
in the Labor Code; The most significant change in the scope of the law has been the time-varying time
limits 11. The period of ten years of statutory period foreseen by the general provisions in the
compensation claims foreseen in terms of termination indemnity, annual leave allowance, malnutrition
indemnity and termination of the employer in contradiction with the principle of equality 12, which have
critical prescription for business proceedings, has been changed and the new period has been foreseen
as 5 years. Even though the transfer provisions prevent this regulation from harming the parties, we are
of the opinion that there is no legal benefit in terms of the workers who constitute the weak side of the
legal relationship and need to be protected with the provision of a shorter period.
References
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Hükümlerinde Öngördüğü Değişikliklerin Değerlendirilmesi”. Sicil İş Hukuku Dergisi, İstanbul
2017, N: 38, p. 40-53.
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Özgürlüğü Açısından Değerlendirilmesi”. Legal İş Hukuku ve Sosyal Güvenlik Hukuku Dergisi,
İstanbul 2017, C: 14, N: 55, p. 1211-1239.
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Değerlendirme”. Legal İş Hukuku ve Sosyal Güvenlik Hukuku Dergisi, İstanbul 2017, C:14, S:55,
p. 1335-1348.
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İşveren Sendikası Dergisi, İstanbul 2018, N: Ocak-Şubat 2018, p. 18-25
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Akademisi Dergisi, Ankara 2018, Yıl:9, N: 33 (Ocak 2018), p. 863-885.
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Kasım-Aralık 2017, p. 245-252.
11
Nazım Can Işıktaç, “Türkiye’de Arabuluculuk Uygulaması: 7036 Sayılı İş Mahkemeleri Kanunu Işığında
Değerlendirme”. Legal İş Hukuku ve Sosyal Güvenlik Hukuku Dergisi, İstanbul 2017, C:14, N:55, p.1338.
12
Hasan Özkan, “İş Davalarında Dava Şartı Arabuluculuk”. Legal İş Hukuku ve Sosyal Güvenlik Hukuku Dergisi,
İstanbul 2017, C:14, N:56, p. 1887.
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Dergisi, İstanbul 2017, C:14, N:56, p 1881-1887.
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2014.
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2012/2, p.45-67.
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479
7628
THE ROLE OF ACCOUNTING IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF COSTS IN
HOTEL BUSINESSES' SUSTAINABILITY REPORT
Merve Özgür Göde
Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
Vedat Ekergil
Professor Doctor
Open Education Faculty, Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Businesses that are part of society have to fulfill their social and environmental responsibilities while
continuing their lives. Financial accounting, which deals only with the financial aspects of business
operations, is insufficient to achieve the benefits expected from the reporting. In addition, financial
reports are supported sustainability reports and to ensure that quality information is generated that will
enable managers to make the right decisions. Sustainability reports are being requested by information
users since hotel businesses are intimately involved in both the physical and social environment. The
sustainability report, which can be perceived as a change process has economic, social and environmental
dimensions. Sustainability reports provide accountable support for the production of some information.
For example, target costing, total quality management, product life cycle use cost reduction and
improvement in sustainability reports. Aim of the study determine how to calculate the cost items used
in corporate sustainability reporting, how to use the cost management techniques in the calculation and
how to show the costs of the report. For this purpose, in the study, the standard costs and the actual
costs of the cost items that the hotel management aimed to save were compared and the new cost
estimation proposal for the savings aimed to reach with the target costing technique depending on the
differences. Document analysis was carried out in the study. The sustainability report, financial reports
and quality control reports from a hotel business have been examined in detail. As a result of the study,
it was revealed that the savings offered in the sustainability report were more only for Show and that
these savings had to be made according to reasonable cost improvements.
Key words: Sustainability reporting, Target costing, Cost control, Strategic cost management.
Introduction
By means of accounting, which is one of the basic measurement systems in business life, it is possible to
understand and evaluate the business activities and results (Mook, 2006, 282). Business continuity, which
is a generally accepted basic accounting concept, implies that business activities will be maintained
without being limited to owners or owners' lives. In order to evaluate the sustainability of the business,
investors want to look at the financial data as well as non-financial data when making investment
decisions (Gençoğlu and Aytaç, 2016). While the aim of traditional accounting is to produce the
information about the formation of the resources of an business, the manner in which these resources
are used, the increase and decrease of these resources as a result of the operations of the organization
and the financial situation of the organization, the purpose of sustainable accounting structure is to
measure the sustainability performance of the business, to produce İnformation that will contribute to
the decision-making process of senior management (Tarakçıoğlu Altınay, 2016). Corporate sustainability
480
is the approach of sustainability approach at business level. Corporate sustainable reporting is a
comprehensive and integrated form of corporate reporting, which has become a focus by regulatory
regulators, sectorial boards and organizations, consulting firms and research institutions (Herzig and
Schaltegger, 2006, 151). In social and environmental accounting, it is an important requirement for the
business to report not only financial information, but also the reporting of non-financial information
concerning the group defined as related to the financial report (Yanık and Türker, 2012). The companies
do not only care of the products they sell, their profitability ratios or their shares in the stock market, but
also come to the forefront how sensitive they are to the society and to the environment in which they
operate (Kağnıcıoğlu, 2010). Social responsibility reports are reports that provide financial and non-
financial information to internal and non-business stakeholders in the annual reports or separate reports
showing the dimensions of the economic, environmental and social activities of the business (Başar and
Başar, 2006).
Sustainability reporting, it is that corporate governance in this context has clearly become a topic on
which companies have started to offer information, and thus strive to increase transparency and
accountability (Kolk, 2008). Businesses should consider sustainability reporting practices as a long-term
benefit provider. Businesses contribute to social economic value in the long run by creating social and
environmental value. Non-financial performance measures described in the scope of sustainability
reporting are described as indicators of development and forecasting of future financial results (Ballou,
Heitger and Farmer, 2005, 69). Businesses should give equal importance to environmental, social and
financial issues while carrying out their activities. With the sustainability reporting, businesses
demonstrate the environmental, economic and social impacts of their activities. Sustainability accounting
and reporting are the culmination of accounting (Özsözgün Çalışkan, 2012). The reason is that it
conceptually emphasizes accounting for the ecosystem and society, and that it also takes care of more
traditional issues such as eco-justice and efficiency and proactivity (Schaltegger et all, 2006). Hotel
businesses also use changing reporting techniques. Due to the changing tourist profiles and the increase
in conscious consumers, hotel businesses share their sustainability reports to their consumers and
information providers as well as financial reports. Sustainability reports should include economic
information as well. The financial reports and consumption data of the business are effective in obtaining
the economic data. In this context aim of the study determine how to calculate the cost items used in
corporate sustainability reporting, how to use the cost management techniques in the calculation and
how to show the costs of the report.
Methodology
In this study, document analysis was conducted to determine how cost items used in sustainability
reporting are calculated, how cost management techniques are used in calculation, and how costs are
shown in the report. The sustainability report, financial reports and quality control reports obtained from
a hotel business were examined in detail. Variance analysis was performed on the data obtained from
the reports. Standard costs contribute to the company's expectations. Variances help managers in
planning and control decisions. This analysis enables managers to focus more on situations that occur
outside expectations (such as the sale of a service pack below expectations). Since flexible budgets are
arranged for different operating volumes, it allows comparison of budget figures and realized cost figures
for the volume of activity. Thus, if there are deviations between the results and budgeted results,
corrective measures can be taken by examining these deviations and causes. This process is called
“variance analysis”. Variance analysis; the amount of the deviation, the source of the deviation and the
reasons of deviation are made to reveal (Akdoğan, 1995). Variances are generally used in performance
evaluation. (Horngren, 2009: 216). A benefit of deviation analysis is that it highlights individual aspects of
performance. However, if any performance measure (for example, a labour productivity deviation or a
consumer rating report) is considered on its own, this may cause performance to appear in a particular
direction.
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In the study, the real data of a five-star hotel was utilized in order to examine the budget, standard cost
and achievement measurement dimension of hotel businesses. The data used in the study were prepared
at the beginning of the relevant month by the Central Bank of Turkey, US Dollar sales rate and the missing
data were estimated. In order to facilitate the clarity of the study, only electricity costs were taken from
the cost items and the focus was on June and August.
Findings
The occupancy status of the hotel between the periods 2015-2017 is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Realized Accommodation and Full Number of Rooms: 2015-2017
Number of Person Occupied (Person) Number of Room occupied (Room)
Year
2015 2016 2017 2015 2016 2017
Month
March 72 280 310 32 110 120
April 5,016 1,958 2,405 2,181 819 1,018
May 17,309 18,789 21,106 5,958 6,774 7,705
June 37,270 29,037 56,679 11,444 9,430 17,909
July 61,356 49,626 59,999 17,981 1,739 18,096
August 60,641 47,865 58,349 18,026 15,417 18,198
September 42,225 31,843 47,980 14,680 11,060 17,354
The data of the hotel covers the seven-month period of three years. The hotel follows the data in Turkish
Lira. The hotel compiles the consumption and cost data set to prepare sustainability reporting. The hotel
prepares sustainability and quality reporting by focusing on eight cost items.
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Table 2. Estimated Electricity Consumption (kWh)
Electricity Fixed Average Average

Estimated Consumption Consumption Amount Performance Performance
(kWh) (kWh) (kWh/Room) (kWh/Person)
Year
2015 2016 2017 2015 2016 2017 2015 2016 2017 2015 2016 2017
Month
March 77. 74. 72. 34. 29. 27.
206,473 97,144 100,264 204,000 89,000 91,600
3 0 2 3 1 9
April 88. 93. 78. 38. 38. 33.
518,861 190,256 326,000 114,000 232,000
312,180 4 1 8 4 9 3
May 31. 30. 30. 10. 11. 11.
704,904 644,074 520,000 435,000 493,500
726,128 0 9 2 7 1 0
June 1,096,41 31. 30. 30. 10.
954,497 874,833 600,000 583,000 555,000 9.5 9.6
7 0 9 2 1
July 1,317,76 1,289,26 1,380,81 31. 30. 30.
760,000 803,000 834,000 9.1 9.8 9.1
5 3 5 0 9 2
August 1,397,63 1,328,18 1,349,77 31. 30. 30.
838,000 852,000 800,000 9.2 9.9 9.4
6 8 7 0 9 2
Septembe 1,186,39 1,007.90 31. 30. 30. 10. 10. 10.
981,060 732,000 666,000 457,000
r 1 8 0 9 2 8 7 9
Grand 6,286,52 5,431,66 5,946,64 3,980,00 3.542.00 3.463.10
Total 7 6 1 0 0 0
Depending on the demand, the entity expects production inputs to be calculated at the beginning of the
period on both quantity and cost basis. The electricity input of the business taken as an example and the
electricity consumption estimates for 2015, 2016 and 2017 are shown in Table 2 on kilowatt-hour (kWh)
basis. Even when there are no customers, hotels must face some costs. In the season opening of the
properties, the hotel has to face many fixed costs in order to provide the desired quality service to the
customers. For example, garden and hotel lighting costs are not directly related to whether or not the
customer is available. If the hotel operates at a capacity of 10%, it should face the cost if it carries out its
activities with 100% capacity. However, fixed costs remain constant over a certain range of activities. This
is shown in Table 2. Fixed costs have a significant effect on the profitability of the business. In order to
achieve profit targets, enterprises must meet their fixed costs.
Activities to ensure customer satisfaction are generally associated with variable costs. In order to
calculate the average room and person performance in Table 2, total variable consumption must be
calculated at first. For this calculation, total consumption is determined by subtracting the constant
consumption from the total consumption in Table 2. After estimating the amount values of the
sustainability report, cost data is prepared based on these amounts. Estimated and actual electricity fixed
and total costs for the hotel are given in Table 3. If the fixed costs are deducted from the total costs, the
result is accepted as total variable cost.
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Table 3. Estimated and Actual Electricity Costs
Estimated Actual
Electricity: ($) 2015 2016 2017 2015 2016 2017
June 96,491 84,522 97,788 96,520 84,522 98,154
Total Cost
August 142,771 126,550 119,512 142,748 126,550 119,335
June 60,654 56,326 49,500 59,846 56,423 50,035

Total Fixed Cost
August 85,603 81,179 70,833 84,377 81,303 70,833
June 3.13 2.99 2.70 3.20 2.98 2.69

Cost per Room ($/room)
August 3.17 2.94 2.68 3.24 2.93 2.67
June 0.96 0.97 0.85 0.98 0.97 0.85

Cost per Person ($/person)
August 0,94 0,95 0,83 0.96 0.95 0.83
Costs incurred and recognized when carrying out their operations are referred to as actual costs. Actual
costs are costs that can be proven by a document. For example, the hotel's electricity consumption and
costs are the result of a bill generated after use. The bill is a proof document. Accounting records are
made based on the bill information and can be used as accounting data. Table 4 shows the average
performance per room and per person on electricity consumption and consumption levels between 2015-
2017. Actual electricity cost data and cost-based room and average performance per person are given in
Table 3.
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Table 4. Actual Electricity Consumption and Performances
Electricity Fixed Average Average
Actual Consumption (kWh) Consumption Performance Performance
Amount (kWh) (kWh/Room) (kWh/Person)
Year
2015 2016 2017 2015 2016 2017 2015 2016 2017 2015 2016 2017
Month
March 77. 83. 70. 34. 32. 27.
202,773 91,204 112,384 200,300 82,000 103,900
3 7 7 3 9 4
April 91. 93. 68. 39. 39. 28.
522,510 195,306 313,324 324,000 119,000 244,000
0 2 1 6 0 8
May 31. 30. 30. 10. 11. 11.
703,934 652,084 726,837 515,000 443,500 495,000
7 8 1 9 1 0
June 1,100,51 31. 30. 30. 10.
954,790 874,833 592,000 584,000 561,000 9.7 9.5
9 7 8 1 0
July 1,319,31 1,298,26 1,382,79 31. 30. 30.
750,000 813,500 838,100 9.3 9.8 9.1
4 3 0 7 8 1
August 1,397,40 1,328,18 1,347,77 31. 30. 30.
826,000 853,300 800,000 9.4 9.9 9.4
9 8 9 7 8 1
Septembe 1,184,39 1,007,90 31. 30. 30. 11. 10. 10.
975,090 719,000 667,200 452,000
r 1 8 7 8 1 0 7 9
Grand 6,285,12 5,447,78 5,958,72 3,926,30 3,562,50 3,494,00
Total 1 6 3 0 0 0
Variance analysis and Performance Measurement

In the study, deviation analysis for the hotel is presented with both consumption and cost dimensions. In
addition, performance deviation can be calculated on room and person basis depending on electricity
consumption. In Table 9, both the total consumption deviation of the hotel and the average performance
deviation are given. The total consumption deviation is calculated from the estimated consumption
values in Table 2 (e.g. 954,497 kWh for June 2015) by subtracting the actual consumption values in Table
4 (e.g. 954,790 kWh for June 2015) (e.g. -293 kWh for June 2015). Performance deviations are calculated
in the same way.
Table 5. Consumption Variance Analysis

Total Consumption Average Performance Average Performance
Deviation (kWh) Deviation (kWh/room) Deviation (kWh/person)
Year Month 2015 2016 2017 2015 2016 2017 2015 2016 2017
March +3,700 +5,940 -12,120 0.00 -9.64 +1.50 0.00 -3.79 +0.58
April -3,649 -5,050 -1,144 -2.59 -0.06 +10.66 -1.13 -0.03 +4.51
May +970 -8,010 -709 -0.68 +0.07 +0.10 -0.23 +0.03 +0.04
June -293 0 -4,102 -0.72 +0.11 +0.11 -0.22 +0.03 +0.03
July -1,549 -9,000 -1,975 -0.64 +0.10 +0.12 -0.19 +0.03 +0.04
August +227 0 +1.998 -0.65 +0.08 +0.11 -0.19 +0.03 +0.03
September +2,000 0 +5,970 -0.75 +0.11 +0.06 -0.26 +0.04 +0.02
Grand Total +1,406 -16,120 -12,082 -6.04 -9.23 +12.66 -2.22 -3.66 +5.26
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These deviations are examined; while the total deviation of consumption is 1,406 kWh in 2015, it can be
concluded that in 2016 and 2017, electricity consumption is higher than the estimates, or that there is no
accurate estimation. However, when electricity consumption in rooms and persons is examined, it is
determined that 2017 is a more successful year than in other years.
The negative deviation that started in 2015 continued in March and April 2016 as well. The main reason
for the negative performance of kwh / room and kwh / person in 2016 is the negative deviation in March
2016. 2017 is a more successful year than the other years. It is seen that the main reason for the
significant increase in kwh / room performance in 2017 was due to April. It was concluded that the size
of the positive deviation in April was due to the shortage in the number of full rooms realized rather than
consumption.
Table 6. Cost Variance Analysis
Cost Deviation per Cost Deviation per

Total Cost Deviation ($)
Room ($/Oda) Person ($/kişi)
Year Month 2015 2016 2017 2015 2016 2017 2015 2016 2017
March +413.0 +608.0 -937.0 0.000 -0.986 +0.116 0.000 -0.387 +0.045
April -392.5 -511.5 -89.6 -0.279 -0.006 +0.835 -0.121 -0.003 -0.354
May +103.6 -779.5 -57.5 -0.072 +0.007 +0.008 -0.025 +0.003 +0.003
June -29.6 0.0 -365.9 -0.073 +0.010 +0.009 -0.022 +0.003 +0.003
July -169.9 -877.6 -173.3 -0.070 +0.009 +0.010 -0.021 +0.003 +0.003
August +23.2 0.0 +176.9 -0.067 +0.008 +0.010 -0.020 +0.003 +0.003
September +190.1 0.0 +544.6 -0.071 +0.010 +0.005 -0.025 +0.004 +0.002
Grand Total +137.9 -1,560.6 -901.8 -0.632 -0.948 +0.994 -0.234 -0.375 +0.413
Electricity cost deviation analysis for the hotel in general is shown in Table 6. When the total cost
deviations are examined in Table 6; It is observed that the deviations in the March and April months of
the tourism period started to affect the overall total. It is understood that the hotel has not been able to
determine the electricity consumption and costs in the correct periods or to make accurate predictions
about these periods. When Table 5 is compared with Table 6, it is seen that positive and negative
deviations are similar.
Conclusion
When the sustainability reports of hotels in Turkey are examined, it is observed that they declined to give
information about the environmental cost of their reports. In addition to this, the percentage or the
amount of change in the environmental elements is included in the years. In order for the sustainability
reports of the hotels to reach the required value, information on cost and performance values should be
included and even integrated reports should be prepared.
In the study, when the deviations in the hotel are investigated, it is observed that the deviations are
similar (positive / negative) in months. Similarly, consumption and cost deviations are similar in years. In
addition, when the cost-based performance results are analysed, it is seen that there has been an
improvement from 2015 to 2017.
Supporting the deviations of the hotel in general will help the managers to make more meaningful
decisions. When the deviation of the segmental consumption in August 2017 is examined, it is observed
that the hotel management takes measures in the kitchen and technical service departments. However,
in August 2017, a negative deviation of 8.289 kWh in the human resources department unexpectedly
revealed that the positive deviation hampered the growth. Costs are created in the cost centres of the
486
enterprise. Considering the cost controls separately from the cost centres of the enterprise, analysing the
whole enterprise based on the whole, eliminates the significance of the cost control. The fact that the
cost centre managers are not responsible for the costs they will use means that they are removed from
the targets of the enterprise. Uncontrolled costs also lead to uncontrolled managers. Concealed costs
and concealed administrator failures are spread over the entire cost centre of the enterprise. This leads
to the loss of the meaning of the planning, budget and control process, and the inefficient time and cost
increase. Segment reporting enables the management of the causes of a negative deviation to be
investigated quickly by the management and the necessary measures are taken urgently and the
necessary reward, incentive and plan update of the department managers are provided.
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7631
EVALUATION OF CHEFS' DESIGN PROCESSES AND PRESENTATION
CRITERIA
Sema Ekincek
Research Assistant
Eskisehir, Turkey
Semra Günay Aktaş

Professor Doctor
Eskisehir, Turkey
Abstract
Gastronomy and culinary arts have become an area of prominence with food design, presentation and
aesthetics as well as food preparation and taste. In the study, it was aimed to show how the chefs create
their original ideas under artist and chef identities and how they evaluate the food presentations. The
study was based on qualitative research methods and conducted face-to-face interviews with expert
chefs in the field of gastronomy. In this context, semi-structured interview form was used in interviews
with eight chefs. In the analysis of the data obtained from the interviews, a descriptive analysis method
was used. In the result of the study, it has been revealed that the chefs were inspired by a certain
understanding of art, tried to form their own style, inspired from the previously seen or done dishes,
gothic and illusion styles, Turkish cuisine, nature, technology, artworks. In addition to this, the criteria
used by the chefs in evaluating the presentations in competitions were flavor, hygiene, compliance with
the category or concept, originality, consistency, material selection, use of techniques, use of sauce and
color harmony. In conclusion, it has been revealed that most of the chefs used many visual design
elements and principles.
Key words: Gastronomy, culinary arts, design process, presentation criteria, chefs.
Introduction
The word “gastronomy” was formed by merging the Greek words “gaster” (stomach) and “nomas” (law).
And also gastronomy is defined as the art or science of good eating.
“Culinary art” is a discipline that encompasses knowledge of food science, food preparation, nutrition,
cooking techniques, aesthetics, and cultures (Jeou-Shyan and Lee, 2007). Culinary artists should have
professional knowledge and skills as well as cultural and artistic training. However, creativity is really the
key ingredient in culinary art, and the most essential one in the project of upgrading the culinary
profession (Jeou-Shyan ve Lee, 2007: 5-6). Studies have shown that visual factors such as color and
balance in a plate can affect the perception and response of the person eating (Michel, Velasco, Gatti and
Spence, 2014).
Preparing food, cooking and presenting the delicacies of the food, but the aesthetic values that affect the
visual effects are actions. Academicians have begun to explore the meaning of this relationship by using
many approaches from anthropology to sociology to even visual art techniques (Piatti, 2014).
488
The relationship between food, art and design has gained importance with the realization of the aesthetic
and visual aspect in the food and the increase of the effort to express the beauty. When looking at the
food presentation from the frame of art, the plate serves as a canvas and the food becomes an integral
whole with its flavor and presentation (Deroy et al., 2014). Escoffier emphasized that cookery is an art
and that it will continue to be so that the kitchen can be divided into chapters and that fundamental
changes in the kitchen can be realized (Durand, Rao and Monin, 2007).
Chefs have a major role in making the kitchen associated with art and design. The chefs, who were trained
by their mentors in the past, focused on the skills and techniques lacking modern management and
innovation (Jeou-Shyan and Lee, 2007). For this reason, many of the chefs worked in small and medium-
sized enterprises at that time, and there were few chefs with a global perspective. However, in recent
years, the establishment of high-level institutes for cooking education has brought forward attitudes and
a global perspective, and as a result, chefs in culinary arts have become increasingly more creative
professionals (Jeou-Shyan and Lee, 2007). Preparing food, cooking and presenting the delicacies of the
food, but the aesthetic values that affect the visual effects are actions. For this reason, culinary artists
should have cultural and artistic education in addition to their professional knowledge and skills. When
the literature is examined, it is seen that there are some studies examining the relationship between food
and art (Quinet, 1981; Gazzoli, 1995; Telfer, 1996; Wood, 2000; Kuehn, 2005; Strycker, 2013; Piatti, 2014).
Due to the fact that cooking is considered only as a skill-focused discipline, it is seen that there are a
limited number of studies on the food design process. In this study focused the food design and
presentation criteria of the chefs. The study is important in terms of revealing the design process of the
conductors and the points they take into consideration when evaluating a presentation.
Methodology
The main purpose of this study is to determine chefs' creative desing process and presentation criteria
with the help of chefs' view. The study was based on qualitative research methods and conducted face-
to-face interviews with expert chefs in the field of gastronomy. In this context, semi-structured interview
form was used in interviews with eight chefs. In the interview form, chefs’ opinions have been received
on "process of food design" and "presentation criteria" in order to. The interviews were then deciphered
and different codes were assigned to each participant.
Qualitative research data collection techniques were utilized. In-depth interviews were conducted with
seven chefs through the semi-structured questionnaire. The interviews lasted for half an hour. Data were
analyzed by content analysis. The main process in content analysis is to bring the similar data together
within some certain concepts and themes and to organise and interpret them so that readers can
understand them (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2003). In order to ensure the reliability of the research, researcher
diversity, expert review and direct quotations from the text were used. In the quotations, respondents
were labeled as C1, C2, C3…C7 to ensure their anonymity.
Findings
1. Demographics data of the chefs
Demographic data of the chefs are shown in Table 1.
489
Table 1. Demographics of the chefs
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7
F M M F M M F
Gender
33 33 37 36 46 37 50
Age
İstanbul İstanbul Kuşadası İstanbul İstanbu İstanbul İstanbul

Home
l
city
Single Married Married Single Marrie Single Married

Marital
status
Undergra Undergra Undergra Undergraduat Master Undergrad Undergrad

Educati
duate duate duate e degree uate uate

on
Sugar Instructor Instructor Sugar paste Instruct Instructor Sugar paste

paste chef chef artist, or chef artist,
artist, Instructor chef Instructor
Area
Instructor chef chef

chef
A total of seven chefs were interviewed. While six of the participants live in Istanbul, a chef lives in
Kuşadası. It is seen that four of the chefs participating in the survey are women and three of them are
women. While three of the participants are single, four are married. It is seen that sixteen participants
are at the undergraduate level and one participant is at the master level level. Many of the participants
stated that they completed more than one undergraduate degree in order to improve themselves in
different fields at the undergraduate level. In addition, all of the attendants stated that they serve as
teachers as well as serve in the professional sense. Participants' ages ranged from 33 to 50 years.
All the chefs participating in the research represented our country in international competitions and won
many awards.Findings emerging from the opinions of the chefs on the design process, aesthetics and
presentation criteria were interpreted by making direct quotations from the participants' opinions under
the relevant theme headings. The questions used in the study were taken as a theme. These themes are;
design process and chef’s criterias for presentation.
2. Design process of the chefs

When they were asked about the elements they were influenced by the design during the design phase,
C1 answered:
“…I am very impressed by the Gothic style, from illusion and humor“. For example, there may be rebellion.
The things that stick to the general perceptions of society. I actually want people to see my character
when they look at my business. But of course you can't do this to any order from the customer, but you
can do it in the cooking competition.”
C2 stated the elements that were influenced in designing their designs as follows:
”The thing that feeds me the most is the dishes I've seen before and the plates I've made before.“
490
C3 affected by nature in the design process has stated:
“Everything in the nature. There's no other explanation for that. Don't we all do that? It's like a tree
branch. We're pouring the sauce with the back of the spoon. We are inspired by nature, we are not doing
anything else. All of our age cakes are round now we've just started to do it in other ways. We take our
designs from nature.”
On the other hand C4 indicates that she works more gothic and follows art in her works:
My head is working a little differently. I grew up in a family of artists and I was always intertwined with
art. That was an advantage for me. My work is a little wild and gothic. My outward appearance certainly
does not reflect this. Those who see my work are surprised and ask where do you find them? I'm telling,
I've expressed these feelings inside of me that I have nothing about it. I usually deal with fantastic things,
computer games, flying people, things with special powers, stories, fairy tales or something. We need to
follow the world in our business, not just chefs or people in our industry. I, for example, follow the
sculptors, follow the painters, I'm inspired by them. One needs to know himself, what he likes, and what
he can do.”
C5 emphasizes the need to read and investigate a lot while shaping the design process:
“I read a lot, I can say that. I mean, I'm getting too many books. Both in terms of design and to make a
prescription. Because what you've done is going on in a very short time. After transferring the information
to the students, they assimilate it very quickly. you do the same thing every year, you leave yourself on
the same level and you can not give the student something new. In order to overcome this I read a lot of
research. I had the opportunity to study molecular gastronomy at the master's level. Maybe there are a
story 15 years for European, but it's new to Turkey. There is a high demand for it now.”
Finally, in the design of C6, he expressed what fed him:
“Life, technology, environment, success, success stories. Many things are life itself.”
C7 explained with the following statements that we should strengthen the visual memory by emphasizing
the importance of nature:
“Once visual memory is very important. For example, I'm working on the flower. I take a picture of flowers.
I think how I can paint. I'm taking flowers home, I'm looking at how many sheets there are and examining
their colors. I take a lot of photos. I've got a live flower sample. There are hundreds of thousands of
examples on the Internet, good or bad. Even from the worst, you can get something to inspire. So you
have to watch and follow a lot. Visual memory needs to be strengthened. I think the artist's biggest thing
is its visual memory. Need to develop absolutely.”
3. Presentation evaluation criteria of chefs

When evaluating a presentation in a food / pastry contest, the students were asked about the criteria
they were considering and their answers are given below:
C1 is based on certain rules:
“We are bound to them by the rules given by the International Chefs Association in the Competitions.
There were more categories in live competitions and 4 of them were in visual arts. Cleaning of
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workmanship, hygiene, category compatibility, application, authenticity. In the category of flavor, there
is more to enter. Likewise, compliance with the category, preparation, hygiene in the interior, preparation
of the materials used, presentation, everything enters into the work. It's more because we're also taste it.
And in the live competition, you have to taste it right away. Whether they fit the menu, preparing the
menu, whether it's already prepared or not, because they're very important.”
C2 uses the following statements when specifying the criteria he considers when evaluating a
presentation:
“Consistency first of all. Tissue consistency and balance, flavor consistency and balance, texture
consistency and balance. What do I mean? If you don't want to force the borders on a plate, you don't
make a main meal plate that you create from all the crunch things. There must be an element of crustiness
there. Isn't it very empty on a plate that you create entirely from sauces? Interesting, it seems like you're
eating paint, but it doesn't create the satisfaction of eating. So what is it that we want to reach? In which
context is the goal desired? So what is the concept? Is it a starter plate, a main dinner plate or a dessert
plate?”
C3 states that the evaluation criteria are addressed in two different ways:
“First of all, we have the criteria to pay attention when cooking the food. We look at cleaning, selection
of materials and how it works. In the presentation, we look at the originality, the techniques used, the
taste and the appearance. We look at everything.”
C4 says he considers different criteria as pastry and cooking competitions:
“At least three techniques must be used. It's not gonna be fingerprints, it's gonna be clean. In a day, it will
not have given him time. After that, he needs to know the color harmony, he needs to know the anatomy
very well. If he's going to make a human figure or an animal figure, he should definitely know the anatomy.
These are all things we know. It also has to be based on a theme. It must be an original idea, so it must
be based on an original foundation, not a imitation of something. These should be paid attention in the
presentations. When tasting, the taste, the heat of the dish and the cooking properties are very important.
Is the preliminary preparation sufficient? Have you been paid attention to hygiene and sanitation? These
are all very important criteria in cooking competitions.”
C5 states that he has paid attention to the degree of cooking, the suitability of the material used and
color harmony:
“The presentation, of course, is related to food. For example, be care not to cut the béchamel sauce. If
something is macaroni, I care that the pasta is cooked in al dente setting. In other words, it is a situation
that changes according to which food is made. If the soup was made I would pay attention to the density
of the soup or I would look at the density of the amount of sauce or the amount of flavor in it. I've been
looking at her if she's used broth or chicken broth. There is a lot of difference between making soup with
normal water and making it with meat or chicken. It takes you three hours to make one, and another half
an hour. I mean, I'm looking if he makes a great effort or not. I'il check the color harmony. For instance by
dividing the plate into four, did the person who present pay attention to the color harmony? Did he take
care of the cut? Is cooking tecnic done right? These are the features that usually arise. You look at them,
but color matching is very important. In other words, did he used colors that match each other, or colors
that contrast to each other? Color harmony is very important.”
492
C6 says he cares about new ideas:
“I think the originality that one wants to reveal is more important than anything else. So for the moment
it may not hold very good flavor. But if he puts a unique idea there, he will do it someday. If he couldn't
do that day, then he'll do it one day. The original way of thinking is very important to me. So maybe a
good taste may not be at that moment. But the idea is very important. The exit point is very important
because it will determine your branding and those ideas that are not ordinary or ordinary in the future."
C7 states that there are criteria such as technique, color, taste, hygiene, proposition, etc.:
“It is very important for me to use the right technique when doing a job. Because our job is a little
technical. If you do the job according to the technique is more smooth work. Then the color harmony is
important to me. 50% of the visuality in my opinion to play with color. If you do not use the colors properly,
even if the technique is correct, the work never shows itself. If you think artfully, color transitions and light
are important. Also the flavor is very important. For example, we received Wax's jury training. If you are
a cooking competition, you need to look at the techniques and hygiene of the chefs. Chefs have beard and
mustache lately. I think there shouldn't be. In addition to this, it is very important whether the food is
brought to the place in the appropriate cold chain. In pastry competitions, we do it visually, but there are
a lot of criteria in the edible part of its very detail, of course we have to look at the details. Now the first
is that when you bring it from the kitchen to the presentation table, the holding area should not be full.
We're putting more minimized things in it, not fusion cuisine. You will leave the area where the finger is
blank, once it is one of these rules. Proportion is important. When you look at the plate is important in the
proporsion. How much of the plate has been empty, how much has filled out and has he made original
design? Taste is important.”
Conclusion
The aim of this study was to investigate the factors that the chefs were affected during the design stages
and the criteria they used to evaluate the presentations. In designing the chefs' own business and food
presentations; they were inspired by a certain understanding of art, tried to form their own style, inspired
from the previously seen or done dishes, gothic and illusion styles and quoted from Turkish cuisine,
nature and artworks. In addition, the chefs emphasized that it is very important to develop the visual
memory by examining everything in the nature and the environment. Chefs stated that they followed the
works of art, studied and researched a lot, and they created their designs by being influenced by
technology and life. Parallel to the results of this study Ottenbacher and Harrington (2007) pointed out
that the sources of inspiration of the Michelin-starred chefs were: visiting a colleague’s restaurant,
reading cooking literature, new cooking technology, visiting food markets, cooking shows, traveling
abroad, experiences from previous employers and ideas from customers.
The criteria used by the chefs in evaluating the presentations in competitions; flavor, hygiene, compliance
with the category, originality, consistency (texture consistency and balance, flavor consistency and
balance, visual consistency and balance), material selection, theme selection, technical use, sauce use,
degree of cooking, use of space and color harmony has been seen. Consequently, it was seen that most
of the chefs used many design elements such as composition, color, texture, visual integrity, line, shape,
shape and form used in the design process. Also Dahl (2009) emphasized the importance of visual
presentation “The taste sense is evoked by the five flavours (sweet, salt, sour, bitter and umami) and
finally the visual is stimulated through presentation and composition of colour and aesthetics”. When we
look at the literature on design process, it is seen that principles such as direction, space, balance,
proportion, hierarchy, emphasis, continuity and integrity are mentioned. However it was seen that the
chefs only addressed the principles of space and balance.
493
As a result of this study, by contributing to the literature related to the field, it has contributed to increase
the awareness of the chefs in the design process. In addition, it is thought that the study will shed light
on the preparation process for the design and cooking competitions of the future chefs. The only
limitation of the study is that the chefs interviewed within the scope of the study are only sugar paste
artist and instructor chef. In the further studies, a larger sample can be provided by including vegetable
carving, ice sculpture, hotel kitchen and independent restaurant chefs.
References
Deroy, O., Michel, C., Piqueras-Fiszman, B. & Spence, C. (2014). The plating manifesto (I): from decoration
to creation. Flavour, 3(1), 6.
Durand, R., Rao, H., & Monin, P. (2007). Code and conduct in french cuisine: Impact of code changes on
external evaluations, Strategic Management Journal, 28(5), 455-472.
Gazzoli, J. J. (1995). The recipe for "three star" management success. Trusts And Estates-Atlanta, 134, 8-
15.
Jeou-Shyan & Lee, H. Y. C. (2007). What does it take to be a creative culinary artist? Journal of Culinary
Science & Technology, 5(2-3), 5-22.
Kuehn, G. (2005). How can food be art? A. Light (Ed.), In The aesthetics of everyday life (194-213). New
York: Columbia Press.
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/anadolu/detail.action?docID=895209 Retrivied date:
15.06.2017
Michel, C., Velasco, C., Gatti, E. & Spence, C. (2014). A taste of Kandinsky: Assessing the influence of the
artistic visual presentation of food on the dining experience. Flavour, 3(1), 7.
Piatti, C. (2014). Art and haute cuisine: A contribution. In Art and Food. (P. Stupples, Ed.) Newcastle-upon-
Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Quinet, M. L. (1981). Food as art: The problem of function. The British Journal of Aesthetics, 21(2), 159.
Strycker, J. (2013). From palate to palette: Can food be art? http://createquity.com/2013/01/from-
palate-topalette-can-food-be-art/ Retrivied date: 10.07.2017
Telfer, E. (1996). Food as art. In Food for thought: Philosophy and food (41-61). London: Routledge.
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/anadolu/reader.action?docID=168836&ppg=8 Retrivied
date: 04.07.2017.
Wood, R. C. (2000). Is food an art form? Pretentiousness and pomposity in cookery wood. In Strategic
Questions in Food and Beverage Management. (R. C. Wood, Ed.) Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann, 153-171.
Yildirim A. & Simsek H. (2003). Qualitative Research Techniques in Social Sciences. Ankara: Seçkin
Publications.
Biographical Notes
Semra Günay Aktaş is a Professor in the Department of Tourism Management, Anadolu University,
Eskisehir, Turkey where she teaches courses on tourism development and tourism geography. Her
research focuses on Geography, Tourism Geography, Geographic Information Systems.
494
7636
THE POSITIVE EFFECTS OF TOURISM WITH HORSE RIDING ON
HUMAN HEALTH
Cafer Yıldırım
Lecturer
Program of Equine Studies, Eskişehir Osmangazi University
Eskişehir, Turkey
y.cafer@gmail.com
Abstract
Horses bring many benefits to the lives of those around them. They are both beautiful to watch and of
significant impact to the lives of many. They are a fun, enjoyable, different alternative to the ordinary
tourism style for those who need more physical activity in their lives. They are a morale booster, a
friend, and a teacher for those who are depressed, stressed, or lonely. Just because we no longer
depend on them as a means to an end, does not mean their meaning in our life has ended. Horses still
have an important health-related role to play in our everyday lives. People with physical disabilities
can benefit from riding as a low- impact sport that is gentler on their joints and offers an enjoyable
alternative to physical therapy in a Tourism. There are many different types of riding, so everyone can
find the one that suits them. The aim of this research is to analyze the contribution of horse riding
tourism to community health. According to searching of databases; Most of the studies in this area
have shown the benefit of horse riding on improving heart health, lowering stress, and having a positive
impact on depression. Many differently abled children, such as those coping with Autism, have also
benefitted from working with horses. There are schools that take children in and teach them how to
care for and ride horses, teaching them patience and responsibility, and lowering behavioral problems.
New programs using horses to treat those suffering from PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome),
including soldiers returning from deployment, have shown great success. According to the results of
studies; recreational horse riding seems to have contribution to tourism with possitive impacts on
health.
Keywords: Human, Health, Tourism, Horse
Introduction
Horse assisted therapy has favourable effects as sensory connection, communication connection, and
neuroconnection [Meregillano G.(2004), Shurtleff TL,( 2010) Shurtleff TL(2009), Zadnikar M, (2011),
Rigby BR, (2016)] on different domains as physical, social, cognitive, psychologic fields, learning, and
adaptive behaviours. Horse assisted therapy is the most important method in recent years as one of
the new way for recovery. Sustainable horse industry has been develop the industry’s contribution to
the health, cultural, social, educational and sporting life of the nations. Mainly due to the benefits that
are being screened by scientific works. Horse species has a high economic potential, mainly due to the
use of health and tourism. According to recent studies; horse assisted therapy has been succesfull for
recovery of the physical, social, and sensory functions. As an ocupational therapy; Movements of the
horse are utilized with the intention to improve motor control, coordination, balance, attention,
sensory processes, and performance in daily activities. Sensory processes, vestibular, proprioceptive,
tactile, visual, and auditory systems are targeted simultaneously [Komppula, R. (2006), Debuse D,
Chandler C, Gibb C(2005)]. As a physical therapy; Multidirectional movements of the horse are utilized
in gait training, balance, postural control, strengthening, and increasing range of motion. In many
studies, improvements in gross motor skills, and functional activities have been reported in disabled
children [Silkwood-Sherer DJ, (2012), Debuse D(2005), Meregillano G. (2004), Snider L, (2007), Zadnikar
495
M, (2011)]. As speech and language therapy; Also targets improvements in speech, language, cognitive,
and masticatory functions [Silkwood-Sherer DJ, (2012), Debuse D(2005), Meregillano G. (2004)].
Scientific clinical studies; Horse assisted therapy provides sensory feedback by utilizing movements of
the horse, this impact would be important for neurological conditions. Horse assisted therapy with MS
patients can improve postural balance, and gait. The authors concluded that horse asissted therapy
can improve static balance, and gait in elder population [Kim SG, (2014)]. Horse assisted therapy can
be one of the complementary treatment strategies in autistic children. [Ajzenman HF, (2013)] In
children with cerebral palsy (SP) exercise-based therapies aimed at improving postural control have
been used more frequently during the last decade [Snider L, (2007), Zadnikar M, (2011)]. In many
studies, the authors have concluded that Horse assisted therapy improved balance and postural
control. [Park ES, (2014)] We can say that hippotherapy exerts favourable effects on gross motor
functions, and postural balance of children with SP at various functional levels [Park ES, (2014), Kwon
JY, (2015), Benda W, (2003)]
In recent years, in pediatric, and adolescent psychiatry horse or pony-assisted therapy has been an
interesting phenomenon which is also encouraged by health professionals [Masini A. (2010), Quint C,
(1998)] investigated the effectiveness of Horse assisted therapy in two young women (18, and 21 years
of age, respectively) who were exposed to sexual assault during childhood [Guerino MR, (2015)]. They
observed serious motor limitation, coordination disorders, conspicuous muscle spasms, and postural
disorders as thoracic, and cervical kyphosis, and cervical protrusion in these girls. These two patients
had undergone 20 sessions of hippotherapy each lasting for 30 minutes. At the end of the therapy, they
observed improvements in the posture (30%), coordination (80%), body balance, sociality, and self-
confidence (50%) at indicated rates.
Horse Raising and Market Value

There are two main markets in horse economy as an International and Domestic Horse raising. All over
the World Types of horse tourism are Trekking, Training and Cultural. Besides,
Non of the involve riding; In France and Spain, religious festivals which feature horses and ‘Horse
Festivals’ themselves attract a large audience. Travel of education and training is also overnight stay
tourism. Horse assisted therapy has been contribute tourism with the activities of Riding for the
Disabled, Purchasing horses, Shows/competitions, Native breeds.
All over the Europe ,Horses as known that used for Racing, Other major Equestrian Sports, Breeding
which supports this sector, Betting and the commercialisation of sport in the past.
But, last research Show that new horse sector has improved with Pleasure riding, Tourism, Urban
recuperation/encounters with ‘nature’/fitness and well-being, Equine-Horse Assisted Therapies,
Equine-Horse Assisted Education. According to number of Horses in Europe; 6 million plus horses
started to used for 12% Sport & professional competition and 70 – 80% used in leisure and recreation
by Higher educational levels users.
According to recent studies; A quarter of the businesses offer horse rental in the form of a short ride of
about an hour or two in length, and only 6% offer tours of 8–10 days. Riding tours of 2– 5 days are
offered by 14% of the businesses. When asked to identify the most profitable products about 70% of
the participants mentioned shorter tours. While they have a clear notion of what type of product is
profitable, the ownersand operators seemed to have some difficulty with the big picture of their
business. They had for instance trouble with identifying the assets of the business, several of them
mentioned that they found this difficult and many did not provide that information in the survey.
Their reasons were that they did not have readily availablevaluations of their assets and partly there is
a reticence regarding discussing the financial situation of the business.
496
Selection of the Therapy Horse for Tourism
All horse therapy centres had several horses of different size, which allows for choosing a horse
individually for a patient and visitors and enables conducting activities for different age groups. Also
their sex, age, breed and exterior parameters are concerned. The carried out observations confirm a
possibility of training gradually 4 years old horses to rehabilitation activities, i.e. the younger ones that
are recommended by the literature, provided that they have been thor-oughly evaluated in advance in
respect of their psychological features and skills. From among large horses, native half-bred breeds
(Wielkopolski horses) were most frequently used in horse assisted therapy, while native primitive
breeds – the Hutsul horses and the Polish Koniks – out of smaller breeds.
Relationship between Horse Therapy and Tourism

Percentage of participants who do no other sporting activity
According to; The first Active People Survey (Sport England 2007) also examined the other sports, if any,
in which people participated. As can be seen in Table 1 horse riding is distinctive as it is one of a number
of sports where a high proportion of those people participating (48 percent) take part in no other
sporting activity. Only bowls, angling and golf have higher percentages. This is an important feature of
horse riding since a high proportion of riders rely on horse riding for moderate intensity physical exercise
and unless they changed their exercise habits would be otherwise sedentary.
Benefits from Sustainable exercise with Horse riding

Existing scientific research into the health benefits of physical exercise often assesses the metabolic
process linked to exercise which involves the breaking down of substances in the body to create energy.
The resting metabolic rate in addition to the metabolic cost of different physical activities, such as
walking, running, working, and other sporting activities, is useful for assessing the energy expenditure of
an individual during a representative day (World Health Organisation, the Food and Agriculture
Organisation and the United Nations University (FAO/WHO/UNU) (1985). In 2004 the Department of
Health reported that 30 minutes of moderate intensity, physical activity for five or more days a week
should be recommended for promoting physical activity and the prevention of diseases associated with
inactivity (i.e. coronary heart disease, osteoporosis, hypertension, obesity and type II diabetes,
Department of Health, 2004). Besides, as a recrational activity horse riding is contribute to improve
learning for child and youth.
Qualitative findings; feelings, motivations and tour request
According to studies; A number of positive feelings were strongly associated with horse riding by
respondents. More than 90 percent of respondents reported that horse riding made them feel ‘quite a
lot’ or ‘extremely’ cheerful and the equivalent figure is in excess of 80 percent for feeling relaxed, happy
and active. Generally, negative feelings were not strongly associated with horse riding and more than
90 percent of respondents reported that when horse riding they experienced these negative feelings
either ‘a little’ or ‘not at all’. The positive and negative feelings associated with horse riding do not differ
markedly according to exercise frequency.’ The noticeable differences that can be identified are
intuitively correct since those who had taken part less than 12 times in the last four weeks had lower
percentages in the ‘quite a lot’ and ‘extremely’ categories for feeling active and energetic. While riders
who regularly participate less than 12 times over four weeks may not obtain significant physical health
benefits, they may still experience psychological benefits.
The results for respondents who participated in horse riding less than 12 times in the last four weeks
are presented. There is little marked difference between the rows, indicating that motivations for going
horse riding do not differ according to exercise frequency. However, there are marked differences in
the ratings given to certain ‘important’ and ‘very important’ ratings are combined. The motivation of
497
interacting with horses was rated by far the most important of all motivations and 82 percent of
respondents rated this motivation as either ‘very important’ or ‘extremely important’. No other
motivation has a percentage of more than 50 percent when the Other motivations involving interactions
with nature also receive high ratings compared to other motivations. Contact with nature and scenery
and views were motivations rated as ‘important’, ‘very important’ or ‘extremely important’ by more
than 80 percent of respondents. Certain personal development motivations including escape, develop
skills, challenge myself, experience excitement, physically active and to relax were rated relatively highly
compared to other motivations with in excess of 80 percent of respondents rating these as either
‘important’, ‘very important’ or ‘extremely important’. By contrast, relatively few respondents rated
weight loss or to improve fitness as ‘very important’ or ‘extremely important’ motivations for horse
riding.
Results
According to studies; When we compare with feelings we observed; %38,8 percentage positive, %1.02
percentage negative feelings. The motivation of interacting with horses was rated by far the most
important of all motivations and 82 percent of respondents rated this motivation as either ‘very
important’ or ‘extremely important’. A number of horse riding would be increase to following touristic
activities with horses. Just as; More than 12 times in the last 4 weeks in frequency of riding activity
changed from %49 to %51. Asked to rate different motivations for going horse riding 82 percent of
questionnaire respondents rated the motivation of ‘interaction with horses’ as either ‘very important’ or
‘extremely important’. More than 80 percent of questionnaire respondents rated the motivations
‘contact with nature’ and ‘scenery and views’ ‘important’, ‘very important’ or ‘extremely important’.
A number of positive feelings were strongly associated with horse riding by respondents. More than 90
percent of respondents reported that horse riding made them feel ‘quite a lot’ or ‘extremely’ cheerful
and the equivalent figure is in excess of 80 percent for feeling relaxed, happy and active. It is also
noteworthy that regular periods of trotting in a riding session may enhance the associated health
benefits. In addition, just over three quarters of respondents (78 percent) indicated that activities
associated with horse riding in the last four weeks, such as grooming and mucking out, involved at least
moderate intensity activity which may further enhance the health benefits that can be obtained through
involvement in riding. Importantly, the self reported measures of physical exercise intensity and
frequency indicate that 68 percent of questionnaire respondents are likely to be achieving physical
health benefits through riding and activities associated with horse riding as this involves them
undertaking moderate or high intensity physical exercise at least 12 times a month.
Current evidence also suggests that people with disabilities may receive some specific health benefits
from horse riding due to the nature of the physical activity involved (Crane, 1999; Bertoti, 1988; Kubota
et al, 2006; Bronson et al, 2010; Hosaka et al, 2010). There is also existing evidence that additional health
and well-being benefits can occur through forms of exercise, such as horse riding, that involve outdoor
natural environments, contact with nature and interaction with animals.
The research presented in this report was designed to explore not only the physical health benefits of
riding but also the related mental health and social benefits. The research methods used were designed
to explore the key issues of exercise intensity and frequency that influence the physical health benefits
arising from exercise. In particular, the study aimed to assess using a variety of methods if recreational
horse riding can be classified as a moderate intensity exercise and to examine the frequency with which
individuals take part in horse riding and activities associated with horse riding such as mucking out and
grooming.
498
Conclusion
The psychological and social benefits of horse riding tourism actitivities. Horse riding stimulates mainly
positive psychological feelings. Horse riders are strongly motivated to take part in riding by the sense of
well-being they gain from interacting with horses. This important positive psychological interaction with
an animal occurs in a very few sports. Being outdoors and in contact with nature are important
motivations for the vast majority of horse riders. The present body of literature provides evidence that
horse-assisted activities and therapies are an effective means of improving many measures of physical
health. 6 million plus horses have participated from 2001 to 2009 in Europe by tourism sector 70 – 80%
used in leisure and recreation. So, We suggest that tourism with horse riding would be positive effects
on human health like feelings, motivations, learning, motor functions and demanding of tourism
activities with horses.
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IMPACT OF TRADITIONAL EQUITATION SHOWS TO TOURISM

WORLD WIDE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR UTILISING EQUESTRIAN
TOURISM IN TURKISH TOURISM SECTOR
M. Tekin Koçkar
Lecturer
Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversity,
Mahmudiye Equestrian College
mtkockar@gmail.com
Hakan Çalışkan
Ass. Prof,
hakan1923@gmail.com
Ali Ekber Ün
Lecturer
Cafer Yıldırım
Lecturer Dr.
y.cafer@gmail.com
Merve Ünlüoğlu
Lecturer
Abstract
Horse and horse based activities are seen as a major income in many countries around the world within
the tourism sector. Especially traditional practices have a great contribution to the sector. These
practices can be classified as Horse festivals, Horse Riding Schools, Traditional Horse Riding Shows and
Equestrian Circuses. We can see that, these practices are not being executed in Turkey as a touristic
income yet. As a country which has a thousands of years of equestrian culture, Turkey’s past
experiences and traditional practices in this area, should be brought in to the tourism sector swiftly. In
this study, regarding to the classification above, World Wide applications will be mentioned and some
applications that can be utilised in Turkey will be suggested. Samples for these applications are
attached to this study via QR Code’s.
Keywords: Equestrian Tourism, Traditional Equitation, Equestrian, Horse Shows
Introduction
The first known union of horse and men is occurred around 3500 B.C, at Akmola Region, "Botai"
cultural site, where it lays north of today's Kazakhstan. People of Botai both used the horse for riding,
and nurtured for its meat and milk. With the domestication of horses, transportation, communication
and warfare have changed completely (Outram and the others, 2009: 1332).
Organic residue and fatty acid analyses, which are carried out by the Kazakh archaeologist Viktor
Zaibert Fedorovic (Зайберт Виктор Федорович) in the Botai Cultural Site in 1980 provided evidence
that the milk of the horses was used. In the settlement on the region, controlling the packs of horses
over time and nurturing them, which are domesticated during the 4th and 3rd millenniums (B.C),
occurred. Thus, the first step of the equestrian steppe civilization was taken (Zaibert, 2009: 222;
Zaibert, 2014).
The horse allowed the people living in the small residential areas to move in bigger crowds and go
farther. Starting from the 3rd millennium, these cronies spread to Asia from the Botay region of
Kazakhstan to search for new grasslands. In the 2nd millennium (B.C), it extends to China in the east, to
the eastern European steppes in the west, to Asia Minor and Mesopotamia. It causes the formation of
great civilizations in these regions.
The horse was nurtured as breeding (tabun) in endless steppes and grazing pastures in Asian nomadic
culture, and used for meat, milk, as well as for cargo handling, cargo haulage and passenger use. In the
Scythian, Assyrian, Hittite, Phrygian, Egyptian, Greek and Roman civilizations, horse was used as the
most important conquest and war tool.
However, in the Egyptian, Hittite, Assyrian, Greek and Roman civilizations, which had established
civilizations outside the nomadic warrior Scythians, horses were evaluated in a very different way from
the nomadic culture of Asian peoples. The value of the horse was very high due to its rarity. Only nobles
and soldiers were able to get a hold on a horse.
With the introduction of horses by Scythians between the 8th and 7th centuries (BC), horse riding was
developed by the Ancient Greeks and became a state of art. The historian Xenophon (430-354 BC) gave
important information on horseback riding and the art of war in his book "Hipparchikos
(Horsemanship)". Xenophon provides information on horse and rider education, and describes in detail
how to use ateliers in the education of children and young people (Morgan, 1893: 13-46).
Greeks riding training (Morgan, 1893: 65)
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In the historical process, the permanent relationship between horses and man dating back to 6000
years, made important contributions to the development of nutrition at first, then agriculture,
commerce, transportation, war, sports and recently also the development of therapies during the rapid
expansion of human civilization.
Horses are used for many physical and physiological treatments including PTSD, (Posttraumatic stress
disorder, adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity, depression) and anxiety, autism and Down's syndrome.
They have the ability to reflect emotions and help individuals understand their feelings without fear of
being judged. With horses, patients with physical anxiety can gain confidence, better motor skills,
muscle tone, balance, freedom and friendship.
The Introduction of Horses with Rituals, Traditional Ceremonies and Shows

In Great Chine Empire, which was found in the 1st millennium B.C., in the era of Zhou, Qin and Tang
Dynasties, in the shows that were performed in front of the Emperor, the dances with horses and
horses dancing synchronized with the music are mentioned.
Xuanzong once ordered that a hundred horses be trained to dance. They were divided into a
right and a left company and given names like Emperor’s Favorite or Pride of the Household.
From time to time fine horses were received as tribute from foreign states, and the emperor
had these trained as well. Every one of them mastered the most marvelous skills. By imperial
order, the horses’ cloths were of fine embroidery, their halters of gold and silver, and their
manes and forelocks ornamented with pearls and jade. The tune they danced to was called
“The Upturned Cup,” and had several dozen stanzas. They shook their heads and drummed
with their tails, moving this way and that, in time with the music. A wooden structure with
three tiers was set out and the horses would ride to the top, turning around as though flying.
Sometimes strong fellows were ordered to lift one of the platforms and a horse would dance
on top of it. The musicians stood on all sides, front, back, left, and right, dressed in light yellow
tunics with belts of patterned jade. Only good-looking young men were chosen for this job.
Each year at the Thousand Autumn celebration of the emperor’s birthday, the emperor
ordered the horses to perform by the Hall of Zealous Administration (Ebrey, 1993: 124).
Horse icons in the Thousand Autumn Festival held today in China 13.
As you can see, in the 1000's, Chinese dynasties took horses from "foreign states" and they were
training their horses for dancing with the melodies "foreign musicians" played. The states which are
"foreign" for China are probably the Turkic peoples in Central Asia.
13 http://www.hongkongextras.com/_mid_autumn_festival.html
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Throughout history, development of horses by many civilizations, for exhibitions, the "Cigitovka" riding
techniques, the techniques of the Spanish Equestrian School, also called "Horse Ball", and similar
techniques are applied with horses, and as mentioned above, they are elements of many circuses,
performances, theaters and concerts today.
The Concept of Equestrian Tourism

When referred to equestrian tourism, riding horses and performing activities on horsebacks in areas
such as forests, natural parks, and the hotel paddocks are understood in Turkey. However, other
artistic activities, practices, competitions and festivals made with horses are also included in the
concept of equestrian tourism. The local and foreign viewers of the said activities and practices are
also considered as "tourists".
From this point of view, it can be seen that many implementations related to horse breeding have
made a great contribution to the tourism sector. In recent years, horse breeding has been carried out
in scientific methods around the world. It is accepted as a fact that is effective and ethical, embraces
any type of education and profit and loss approach, and accepted as science.
According to Casanovas, equestrian tourism includes various activities. These activities can be basically
evaluated in two categories; Horse Tourism and Horse Riding Tourism.
Horse Tourism includes Horse Fairs, Horse Festivals, Horse Races, Horse Show, Horse Circus, and
Hippotherapy, and Horse Riding Tourism includes Specialized training, Horse riding, Loop trails, Linked
trails programs (Casanovas, 2015).
Horse Tourism and Horse Riding Tourism forms
On the other hand, Ollenburg states that many tourism products are based on horses, and considers
equestrian tourism as farm tourism, adventure tourism and urban tourism. However, depending on
the definitions made, equestrian tourism is included in Fennel's ACE (Adventure, Culture and
Ecotourism) and Buckley's NEAT definitions (Ollenburg, 2008: 47).
Accordingly, along with other types of adventure tourism, different horse tourism products are
presented to a wide range of customers with different skills and experience levels at different prices
in different locations. These products range from a simple ride on a plain quiet riding solely on a guided
horse, to safari tours on horseback to remote mountains and desert areas for weeks, and to farming
tours that require money-takers to have effective horseback riding skills like a cowboy.
In addition, there are other horseradish products where customers are traveling in horse carts instead
of horses, or watching other horse riding competitions or competitions. In different countries, different
505
types of horses are used for different equestrian tourism products. Horses can be an integral part of
tourism products offered for urban, rural, sportive or long-distance adventures.
Horse tourism products can be most usefully classified in four main categories: the first two can be
considered as the basis of the equestrian tourism industry and the other two are more secondary
(Table 1). First one of the main categories is guided commercial horseback trekking and tours, and the
second is fixed farm-hotel accommodation, farms that are hosted by guests or employees.
Table 1: Classification of commercial equestrian tourism products (Ollenburg, 2008: 49)
In recent years, the Federation Internationale de Tourisme Equestre (FITE) has been established in La
Motte village near central France - Cannes in order to encourage, support and control Touring Nature.
Founding countries are Germany, Austria, Andorra, Belgium, Canada, Spain, France, Great Britain,
Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United
States.
FITE is organizing equestrian tourism organizations all over the world. A number of award-winning
competitions are also included in these organizations for promotional purposes. One of these
competitions is the Technique de Randonnee Equestre de Competition (TREC). This competition, which
started to show its first applications in France at the beginning of 1980's, includes three basic education
sections: 1. Safety training, 2. Targeting on a timetable with a map and compass (oriantring), 3.
Obstacle jump training.
It began by racing tour guide candidates with a competitive approach during the training of horse
tourism guides in the first years of its operation. After 1990's, it started to be organized among tourists
by taking place in FITE organizations.
TREC races can be held with wide participation options. The age and sex of the participants is not
important. Participants can participate in these races either as riders with the type of horse they desire
or with a horse-drawn car 14.
All of these products have one thing in common, which is the horse itself. Whatever the customer's
relationship with the horses is packaged, the tour operator must have staff and facility to look after
the horses, and the tour staff must be able to train and manage horses and even manage customer
and horse relationships.
Of course during these events it is imperative that the tourism sector also fulfill the five most important
conditions, such as accommodation, food and beverage services, entertainment, transport and travel
services.
The first two types of products of equestrian tourism mentioned above are very different from the
commercial adventure tourism in which the equipment can be shut down when not used, replaced
14 http://www.fite-net.org
506
when broken and can be stored in a warehouse. A horse is an animal that must be cared for 24 hours
a year. When considered as nature tourism, the tour operator should know that the animals are not in
the form of obedience to the people, in relation to the customer-wild nature, but rather that they are
much different from the wild nature tourism business, which must be managed in some way.
The third type of equestrian tourism, Traditional Horseback Riding Exhibits, which are the subject of
this research, is seen as an important source of income in the equestrian tourism sector in the world
even though traditional horseback riding exhibits are the secondary product and do not involve close
contact with the horse.
To give some examples of some applications related to Horse Riding Festivals, Equestrian Schools,
Traditional Equestrian Shows and Equestrian Circuses in this part of the sector:
Traditional Horse Festivals

It is seen that the concept of equestrian tourism is used in a wide range in the applications in the world.
To give a few examples of the traditional festivals in the horse tourism category,
Palio de Siena - Contrada (Italy): Bareback horse races, which were held first on 16 August 1626 in
Palio, near Tuscany in Siena, Italy, are held twice a year on July 2 and August 16. At this festival called
"Contrada", horse riders representing 17 districts of Siena race between 50-60 thousand spectators
from all over the world. In Siena's Piazza del Campo square, racers make three laps at a great speed
among the audience on the slopes prepared with sandy soil on the cobblestones 15 (Koçkar, 2013: 168),
(QR Code 1).
The Contrada Festival and the high income from tourism, thanks to the traditions that have been going
on throughout the year, is also said to lead to a decrease in the crime rate in the city of Siena (Drechsler,
2006: 100-101).
Appleby Horse Festival (UK): It is a horse racing festival held in Appleby town of Cumbria-Westmorland
in Northern England since 1685 on the first week of June. This festival, launched for the Gypsies,
sponsored by King James the II. of England, has come to the point without losing its characteristics.
This annual festival is attended by over 10 thousand Gypsies and 40 - 50 thousand local and foreign
tourists from all over the UK and Europe. On this festival day, the town of Appleby, which has a
population of about 2,500, is undergoing a major influx of visitors 16 (Koçkar, 2013: 170) (QR Code 2).
Qinghai Yushu Horse Festival (China): It is a traditional festival held every year from July 25th to August
1st in the Yushu Autonomous Prefecture of Qinghai Province, China's Tibet Region. It is estimated that
it has been organized since the middle of the 15th century, although it is not clear when it begins.
Legend has it that King Tibetan Gesar recognizes that some of his soldiers are very good riders, giving
them the opportunity to demonstrate good riding ability to all other soldiers and the Tibetan people.
After that, these riding demonstrations and competitions become traditional.
There is a smooth, green, rugged terrain very suitable for the wide range of long-distance horse races
in the region. This festival, which has been held in its traditional form until the last years, has been
open for tourism for 10 years and the region has been flooded with a lot of tourists (Koçkar, 2013: 172)
(QR Code 3).
Fiesta de Las Luminarias (Spain): As a tradition starting in the 16th century in Spain, the streets where
the churches are located are illuminated by fire, paper lanterns are made on Friday, Saturday and
Sunday in the second week of January and fireworks are performed all night. A festival is held in the
name of Saint Antonio, the guardian of animals, and the Virgin Mary.
15 https://wellesreport.wordpress.com/2014/04/27/il-palio-di-siena-horse-race-or-socioeconomic-phenomenon/
16 http://www.applebyfair.org/
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The most famous of these festivals is the Las Luminarias (Fire) festival in San Bartolomé de Pinares, on
the north-west of Madrid. The famous Spanish Andalusian horses, which are nurtured in the region,
are ridden over a large bonfire on the street in an activity that tests the power of horses and devotes
them to St. Antonio. According to the belief, horses that have successfully jumped over the fire will be
protected by St. Antonio until the end of their life. Throughout the history of mankind fire is seen in
various rituals. Fire is a feature used by all pagan peoples to evict evil spirits and to purify from
diseases 17.
On festival days, thousands of people from different parts of Spain and foreign countries come to town,
which has roughly over 700 settlers, to watch the festival.
World Nomad Games (Kyrgyzstan): This festival, held in Çolpan Ata near the Issyk Lake in Kyrgyzstan
in 2014, attracted the attention of the world in its first occurrence. The second of this festival, which
is planned to be organized every two years, was held on 3rd – 8th September 2016. It reached to more
than 800 million viewers by attracting world television with 1200 participants from 62 countries. The
third was held between 2 and 8 September 2018. More than 2,000 participants and about 2,000
volunteers have reached a massive audience of a billion 18.
There are more than 200 traditional horse festivals similar to these in the world, as well as horse
circuses and shows among the high practice of traceability.
Horse Circuses, Shows and Theaters

To give a few examples of these applications in the Horse Tourism category;
Cavalia and Odysseo (Cirque du Soleil - Montreal, Canada): The demonstrations of Cavalia and
Odysseo are shown under the name of the world-famous circus organization "Cirque de Soleil". There
are 45 rider-artists, 5 musicians, 50 horses and 120 staff members in the demonstration group. Among
these employees, there is a team of 20 people who carry out two veterinary services, including farrier,
hostler, coach and other horse care services. 38 trucks are used for Cavalia tours. The tents and the
space used for the demonstration takes up to 17,500 square meters 19 (QR Code 6).
Alibek’s Horsmanships (Horse Circus Kantemirov - Russia): Kantemirov Alibek Tuzarovich, who was
born in 1882 in the Republic of North Ossetia - Alania, present in the Russian Federation today, has
developed many acrobatic tricks since his first personal appearance in Acaristan - Batumi on 11
February 1907 Osetia, performing one of the most important traditions of his people, the acrobatics
on the horse (Djigitovka). In 1928 he finally formed his own show community. He handed over the
leadership of the community that he has performed until 1950. Nowadays, their children pursue this
tradition and circus school in the circus building allocated to them in Moscow.
Apassionata (Magic Returns - Berlin, Germany): This equestrian show community in central Berlin was
founded in 2002. From its inception, it is one of Europe's and the world's most popular equestrian
exhibitions. There is a classical music band in the musical structure "Appassionata" (a passion that
exceeds will and judgment) as it is in the sense of the word. The performances of German and world
famous riding artists as well as opera and classical music masters are of great interest and offer
unforgettable demonstrations that show people the secrets of their secrets of connections that are
ongoing for centuries 20 (QR Code 8).
Australian Outback Spectacular (Queensland, Australia): Australian Outback Spectacular, one of
Australia's most important equestrian shows, displays the Australian traditional horseback riding skills
on, namely, Spirit of the Horse, as well as Australian traditional lifestyle. The arena they show is
17
http://www.tradicionesyfiestas.com/fiesta/las-luminarias/
18 http://worldnomadgames.com
19 https://cavalia.com
20 https://www.apassionata.com/de/
508
designed exclusively for this show and is set in a very large area, where guests are treated to Australian
traditional food and drink.
Every session, in the hippodrome, where exhibitions are shown to the audience of over two thousand
people, where a variety of activities are performed such as equestrian training, pony club, horse
carriage riding, one can listen to authentic Australian music 21 (QR Code 9).
The Théâtre Equestre Zingaro (Academie du Spectacle Equestre Bartabas - Paris, France) His real name
is Clément Marty. In 1985, Bartabas founded the world's first equine theater in France in the name of
Theater Equestre Zingaro. Bartabas, who performed traveling demonstrations in Europe, moved to the
town of Fort d'Aubervilliers in the north of Paris in 1989.
In the village, Patrick Bouchain lives with his 45 family members in a beautifully landscaped village in
the form of tree houses. The demonstrations are made in a tent they built in this kind of town, a
nomadic life village. Here they organize demonstrations of up to 30 horses that they have been training
and caring for 22 (QR Code 10).
Equestrian Schools
One of the horse shows that tour operators and tourists are most interested in is the riding school
shows. Some of them are as follows:
The Royal Andalusian School of Equestrian Art in Jerez de la Frontera (Spain): Don Alvaro Domecq
Romero, one of the most famous riders in Spain in the 1700's, and having the "Caballo de Oro (Golden
Horse)" award, found this school, of which honorary president is the King of Spain, which is a
foundation since 1973. The foundation is located in Jerez de la Frontera near Cadiz in the Andalusia
region in southern Spain. The Spanish Riding School's techniques are practiced with Andalusian horses
and the school offers a spectacular show of about 500 viewers twice a day 23 (QR Code 11).
The Escola Portuguesa de Arte Equestre in Queluz (Portugal): Though Escola Portuguesa de Arte
Equestre (EPAE), founded in 1748 by King V. João in Queluz, has stopped its activities for a while in the
early 20th century, its work is accelerated in recent years with the support of the Portuguese
governments. From the day it was founded, the school not only gives importance to the art of horse
riding, but also pioneers the cultivation of the distinguished Lusitano horses, considered to be
Portugal's Cultural Heritage (QR Code 12).
Royal Stables of the Château de Versailles the Equestrian Arts Academy (France): In France in 2003,
the famous French horse trainer and theater artist Bartabas (Clément Marty) in the Versailles Castle
(Versailles Castle) near Paris, founded the school. Using modern techniques as well as the Spanish
Equestrian School, Bartabas is also leading the Academy's work by developing a unique technique of
his own (QR Code 13).
The Cadre Noir in Saumur (France): The Cadre Noir Saumur Military Horse Riding School was founded
in 1828 in Saumur in western France, one of the most important pride sources in the field of horse
riding. It is one of the oldest cavalry schools in Europe. They were named Cadre Noir because of the
black uniforms they wore 24 (QR Code 14).
Horse Races
Apart from applications such as Festival, Horse Show and Riding Schools, horse racing is one of the
most intensive applications of horse tourism. The most interesting horse races are the Kentucky Derby
in the United States, Louisville, Kentucky; The Preakness Stakes, Baltimore, Maryland; Belmont Stakes,
21
https://outbackspectacular.com.au
22 http://bartabas.fr/zingaro
23 https://www.realescuela.org/en/
24 https://www.ifce.fr/en/cadre-noir/
509
Elmont, New York; Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe in Paris, Paris; The Royal Ascot in England, Ascot and The
Grand National, Aintree; Dubai World Cup in Dubai, United Arab Emirates; Melbourne Cup,
Melbourne; In Japan, there are races such as Nakayama Grand Jump, Funabashi.
Equine Sector in the World and Turkey

Providing an important input to the tourism sector in the world, applications other than horsemanship
and horse breeding are seen as parts of horse-related tourism, which are mentioned above.
In Canada, which has a population of 963,000 horses, it is stated that in the year 2015, 63,215 horses
competed in races and there were 18,984 licensed riders (Equestrian Canada, 2015). In the statistics
below, the ratios of horses used in sectors evaluated as horse tourism (pleasure) in the year 2010 are
given. As can be seen, 41.1% of the total horse population is used in this sector. That's about 400,000
horses (Sansom, 2010).
Horse industry data throughout Canada, 2010
Bir diğer örnek veri olması bakımından Kanada’da yalnızca British Columbia bölgesinde Atçılık
Endüstrisi 2009 verilerine göre sektördeki at sayısı ve ekonomik gelir dağılımı şu şekildedir (Horse
Council, 2009):
Horse Industry 2009 in British Columbia

In the UK there are 988,000 horses. According to a data from 2017, the contribution of the sector to
the economy is about 8 billion pounds. The number of licensed riders is approximately 4 million. This
number is about 10% of the UK population. In the Horse Tourism category only, the endorsement is 2
million sterlings (Equestrian Statistics, 2013).
510
The number of horses 25 in the countries in the European Union and the rates of use in Horse Tourism
are quite high. In general, nearly half of the number of horses in each country is used in Horse tourism
applications.
Number of horses according to countries in the European Union (theguardian.com)
There are many activities and practices in world tourism sector in Turkey. It is noteworthy, however,
gradually decreasing the number of horses in Turkey. The number of horses has decreased from
141.422 to 122.704, between the years 2012 and 2015 (TÜİK, 2015: 43).
In Turkey, Equestrian sectors leader is Türkiye Jokey Kulübü (TJK) (Turkish Jockey Club). According to
the registered data on High Commissioner Board (YKK) systems there are 40.151 horses including foal,
mare, stallion and race horses 26. With this number of horses, TJK employes 84.000 people, and
contributes 2.3 billon dollars to the sector (TJK, 2018: 13) 27.
Turkey’s Horse Racing Sector Statistics, 2018
25 https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2015/jun/12/how-many-horses-european-union-eu-equine-census-population
26 http://www.ykk.gov.tr
27 http://www.tjk.org
511
There are around 100 riding farms that contains overall amount of 2000 horses, taking the second
place in the sector. Around 40 of them are members of Turkey Equestrian Federation (TBF) 28.
The Federation continues its activities in obstacle jumping, horse riding, horse durability, three day
racing and pony club branches 29.
In Turkey, in the sector of horsemanship, the types of Traditional Riding take the third place. There is
no information about the amount of the horses which are used for javelin contests, horse archery,
horse-drawn slides, ambling horse races connected with the Turkey Traditional Sports Branches
Federation (TGSDF) 30. It is observed that among these events organized by TGSDF, Turkey Horse
Archery Championships, Traditional horse-drawn slide races, Etnospor Cultural Festival, organized by
Yenikapı Municipality, Balıkesir Kalesi Municipality Horse Archery Festival, Çanakkale Biga Horse
Archery Festival, Türkoğlu Avasım Turkish Sports Festivals attracted local and foreign tourists.
Finally, the number of horses in the only equestrian tourism including a short tour in the place and
contribution of the sector and is also unknown in Turkey.
Conclusion and Suggestions

The first meeting with the horse, the first domesticated horse, the first rider, who used it for the first
time in battlefields; we are very much behindhand in the world horse breeding industry as culinary
representatives conquering the continents with horses. Especially in our country which has a perfect
nature and geography, the lack of horse usage in the tourism sector is a saddening condition.
Having a very important place in the world in the tourism sector, our country will provide a very
important income by increasing the sources of horse tourism.
Particularly, it is seen that the above-mentioned Traditional Equestrian Festivals and Horse Show
Organizations are attracting those who love horses from many countries of the world. Countries are
marketing special rosters for these festival periods in tour operations, or they feature these festivals
and shows in their own destination programs. Tourism destination; is a combination of different
touristic products and services like, accommodation, food & beverage, transportation, guidance,
entertainment, natural and cultural attraction centers, gift shops and can be described as the main
structure, forming travel experience (Çetin v.d. 2017: 323).
Gathering tourists and customers to Horse Shows and Festivals is easier than horse riding
organizations, which require close contact with the horse. Because these organizations are
organizations that do not require horse care, boarding experience, appealing only the pleasure of
watching.
The amount of the equestrian festivals and shows as mentioned above is increasing in Turkey in recent
years. The "Equist Horse and Equestrian Fair" organized by a private company every year is also one of
the interesting events. Especially, Turkish traditional riding branches, such as amble races, javelin
contests, horse archery and kokpar (buzkashi), are observed to take place in such events.
For the Equestrian Tourism, projects that can draw attention of investors should be prepared. Before
preparing such projects, it is necessary to make lots of research about demands of the customers.
What types of tourists coming to Turkey are buying equestrian tourism products? What are their
expectations and are their expectations met? How much money they are willing to pay? How many of
them have their horse? How was the riding experience? What other activities they are occupied with?
How are they feeling about conventionalism? How much they know about Turkish traditional riding
and horse practices? How much they are interested? What they think about environmental
28 http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/ekonomi/dort-nala-fuara-26204660
29 https://www.binicilik.org.tr
30 https://www.gsdf.gov.tr
512
awareness? If these and alike questions are answered, strategical and real investments can be easier
to put in a project.
In conclusion;
• Enrollments to the Equestrian Tourism Organisations in the world should be made.
• Accommodation and equestrian facilities should meet international standards.
• Modern training applications should be preferred instead of traditional Horse training
applications, schools in this area should be increased.
• All legal gaps about Equine should be removed and to provide animal welfare "Equestrian Law"
should be enacted.
References
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7659
THE CHARACTERISTICS AND TRAINING OF HORSES TO BE USED IN

TOURISTIC FACILITIES
Ali Ekber Ün
Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
Hakan Çalışkan
Assistant Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
hakan1923@gmail.com

Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
mtkockar@gmail.com
Cafer Yıldırım
Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
y.cafer@gmail.com
Merve Ünlüoğlu
Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
The horses have an important position in human life from past to present. They have been living
together with human beings for thousands of years thanks to their physical and emotional qualities.
They are bold and agile and at the same time they are highly dependent on the rider when used
correctly and in the right jobs. The training of horses starts at birth. The instructor must comprehend
the nature of horses well. They live in organized hierarchical order in their natural life. People who are
interested in horses should know this order well. The horses used in many scopes though out history
are also used in tourism today. Equestrian tourism seems to contribute to economies of many
countries. In this study, it will be discussed how to determine the characteristics of the horses to be
used in equestrian tourism and how to make the trips in a safe and healthy manner in equestrian
tourism. In addition, people who consider to do horseback tour guidance will be offered advice about
the tour horse selection and how horse training and care should be.
Keywords: Equestrian Tourism, Horse Training, Horseback Tour Guidance
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Introduction
Scientists believe that the domestication of horses 4,000 years ago had a significant impact of many
aspects of human history and culture. French scientist Buffen said: “The noblest subdual which did
people”, and the horse subdual is based on many of documents back to 4000 BC of the Turkish
ancestors. W. Koppers’ interest subject is: “The domestication of the horses and shepherds’ culture
introduction to Turkish people”. It was a major turning point in human history. People were suddenly
able to travel long distances, spreading their languages and culture along the way. Essential elements
of horse and shepherds’ cultures Indo-Germans’ profiled to the Turkish ancestors (Ünver,2016:14).
Throughout the history, horse and Turkish people lived together like two brothers, two friends. Turkish
people attach a high value on horses. In Turkish culture horses became the symbol of bravery and
gentleman’s culture. When Turkish ancestors were migrating, they civilized everywhere in states,
bravery and generosity was expressed to horses, and this way they were continuing as mutually as
they could (Türkler,1971:5). Riding sport can be performed through the love to the nature and animals,
it is possible to describe the harmony that the individual has created by recognizing, influencing and
finally completing each other with the horse, which is one of the most noble beings of the earth.
Information about Horses

Horse riding tour guides and coaches need to know the following general information about horses;
The Latin name for the horse is "Equus Caballus". Horses complete their growth at the age of 4-5. They
can dream and live on average of 25-30 years according to environmental influences (Temurlenk, 2000:
1). The color of hairs on the horse body was named a horse color. Foal can change its hairs color before
it grows up. In Turkey bred horses have these horse colors: gray, black, chestnut, bay, dun (Koçkar,
2016:16).
Horses have a simple stomach that works much like a human’s. “Herbivore” means that horses live on
a diet of plants. The stomach is adapted to a continuous feed intake, and has a comparatively small
volume 10-19 liters. The horse’s small intestine is 10 meters long, and the hindgut or large intestine is
approximately 7 meters long. Average horses eat 3-8 kg per day grain feed and 5-35 kg from grass and
straw. The entire digestive process for the horse takes anywhere from 42-62 hours. Horse will defecate
from 10 to 12 times each day (average 9-15 kg.) Every day horse can drink 20-40 liters of water and
produce several quarts of urine 4-5 times a day, for a total of about 4-10 liters per day. They produce
5-7 liters of liquid sweat per day. Also, the equine esophagus joins the stomach at a much lower angle
than in many animals, so when the stomach is distended, as with gas, it presses against the valve in
such a way that holds it even more tightly closed. Because of that, horse can not vomit.
The mouth of a horse contains 36 teeth (females) and 40 teeth (males). Wolf teeth are not included as
not all horses have them. The horses upper jaw is wider than the bottom jaw to allow for a chewing
motion that is quite complex. The chewing action of the horse is a sweeping action which incorporates
both lateral forward and backwards motions and vertical motions. This allows the feed to be effectively
ground and mixed with saliva to initiate the digestive process.
The gestation period lasts for about eleven months, or about 336 days. During the early days
of pregnancy, the conceptus is mobile, moving about in the uterus until about day 16 when "fixation"
occurs. It is typical for foals under human management to be weaned between four and six months of
age, though under natural conditions, they may nurse for longer, occasionally until the following year
when the mare foals again. Nearly all mares are seasonally polyestrous and cycle when the length of
daylight is long. Period starts every spring and continue 10 days. Normally resting, breaths 8-16 times
per minute and the air taken is 35 liters. The normal pulse rate is 28-40 beats. Body temperature is
37.5-38.5 degrees (Kellon. 2005:8-12).
The stallion is the horse male, the horse female is themare, foal is a baby horse and the gelding is a
horse with castration.
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A mule is the offspring of a male donkey (a jack) and a female horse (a mare).
He enjoys being loved. It is quick to develop behavior patterns, and succeeds in protecting behavior
for a long time. Besides a very good memory, there is an over-developed sense of place and direction.
Quickly get habit and protect these habits stubbornly. Urgency, therefore, becomes very timid as a
result of rude behavior and punishment. Face and ear expressions are very important to understand
the behavior of horses:
Face and ear expressions
Parts of the Horse's Appearance

According to the appearance of the horses, the chapters are divided into 3 parts. These:
1. Head and neck section: Head, mane, forehead, nose, mouth, lips, ears, eyes, face, cheek, eyelash,
neck, over nose.
2. Body part: Cavity, back, waist, croup, chest, rib, abdomen, thigh, hip, tail.
3. Legs section: shoulder, forearm, elbow, knee, nail, chestnut, point of hock (Temurlenk, 1996: 11-
20).
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External Features
Natural Gaits of Horses

The rhythmic characteristic movement of a horse's feet and legs in motion are called gaits. The three
natural gaits of the horse are the walk, trot, and canter.
1. The walk (Variations: Medium walk, Collected walk, Extended walk, Free walk.)
2. The trot (Variations: Working trot, Lengthening of steps, Collected trot, Medium trot, Extended trot,
Stretching on a long rein)
3. The canter (Variations: Working canter, Lengthening of strides, Collected canter, Collected canter,
Medium canter, Counter–canter, Simple change of leg at the canter, Flying change of leg.)
(FEİ, Dressage Rules 2018: 13-17)
Hacking Guide Features

Hacking guides should have the following features:
1. Follow the rules,
2. Being knowledgeable in the professional fields,
3. Be open to learning and development,
4. Good planning,
5. Must have first aid knowledge,
6. Stay calm during activities,
7. Solve problems after problem emerges and make correct decisions when problems arise,
8. Be a good listener,
9. Know your legal responsibilities,
10. Must be consistent,
11. Be active in a group work,
12. Good time management,
13. Confident,
14. Be selfless,
15. Be honest,
16. Be able to accept criticism,
17. Be patient,
18. Must have ‘Tourism guide horse training’ education.
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Hacking in Cappadocia (Dilari, 2017)
Horse and Rider Materials for Used on Hacking.

Horse materials: bridle, saddle.
Parts of bridle: Headpiece, Brow band, Throatlatch, Cheek Piece, Curb Strap, Bit.
Parts of saddle: Skirt, Twist, Seat, Cantle, Stirrup Leather, Stirrup Leather Keeper, Flap, Stirrup, Knee
Pad, Dee Ring, Pommel.
Rider materials: Helmet, Riding breeches, Gloves, Riding Boots, Mini-Chaps.

Other materials for helping on Hacking: Holder, Necklace, Horse Boots, Rope, Saddle Pad or Blanket
(Temurlenk, 1996: 151-208).
Hacking
Hacking – ispleasure and nature trips are the terms that describe riding action. Nowadays, for touristic
purposes, it describes the horse riding in groups in the nature (Koçkar, 2015:199).
To organize hacking, it is necessary to have detailed knowledge about riding tours. Preparations are
essential for a healthy and efficient horse riding tour. Horses can be reached everywhere. Before a
hacking, it is necessary to know what will be done, where, for what, how and with whom. Proper
planning will depend on the type of location, the weather, and the type of transport vehicle. Hacking
guide must have an alternative plan. Safety and levels of riders must be taken into planning. This plan
must include stay in stables, riding conditions, health problems, supplies (medicine, blankets and
covers, tents, bait, etc.), accommodation in some ranches. The place where hacking group will come
must be checkedby authorized persons about the accommodation conditions of the trip route.
Weather conditions should always be checked each hour. If the situation of the trip route is not
warranted, horse riding should not be carried out by considering horses’ and riders’ health.
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Rules of the Hacking

These rules must be followed in horse riding. These rules are very important for horse and rider health.
For this reason, these rules should be applied in continuous training with horse activities to be
performed daily except horse riding.
Before Hacking a guide must plan horse group for tour. When doing this planning, firstly horses must
be sorted. This ranking is very important. The other horses should follow in a row after the leader and
the experienced rider (coach, guide assistant etc.) in the front. During the horse tour, the group leader
(guide) will monitor the group and provide control and safety in the middle of the hacking group with
the voice to be heard. In horse riding, the riding position of riders and the approach distance to other
horses must be checked.
If a horse starts to panic and do canter without control, firstly a rider should stay calm and go away
from places like rock, pit, wire, barrier and asphalt road. The horse should be taken to a large circle,
and the rider should make the circler smaller and smaller until the horse will stop. If panicking horse
will be taken immediately to a small circle, this horse with the rider can fall down.
On Hacking, the distance between the horses should be checked by the experienced rider (trainer,
guide assistant, etc.) which is in front of the horses’ group, and the horses should always keep the
same speed and distance between horses.
Horses are “flight” animals. It is in their nature to be sensitive to danger and avoid it. When horse is
scared from something, suddenly can do movements such as stopping, turning, kicking. The horse with
soft manner should be taken to a large circle.
Hacking traffic rules:
1. When approaching another rider head on, please pass left shoulder to left shoulder.
2. When stopping to make an equipment or clothing adjustment, move out of the way of traffic and
do so in the center of a circle out of the way.
3. Slower traffic should ride on the inside. Faster on the outside
4. Do not get too close to another horse as some may kick. Rule is one horse length away. Horses that
kick should have a red ribbon in their tail. Horses that bite should have a red ribbon in their mane.
Table 1: Hacking Tour Guide Control Form

Hacking Tour Guide Control Form YES NO
1.Is a Hacking group leader horse using different saddle pad?
2. Are the other horses in a group using the same saddle pad?
3.Do the riders of the group use helmets?
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4.Was the Hacking tour contract signed?
5. Was saddle and bridle fit?
6. Were horse and riders the same level?
7. Did the horse sorting plan?
8. Did the assistant tour guide (coach or rider) take the special group flag?
9. Did the horse shoes control?
10. Was Hacking group leader (Guide) moving in the middle of the group?
11. Which horses will stay in Hacking group (mare or gelding)?
12. Was guide used in Hacking tour the new horse?
13.Is there a hats-like swinging material on the neck of the riders?
14. Is there any health problem with riders who will be on Hacking?
15.Will it be a first-aid point on the Hacking route?
16.Do you have a spare bag for a horse Hacking? (saddle, holder, bridle, etc.)
17. Did taken water and forage bucket for the tour accommodation?
18. Did the hacking group guide have telephone or radio?
19. Was taken coats for riders and horses?
20. Was the riders take offrings, watches?
21. Was the riders taken a horse riding course?
22. Did anyone who took the Hacking tour get the blood group and emergency
contact information?
23. Does anyone use drugs from riders?
24. Was each rider has some think for eat (water, fruit juice, cake) taken?
25. After the Hacking rider and horse material turn control was done?
26. Was there a satisfaction survey for more efficient horse riding?
Features of Hacking horses

For Hacking horse health very important. Healthy horse can provide a safe environment. For this
reason, the features of Hacking are listed below:
1. Body structure must be proportional,
2. The heart, lungs and tendons should be intact,
3. Gaits should be in the same step range,
4. The height of the withers up to 140 - 155 cm,
5. Horse must be durable,
6. Horse must be courageous,
7. Be calm,
8. Don’t be coward,
9. Horse must be calm with others horses,
10.For Hacking, guide must search mare or gelding,
11.Horse don’t have bad behaviors’ (kicking, biting, etc.),
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12.Don’t have problem with hoof and shoes,

13.Must be at 6 years old and older.
During Hacking Horses and Riders Breaks

On Hacking tours, the breaks allow for a rider and a horse to rest and fix the horse's materials. Before
going on the Hacking, a guide should tell each rider where and when the breaks will be. According to
this, riders should plan themselves (water, medicine, toilet, etc.).Riders should not leave their horses
alone. Before Hacking veterinarian checks must be done for horses. The safety and health of the group
of horses during breaks is very important.
If Hacking tour will go on asphalt ground, horses’ hoofs must be prepared for it (plastic, horse hoofs’
boots, etc.). If Hacking road go in the city, traffic police should make sure that the route is always open
and other traffic vehicles should not be approached by horses.
Hacking tour horse health

Hacking tour guide should know the horse vaccination information for ideal Hacking tour. Vaccinations
should be completed at least 2 weeks before the Hacking. The horses which will go on Hacking must
get a first aid kit. The list of drugs must be ready before the Hacking. If a very long Hacking will be
carried out, before it veterinary check must be done.
Hacking tour horse feeding and nutrition
The proper feeding of hacking horses is as important as feeding the horses in normal stables and should
be taken care of. The list of horse ration (for how horses and for how days) must be done before
Hacking. For each horse riders should special buckets. On Hacking tour horse ration must not changing.
Hacking it is a time when horses must drink a lot of water. On Hacking each 3-4 hours horses should
drink enough water.
Hacking tour horse holding
On hacking tour when a group have a break, horses must be tied with holder. A rider when tied a horse
must very well adjust the length of the rope. A horse should be able to use the head and neck easily.
Very tightly tied horses will not be able to limit their movement and balance. In very loosely tied horses,
they will try to turn to the right, to the left, to fight with the horse next to them or a rope can be wander
around horses’ legs. In case of not resolving the horses, knives and scissors must be provided for
emergency cutting.
Mount and dismount a horse
Mount a horse: Before mount a horse rider must had checked a saddle and a bridle. First rule on riding;
mounting on left side and dismounting from right side. Bring there in sover the horse’s head and on to
its neck. While facing slightly towards the rear of the horse, hold both reins in your left hand just above
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the withers. With your right hand, turn the stirrup iron towards you. Place your left foot far enough in
to the stirrups o that the stirrup is past the ball of the foot and the foot is secure. Now turn and face
the horse as you grab the cantle of the saddle with your right hand. Balance your weight between your
arms and your left leg. Move your right hand from the cantle to the offside of the pommel while at the
same time swinging your right leg over the horse’s croup and letting yourself down into the saddle.
Make sure not to kick the horse’s croup while you mount. This can startle the horse into moving and
knocking you off balance. Once in the saddle, place your right foot in the stirrup and take the reins in
both hands (Temurlenk, 2016: 21).
Dismount a horse: Before the horse takes a step to begin your ride, you should learn how to dismount
safely. Dismounting is basically the reverse of mounting. With the reins gathered in your left hand and
placed above the horse’s withers, place your right hand below the pommel. Remove your right foot
from the stirrup, bend your right leg and move it over the horse’s croup without touching it.
Simultaneously move your right hand to the cantle and balance yourself with your hands. Remove your
left foot from the stirrup and jump gently to the ground. As you jump to the ground, do not push
yourself faway from the horse. Instead, slide down along the horse’s side. Always maintain control of
the horse as you descend (Temurlenk, 2016: 23).
Hacking horse training
The horse training should start from foal birth. Foal always feels safe with it’s mother. Foal must attend
small trainings to be done with it’s mother. As long as the air is available continuously with the mare
mother, foal should get used to the momentary changes in the surroundings, briefly seeing what is
happening in the far moutside, noise, people, birds, chickens, dogs, vehicles, aircrafts and other horses.
Foal should then be removed from the farm and acclimated to environmental changes. At theage of 3,
4 months, foal together with mare mother, will be taken on short Hacking. A foal should finished first
training until the age of 2 years. From the age of 5 the horsetrainer is fully trained and tested in the
first Hacking. The master horse must be joined to the horse, and the master horse must be the master
rider. For the first time, the horse must be given confidence. The horse can serve as a coach for one
year on the tourwhen he has confidence.
Table 2. Hacking horsetraining
Ages Training Rules Training Goals Trainer
0-1 İntroduce with people For the first time, the horse must be given
confidence
1-2 First lessons Trainer (guide)
2-3 Foal progress training Training with rider
3-4 Basic training First short Hacking tour
4-5 Gualification Long Hacking with rider
Walk: The Queen of Gaits

The walk is a slow, natural, flat footed, four beat gait. Horse speed on walk 6-7 km/h. Each foot takes
off from and strikes the ground independently of the other three feet. It is known as the oundation
gait, as the horse may be asked to change to other gaits while working at the walk. The sequence of
hoof beats after the horse is in motion can be described according to this pattern: right fore, left rear,
left fore, right rear. Although a natural gait, it is one that can be improved with training.
Trot
The trot is a rapid two beat diagonal gait. Horsespeed on trot 14-15 km/h. The forefoot on one side
and the opposite hind foot take off and strike the ground at the same time. The horse works from one
pair of diagonals to the other pair. The weight of the horse is distributed first by one diagonal and then
524
the opposite diagonal. Then all four feet are off the ground at the same time for a moment. The trot
should be square balanced and springy with a straight forward movement of the feet. The Hackney
displays the collected trot with extreme flexion of knees and hocks that produces a high stepping gait.
Canter
The canter is an easy rhythmical three beat gait. Horse speed on Canter 20-30 km/h. It is not a straight
forward gait as the walk, but is a slight diagonal movement, either right or left. It is executed witheither
a rightorleft “lead”. The independent moving front leg is the "lead". The horse has a hindle ad that
corresponds to the front lead. A horse that leads with the left front and also with the left hind is
coordinated. This can be observed by looking over the horse's shoulder and observing which front leg
reaches far the stahead in the stride. The canter starts with one hind foots triking the ground, then the
other hind foot and diagonal front foot strike the ground together followed by the remaining front foot
striking the ground. The hoofbeats of a horse cantering correctly to the leftare (1) righthind, (2) the
diagonal left hind and right front together, and (3) left front. The correct sequence of beats in cantering
to the right are (1) lefthind, (2) the diagonal right hind and left front together, and (3) right front. The
two un paired legs that beat alone bear more weight and are subject to more strainthan the diagonal
legs that beat together. The lead should be changed at intervals because of the added strain on the
legs and feet that strike separately.
One of the most important characteristics of horses to be used on Hacking is that the horse has very
good basic training (Field, 2015: 6).
Field, at his book attaches importance to seven basic knowledge of the horses that will be used on
Hacking:
1. Fearless traveling in and going down from horse lorry,
2. The horse must go in the direction indicated by the rider (enter in to the fearless water, go between
the big stones, the ramp must walk up and down stub bornly),
3. Horses hould have a balanced nervous system, and no condition around (barking dog, ‘playing’
horse in the same group, etc.),
4. Horse must look at his own pressed place on road,
5. On Hacking or in manege work horsemust be calm,
6. Working with pleasure in group,
7. Horse should know every roads verywell.
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7672
WHAT DO TOURISTS WONDER ABOUT TURKEY’S CULTURAL
HERITAGE? A STUDY TO DETERMINE FREQUENTLY ASKED
QUESTIONS TO TOUR GUIDES
Burak Düz
Research Assistant
Eskişehir, Turkey
bduz@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
Tour guides are obliged to interpret for tourists in tours. During a tour, cultural heritage of a destination
composes a remarkable part in tour guides’ interpretations. So, having a good command of cultural
heritage, tour guides can enhance the experience of tourists and provide them with satisfaction in
tours. Tour guides can also contribute to appreciation and conservation of cultural heritage by raising
awareness towards it. Hence, tour guides are supposed to know what tourists are curious about
regarding cultural heritage in a destination. Therefore, questions of tourists should be a decent source
to figure out what tourists are curious about and interested in. This study aims to determine the
questions tourists ask their tour guides regarding cultural heritage in Turkey. In this study, cultural
heritage refers to a concept rather than the official listed cultural heritage of Turkey by UNESCO. Using
semi-structured, face-to-face interviews with tour guides, the questions asked to tour guides were
extracted. A content analysis was implemented to explore the categories and the themes. Determining
the frequently asked questions and the subjects that tourists are curious about regarding cultural
heritage, tour guides will be able to revise their interpretations based upon the results of this study.
Tour guiding education programs can be reviewed and the efficiency of tour guides in terms of
information and interpretation on cultural heritage can be enhanced. Consequently, this study aims to
contribute to the appreciation and conservation of cultural heritage by enhancing the information and
interpretation skills of tour guides. Ultimately, all the efforts to improve tour guides’ informing and
interpreting skills will enhance the quality of tour guiding service and tourist satisfaction.
Keywords: Cultural Heritage, Tour Guides, Tourists, Interpretation, Tourist’s Questions
Introduction
Traveling with a tour guide is one of the reasons why people participate in tours instead of traveling
alone (Chan et al., 2015: 23). Even though tour guides have always had a supporting role in tour
operations, in time, the number of their roles has increased. In our day, for tourism industry, tour
guides are considered as mediators, interpreters, and mentors (Weiler and Black, 2014: 42). Tour
guiding requires interpretation skills, entertaining people, a good command of language and
expression. Tour guides can expose their proficiencies by interpreting and providing information for
tourists. (Ap and Wong, 2001: 551). Providing information for tourists is substantial to determine the
service quality of a tour guide. Tour guides provide information for tourists via their interpretations
during tours. Hence, tour guides enhances the service quality and the satisfaction perceived by tourists
by means of their interpretations. On the other hand, complaints about a tour guide’s service quality
reduces satisfaction of tourists. One of the major complaints about tour guides is their lack of
knowledge and incompetence in terms of interpretation. In order to prevent complaints about
knowledge and interpretation, tour guides must be aware of the expectations of tourists (Chen et al.,
527
2006). Because tour guides can revise their knowledge and interpretations by learning the
expectations and the interests of tourists. Improvement in knowledge and interpretation will bring on
improvement in service quality and tourist satisfaction.
Cultural heritage composes an essential part of interpretations for tour guides. Tour guides can
contribute to appreciation and conservation of cultural heritage by interpreting to tourists. Because
tourists’ awareness of cultural heritage also raises via the interpretations of tour guides. The
awareness of tourists enhances their comprehension of cultural heritage in tourist. In this context, this
study aims to determine the questions tourists ask their tour guides about the cultural heritage of
Turkey. In literature review, no evidence was found on what tourists are curious about and interested
in Turkey’s cultural heritage. Moreover, this study is expected to contribute to service quality of tour
guides besides the satisfaction perceived from tour guides. Tour guides can revise their interpretations
based on the results of this study and improve their service quality On the grounds of this study’s
findings, tour guiding certification programs can be revised as well. This study is considered to
contribute to the current literature in the above-mentioned aspects.
Tour Guides’ Roles in Informing and Interpreting Cultural Heritage

Tour guiding is a crucial component of tourism industry and affects the quality of tourist experience
and the length of stay. The interaction between tour guides and tourists is more intense than any other
interaction in tourism industry (Howard, 1997). Tour guides help tourists experience another culture
and encourage tourists to smell, taste or feel it (Urry, 1990). Tourists visiting a new destination are
willing to explore new things and it sets the motivation for traveling (Mancini, 1990: 63). Tour guides
have a determinative role in tourists’ decision to join a tour (Chan et al., 2015: 23). Because tour guides
are the foremost source to gather information about the destination visited (Nettekoven, 1979: 142).
Tour guides tell tourists even where to look, why to look and when to look and they explain to tourists
how to conduct themselves in tourist destinations (Reisinger and Steiner, 2008: 482).
The primary task of a tour guide is to provide true information in tours (Cohen, 1985) and the
relationship between tour guides and tourists involves exploration of information (McDonnell, 2001:
2). Hence, the information interpreted needs to be necessary and current in tour guiding profession
(Ap and Wong, 2001: 555). Interpretation is also essential for a tour guide for becoming impressive
(Pond, 1993) and tourists expect their guide to be knowledgeable and to interpret his/her knowledge
in an interesting way (Holloway, 1981: 391). In addition to interpreting interestingly, tour guides should
make comprehensible explanations to reduce the gap between the information they are providing and
the knowledge of tourists (Reisinger and Steiner, 2008: 487). Because an effective interpretation helps
tourists discriminate between their past experiences and the information they receive from their tour
guide (Moscardo et al., 2004: 13). On the other hand, tourist groups are heterogeneous from various
nations and cultures and the interpretations of tour guides can be perceived differently by individuals.
Additionally, tour guides need to ideate their interpretations carefully so that tourists’ attention will
be attracted during a tour (Pizam and Sussman, 1995; Pizam and Jeong, 1996). Despite the scientific
and historical content, interpreting is an art (Hu and Wall, 2012: 84) and is not an easy task (Zerva and
Nijkamp, 2016: 43).
Tour guides are expected to have knowledge about geography, history, culture, and architecture and
interpret their knowledge so that the attractions and uniqueness of a destination can be appreciated
by visitors (Cohen et al., 2002). Information is transfferred to the audience via interpretations and
reveals the hidden meaning behind the objects (Bidder et al., 2016: 634). The interpretations conduce
to an inner bond between tourists and destinations (Weiler and Ham, 2001; Christie and Mason, 2003:
3). This bond even ensures the sustainability of tourism development since the interpretations of tour
guides have an instructional content (Chen et al., 2006) and help tourists explore the destination and
528
the culture they have visited (Gelbman and Maoz, 2012: 117). Exploring a place or an object helps
tourists enjoy their experience (Reisinger and Steiner, 2008: 482). Interpretations are the means for
this kind of exploration process because interpretations help a place or an object to be discovered,
identified and protected (Moscardo, 1999). Tour guides’ choices of what to interpret are essential for
cultural interaction and determine to what extent tourists will explore the destination (Wong, 2013:
917).
Tourists are motivated to explore and experience the culture in cultural heritage sites (du Cros, 2001:
165) and tour guiding service becomes more essential in tours within the context of cultural heritage
(Dahles, 2002: 783). Because interpretation is an influential means to link between the past and the
present in terms of cultural heritage (Nuryanti, 1996: 252) and tour guides can provide it through
interpretations. Moreover, tour guides are supposed to contribute to the conservation of heritage sites
so that future generations can have access to non-renewable sources (du Cros, 2001: 166). Hence,
preservation should be emphasized in cultural heritage sites and the significance of preservation can
be conveyed to tourists via interpretations. Furthermore, tour guides’ interpretations compose an
integral part of marketing, managing, and planning of heritage tourism (Herbert, 1989). Learning
interests of tourists with regards to cultural heritage will enable tour guides to fulfill their interpreting
roles effectively so that cultural heritage of a destination can be appreciated and conserved in a
sustainable way.
According to UNESCO, cultural heritage is divided into tangible and intangible cultural heritage.
Tangible heritage includes buildings and historic places, monuments, artifacts, etc., which are
considered worthy of preservation for the future. These include objects significant to the archaeology,
architecture, science or technology of a specific culture. 31 On the other hand, the term ‘cultural
heritage’ has changed content considerably in recent decades, partially owing to the instruments
developed by UNESCO. Cultural heritage does not end at monuments and collections of objects. It also
includes traditions or living expressions inherited from our ancestors and passed on to our
descendants, such as oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals, festive events,
knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe or the knowledge and skills to produce
traditional crafts 32 and called intangible cultural heritage. In Tangible Cultural Heritage List, there are
17 sites from Turkey including Goreme National Park and Cappadocia, Troya, Mount Nemrut,
Ephesus. 33 Additionally, there are 14 from Turkey in the list of Intangible Cultural Heritage including
Mevlevi Sema Ceremony, Turkish Coffee Culture and Tradition, Ebru-Turkish Art of Marbling,
Traditional Craftsmanship of Çini-making. 34 Furthermore, there are more attractions from Turkey in
the tentative list of Cultural Heritage of UNESCO. Additionally, public administrations in Turkey work
to increase Turkey’s part in the list. However, more tangible objects, monuments, buildings, sites and
intangible traditions, rituals, events and knowledge from Turkey have been anticipating to be
evaluated by UNESCO.
Literature Review
In the literature review, some research findings on tour guides’ informing and interpreting roles were
noticed. Steward et al., (1998), enounced after visiting a destination, how much tourists recall the
information they received in tours is essential and the effectiveness of tour guides’ interpretation
contributes the extent of internalised information. Ap and Wong (2001) declared that the quality of
the interpretation in one of the five components of professionalism in tour guiding occupation. In
31
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/cairo/culture/tangible-cultural-heritage (10.09.2018)
32
https://ich.unesco.org/en/what-is-intangible-heritage-00003 (10.09.2018)
33
http://www.unesco.org.tr/Pages/125/122/UNESCO-D%C3%BCnya-Miras%C4%B1-Listesi (10.09.2018)
34
https://hometurkey.com/en/attractions/unesco-intangible-cultural-heritage-in-turkey (10.09.2018)
529
McDonnell’s study (2001), it was determined that tourists attach more importance to cultural and
historical interpretation than any other information about shopping and activities in a destination.
According to Chen et al. (2006), the reliability of tour guides’ knowledge is the most remarkable feature
of all the interpretation services. Io and Hallo (2012) indicates that information interpreted by tour
guides should evoke tourists’ thoughts and feelings besides teaching them. Hence, tourists’ experience
enhances and the desire to visit other destinations is aroused. A number of studies conducted on the
interpreting roles of tour guides reveal that guides’ interpretations raise the quality of tours
(Moscardo, 1996; Ham and Weiler, 2003; Weiler and Black; 2014). On the other hand, Ormsby and
Mannle (2006), Kohl (2007), Jensen (2010), Hu and Wall (2012) have indicated that interpretations also
avail the stakeholders and destinations in tourism industry. Moreover, studies focusing on
interpretations’ level of importance were conducted (Weiler, 1999; Haig and McIntyre, 2002) as well
as studies determining the role of interpretations on eco-tourism (Gurung vd., 1996; Randall and
Rollins, 2009) and the impact of interpretations’ on tourist satisfaction (Wang et al., 2002; Chang,
2006).
Reviewing the literature, no finding of studies related to the interpretation of tour guides on cultural
heritage was noticed. Interpretations of tour guides are formed by the interests and questions of
tourists. Therefore, this paper aims to determine what questions tour guides receive from tourists in
terms of cultural heritage in Turkey. Cultural heritage mentioned in this study does not refer to only
the officially listed cultural heritage of Turkey but handles it as a concept. Because there are 17
tangible sites and 14 intangible attractions from Turkey in the official list. However, this study reveals
that restricting the inquiry to the official list of UNESCO would cause limited results. Moreover, there
are more sites and attractions in Turkey waiting to be on the list. Therefore, in this study, “cultural
heritage” refers to not only the officially listed cultural heritage of Turkey but also potential sites and
attractions in terms of cultural heritage. Determining the questions tourists ask their tour guides will
reveal what subjects tourists are interested in. Since no finding of an empirical study was found on the
interpretation of tour guides on cultural heritage and the questions asked to tour guides, this study is
considered to contribute to the current literature. Additionally, the results of the study are expected
to offer practical hints for tour guides in Turkey to improve their knowledge and interpretation
qualities, particularly in cultural heritage.
Method
In this study, it is aimed to determine the questions that tourists ask their tour guides regarding cultural
heritage in Turkey. Stages taken regarding the method of the study is explained as follows:
Sampling and Data Collection

Questions tour guides receive in tours may differ depending on the nations of the tourists and
destinations visited. Therefore, six tour guides who provided data for this study were selected of those
who have various characteristics (age and experience). Personal networks and recommendations were
determinative in reaching the sample. Based on ethical considerations, the names of the participants
were put into codes as TG(1), TG(2), TG(3)... The sample of the interviewed tour guides is demonstrated
in Table 1. To collect data, semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted in the study. In order
to determine the questions to ask the tour guides a number of studies were referred (Moscardo, 1999;
Randall and Rollins, 2009; Gelbman and Maoz, 2012). Afterwards, an academician studying topics in
tourism examined the questions and recommended revisions in two questions. Revising these
questions, the questionnaire was sent to an experienced tour guide to review and the questionnaire
was finalized. Interviews were executed in Eskişehir and Nevşehir (Cappadocia) between June 19-24,
2018.
530
Before the interview questions were asked, the interviewer had a talk with each participant for about
20 minutes which would enable the interview process to become more comfortable. In the meantime,
the participants were informed of the study’s purpose and its content and they were assured that their
names would remain confidential. Before addressing the questions, participants were enquired about
their age, experience, type of occupation etc. Since tour guides were observed to be uncomfortable
with tape-recording, the interviews were hand-written. Only one of the tour guides stated that he
would be fine with tape-recording. A set of open-ended questions used in the interviews read as
follows:
1. What do you interpret for your guests? Can you define the interpretation subjects you attach
importance to?
2. What nationalities ask questions the most? Who are the most interested and uninterested in
terms of nationalities?
3. Do the questions tourists ask vary regarding their nationalities? What questions do you
receive?
4. Do tourists ever ask you to explain a subject in details? If so, what are those?
5. What subjects are the tourists the most curious about in terms of culture, history, historical
sites, architecture, art, geography, and traditions?
6. How do you interpret the topics tourists ask you about?
7. Are there any questions you couldn’t answer?
8. What do you do if you don’t know the answer to a question?
9. How do the tourists react to you when you can’t answer their questions?
10. How do the tourists react to you when you answer their questions?
Content Analysis
For the qualitative data, content analysis was chosen as a tool for the data analysis since it is regarded
as a research method for subjectively interpreting the content of a text via a classification process of
coding that generates themes and patterns (Hsieh and Shannon, 2005). Moreover, content analysis as
a common method, which is used to analyze text data, enables the researchers to obtain a condensed
and broad description of the phenomenon (Tsaur and Lin, 2014: 31). Additionally, content analysis is
useful to determine specific patterns in data collected, since the purpose of the study is to identify the
performance competencies of tour guides. Since, researchers are advised to be assisted by other
experts related to the context of the study in qualitative reasearch (Creswell, 2014: 203), the data was
examined and coded by the researcher and an experienced tour guide. As a result of the content
analysis, eleven subjects related to cultural heritage were determined in four categories and two
themes as indicated in Table 2.
Trustworthiness
In qualitative research, trustworthiness is composed of credibility and dependability. Creswell (2013)
stated that researchers are supposed to describe every single step they take during the research and
it enhances the trustworthiness of a qualitative research. Moreover, some practical methods such as
diversification in data sources, pre-interaction with the interviewees and member checking can
enhance the credibility and dependability of a qualitative study (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). In this
context, (i) to provide diversification in data sources, the interviewees were elected from various
attributes (age, experience and the nationalities of tourists guided). Therefore, the variation of data
with the different characteristics of the tour guides was ensured. (ii) the interviewer had a random talk
with tour guides to ensure pre-interaction with the interviewees so that they would feel more
comfortable. (iii) At the end of the interviews, the interviewer summarized the answers given by the
531
participants via the notes taken during the interviews in order to provide member checking and
confirm the data collected is accurate.
Findings
According to the results of the study, there are two themes: tangible cultural heritage and intangible
cultural heritage. There are two categories under each theme and these categories are composed of
respectively two, four, two and three subjects.
Tangible Cultural Heritage

This theme includes the questions of tourists regarding tangible cultural heritage in Turkey. “places of
worship” and “places of residence” are related to this theme.
Places of Worship
Interviewed tour guides indicated that tourists ask questions about the places where people worship
and pray. Tourists visiting Turkey are curious about the mosques, Islamic practices performed in
mosques and the frescoes in cave churches. Questions that tour guides receive in tours range from the
numbers of the minarets (towers in mosques) to the reasons why the frescoes were scratched.
“I receive questions about mosques. “We see one or two minarets in some of the mosques.
But in some mosques, for example, Blue Mosque (Sultanahmet Mosques), there are six
minarets and there are four minarets in Manavgat... Questions never come to an end after
getting into the mosque. “Why do people pray towards this direction? Why Mecca? What is
the minber (minbar) for? What does imam do? Why do you pray with body movements while
people just sit in the churches?” TG(1)
Places of Residence
Civilizations have lived in various living spaces in Anatolia during history. Interviewed tour guides
declared that tourists were curious about these spaces as well. Some of these spaces such as traditional
Ottoman houses are still used in our day, while people no more live in the ancient cities in Anatolia.
Tourists were also noted to be curious about the rock caves and underground cities where people
once lived in history.
“Tourists ask why people live in caves in Cappadocia and how the caves can be heated in cold
weather”TG(4)
“They ask questions about the underground cities. ’Any flood in underground cities?’, ’How do
they heat the underground cities in winter?’... ‘These people have lived in the underground
cities all the time, how could they even farm?’. Tourists think those people would spend all of
their time underground”TG(6)
Intangible Cultural Heritage

Traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals, knowledge, and skills on traditional crafts related
to Turkey’s cultural heritage compose this theme. Two categories: “food and cuisine”, and “traditions”
are the categories related to this theme.
532
Food and Cuisine

During the inquiry, interviewed tour guides stated the curiosity of tourists on Turkish cuisine. Tourists
experience not only the historical sites, buildings, and monuments but also the food during their trips.
Therefore, tourists visiting Turkey have asked their tour guides questions about eating habits of Turkish
people as well as the peculiarities of Turkish cuisine. What kind of food Turkish people eat, the reason
why people eat on the ground instead of on table, what ingredients are in Turkish meals were noticed
as some of the objects of curiosity.
“They (tourists) are very interested in our food culture. In the restaurant or after the restaurant
they ask me how meals are cooked, what ingredients are used. In some of the tours, we visit
the kitchen of the restaurants.”TG(1)
Traditions
Since traditions attract tourists in a destination, tour guides received questions about marriage
customs, wedding customs in Turkey. Moreover, circumcision was a subject of interest for tourists.
The ways girls and boys flirt, arranged marriages and how they end up, how married couples meet
each other, if wedding ceremonies can be held in mosques and what circumcision is compose majority
of the interest.
“Tourists wonder if wedding ceremonies are held in mosques. Because we interpret about the
Islamic wedlock implemented by the imam. So, tourists suppose that couples go to the
mosque, but on the contrary, the imam goes to the home of the couple.”TG(2)
“Guests ask if couples marry based on love or an arrangement by the family” TG(5)
“They (tourists) don’t know that even though Turkey is a Muslim country, it is secular and
people can be married to one person at a time. They ask “how many women can you get
married to?” TG(6)
Results
Cultural heritage has been a subject for academic studies. Studies have focused on sustainability of
cultural heritage, institutional and organisational environments, visitors’ experience etc. However, no
findings of studies related to the interpretation of tour guides on cultural heritage was noticed. Tour
guides are the interpreters in tourism industry and their interpreting roles can enhance the
appreciation, conservation and sustainability of cultural heritage. On the other hand, interpretations
of tour guides are formed by the interests and questions of tourists. Therefore, this study aimed to
determine the questions tourists ask their tour guides regarding cultural heritage in Turkey. In this
context, this study is also considered to contribute to the current literature on tour guides’
interpretations, their interpreting roles, questions tour guides receive and the cultural heritage. A
qualitative method was implemented during the research. Content analysis was used as a means to
process the collected data. Results of the research reveal that in Turkey, tourists ask their tour guides
questions on cultural heritage and these questions are divided into the same categories as in the
distinction of UNESCO: tangible and intangible cultural heritage.
In terms of tangible heritage, in Turkey tour guides receive questions on the “places of worship” such
as mosques and churches as well as the “places of residence” such as ancient cities, traditional
Ottoman houses, rock caves in Cappadocia, and underground cities. Intangible cultural heritage was
noted as a subject of interest as well. Tourists ask questions about “food and cuisine” which include
eating habits and The Turkish cuisine and “traditions” including marriage customs, wedding customs,
533
and the tradition of circumcision. Tour guides should have a decent command of the mentioned
cultural heritage so that they can answer the questions of tourists and assure tourist satisfaction. Tour
guides’ knowledge and interpreting skills do not only assure tourist satisfaction but also help the
cultural heritage’s appreciation, conservation and sustainability. Based on the results of this study,
tour guides can review their knowledge and the content of their interpretations. Tour guides can revise
their interpretations and build them around the above-mentioned interests of tourists. Tour guiding
programs of universities and The Ministry of Culture and Tourism in Turkey can be revised and above-
stated content can be attached to these training and certification programs. All these efforts based on
this study are expected to contribute to the officially listed and the potential cultural heritage of
Turkey, tour guiding profession and tourist satisfaction besides the contribution to the current
literature.
There are some limitations in this study. Due to the lack of time, only six tour guides were involved in
this study, the number of the participants should be increased to supply various data in future
research. Another limitation is related to the cities where the data was collected. The data for this
study was collected from tour guides who live in Eskisehir and Nevsehir. Even though interviewed tour
guides guide in tours all around Turkey, in future research, tour guides from different regions might be
included to vary the data sources. In this study, “the cultural heritage” was approached as a concept
rather than the official list of UNESCO about Turkey. So, analyzing the data, expressions concerning
cultural heritage definition were assessed. For future research, only the 31 official cultural heritage
assets of Turkey might be inquiried specifically. Besides collecting data from the tour guides, tourists
can compose the sample of the future studies and enhance the extent of the study.
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Pond, K. (1993). The Professional guide: Dynamics of tour guiding. New York: Oxford University Press.
Randall, C. and Rollins, R. B. (2009). Visitor perceptions of the role of tour guides in natural
areas. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(3), 357-374.
Reisinger, Y. and Steiner, C. (2006). Reconceptualising Interpretation: The role of tour guides in
authentic tourism. Current Issues in Tourism, 9(6), 481-498.
Tilden, F. (2009). Interpreting our heritage. Univ of North Carolina Press.
Urry, J. (1990). The tourist gaze: Leisure and travel in Contemporary Societies. London: SAGE.
Wang, K. C., Hieh, A. T. and Chen, W. Y. (2002). Is the tour leader an effective endorser for group
package tour brochures? Tourism Management, 23(5), 489-498.
Weiler, B. (1999) Assessing the interpretation competencies of ecotour guides. Journal of

Interpretation Research, 4 (1), 80–83.
Weiler, B. and Black, R. (2014). Tour guiding research: Insights, issues, implications. Bristol: Channel
View.
Weiler, B. And Ham, S. (2001). Tour guides and interpretation. Encyclopedia of ecotourism. (Ed: D.
Weaver). Oxford: CABI.
Wong, C. U. I. (2013). The sanitization of colonial history: Authenticity, heritage interpretation and the
case of Macau’s tour guides. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 21(6), 915-931.
Zerva, K. and Nijkamp, P. (2016). Tour guides as information filters in urban heterotopias: Evidence
from the Amsterdam Red Light District. Tourism Management Perspectives, 18, 42-50.
Table 1. The Sample of the Interviewed Tour Guides

TG Age Guiding Experience (Year) Type of Occupation
TG(1) 37 15 Freelance
536
Table 2. Themes and Categories Extracted via Content Analysis

Themes Categories Codes
Mosques
Places of worship
Frescoes in churches
Ancient cities
Tangible Cultural Heritage
Traditional Ottoman Houses
Places of residence
Rock caves in Cappadocia
Underground cities
Eating habits
Food and cuisine
Turkish cuisine
Intangible Cultural Heritage Marriage customs
Traditions Wedding customs
Tradition of circumcision
537
7682
NEW EXPANSIONS IN TURKEY TOURISM: INDIAN WEDDINGS

Çetin Furkan Usun
Research Assistant
Department of Geography, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University
Hatay, Turkey
cfusun@mku.edu.tr
Gözde Emekli
Professor
İzmir, Turkey
Abstract
In recent years, the impact of globalization, the development of information and communication
technology, increased cultural interaction, postmodern movements and trends are causing the search
for different experiences by tourists leads to the emergence of new tourist attractions. One of the
alternative tourism types by postmodern tourism consumers who are in new quests is "wedding
tourism". Wedding tourism, whose purpose is to realize outside the countries, is defined as an activity
that includes transportation, accommodation, refreshments and entertainment. India is one of the
most preferred countries for wedding tourism in the world. The majority of weddings of rich families
in India take place in outside the countries, such as Indonesia and especially Thailand. However, these
countries have become tired destinations because Indian weddings have been realized for 30 years.
Indian weddings have been around for about 30 years, these countries. Therefore, the Indians have
sought an alternative destination. In recent years, Turkey has been one of the most popular country
for Indian weddings in terms of an alternative destination. Indian families have focused on Turkey day
by day thanks to its natural and cultural opportunities, diverse shopping facilities, the quality of the
hotel, suitable climate and its rich histories as well as. In addition to this, another advantage of the
Indian wedding tourism is that Turkey is located at the intersection of Asian and European cultures.
The aim of this study, which is evaluated as a new approach of postmodern tourism, is to contribute
to the tourism literature of our country as a current study issue. For this purpose, Indian Weddings will
be evaluated in Turkey scale by performing literature review and benefiting from secondary data
sources. Turkey's benefiting from this growing trend is very important for our country. On the other
hand it is an important necessity to solve problems such as direct flights and presentation so that our
country get more share from the market.
Key words: New Trends in Tourism, Postmodern Tourism, Wedding Tourism, Indian Weddings, Turkey
Introduction
Tourism is one of the fastest growing industries in the world. With the end of the Second World War,
factors such as the increase in industrialization and the increase in incomes played important roles in
the development of tourism. In recent years, globalization, developments in information and
communication technology, increase in intercultural interaction, post-modern tourism movements
and trends, tourists seeking different experiences also led to the emergence of new touristic
538
expansions. One of the alternative tourism types that post-modern tourism consumers who have been
looking for new pursuits have brought out is the "wedding tourism".
Before explaining wedding tourism, it will be beneficial to define the meaning of the word wedding,
one of the most important time of people’s lives, from the most primitive communities on earth to the
most developed communities. Turkish Language Association refers to wedding as the big ceremony
and entertainment done to celebrate events like marriage and circumcision (TDK, 2018). With its
clothes, rituals, traditions, a wedding is one of the most special ceremonies in the life of a person all
over the world. The wedding tourism whose main purpose is to carry out the wedding activities in
various ways is defined in similar ways by different researchers in the international literature (wedding
tourism, wedding based tourism, destination wedding):
Wedding tourism is defined as an activity involving transportation (flights and transfers of the
couple and the guests attending the wedding), accommodation (couples and guests), and
compliments and entertainment (De Witt, 2006). In their study, Daniels and Loveless (2013)
define wedding tourism as the tourist flow involving the trip taken to the wedding ceremony
made at a place different than the bride and the groom lives. In another study conducted on
the subject, wedding tourism was described as international trips taken to marry or participate
in a wedding ceremony (Major, McLeay & Waine, 2010). In another definition, wedding
tourism refers to the tourist flows that occurs in order to participate in a destination wedding
at a different place than where both the bride and groom live or at a different place than where
one of the couple lives (Del Chiappa & Fortezza, 2013 cited in Vidauskaite, 2015).
According to Vidauskaite (2015), wedding tourism refers to domestic or international travels done to
get married or to celebrate marriage (honeymoon) since wedding tourism includes also the
honeymoon. Newly-wed couples going to different countries as tourists for their honeymoons, a part
of the wedding tourism, is an activity that has been going on for a long time. Touristic activities for
honeymoon are known to have continued since ancient Greek times (Vidauskaite, 2015). However, it
is quite a new activity for couples to spend their wedding activities in different countries. In addition
to the wedding tourism being a new concept compared to the honeymoon concept (Vidauskaite,
2015), a group of 250-300 people participate in the wedding tourism compared to only the couples
participating in the honeymoon.
In the light of the definitions given in the literature, wedding tourism in a broad sense is a touristic
activity or a trip done in order to carry out the wedding activity in a place other than the resident city
(it may be in another country, or it may be a different place in the same country) involving the trips
and transportation during the trips of the bride and groom, the wedding hosts and the guests,
accommodation, eating and drinking, visits, shopping or a touristic activity or a trip done in order to
celebrate the wedding activity honeymoon. (Figure 1)
Although wedding tourism is referred to with concepts such as marriage tourism and destination
wedding in the literature, wedding tourism is the most fitting one amongst them on this subject
because while the wedding expresses the activity performed on that day, marriage generally refers to
a period that lasts for many years. Since weddings are planned events, it is also possible to consider
wedding tourism a part of event tourism (Vidauskaite, 2015).
With the development in communication and information technologies and increase in socio-
economic change, tourists have developed new perspectives by recognizing new and different cultures
(Zoğal & Emekli, 2017). Defined above, the wedding tourism is a touristic product that was put forth
by these new perspectives. A product of the post-modern paradigm, wedding tourism has many
important characteristics. Wedding tourism contributes to all the stakeholders in the tourism sector
539
and to the tourism’s sub-sectors, as well as providing a number of economic benefits to the
destinations due to the couples’ and guests’ travels.
Wedding tourism can be carried out in many ways. However, the first two most common ones are
destination weddings and exotic weddings. In destination weddings, while selected destinations are of
great importance, activities in this type of wedding tourism are carried out according to the couple's
own traditions. In exotic wedding activities, the soon-to-wed couples are in an effort to make the
wedding more romantic or adventurous rather than making the wedding according to traditional
wedding rituals. Getting married under water, on a balloon or while doing bungee jumping can be
given as examples to this type of wedding tourism.
Demand for wedding tourism around the world is increasing day by day. According to a survey
conducted by the Conde Nast Bridal group, who have been conducting studies on the subject, wedding
tourism increased by 400% in the last decade (Suklabaidya, 2008). Behind this increase in wedding
tourism are factors such as globalization, the development of transportation and communication
technologies, and curiosity about other cultures. On the other hand, the desire of a guaranteed
beautiful weather, the desire to have an unforgettable wedding in a unique place and the conveniences
offered by the wedding packages at the destinations also lead the couples towards wedding tourism
(Major, et al., 2010 cited in Unur et al., 2017). With the increase in its popularity in recent years, 15 %
of the world's weddings in 2014 were made in various destinations under wedding tourism (BrideBox
Wedding Albums, 2014 cited in Khodzhaeva, 2016). Today, wedding tourism is one of the fastest
growing sectors in the tourism industry (Major, Mcleay & Waine, 2010; Seebaluck, et al., 2015 cited in
Vidauskaite, 2015).
A large percentage of wedding tourists comes from the United States, Great Britain, Germany, Italy,
France and Scandinavia. The most popular destinations for wedding tourism are Las Vegas, Hawaii, the
Caribbean, Mexico, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Mauritius, Dubai, Cyprus and Italy (Poon, 2009). Despite
the variety of destinations, the common characteristics for almost all of them is them being suitable
for sea-sand-sun tourism. On the other hand, one of the communities that recently got the upper hand
in wedding tourism are the Indians. Turkey's awareness as a destination has been rising day by day. In
this study, the developments in this context will be put forth.
Purpose and Method

In this study, it was aimed to put froth why Turkey is one of the prominent destinations in the Indian
wedding tourism in recent years. In this regard, the answers to the following questions guiding the
study were sought:
Q1. What are the sources of motivation that push Indians to get married in Turkey?
Q2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Turkey in Turkey’s Indian wedding tourism?
Another purpose of the study is to evaluate this subject that is considered as a new expansion in post-
modern tourism from the perspective of tourism geography by discussing spatial creativity with
human-space interaction. Contributing to the tourism literature of our country with this new research
subject is another purpose of this current study. For this purpose, after conducting a literature review,
Indian weddings were discussed within the scope of Turkey by using data from secondary sources
(organization firms, travel agencies, etc.), and Turkey's strengths and weaknesses were put forth.
540
Findings
Indian Culture and Wedding

With its population of 1.3 billion (17.5 % of the world's population) and with its area of 3.2 km2 (the
seventh largest country in the world), India is a country with a very heterogeneous structure.
Considerable number of Muslims live in the country where the majority of the population is Hindus.
The country in which twenty-one different languages are spoken and tens of different religions are
believed in has great cultural richness. According to this Indian culture with such rich characteristics, a
wedding is the most sacred and important event from birth to death. Indian weddings are events
including many ethnic and religious traditions. These events vary from region to region in India, just
like every other place in the world. The main reason for this is that each region has its own culture but
the common characteristic in almost all of them is them being ostentatious.
One of the most influential communities behind the emergence of wedding tourism is considered to
be Indians since India is the leading country in wedding tourism around the world. Among its 1.3 billion
population, 18 million of them have the capacity to spend at the level of Europeans and are looking
for a destination for wedding tourism (www.kulturturizm.gov.tr) (29.08.2018). By 2018, the Indian
wedding tourism revenue has reached 60 billion dollars. In this context, India's rich families have been
holding weddings in certain destinations for 30 years, especially in Indonesia and Thailand. However,
since Indian weddings have been hold in these destinations for about 30 years, these countries have
become tired destinations. Therefore, Indians began to seek an alternative destination. In this regard,
as an alternative destination in recent years, Turkey has become one of the most popular countries for
Indian weddings.
Here, it is important to draw the attention to a certain issue. The main reason why Indians hold their
weddings outside their country is not because opportunities in India are limited or because they are
reacting towards the traditional weddings in their country. On the contrary, India is an important
wedding destination for those looking for exotic and adventurous (with its beaches, Himalayas, under
water weddings, etc.) weddings. However, due to various motivational sources to be discussed in the
next sections, holding weddings outside their country became an increasing event.
A New Destination in Indian Weddings: Turkey

Tourism has a dynamic structure due to its nature. As a result of this characteristics, tourism is subject
to constant development and change. This aforementioned change and development comes true
multi-dimensionally (destination, tourist, touristic product, etc.). On the other hand, it is not possible
to limit tourism to specific areas since the perception of tourism changed with the world changing
along with the post-modern paradigm. In today’s world where the demand for different types of
tourism have risen due to tourism’s dynamic structure, the necessity for Turkey to expand and diversify
its touristic product pool should not be ignored. Along this junction, new approaches, perspectives and
vision are needed in Turkish tourism.
The growth of the network society, the increasing importance of the network and the rise of network
organizations directly affect tourism (Zoğal & Emekli, 2017). Because of this effect, Indians who come
from about nine thousand kilometers away hold their weddings at destinations in Turkey. Thus, this
provides a new expansion and alternative tourism diversity to our country’s tourism. The new trends
that emerge in this context offer new opportunities for countries. For Turkey, one of these expansions
is the Indian wedding tourism (Unur et al., 2017). Indian wedding tourism is a kind of creative tourism
that is focused on demand and high in expectation.
Wedding tourism is a new and alternative kind of tourism for Turkey. Indian wedding tourism in our
country has become one of the latest expansions in Turkish tourism by developing day by day. In
541
Turkey, where approximately 650 thousand couples marry every year, the wedding cake is growing
continuously. Wedding organizations that feed about 20 lines of business from the pastry cook to the
wedding dress maker, from the printer to the organization firms have become an industry in itself now.
In an interview, Meltem Tepeler, the founding president of the Creative Activities Planning and
Implementation Association (YEPUD), stated that Istanbul is the city where the highest number of
weddings are being held in the world after Las Vegas. Each year more than 350 international weddings
take place in Turkey.
Turkey, with its natural and cultural characteristics as well as its rich historical heritage, various
shopping opportunities, the quality of hotels and its suitable weather, has been attracting Indian
families more day by day. Also, Turkey being at the intersection of Asian and European cultures is
another advantage for Indian wedding tourism. Indian wedding tourism is significant in terms of
creating diversity and alternative for Turkey. Particularly, weddings confirmed to be held outside the
sea-sand-sun season provide vitality for the resort hotels whose occupancy rates are well below their
capacity during the off season. (Figure 2)
Nature, landscape (Kim & Agrusa, 2005), price, fashion and culture are important factors affecting the
decision making process of couples during their destination selection. For this reason, Indian weddings
in our country are held along the Mediterranean and Aegean coasts where the sea-sand-sun tourism
is intense. Among these regions, especially Antalya and Bodrum destinations are in the forefront. In
these aforementioned destinations, the wedding events take place in 5-star resort hotels. As state
above, the 3S factor plays a decisive role in the Indian wedding tourism. Beside the mentioned
destinations, there are also many wedding events held in Istanbul. The biggest factor behind Indians
preferring Istanbul is the Turkish TV series. The Turkish series, which are shown in India, are high in
demand. Since the Bosphorus view is frequently used in many of the above-mentioned series, Indians
want to hold their wedding events in the unique scenery provided by the geography. Another
advantage of Istanbul is that it has direct flights from India. Indeed, as will be stated later, one of the
biggest obstacles in front of the development of Indian wedding tourism in our country is the lack of
direct flights.
According to the information obtained from the organization firms in our country during the study
period, security, accessibility, high quality service, beautiful landscape, beautiful weather, shopping
facilities, eating and drinking facilities, nightlife, and natural, cultural and historical attractions play
important roles in the destination selection of Indians.
As mentioned before, many factors play roles in the destination selection of wedding tourism.
However, the common feature of almost every destination is that it is convenient in terms of the sea-
sand-sun tourism. In this respect, Turkey is a suitable destination for Indian wedding tourism thanks to
its many features.
While considering the Indian wedding tourism in Turkey, it is necessary to evaluate the factors that
push Indians to have their weddings in Turkey and also the factors that attract Indian weddings to our
country. While the motives of Indians holding their wedding events in our country are generally based
on invisible sources of motivation, they consider Turkey’s physical features as the attractive factors for
destination section. In this context, it is possible to discuss Indians desire to have their weddings
outside the country as the driving factor and the attractive factors as the factors that play a role in the
selection of the destination. (Table 1).
When the number of Indian weddings that has increased particularly in the last two years and the
number of guests are taken into consideration together, big figures do not come into play. Since there
is no official authority to keep current data in this area, no definitive statements could not be made.
However, when the number of events and the number of people participating in the events are
542
calculated in general, there have been nearly 30 Indian weddings were held in our country, and
approximately six thousand Indian tourists have been hosted. Considering that the minimum budget
capacity required for Indian wedding events in our country is 750 thousand dollars, even though the
number of people participating in Indian wedding tourism in our country is not very high, the high
budget of these organizations are important for our country’s tourism. Therefore, Indian wedding
tourism is a tourist product that should be considered significant for our country since its economic
input to our country is high. As of 2018, ten weddings have been confirmed in our country and the
number of weddings aimed to be held by the end of the year is 20. The total cost of the wedding held
in Bodrum, one of the confirmed weddings for the month of April, was five million dollars. The total
cost of another wedding held in Antalya last year exceeded two million EurosIndian weddings held in
Turkey generally lasts four or five days, and their budgets exceed couple of million dollars. It is very
important to fully meet the demands of the Indians during these wedding events organized because
details are very important in this kind of events where many people participate and where the budget
is very high. For this purpose, the planning of Indian weddings starts a year ago. It is very important
for the wedding owners to visit the premises before the wedding so that the wedding goes smooth
and perfect. Various organization firms in our country prepare package programs by getting in touch
with the Indian travel agencies and organization firms. The organization firms in Turkey are
professional planners (Inventum Global, A45 Organizasyon, etc.). Since these organization firms ensure
the communication (demands, expectations and hotels’ answers), they have a key position in Indian
weddings. In this context, the organizations are considered a kind of a wedding host. The main duties
of organization companies are: To learn the demands of the wedding hosts by meeting with them,
• To determine the budget,

• To organize events,
• To search venues,
• To prepare the participant list,
• To ensure the smooth operation of service,
• To prepare the decorations,
• To coordinate,
• To prepare an emergency action plan,
• To prepare the legal procedure when necessary,
• To help the tourists with the provision of passports and insurance documents.
Indian wedding tourism has four legs: transportation, catering, accommodation, additional services
(sightseeing, shopping, etc.). Among these four legs, Turkey has the disadvantage of only about
transportation since there are no direct flights from India to the Indian wedding destinations in Turkey
(except Istanbul). The biggest obstacle in front of the development of Indian wedding tourism in turkey
is the lack of direct flights between the two countries. Especially for the Indians who prefer the Aegean
and Mediterranean coasts as their destinations, it takes a long time to get to their destination over
Istanbul. On the other hand, even direct flights from India to Istanbul last nearly six hours. (Figure 3)
Those who travel such long distance for the wedding events do not want to waste more time with
transit flights.
Thanks to our diverse cuisine culture, our country is very advantageous in terms of catering. Also, since
cuisine culture is also very important for Indians, about 30 cooks from India are brought with their
Indian spices for every wedding.
The accommodation capacity and facilities of our country are one of the main factors attracting Indian
weddings to our country. In this regard, there are many resort hotels where events can be hold,
543
especially on the Mediterranean and Aegean coasts. For most of the events, the hotels are closed or a
large section of them is reserved for the use of Indian tourists.
In the post-wedding activities, Indian tourists gets the opportunity to see various places of our country
and also gets the opportunity to do shopping.
It is possible to evaluate the Indian weddings hold in our country within the scope of destination
weddings because in this type of wedding tourism destinations have great importance. The wedding
activities are carried out according to their own traditions. For the creativity of the venue, the hotel is
prepared according to selected concepts and the preparations starts days before the event. Additional
staff to the existing staff of the hotels are brought in from various parts of Turkey.
Held in accordance with Indian traditions, the wedding ceremony lasts for 4-5 days. In addition to
traditional activities, various Bollywood artists perform at the wedding. Furthermore, concepts such
as the Turkish nights, harem, folklore and janissary music are preferred. As it can be seen, Indian
weddings are held in accordance with traditional rituals from catering to decorations and clothes to be
worn. Therefore, Indian weddings include the touches of modern life without compromising from
tradition.
Participants in Indian wedding tourism continue to behave like ordinary tourists after the wedding
event by continuing to use their accommodation, eat, shop and visit different places. When discussed
from these aspects, the significance of Indian wedding tourism in our country’s tourism industry
becomes apparent. Another issue to pay attention here is that since the financiers of those who
participate in Indian wedding tourism are the wedding owners, it is seen that wedding owners pay the
guests’ every activity other than their private shopping. In some cases, the wedding owners even pay
the guests’ private shopping.
Result
Wedding tourism is a rapidly expanding new and alternative tourism type of the recent years. It is
particularly a new type of tourism seen in Turkey. New types of tourists come to our country through
wedding tourism. With its every kind of infrastructure services, Turkey has an important potential in
Indian wedding tourism. (Table 2) Indian wedding tourism’s contribution to Turkey’s tourism economy
is very significant, especially for Antalya and Bodrum since the staff working in the organization are
brought from various part of Turkey in addition to a large part of the service activities being provided
from the destination region. Furthermore, Indian wedding tourism is important for our country since
it is an alternative type of tourism in addition to it bringing economic revenue.
Another characteristic of Indian wedding tourism is that, due to the uniqueness of the place where the
wedding ceremonies are held, people come back to the same destinations again for their wedding
anniversaries or future vacations. Thus, it is possible that the wedding tourism will have a positive
effect on the tourism movements in the following years.
Even though Indian wedding tourism is a new expansion in Turkey, it has the traces of both modern
and post-modern tourism paradigms. While the effects of the modern period can be seen with the all-
inclusive concepts, and outrageous and excessive consumption, the effects of the post-modern
paradigm can be seen with individualized concepts and with its feature to live different cultures.
In order to develop the Indian wedding tourism in our country, there a number of events were
organized. Nearly 250 Indian travel agencies were invited to Muğla in October 2017, and various
workshops were organized. Such initiatives are important steps for the development of Indian wedding
tourism.
544
One of the most important functions of tourism is communication between countries. Indian wedding
tourism contributes to long-term relationship with the tourists participating in the organization. In
addition to showing our cultural and natural richness to the tourists coming to our country through
Indian wedding tourism, we can also imprint ourselves into their minds with our hospitable behaviors.
Promotion and marketing, one of the most important elements of tourism, undoubtedly cannot be
realized more effectively. Particularly in the post-wedding activities, they should get out the package
program and experience the place with the locals. Thus, the foreign tourists who participate in these
events will see the beauties of Turkey and will choose Turkey as a holiday destination in the coming
years. In this regard, the destination image should be improved, and the diversity of the destinations
should be increased with the addition of different destinations such as Alanya, Fethiye and Marmaris.
Indian wedding tourism does not take place as a mass tourism movement but takes place individually
with the participation of the wedding owners and their relatives and close friends. However, since its
added value is high as mentioned earlier, it is very important for our country’s tourism economy. In
today's conditions, closing down the resort hotels where the cost of a single room per night can cost
between 3000 and 5000 Turkish Liras requires very high budgets.
On the other hand, Indian wedding tourism sector includes various suppliers such as accommodation,
food and beverage, photographers, hairdressers, event organizers and travel agencies. While Indian
wedding tourism supports many sectors related to the weddings, it also contributes to many other
sectors that are not directly related to the weddings but can be found in the destination area. In order
to increase this contribution, it is necessary to further increase the relationship between the tourists
and the locals.
For Indians, gold and jewelry are as important as their weddings. As a matter of fact, there are Indian-
style bracelets and jewelry sets which have spread to the world and are also widely used in our country.
In this respect, in order to increase the revenue from the Indian wedding tourism, our country’s local
jewelry (Adana-style bracelet, Maraş belt, Trabzon set, etc.) should be introduced and sold to the
wedding participants. Undoubtedly, a society that loves gold and jewelry this much will also be very
interested in our country’s local jewelry.
The difference between the Indian wedding tourism and the other wedding tourism events around the
world is that while the others are preferred due to their low costs, the Indian wedding tourism budgets
are quite high as mentioned earlier.
As is known airline transportation is one of the key points of tourism development. Participants in
Indian wedding tourism also demand a comfortable trip. The biggest obstacle to the development of
the Indian wedding tourism in Turkey is the fact that there are no direct flights. Presently, those
participating in the Indian wedding tourism travel either with transit flights or rented aircrafts. This
situation increases the cost of the activities as well as reduces the demand.
While the lack of direct flights is Turkey's biggest disadvantage, the lack of promotion is also Turkey’s
another problem. Despite the increasing trend in recent years, Turkey cannot even get 1% share of the
Indian wedding tourism. In order for the increasing trend to continue and get more share from the
Indian wedding market, Turkey should solve its direct flight and promotion problems, and should
provide more convenience in visa applications and customs.
In addition, coordination among stakeholders should be ensured, a specific standard should be

determined, a brand for this standard should be created, and more weddings should be confirmed by
presenting packages that have various advantages. At this point, not only private institutions but also
the public institutions should embark on enterprises encouraging this type of tourism.
545
Undoubtedly, before developing a new touristic product, evaluating the destination potential of the
product in question could provide significant advantages. For this reason, it is important to conduct
related studies first. When this is evaluated in terms of wedding tourism, it is seen that tourism
researchers in Turkey has not shown in this area yet. The only study on the subject in Turkish literature
is the one conducted by Unur et al. (2017) on the wedding tourism literature. An untouched sector
with such high budgets should also be supported by academic studies. As mentioned before, this study
is conducted within the scope of the stated purpose and contains only theoretical information. Not
doing works such as field surveys and other applications is a limitation of the study. In the future, it is
essential to carry out more comprehensive studies after completing the shortcomings of the subject
with various studies.
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Unur, K.Kanca, B., Ertaş, Ç., (2017), Yeni Bir Turistik Ürün Olarak Düğün Turizmi: Alanyazın İncelenmesi,
Uluslararası İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, Özel Sayı 1.
Vidauskaite, R., (2015), Destination Branding Thruough Wedding Tourism: The Case of Caribbean,
unpublished master thesis
Web Resources
Zoğal, V., Emekli, G., (2017), Yaratıcı Turizme Kavramsal ve Coğrafi Bir Yaklaşım, Ege Coğrafya Dergisi,
c.1,s.26, ss.21-34, İZMİR
Tables and Figures
Figure 1. Wedding Tourism
Figure 2. Photographs from Indian Wedding in Turkey
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Figure 3. Flight time from India to Turkey
Driving factors Attractive Factors

Prestige and status Sea-sans-sun
Social interaction Warm weather
Resting and relaxation High quality resorts and hotels
The other destinations being tired ones Recreational facilities
The desire to have different experiences Historical and cultural heritage
Natural environment
Accommodation and eating-drinking service
Service quality and diversity
Geographic location
Table 1. The driving and attractive factors of the Indian wedding held in Turkey
Strenghts Weaknesses
Friendly local communities Extended transportation time
Rich packages with better prices Lack of promotion
High quality resort hotels Not giving the necessary importance
Unique flora and fauna Not being a brand
Historical and cultural heritage Turkey entering the market late
Natural environment Security problems in neighboring countries
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Traditional Turkish hospitality Lack of qualified staff in tourism

Turkish brand Being attached to organization firms
Opportunities Threats
The other destinations being tired ones Increase in costs
Turkey’s geopolitical diversity Services provided by rival destinations
Increase in the wedding tourism market Global stagnation and rivalry
Increase in the young population in India Under the counter firms
Professional organization firms The risk of not reaching the target population
Opening to new markets in wedding tourism The easiness of getting copied
Table 2. SWOT Analysis of the Indian wedding tourism in Turkey
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7685
DETERMINATION OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS’ ALIENATION

LEVELS: THE CASE OF ANADOLU UNIVERSITY TOURISM FACULTY
Sezi Aydın
Research Assistant
Eskisehir, Turkey
seziaydin@anadolu.edu.tr
Çağıl Hale Özel

Associate Professor
Eskisehir,Turkey
Abstract
Alienation may occur towards a person himself, society, workplace or the living environment. The
alienation of the individual is an issue that increasingly causes the alienation of the society. Education
constitutes one of the dimensions of the alienation. It is crucial both for the literature and executers
to determine the alienation levels of students, to investigate the causes of alienation and enhance
possible solutions. In this context, a research was conducted during the fall semester of 2017-2018
academic year in order to determine the alienation levels of students studying in different departments
of Anadolu University Tourism Faculty. In this study, a quantitative approach was performed, and a
descriptive research model was used. Student Alienation Scale was used as a data collection tool and
it was investigated whether students’ alienation levels differed according to variables such as gender,
department, class and income level. In conclusion, it was found that students experience moderate
alienation in all subdimension of alienation, namely powerlessness, irregularity, isolation and
meaninglessness. Results of this study may help Anadolu University Tourism Faculty management to
take precautions to prevent further alienations of students.
Key Words: Alienation, Alienation in education, Undergraduate students, Anadolu University Faculty
of Tourism.
Introduction
The quest for discovering and knowing themselves is an inherent property of all humans. Thus,
realizing oneself depends on self-knowing and forging a meaning (bond) with then world. However,
the “alienation” phenomenon appears as a psychological problem in today’s industrialized and
technological society, which is defined as humans’ living in a meaninglessness because of turning into
self-alienated individuals. Alienation generally means person’s failure to bind himself with the current
world and living in a meaninglessness.
As alienation may be towards oneself, it can also be towards society, state, working place or the living
environment, but the individual’s alienation gradually causes to society’s alienation. Alienation, which
appears intellectually in the society at first, leads to one’s conflicting with own values and
fragmentation of social structure through the society’s failure of holding self-values (Şahin, 2013).
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Alienation composes one of the social problems, those affect especially current societies in sociologic,
technologic, political and economic fields and vary from one culture to another. Educational
institutions are the most important social constructions in which human is found from birth. Alienation
phenomenon, which can be diversified in consumption, production, professional, political and many
other fields, can also be seen in educational institutions which exist to make individuals adopt terminal
behavior.
It is generally accepted that alienated students do not appreciate the education provided at schools,
in addition, it is known that school education is not meaningful to them and they are in a tendency of
receding from school. This alienation pushes the student to failure and decreases identification with
school, hence causes the student to move away from academic goals (Finn, 1989, p:123). In other
words, alienation may cause serious problems in education. For that reason, identifying the alienation
level of students, making educational institutions be aware of this problem and bringing solution
suggestions are seen as important steps in educational field.
When then literature is examined, it is seen that the number of studies that search the alienation levels
of university students is limited. Therefore, in this study, it is aimed to specify the alienation level
experienced by the students of Anadolu University, Faculty of Tourism. Defining if the alienation
experienced differentiates according to gender, program, class and monthly income of the students in
3 different departments of the Tourism Faculty (tourism management, tour guiding, gastronomy and
culinary arts), is the sub goal of this study. By this means, it is regarded that an awareness can be
created about the alienation problem at universities, where are aiming to bring up qualified human
resources, and suggestions can be made about the solution ways of this problem.
Alienation
Alienation concept, while having a long historical past, primarily showed up in the field of theology in
the 18th century, entered to philosophy with Hegel, and economics and politics with Marx; and
became a fundamental subject in many fields with the impact of these thinkers (Ergil, 1978: p.93).
Alienation concept was first used by G.W. Friedrich Hegel towards an entity’s externalization, while
Karl Marx institutionalized the concept through dealing with the dimension of worker, labor and
product alienation. Together with that, Durkheim dealt with the alienating side of the division of labor,
Simmel of the metropole life, Weber of rationalization and bureaucracy and Marcuse of industry and
mass medium. Peter Berger applied a broader point of view and dealt with how human alienate to
oneself, as the producer of socio-cultural world, and many other 19th and 20th century thinkers
analyzed the concept with regard to fields such as theology, modernization, personalization,
existentialism, etc. (Tekin, 2014: p:30).
Ergil (1978, p.95) states that alienation originates in private property and division of labor, and human,
who’s economic role is determined, is alienated from oneself and others due to the lack of organizing
self-work-order and products of labor. With reference to the social fact in the historical process, Marks
conducted with the idea that human’s alienation has to be understood in order to be free. Property
relations in the historical process which caused human to be alienated to oneself, caused the shaping
of social structure. He stated that because features that cause the rise of alienation exist in the social
structure, such as property relations; in order to sweep alienation away from human life, relations that
provide the evolution and existence of social structure need to be understood primarily (Coşkun, 2013:
s.121).
For a better understanding and especially evaluation of alienation, it is a very useful attitude to quote
what are the sub-dimensions that reveal alienation. Researchers analyze alienation in four sub
dimensions in varying researches. For instance, Çağlar (2012) stated that alienation is composed of
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four sub-dimensions, too. Weakness, among them, defines the situation in which outer factors such as
chance, faith and others’ behaviors are influential on the individual, individual’s own effect and
individual supervision is limited (Elma, 2003). Normlessness is the situation of disapproval of the
necessity of behaviors that are seen necessary to realize targets (Seeman, 1959). Solitude is the
situation that occurs when the individual withdraws himself from society or his circle excludes him
(Yılmaz and Sarpkaya, 2009). Meaninglessness is the situation that students doubt about why they
have to attend to the activities at school (Çağlar, 2012). Newman (1981) analyzed alienation under the
name of “student alienation” and with a similar tendency stated that student alienation has four sub-
dimensions as weakness, meaninglessness, normlessness and solitude. According to that Newman
(1981) defends that weakness expresses students’ deficiency of personal perception in learning and
normlessness defines students’ lack of suitable behaviors to rules in fields such as ethics. On the other
hand, while meaninglessness is referring to course programs which alienated students believe that
they have no relation to their existing and future needs, solitude/isolation indicates departure from
friends and teachers, social departure, in other words.
Literature
Alienation and the importance of its reflections on education also pulled the attention of varying
researches in the literature. Avcı (2012), embracing alienation as a fundamental problem in education,
put emphasis on the reasons of alienation observed on the students in the educational institution and
with a conceptual research he tried to state the measures to be taken on individual and institutional
basis in order to minimize alienation which has many negative impacts on students. The writer stated
that, in order to protect students from the negative effects of alienation, life standards of teachers
must be enhanced, schools must be more ergonomic spatially, families must be informed about the
reasons and solutions of alienation and social media must pull its weight.
In Şimşek and Akdemir’s study (2015), which was done to determine the variables that affect the
alienation levels of university students in weakness, meaninglessness and solitude dimensions, student
alienation scale was used, and descriptive scanning model was applied on 421 university students. It
was discovered that students’ genders, department choices, academics, relations with class mates and
level of attending to social activities were the factors that are effective on feeling alienation from
school. In a similar study conducted in Bozok University in 2014, it was tried to find out if the alienation
level of students differed depending on their gender, age, department, family income and purpose of
using technology. As a result, it was found out that all of the students were living a middle level of
alienation in all weakness, normlessness, solitude and meaninglessness dimensions (Çelik and
Babaoğlan, 2017). Table 1 is composed to look at alienation from a broader perspective.
Table 1. Studies in the Literature

Researc
Releas
Author(s) Subject h Sample Outcome
e year
method
Theoreti
Education
cal Educational institutions play
Yapıcı 2004 and _
approac an effective role in alienation
alienation
h
20 teachers Teachers experience
Alienation
Qualitati working in alienation not in all
concept in
Erjem 2005 ve two dimensions and prevalently,
education
analysis classical but in some dimensions and
and teacher
state high partially
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schools in
Mersin
Changes made in the system
and course programs under
Alienation in
Theoreti the name of “reform”
Yılmaz educational
cal increase uncertainty and
and 2009 organization _
approac these negations in education
Sarpkaya s and its
h compose the basis for
management
alienation for students,
teachers and manager
Candidate teachers’ genders,
680 faculty department choices, levels of
Alienation to of relationship with academics
Quantit
Ataş and school in education and classmates and
2013 ative
Ayık candidate students in frequency of attending to
analysis
teachers Atatürk social activities are factors
University that affect their alienation
feeling towards school.
Relationship Meaningful relationships
539 hotel
Develioğl between Quantit identified between 5 factor
employees
u and 2013 characteristi ative characteristics of the
in 18 five
Tekin cs and analysis employees and different
star hotels
alienation dimensions of alienation.
Structure of digital
environments, which is far
Socialization from reality, makes individual
Theoreti
and dependent on screens and
Karagülle cal
2014 alienation in technology. This situation
and Çaycı approac
the web renders him isolated within
h
society crowds and brings together
the alienation problem to
himself and his circle.
Education
The fact that individuals do
and social Theoreti
not have equal chances in
Kale and gender from cal
2016 reaching education but are
Nur the view of approac
subject to same examination,
Marxist h
exhibits educational gap.
Theory
In Table 1, studies made on alienation in education are cited, but it was seen that the number of studies
examining alienation over students is limited. One of those limited studies about alienation of students
is the one conducted on 875 students in Adıyaman University, Faculty of Education, to find out their
alienation level and attitudes towards teaching profession. According to the research, it was concluded
that there was a moderately negative relationship between the alienation level and attitudes towards
teaching profession (Çağlar, 2013). Another study was made by Çağlar (2012) to develop a tool for the
measurement of the alienation feeling of students. Study was conducted on 857 students studying in
different departments of Education Faculty in different grades. Structure with four factors was tested
within the framework of validity works. Mentioned four factors were utilized in this study, too, in
defining the alienation levels of students studying in the Anadolu University, Faculty of Tourism.
553
Method
Descriptive research model is used in this study, which adopts quantitative research approach. During
the research period, it was analyzed with Student Alienation Scale, if alienation showed any meaningful
difference according to students’ gender, department, grade and monthly income variables.
Population and Sample

The population of the research is composed of 831 undergraduate students studying in Anadolu
University, Faculty of Tourism, in the fall term of 2017-2018 school year. But, because of time
limitation, sampling was implemented. According to the sampling calculation formula (Ural and Kılıç,
2013: p.47), it was determined that the sample representing a limited population composed of 831
students was 260. Convenience sampling was applied in gathering data. Sample of the research was
composed of 283 students in total, studying at Tourism Management, Tour Guiding and Gastronomy
and Culinary arts departments of Anadolu University, Faculty of Tourism.
Data Collection Tool and Data Collection

Survey technic is used in order to reach descriptive data for defining students’ alienation levels. In the
research, Student Alienation Scale, developed by Çağlar (2012) was used to measure the alienation
perceptions of 283 students studying at Anadolu University, Faculty of Tourism. Student Alienation
Scale is of a 5 point Likert type, valued between “1 (strongly disagree) and 5 (strongly agree). The scale
is composed of four sub-dimensions of alienation, which are “weakness” (6 items), “normlessness” (4
items), “solitude” (5 items) and “meaninglessness” (5 items) and 20 statements. An additional personal
information form was included in the scale in order to find out the demographic features of the
students and to measure if these features make up a meaningful difference on alienation.
For the validity of the scale, interviews with three field experts were made and positive feedback was
received from them about the convenience of questions to the purpose of the research. Data were
collected during fall semester of 2017-2018 school year at the Faculty of Tourism and students were
reached at places such as canteen, holding bay and yard. Filling of the surveys took about 5 minutes in
average for each student and in the existence of incoherent questions, the problem was overcome
with the help of the researchers.
Data Analysis and Findings

SPSS 22. And AMOS packages were utilized in the analysis of the data. Descriptive analysis, T test and
ANOVA were used in the analyses of the data gathered for the measurement of students’ perceptions
towards alienation. Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient about the four sub dimensions of the scale
were calculated as “weakness” (,79), “normlessness” (,75), “solitude” (,76) and “meaninglessness”
(,76). In the scale wide calculation, coefficient was found as 0,86. As a result of the analysis, internal
consistency coefficient was calculated as 0,81 and this value proved the scale to be highly confidential
(Kalaycı, 2010).
Average, median, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis values are used to find out if the data
distribution was normal in the research. Each dimension of alienation was tested according to the
results of the analysis and it was discovered that measures of central tendency are close to each other,
skewness and kurtosis value as are between +1 and -1 (Table 2). It is accepted that data meets the
normalcy criteria if aberrations from normalcy are either between +1 and -1 (Kalaycı, 2010) or +1,5 and
-1,5 (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2013). Under the light of these information, the research was continued
with parametric tests.
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Table 2. Findings about the normal distribution of alienation dimensions

Weakness Normlessness Solitude Meaninglessness
Average 2,0 2,96 2,82 3,06
Median 2,50 3,00 2,80 3,00
Standard
0,79 0,81 0,57 0,98
deviation
Skewness 0,50 0,01 0,16 0,15
Kurtosis 0,29 -0,34 0,23 0,68
Findings on Students’ Demographic Features

It is seen that the number of male and female participants is close to each other. Considering the
departments of the students, it is seen that most of them are registered to Gastronomy and Culinary
Arts departments, which is followed by Tourism Management and Tour Guiding. Number of students
at the 1st, 2nd and 4th grades are close to each other but the number of students at the 3rd grade is lesser
compared to the others. Finally, when the students’ monthly incomes are analyzed, it is seen that the
numbers which have an income less than 500 TL, 501-800 TL, 801-1200 TL and 1201 and over are close
to each other (Table 3).
Table 3. Students’ demographic features

Demographic variables Categories N Per cent
(%)
Gender Female 123 45,7
Male 146 54,3

Department Tourism Management 86 32,0
Tour Guiding 62 23,0
Gastronomy and Culinary 121 45,0

Arts
Grade 1st 83 30,9
2nd 64 23,8
3rd 46 17,1
4th 76 28,3
Monthly income <=500 TL 75 27,9
501-800 TL 60 22,3
801-1200 TL 73 27,1
>=1201 TL 61 22,7
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Findings about Differences

According to then independent t-test results, weakness dimension of alienation differs according to
the gender of the student. This difference comes from the fact that men live more alienation at the
weakness dimension compared to women. Other three dimensions of alienation, normlessness,
solitude and meaninglessness does not differ according to the gender of students (Table 4).
Table 4. T-test about the alienation level of students according to gender

Dimension Gender N Average Standard Degree of t P
deviation freedom
Weakness Female 122 2,46 0,68 266 -2,60 𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎∗
Male 146 2,71 0,85

Normlessness Female 123 2,89 0,71 267 -1,13 0,26
Male 146 3,00 0,50

Solitude Female 123 2,84 0,62 267 0,62 0,53
Male 146 2,80 0,78

Meaninglessness Female 122 2,99 0,95 265 4,99 0,29
Male 145 3,12 0,99

∗𝒑𝒑<,05
It is discovered via ANOVA that monthly income creates a meaningful difference at the alienation level
of students. Those students which have incomes between <=500 TL and >=1201 TL experience more
alienation at the meaninglessness dimension. Those students which have incomes between 501-800
TL and 801-1200 TL experience less alienation at the meaninglessness dimension. Students alienation
levels at weakness, solitude and normlessness dimensions does not differentiate according to the
income levels (Table 5).
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Table 5. Students’ level of alienation according to monthly income

Dimension Monthly N Average Standard Degree of F p
income deviation freedom
<=500 TL 70 2,42 0,72
501-800 TL 60 2,55 0,79

Weakness 3 2,33 0,07
801-1200 TL 72 2,69 0,78
>=1201 TL 61 2,37 0,84

<=500 TL 75 2,87 0,79
501-800 TL 60 2,90 0,77

Normlessness 3 1,65 0,17
801-1200 TL 73 2,92 0,80
>=1201 TL 61 3,16 0,89

<=500 TL 74 3,00 0,89
501-800 TL 59 2,86 0,93

Meaninglessness 3 4,09 𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎∗
801-1200 TL 73 2,97 1,05
>=1201 TL 61 3,43 0,95

<=500 TL 75 2,84 0,57
501-800 TL 60 2,88 0,52

Solitude 3 2,41 0,06
801-1200 TL 73 2,87 0,54
>=1201 TL 61 2,64 0,61

∗𝒑𝒑<,05
Again, it is found out with ANOVA that students’ alienation level doesn’t differentiate due to
department and grade varieties. It is generally concluded that students experience medium level of
alienation in all sub-dimensions of alienation, which are weakness, solitude, meaninglessness and
normlessness.

Existing study is conducted to deal with the alienation phenomenon experienced in educational
institutions and to define the alienation level of experienced by students at the university level. In the
study, it is concluded that university students in general experience medium level alienation in all sub-
dimensions of alienation, namely weakness, meaninglessness, normlessness and solitude. This result
shows to be similar with the previously conducted researches (Çelik and Babaoğlan, 2017; Coşkun and
Altay, 2009).
Considering each dimension of alienation, it is concluded that university students’ weakness levels vary
according to their gender. According to this result, male students experience more alienation at the
weakness dimension compared to female students, but normlessness, solitude and meaninglessness
dimensions do not differ according to gender. This outcome can be explained with the fact that
557
implications at the educational institutions are not student-centered, in other words, lesson teaching
methods cannot be restored to a student-level, activities and students’ active participation to
educational process are not performed commensurately. There are also researches which reveal that
students’ alienation level differs according to gender and male students experience more alienation
compared to female students (Uzun, 2006; Ataş, 2012; Polat et al. 2015). On the other hand, the
literature also includes researches that conclude that female students experience more alienation
compared to male students (Bayhan, 1995).
It is determined in the research that students’ meaninglessness levels differ according to their monthly
incomes. Accordingly, students with the lowest and highest monthly incomes experience more
alienation. It can be regarded that low-income students find school and educational life meaningless
because of heading to work life and high-income students because of nightlife. Nevertheless, students’
weakness, solitude and normlessness levels do not change according to their monthly income. A similar
result was revealed by Uzun’s study (2006) concluding that students with lower socio-economic levels
experience more alienation. However, in the previous researches which took family income as a
variable (Çelik and Babaoğlan, 2017; Ataş, 2012; Coşikun and Altay, 2009; Çelik, 2005), it was concluded
that the alienation levels of students’ do not differentiate according to the family income level.
It is discovered that weakness, normlessness and solitude levels of students make no difference
according to department and grade variables. However, in other researches it was concluded that
students’ alienation levels differed according to their departments (Çelik and Babaoğlan, 2017;
Bayhan, 1995). On the other hand, there is also a research which stated that the alienation level of
students varies according to the grade levels of students. Accordingly, alienation feeling increases as
the grade proceeds. This situation can be associated with students’ experiences. In the first years of
school, the absence of enough experience to make a healthier evaluation of the instructors and the
environment may cause students to have more optimistic feelings. As the grade proceeds, this optimist
feelings may be replaced by alienation because they obtain experience that will avail them to make
healthier evaluations (Çağlar, 2013).
Students exercise alienation at the weakness level more compared to other dimensions. This may be
indicating that students are not happy with their schools. According to the weakness dimension,
students don’t believe that the knowledge they get from school does not improve them. On the other
hand, students do not feel lucky to be educated at the school where they are and believe that the
knowledge they get don’t make any contribution to understand and interpret life. In the normlessness
dimension, on the other hand students experience alienation at the medium level. According to this
result, students, at the medium level, think that disciplinary regulations at school are strict and pour
themselves into something in the classes not to get bored. Similarly, students experience medium level
of alienation at the solitude dimension and believe that their school mates are selfish and do not trust
them. Alienation at the meaninglessness level is experienced at lower levels by students, compared to
other dimensions. Hereunder activities at school doesn’t feel meaningless to students and they
willingly go to school.
Although the research results show consistency with the results of previous researches, it also has
similarities and differences in some respects. Handling of alienation at education in a broader way is
important for the educational life of students. For that reason, alienation’s relationship with the
students’ age, relations with friends and instructors, attendance to school activities and course success
must also be studied. Looking to alienation phenomenon from a broader perspective is important to
understand the source of the problem and develop solutions. With reference to the findings of this
research, suggestions such as creating more room for social activities for students, working on
teamwork for the development of friendship relations and contribute them to develop their
558
friendships and implementing group activities such as hobby clubs which strengthen sharing between
students can be made to the faculty management.
Biographical Notes
Sezi Aydın is a Research Assistant in the Department of Tourism, Anadolu University in Eskisehir,
Turkey. She is a Ph.D student and focuses on tourism economics.
Çağıl Hale Özel is an Associate Professor in the Department of Tourism, Anadolu University in Eskisehir,
Turkey. She teaches courses on tourism marketing and ethics in tourism.
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Appendix-1. Question Form

The purpose of this survey is to determine the alienation levels of Anadolu
agree
Strongly disagree
University Tourism Faculty students. By carefully reading the following
Strongly agree
nor disagree
statements, indicate your level of agreement by marking the appropriate
rating option (X) in front of each statement. Please, do not leave any
Disagree
Neither
Agree
statement blank.
S1. I don’t know who to trust.     

S2. I believe that the information I obtained from this school has improved     
S3. If I knew that I would not fail the course, I would not work for courses.     
S4. In order to complete the school, I feel that I have to do many things even     
if I do not find correct
S5. I feel so lonely at school.     
S6. I can make more effective decisions thanks to what I learn at school.*     
S7. I think that my school mates are selfish people who only think about     
themselves.
S8. I feel lucky for being in this school.*     
S9. I feel greater confidence in myself as I spend more time at school. *     
S10. I find compulsory attendance to classes unnecessary.     
S11. I trust in my school mates.*     
S12. I cannot find a friend at school these days, who can understand me and     
share my problems
S13. I think that the regulations about school discipline are very strict.     
S14. I continue to school not willingly but because the conditions necessitate     
S15. Although many practices at school are meaningless for me, I have to
    
endure to graduate.
S16. I think that the knowledge gathered from school have important     
contribution to understand and interpret life *
S17. I think that school restricts my freedom.     
S18. I am bored to death in the class unless I find something to entertain     
myself.
S19. I find the rules at school meaningless.     
S20. I think that being successful at this school matters.*     
Gender: Female ( ) - Male ( )
Monthly income: ______________
Department: Tourism Management( )– Tourism Guidance ( ) – Gastronomy
and Culinary Arts ( )
561
7738
AN EVALUATION ON COMMUNITY BASED TOURISM: THE CASE OF

LAVENDER SCENTED VILLAGE
Ebru Arslaner
Faculty of Tourism
Eskisehir, Turkey
earslaner@ogu.edu.tr
Sıla Karacaoğlu
Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University
School of Applied Sciences
Tourism and Hotel Management
Bozüyük, Bilecik
sila_karacaoglu@live.com
Ayşe Nevin Sert

Selçuk Üniversitesi Beyşehir Ali Akkanat Tourism Faculty
Konya, Turkey
nevinsert@selcuk.edu.tr
Abstract
Community-based tourism is a local development model aiming at both common participation of all
local people in the tourism activities carried out in a destination and to ensure that everyone benefits
equally. The increasing interest in community-based tourism has also raised the number of projects
undertaken in this regard. Lavender Scented Village project is one of the projects carried out within
this scope in Kuyucak Village of Isparta province. It is aimed to trigger the potential employment and
entrepreneurship in the region by providing product diversity of lavender produced in Kuyucak Village
with Lavender Scented village project. Thus, tourism in a rural area will be recreated and local economy
will be invigorated with the new tourism developments. In this study, it is aimed to analysis the current
situation of the Lavender Scented village project, to make some inferences regarding the project and
to guide the decision makers and other prospective projects in the next steps of processes of the
project. The data was obtained by face-to-face interviews with 13 local residents using the snowball
sampling method in Kuyucak Village and evaluated by SWOT analysis technique. Results indicate that
the community-based in Kuyucak Village is still at the beginning level. This is an important issue since
the threats and opportunities are shedding light on the period of maturity and guiding managerial
sense.
Key Words: Community-based tourism, local people, local development, Lavender Scented Village.
Ebru Arslaner is an assistant professor in Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Faculty of Tourism. Her
research interests are alternative tourism and tourism management.
562
Sıla Karacaoğlu, is an assistant professor in the Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University School of Applied
Sciences Tourism and Hotel Management. Her research interests are tourism marketing, sustainable
tourism and its types and cultural heritage tourism.
Ayşe Nevin Sert is an assistant professor in Selçuk University Beyşehir Ali Akkanat Tourism Faculty.
Her research interests are tourism management and sustainable tourism.
Introduction
Development requires an integrative and comprehensive public participation. This integrative point of
view defines development and brings forth the concept of sustainable development; which requires
the participation of everyone in the society and includes the concepts of social justice and human
rights, aiming to improve all aspects of life on the macro and micro levels, ensuring the sustainability
of resources for future generations. For this reason, sustainability in economic development focusing
on public participation and the management of local resources by the local population have gained
importance, starting with the UN Conference in 1972 and continuing with 1987 Bruntdland Report and
Agenda 21 (Tasci, Semrad & Yılmaz, 2013). Public participation in tourism has been recognized as an
important part of sustainable development in Agenda 21 for tourism presented by the World Tourism
Organization (WTO) and the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) (Wei, Xueyi, Yali & Xinggui,
2012). In the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (1992), the importance of
public participation and entrepreneurship for developed and developing countries, combined with the
cooperation of stakeholders to maximize the benefit of community development has been once again
emphasized (Onderwater, 2011).
Public participation is an instrument designed to develop tourism. It works by encouraging the local
communities to stimulate their own resources, identify its local needs, make their own decisions on
how to use tourism to address these needs and take tourism development matters into their own
hands. In other words, public participation as a tourism development strategy must be based on the
community’s own resources, needs and decisions; for this reason, the community members are the
primary actors of development (Tosun, 2005). Since tourism products and activities are generally
interrelated with the local community’s special rituals, traditions and cultural values, the local
communities know the nature and properties of their own tourism products better than the outsiders.
Because of this, people living in that particular region should decide what would be better for the
status of local resources and population during tourism planning and development process (Tosun,
2006). According to Timothy (1999), a development that is socially, culturally, economically and
ecologically sustainable can be achieved when the local people is included in tourism enterprises in
accordance with its own needs and desires. There are various sustainable tourism development
models. Ecotourism and its variations, pro-poor tourism, community based tourism (CBT) and
voluntary tourism have gained popularity as key sustainable development solutions for conserving the
environment, protecting the cultural assets and reducing poverty (Ellis, 2011). While said tourism
models are connected with CBT, CBT differs from these tourism types by enabling the sustainable
development of communities through local ownership and management (Dunn, 2007).
Public participation in tourism is generally regarded as a perfect example of sustainable tourism
development. The reason for this is that local community participation is crucial for the improvement
and implementation of these projects, along with the benefits for the whole community (Brequel,
2013). This study aims to evaluate the Lavender Scented Village Project through the eyes of the local
people and to examine the current situation using the SWOT analysis technique.
563
Literature
When the literature is reviewed, it can be seen that CBT does not have a universally accepted,
unequivocal definition, but various definitions depending on its purpose and implementation.
(Goodwin & Santilli, 2009; Trejos & Matarrita-Cascante, 2010; Demers, 2011). This is because CBT
projects differ from one another based on factors such as geographical conditions, natural resources,
cultural assets, economic conditions, ethnic backgrounds, religious beliefs and tourism goals
(Boonratana, 2010; Giampiccoli & Kalis, 2012). While for some researchers, CBT may require a common
decision-making process among an autonomous group of stakeholders to plan tourism development
(Jamal & Getz, 1995; Reed, 1997), for others, it must include the establishment of cooperative groups
or community-based organizations (MacDonald & Joliffe, 2003; Mbaiwa, 2003). Nevertheless, the most
widely-accepted type of CBT requires a considerable portion of control and benefits to be in the hands
of the individuals in the targeted communities (Mitchell & Reid, 2001; Kontogeorgopoulos, 2005).
Moving on from the definitions in the literature, CBT can be described as a sustainable tourism
approach that is planned, developed, managed and controlled in accordance with the community’s
own resources and consensus to ensure the development and benefit of the whole community and
consequently, ensuring that the responsibility, benefits, costs and ownership are shared equally and
justly (Karacaoğlu, 2017).
CBT is different from the top-down tourism planning approaches in the way that it emphasizes local
input and control over the type, scale and density of tourism development. In this development model,
the local community holds the power to decide or proactively maintains the control and in turn, directs
the development in accordance with its own values and interests (Johnson, 2010). Different
communities have different social, environmental, socio-cultural, economic and political properties
and structures. These must be taken into consideration in the planning phase before CBT is
commenced; the community must embrace the tourism development and the development must be
appropriate for the community’s expectations. In this regard, the expectations of the local community
from CBT enterprises, the goals of community development and the things that community members
and stakeholders are willing/unwilling to accept to achieve the desired CBT goals must be clearly
determined (Asker, Boronyak, Carrard & Paddon, 2010). CBT’s general direction of planning and
development is human-centric; it focuses on the targeted community’s needs and requirements and
must aim to satisfy these needs and requirements in a way that is not environmentally detrimental to
their traditional, cultural and daily ways of life, as well as providing economic benefits. From this point
of view, the need for tourism enterprises that encourage sustainability in order to preserve both the
environment and the culture becomes apparent (Pookaiyaudom, 2012). Therefore, CBT generally
means a model that is planned, managed and operated by the community, for the community’s
benefit. Such type of local tourism model focuses on the preservation and interpretation of the local
culture and environment in favor of the local suppliers and service providers and communication
between the stakeholders (Asker et al., 2010). In other words, CBT represents the type of tourism
which includes the local communities. It takes place on the own land/property of the local community
and is based on their own cultural positions and natural assets (Akunaay, Nelson & Singleton, 2003).
While CBT projects initially focused on small rural communities and nature conservation through
ecotourism, during the course of time the scope of the projects were expanded with various
managerial models and tourism products such as local culture, folklore, gastronomy, traditional
handcrafts (Shahmirzadi, 2012). CBT aims to diversify the tourism product while conserving the local
resources by the local community; thus, enabling faster economic growth, prosperity and equality
among the local community members (Ashley & Garland, 1994). CBT projects, which are established
as alternatives to traditional mass tourism, constitute a type of model that let the local communities
to generate wealth and employment. CBT activities and enterprises in this model must be designed
based on the traditional means of living of the local community, such as agriculture, fishing,
stockbreeding etc. The local community must see CBT as supplementary activities without abandoning
their traditional means of living (López-Guzmán, Sánchez-Cañizares, & Pavón, 2011). These activities
are important not only because they create a market for the promotion and development of local
564
products and for employment, but also because they create new sources of income for the community
through collaborative tourism enterprises such as cooperatives (Akunaay et al., 2003). CBT aims to
conserve natural resources as well as respecting the hosting community. However, CBT projects must
also establish social justice. Social justice means the fair distribution of income, participation in the
decision making process of tourism activities and fair and just access to resources for all users and
groups participating in CBT. A community in a CBT project must benefit from all of the factors
mentioned above as a whole (Fiorello & Bo, 2012). In this regard, the projects must be monitored,
controlled and supported by stakeholders such as national and international beneficial organizations,
local governments, universities and NGO’s (Asker et al., 2010).
CBT is closely related to sustainable tourism in the sense of sustainable development. In this tourism
model can become a successful solution for sustainable development by establishing the balance
between development, environmental/cultural conservation and local needs. For this reason, it aims
to improve the quality of life for the local community by optimizing the local economic benefits and
conserving the natural and built as well as offering a high-quality experience to the visitors (Jamaica
Ministry of Tourism and Entertainment, 2014). When CBT projects are implemented, sustainable codes
of ethical responsibility and behavior must be adopted by all of the stakeholders including the local
community, local governments, private sector, tour operators, NGO’s, universities and tourists (Choi
& Sırakaya, 2006).
The responsibilities and behaviors that must be adopted by the stakeholders in CBT can be generally
summarized as; empowerment of the local community through local participation and local ownership,
elimination of gender inequality, development and management of tourism activities through the
absolute support, consent and participation of the local community, sharing a reasonable portion of
the income gained from tourism activities with the community and using this income for the common
good, improvement and maintenance of common benefits through social and economic development,
conservation of natural and cultural resources, empowerment of local economy by decreasing leakage
from local economies, creating a feeling of social belonging and respecting the local cultural traditions
and heritage (Rocharungsat, 2005; Hiwasaki, 2006; Manyara & Jonees, 2007; Onderwater, 2011).
CBT development may generate many potential benefits for the economy, population and the
environment of local communities. However, if it is not evaluated, planned and effectively managed
together with the community, it may bring up undesired costs to the community, environment and the
dynamics between them (Asker et al., 2010). At this point, the longevity and applicability of CBT
projects must be conditioned by socio economic development that includes the whole community
(Fiorello & Bo, 2012); or else, the communities disillusioned by the failed, collapsed, stagnated or
inadequate performance of a community based project may endanger their prosperity under the
threat of devastation due to negative socio-economic conditions. Therefore, critical provisions for
successful CBT applications must be determined and provided by all of the stakeholders before
beginning a CBT project (Tascı et al., 2013), because the extent of its positive effect on the general
prosperity of the community depends on the actualization of opportunities and the elimination of
obstacles. For this reason, each different community must determine its own unique obstacles,
threats, opportunities, weaknesses and strengths (Kwangseh, 2014).
The literature review shows that the problems of rural communities in the developing countries are
generally related to inadequate resources (funds, tourism know-how and skills, education etc.),
infrastructure, superstructure and access to the market (Braun, 2008; Graci, 2008). The lack of funds
is a particularly chronic problem for tourism development in rural communities of developing countries
(Choi & Sirakaya, 2006). Seeding funds are recognized as necessary catalysts for seeding CBT.
Inadequate funds may hinder the communities’ access to education necessary for tourism. The lack of
education resources may cause a lack of local capacity in terms of proper management of CBT
establishments and decrease the rate of success of CBT. Another obstacle in the way of establishing a
565
suitable tourism industry in rural communities is the implementation of a marketing network for local
resources, mainly caused by inadequate resources (Cooper, 2004). The lack of financial, educational
and infrastructural resources will impair the participation of the local community to the tourism
development process or will discourage the community from working in tourism-related businesses.
Therefore, these factors are crucial for the successful CBT development (Tosun, 2000). At the same
time, in order for CBT to succeed, the existing resources must be optimally taken in inventory and
utilized, tourism must be diversified through unique activities that are based on the region’s natural
and cultural resources, other sectors must be studied and approached for establishing critical
connections, utilizing the opportunities for CBT development (The Mountain Institute, 2000).
The Aim and Importance of the Study
The aim of this study is to examine community-based tourism that is gradually gaining importance and
popularity in the example of Lavender Scented Village Project in Kuyucak Village and to evaluate the
current state of the project. In accordance with this main goal, the strengths and weaknesses of this
project shall be determined and future predictions shall be made with connection to the opportunities
and threats.
Determining the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the projects and identifying the
project-based problems carry importance in the sense of making the necessary and effective decisions
for the development of community-based tourism. The analysis results may enable changes and
rectifications on short and long-term plans. In this regard, the study is seen important in the sense of
its contributions to the literature and decision makers.
Materials and Method
Research Site (Kuyucak Village/Lavender Scented Village)
The site of this study is determined as the Kuyucak Village in the Keçiborlu district of Isparta province.
Keçiborlu district resides on coordinates of 38° 00’ North, 30°East 15’, in the Lakes Region of the West
Mediterranean part of Turkey, 41 km. northwest of Isparta province. Kuyucak Village is deemed as the
first among the 9 hidden regions of Turkey and has considerable transportation potential. The village
is 47 km.’s from Isparta. It sits on a hill near the Taurus Mountains and its fields and hillsides are
covered with lavender flowers. The village is only 9 km.’s from the motorway that connects Ankara,
İstanbul, İzmir, Afyon, Eskişehir, Denizli and many other provinces to Antalya. Lavender was first
brought to the village in 1975 and was distributed to 30 families in bare root form. According to TÜİK
data, the village provides 93% of the lavender production of Turkey. The village currently has a
population of 250 (http://www.lavantakokulukoy.com).
566
Source: http://www.lavantakokulukoy.com
Since Keçiborlu district of Isparta Province is the primary center of lavender production in Turkey,
Keçiborlu Association for Solidarity, Assistance and Education, Keçiborlu District Governorship Union
for Providing Services to Villages and Kuyucak Village Neighborhood unit have partnered to propose
the project for “The Future is in Tourism” call for proposal conducted with the partnership of The
Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Turkey, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and
Anadolu Efes (http://www.ispartakulturturizm.gov.tr), in order to ensure the brandification of the
district as a lavender producer, contribute in the existing employment, migration and development
problems and create alternative income and employment resources. The reason for the village to be
selected as the site of the study is the project of Lavender Scented Village, which was accepted and
implemented in Kuyucak Village. The project aims to diversify the product range of the lavender
produced in Keçiborlu District and Kuyucak Village, thus increasing the employment and
entrepreneurship potential of the region. Another goal of the project is to improve the touristic
activities to contribute to the regional economy (http://www.anadoluefes.com.tr).
Data Collecting Process
The data was collected via interviews with the local community members (15-20 minute, face to face
interviews with 13 individuals living in the village during the time of the project) and was evaluated
with SWOT Analysis technique. Snowball sampling was used to determine the participants. The
questions asked to interviewees were toward the evaluation of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities
and threats of the project, which constitute the main components of the SWOT analysis. The answers
were sorted by the researchers, utilizing the literature. As part of the study, the participants were
asked the below questions.
1. What are the strengths of Lavender Scented Village Project in your opinion?
2. What are the weaknesses of Lavender Scented Village Project in your opinion?
3. What are the opportunities that support the Lavender Scented Village Project in your opinion?
4. What are the threats that the Lavender Scented Village Project faces in your opinion?
Findings
The data gathered in the study is evaluated through SWOT analysis method. SWOT analysis determines
the strengths and weaknesses of an establishment as well as the surrounding opportunities and threats
(Shinno et al. 2006). For the project, this method is used to determine the strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats of the project as well as other situations that require certain decisions to be
made. Strenght means: an internal quality that helps to achieve the goal; Weakness: an internal quality
567
that is detrimental in achieving the goal; Opportunity: an external condition that helps to achieve the
goal; Threat: an external condition that is detrimental in achieving the goal (Hay & Castilla, 2006).
This study reveals the current state of the study site and the project conducted in the study site through
the use of SWOT analysis. In this regard, the below findings were achieved on Kuyucak Village and
Lavender Scented Village project’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats as a result of the
interviews made with the local community members.
Strengths
• The village’s climate is suitable for lavender and rose cultivation
• The village is close to Antalya, a popular tourism destination,
• The village has advanced means of transportation,
• The village is close to Isparta Süleyman Demirel Airport,
• The village population is hospitable and desires to host tourists,
• The village population has embraced the project,
• The village population is conscious on cultivation lavender,
• The village has suitable areas for lavender cultivation,
• The potential of alternative tourism types in the village.
Weaknesses
• Guests may be neglected due to the excessive increase in tourist numbers,

• Narrowing of living spaces due to the vehicles in the village,
• Tourist dissatisfaction due to different pricing of the products sold in the village,
• The scarcity of guest houses,
• Traffic congestion,
• Environmental pollution and excessive waste production by tourists harming the lavender
gardens,
• Scarcity of parking spaces,
• Scarcity of establishments like cafés and restaurants,
• Scarcity of workers during lavender season,
• Inadequacy of tourism activities,
• Problems due to the scarcity of road signs,
• High prices of the products,
• Booths set up in different places,
• Inadequacy of roads,
• Trespassing in lavender gardens,
• No recycling,
• Booths, people and vehicles in the same areas.
Opportunities
• Development of women employment and entrepreneurship,
• Development of accommodation services and increase in incomes,
• Establishment of the Women’s Entrepreneurship Cooperative,
• Increase of the village’s recognition,
• Utilization of idle areas in lavender and rose cultivation,
• Local population turning toward production focused activities (soap-making, lavender ice
cream, lavender honey etc.)
• Planning of alternative roads,
568
• Education within the scope of the project (hygiene, diction, accommodation,

entrepreneurship, sales, guidance, etc.),
• Prolonging the season by rose cultivation,
• Increase in the recognition of the village and the village community,
• Cultural development,
• Increase in employment opportunities.
Threats
• Inequality of income among the community,
• Increasing sanitation problems,
• Deterioration of social order,
• Deterioration of the community members’ personality structure (due to high income desire),
• Exceeding the village’s capacity due to uncontrolled increase in tourist numbers,
• Accommodation problems due to the scarcity of guest houses and hotels,
• Uneven distribution of funds,
• The decrease of lavender’s value due to increased yield,
• Conflicts among the local community (in order to gain customers)
• Lack of regulations on pricing,
• The lack of directions for the village population regarding the example project activities
• Decision makers not taking the opinion of the local community
Conclusion
CBT is a type of alternative tourism, a development model that governments, NGO’s and development
agencies utilize to contribute to the society’s empowerment and development (Dolezal & Ricaurte-
Quijano, 2017). It is especially on the agenda of developing countries. However, rather than starting
CBT’s in a destination, the important point here is the sustainability of the benefits of those projects
to the local community. The studies in this area show that the successful CBT projects are based on a
strategic plan where the local community actively participates and has the local ownership and
management, the benefits and costs are distributed as fair and equal as possible and there is
collaboration among the stakeholders. The success of strategic plans increases correspondingly with
the steps taken during this process. Current state analysis is one of the most important steps among
these and SWOT method is now commonly used to this end. This study focuses on the Lavender
Scented Village Project, which is conducted in the Kuyucak Village as a local development model. The
project aims to contribute to the development of the Village. Predicting the long-term benefits and
costs of the project beforehand is deemed crucial. The local community’s opinions on Kuyucak Village
and the project are gathered with the study and a current state analysis was conducted through SWOT
analysis technique.
CBT is based on the active participation of the local community. It must help building a relationship
between the local community and the guests while ensuring the collaboration of different public
administrations, NGO’s and private institutions with the local community (López-Guzmán et al., 2011).
Understanding where the community ends and individual interests start arises as a subject of
discussion in CBT where all the stakeholders must work together (Zapata et al., 2011). At this point, it
can be said that thinking as a community instead of individually is the primary basis of CBT’s existence.
While the start of the project and the income that came with the village’s touristic opening has satisfied
the local community, the following developments has shown that there is dissatisfaction about income
distribution and sharing of resources. Different prices in booths set up to sell souvenirs or village
products and fights over customers show that the project is straying from the community perspective
and into an individual profit mindset. These findings suggest that the project has strayed from “equal
569
income to everyone” principle of CBT and may give way to conflicts among the local community, should
the individuality continue. This finding is similar with the results of the study conducted by Karacaoğlu,
Yolal and Birdir in Misi Village of Bursa (2016). As suggested in the said study, ensuring the distribution
of the benefits gained from tourism development among larger groups and conducting participatory
processes can help alleviate the perceived negativities in the project.
Community based approach aims to both improve the life quality of the community and conservation
of the resources (Scheyvens, 1999; Manyara & Jones, 2007; Nunkoo & So, 2016). While the findings of
the study show that the tourist numbers have increased with the village’s opening to tourism and this
has, to some extent, increased the life quality of the local community with increased income and new
employment opportunities, it can also be seen that the tourist density decreases the life quality of the
local community by narrowing down their living space. On the other hand, uncontrolled increase in
tourists bring about certain problems and suggest that the resources cannot be conserved in the sense
of sustainability. Environmental pollution, damaging of the lavender gardens because of garbage and
waste is an indication that the project’s output in the long term may not be sustainable.
In the general sense, it can be said that the local community has embraced the Lavender Scented
Project and is satisfied by the activity as the village is opened to tourism and the employment
opportunities for the women and children. Improved roads and local community’s positive attitude
towards lavender cultivation as a means of living may also be deemed as the positive qualities of the
project. Moreover, the community’s awareness of the project’s advantages and self-improvement
through education together with the increasing the rose cultivation and extending the tourism season
seem as the strong and opportunity-creating points of the project, suggesting a positive outcome for
the future. On the other hand, the insufficiencies in equal distribution of income, the local community’s
participation in the decision-making processes and direction constitute the negative aspects of the
project. The project’s efficient implementation in the following process can be realized by taking the
local community’s desires and expectations into consideration. Taking into account the damages that
the tourist density has done, it can be suggested that the region’s carrying capacity should be
determined and that the planning should be done in accordance with this capacity.
The data shows that community-based tourism is in its infancy. This state carries importance in the
sense that it sheds light into the ripening of the threats and opportunities and provides guidance in
the administrative processes.
The study has some limitations. The SWOT analysis is based on the village population’s evaluations in
accordance with their knowledge level and lacks any nominal data. Therefore, the implications based
on the Lavender Scented Village Project are only applicable to this project and cannot be generalized
for all projects. Later studies may evaluate different CBT projects that are utilized for local
development together and make a comparison between them.
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7772
TASTES FROM PAST TO PRESENT: AMASYA CUISINE
Önder Yayla
Research Assistant
Eskisehir, Turkey
onder.yayla@gmail.com
Şeyda Yayla
Lecturer
Eskisehir, Turkey
Abstract
Turkey having different physical and human geographical features has one of the world's most
important cuisines. Due to such geographical differences, the materials and quantities that people use
during cooking vary from region to region. Thus, each region has its own food culture. Culinary culture
of Amasya, which has very different characteristics due to its history, culture and geography, is an
important place for the development of gastronomic tourism in Turkey. In this study, it was aimed to
create a roadmap for Amasya to make a local food inventory for gastronomic tourism and to be an
important place in gastronomic tourism. In the study, the literature was searched and interviews were
made with 15 participants determined by purposive sampling method. Dishes belonging to Amasya
local cuisine was determined, and a regional food inventory was created. It has been found that
Amasya is influenced by past cultures and the geography. In light of the results of the research,
gastronomy elements should be added to the content of culture tours which are rich in local foods in
Amasya.
Key words: Amasya cuisine, gastronomy tourism, Amasya dishes, local cuisine.
Introduction
Environment, climate conditions, life styles and beliefs play an essential role in the formation of the
culture. Foods eaten by the community give us significant clues about culture of the community, since
each region has its own taste and food culture. Turkish cuisine is one of the world's great cuisines. The
kitchen as a whole and foods take a significant place in the lives of Turkish people who are known for
their hospitality. With a long history of 7500 years, Amasya is an exemplary Turkish city in Anatolia in
terms of tourism. Amasya, where artifacts can be found from every period with its historical structures,
cultural accumulation and the magnificent art elements reaching up to the present day, also creates a
unique structure with its literary and folkloric values. It has a rich culinary culture with different tastes
from Anatolia (Governorship of Amasya, 2007: 8). It is one of the provinces which has kept the
Anatolian traditions and customs until today. Looking at the traditions of Amasya, it is possible to see
the subtleties of Turkish Cuisine. During the Ottoman period, Amasya, which served as a school for
princes during the Ottoman period, was influenced by various cultures like Hittites, Phrygians,
Cimmerians, Scythians, Medes, Persians, Pontus, Romans and Byzantines. Therefore, Amasya is a
charming city that can be found in every period with its historical structures, cultural accumulation and
magnificent art elements reaching to our day (Governorship of Amasya, 2007: 8). The long history,
which dates back to ancient times, has left its traces in Amasya, and traditions of the old civilizations
has survived until today. Amasya, aiming to be the capital of Turkish cultural tourism with its rich
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cultural and natural heritage spread all over it, is within the scope of the Brand City Project of the
Ministry of Culture and Tourism (Ünsalan et al., 2018: 12).
The province of Amasya is located in the inner part of the Central Black Sea Region. However, since it
does not have a seashore, it carries the social, economic and cultural characteristics of the Central
Anatolia Region (Governorship of Amasya, 2007: 8-9). A transition climate between the Black Sea
climate and the continental climate prevails in Amasya. In the summer, the continental climate is not
as rainy as the Black Sea climate. In the winters, the Black Sea climate is not as hard as the continental
climate. Summers are hot and dry; winters are also rainy. Spring is the rainiest season. Due to the Black
Sea climate and continental climate transition, vegetation shows the characteristics of the two climates
(Kaya, 2012: 126). In addition, the transition climate makes the region rich in terms of plant diversity.
There is a land, sea and air transportation infrastructure in the region. The city, which is interconnected
by historical bridges, is divided into two parts with Yesilirmak, located between two peaks resembling
a statue and has the power to influence every guest (Zengin et al., 2014: 5).
Amasya is an ancient settlement which has hosted many civilizations with its long history. With the
preservation of these historical values and the revival of new ones, it attracts more tourists in the field
of cultural tourism. Therefore, having the potential of gastronomy tourism with its unique cuisine is
one of the reasons of preference of tourists in Amasya province (Zengin et al., 2014: 15)). Gastronomy
tourism is a type of tourism that is aimed at recognizing different culinary cultures and tastes. The main
purpose in such tourism is based on eating and drinking. Therefore, the abundance of eating and
drinking diversity raises the potential of this tourism. To the forefront in this field in the world coming
from China, Italy, France, are countries like Turkey. The rich food culture of these countries is a major
factor in the creation of this potential. Apart from eating and drinking, food tourism is also associated
with identity, culture, production, consumption and sustainability issues that are increasingly
important (Hall and Mitchell, 2005).
The main determinants of the food culture of a region or province are climatic conditions, historical
accumulation of the region and their interaction with other societies. Field crops such as wheat, sugar
beet, onion, sunflower and poppies as well as fruit products such as apple, cherry, peach are important
agricultural products. Most of these agricultural products are an important source of authenticity of
Amasya food culture. Amasya also has an important potential for livestock breeding. Animal products
in the province and the use of these products very often in food making provide a significant
contribution to the development of food culture. Amasya has hosted many civilizations with different
cultures in the historical process. These cultures, which affect each other, have increased and improved
the nutritional culture of the region. The existence of people belonging to various branches of the
Turkish nation within the borders of the province has contributed to the formation of a unique cuisine
in every district, town and village of the province (Yayla and Günay Aktaş, 2017: 232-233).
According to 2017 data, the number of visitors coming for tourism purposes is 615907 (Ünsalan et al.,
2018: 17). In the Amasya Province Culture and Tourism Sectoral Action Plan (2014-2023), the potential
of Amasya Province has been demonstrated not only in cultural tourism but also in gastronomy tourism
(Ünsalan et al., 2018: 21-25). In this context, it is aimed to evaluate the potential of the province in
gastronomy tourism. In this study, it is aimed to develop a local food inventory and to create a road
map of Amasya, which is an important place for the development of gastronomy tourism.
Method
The research was conducted and conducted in a qualitative pattern. Qualitative research, observation,
interview and document analysis, such as qualitative data collection methods are used, perceptions
and events in the natural environment in a realistic and holistic way to try to reveal the research
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(Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2013: 45). This study was carried out in June-July 2018 in the central district of
Amasya. In the scope of the study, 15 people living in Amasya for at least 30 years were interviewed.
All participants in the study were women. The data were collected through observations, interviews
and documents. For approximately one and a half months each week, volunteers from the local
community were observed, which had a total of 645 minutes of meals in six different observations.
After the observations, the interviews were made with the participants and the food recipes were
collected. The data obtained from the observations and interviews by the researcher were first written
in computerized form and then analyzed by using content analysis from qualitative research methods.
Participants’ recipes have been used in the paper. In order to increase the reliability of the study, an
expert analysis was applied and reliability was tried to be taken into consideration considering the
common points. Afterwards a regional food inventory was created.
Results
Amasya has found its own unique dishes in the taste, appearance and quality. 15 people were
interviewed during the study. As a result of the interviews, there are 8 types of soup, 11 kinds of meat
dishes, 14 kinds of vegetable dishes, 14 kinds of pastries, 7 kinds of pilafs and 14 kinds of desserts
(Table 1).
Table 1. Selected Meals from Amasya Cuisine

SOUPS MEAT DISHES VEGETABLE DISHES PASTRIES PILAFS DESSERTS
Toyga Soup Keskek Stuffed Pods Sinisu Pie Pilaf with Apple
noodles Dessert
Catal Soup Mumbar Eggplant Silkme Yakasal Lentil Pilaf Baked rice
Iskembe pie pudding
Sakala Carpan Cured Spiced Eggplant Pehli Iskefe Pie Seasoned Unutma
Soup Beef Galle Rice Beni Dessert
Shredded Lung Roasting Eggplant Soup Poached Pumpkin Cherry

Dough Soup with Yoghurt egg Pilaf Bread
Helle Soup Whole Meat Mücver Amasya Strained Dene

Cake Bulgur Hasudasi
Pilaf
Bidikli Soup Stewed Dough Gumbo with meat Pie with Eggplant Tırtıl
poppy Pilaf Baklava
seed and
walnut
Squeezing Quince Galle Roasted Beans Hengel Pilaf with Kalburabasti

Tarhana Soup Vermicelli
Kidney Bean Singir Kebab Purslane meal Oily Kuymak

Soup Dough
(Katmer)
576
Kipe Onion yuvalama Kete Hosmerim
Liver wrapping Madimak Cizlak Amasya

Teltel
(Cotton
Candy)
Juicy Meatball Beet meal Pisi Gomlek

Kadayif
Bat meal Bread Yoka

Vaccine Dessert
(Papara)
Borani (a vegetable Dondurme Paluze

dish with yogurt
and rice)
Eggplant Pickle Gombe Sugar Rolls

Cilbir
Food culture has an important place in the social and cultural life of Amasya. The traditions and
customs of the food culture enhance the relations between people and families and strengthen the
sharing and help the province to have a strong social unity. One of the best examples of the importance
given to table culture in Amasya is the custom of not starting the meal before head of house, the dad.
One of the main dishes of Central Asian Turks, Keskek is one of the most important dishes that has
survived to the present day and still preserves its originality in Amasya. Another meal that is important
in Amasya cuisine is stuffed fava beans. It has been made since the Ottoman period and maintains its
originality. Additionally, poems, manas and sayings on food and kitchen in Amasya are other elements
that increase the cultural richness of the province. It was found that economy of Amasya based on
agriculture. This is one of the main determinants of food culture. When the dishes of Amasya region
are examined, it is seen that vegetable dishes and pastries are widely used.
The general characteristics of the Amasya food culture are as follows:

• All the vegetables are served in Amasya food culture. A wide variety of dishes are made from
eggplant which has an important place in Amasya food culture. It is said to be at least 20 kinds.
• Pastries have an important place in Amasya's food culture.
• Use of meat and meat products is high. The cooking time of meat dishes (3-5 hours) adds a
distinct flavor to the dishes.
• Usually, oil is used in meals. A certain and essential ingredient is essential in the formation of
certain flavors.
• Simple rice is not made in Amasya. Pilafs are cooked with vegetables such as noodles, zucchini,
eggplant, carrots or dried legumes such as lentils and chickpeas.
• Elma is one of the indispensables of Amasya Cuisine. Apple jam is consumed as breakfast,
desserts made from fruits and is used in making compote.
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Amasya dishes are adequate and balanced when evaluated in terms of healthy nutrition. Different food
groups are used in food and balanced nutrition is provided in this way. The condition that can be
considered to be inconvenient in terms of health is the frequent use of oil frying in the construction of
the dishes. Amasya is one of the provinces with high agricultural potential in terms of land existence
and variety of crops. The diversity in climate and soil structure also creates diversity in agricultural
products. Field crops such as cereals, sugar beets, onions, sunflowers and poppies are common.
However, Amasya is more known for its fruits. Apple and cherry are the products that have been grown
and produced with best quality in Amasya. Especially high quality cherry production for foreign
markets has become widespread in Amasya; spproximately 10% of Turkey's cherry production has
become covered from Amasya. Within the scope of Amasya International Atatürk Culture and Art
Activities which is organized every year, Cherry Promotion Competition is held as well.
Conclution
In light of the results of the research, gastronomy elements have to be added to the content of culture
tours which are rich in local foods in Amasya. However, there is not enough organization (festival,
event etc.) for the use of the meals in the scope of gastronomy tourism. In addition to this, it was
observed that all of these local dishes were not on the menu of most of the restaurants in Amasya.
Since the local dishes did not receive too much demand from the public on a regular basis. Therefore
restaurant owners removed Amasya’s local meals from their menus.
The tourists who come to Amasya for cultural tourism stay 1 or 2 days in the province, and mostly they
visit the city during daytime. Considering that the stay duration of the tourists is short and the day-
eaters eat a meal, it is seen that local dishes are not preferred much in this short time period.
As a result of the researches and interviews conducted, it is determined that Amasya cuisine has a rich
potential. However, there are deficiencies in the marketing of the dishes that come to the fore in
Amasya cuisine.
In this direction:
• An area in the city should be established for the promotion of Amasya local products.
• Local food should be brought to the fore and should be provided in the menu of the
restaurants in the province.
• Within the scope of gastronomy tourism, TV programs should be prepared, and effective use
of social media should be ensured.
• In the case of visits to Amasya, the contents of gastronomic tourism should be included within
the scope of travel agencies' program.
• The number of organizations such as festivals and events should be increased, and
gastronomic products should be emphasized in these organizations.
• Provincial food and gastronomic products should be introduced with participation in the fairs.
And it should be open to observation and application of the fair visitors.
• Famous chefs and gourmets should be invited to participate in newspapers, TV and magazines.
References
Governorship of Amasya. (2007). Amasya Şehir Rehberi [Amasya City Guide]. Amasya Special Provincial
Administration, Ankara: Anıt Printery.
http://www.amasyakulturturizm.gov.tr/Eklenti/7063,rehber-tr-mailpdf.pdf?0 (Date of access:
21.06.2018).
Hall, C. M. and Mitchell, R. (2005). Gastronomic tourism: Comparing food and wine tourism
experiences. Novelli, M. (Editor) in Niche Tourism: contemporary issues, trends and cases (73-
88). Oxford: Routledge.
578
Kaya, A. (2012). Amasya. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Dergisi, 1(1), 1-130.

https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B3Rls1eNkK6BUWFJYldpQlktbE0/edit (Date of access:
19.05.2018).
Ünsalan, E., Yancı, A. Sel, H. and Polat, İ. (2018). Amasya ili kültür ve turizm sektörel eylem planı (2018-
2023) [Amasya province culture and tourism sectoral action plan (2018-2023)].
http://www.oka.org.tr/Documents/Amasya_Kultur_ve_Turizm_Eylem_Plani.pdf (Date of
access: 19.05.2018).
Yayla, Ö. and Günay Aktaş, S. Türk Mutfağında Lezzet Bölgelerinin Belirlenmesi: Adana-Osmaniye-
Kahramanmaraş Örneği. 1. Uluslararası Turizmin Geleceği Kongresi (Futourism) Bildiriler Kitabı,
28-30 Eylül, Mersin, 231-241.
Yıldırım A, Şimşek H. (2013). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. (9. Baskı). Ankara: Seçkin
Yayıncılık.
Zengin, B., Öztürk, E. and Salha, H. (2014). Amasya ilinin alternatif turizm potansiyelinin
değerlendirilmesi [Evaluation of alternative tourism potential of Amasya province]. Sosyal
Bilimler Metinleri, 6, 1-22.
Biographical Notes
Önder Yayla is a research assistant in the Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Anadolu
University, Eskisehir, Turkey. His research focuses on Gastronomy Tourism and Food Geography.
Şeyda Yayla is an instructor in the Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Anadolu University,
Eskisehir, Turkey. Her research focuses on Local and World Cuisines.
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7777
ROADMAP FOR THE USE OF TURKISH DRINKS IN GASTRONOMY
TOURISM
Önder Yayla
Research Assistant
Eskisehir, Turkey
Şeyda Yayla
Lecturer
Eskisehir, Turkey
İsmail Konuk
Lecturer
Eskisehir, Turkey
ikonuk@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
terms of drink variety. Especially foreign visitors do not know enough about drink variety in Turkey.
Also, it is limited to the experiences of foreign visitors. Drinks, which play an important role in tourist
experience, need to be used effectively in gastronomic tourism. In this context, the aim of the study is
to determine the perceptions of foreigners about Turkish drinks, and to emphasize the importance of
matching the drink inventory of Turkish cuisine with traditional dishes. Within the scope of the
research, thoughts about Turkish drinks on Turkish restaurants on Tripadvisor.com are determined by
content analysis. Afterward, Turkish drinks were taken out of the literature and the expert opinion was
taken to match with the Turkish foods. With this study, it is found that Turkish cuisine and drinks
occupy an important place for Turkish cuisine, but foreigners cannot be reminded often enough about
these drinks and visitors, because of the bad experiences they develop negative attitudes against
Turkish drinks. As a result of the research, geographically marked Turkish drinks and meals were
matched and a roadmap was drawn for further studies.
Key words: Turkish drinks, Turkish cuisine, gastronomy in Turkey, traditional dishes.
Introduction
Turkish cuisine is known throughout the world with its richness. People from different cultures living
together for a long time and interacting with each other are also reflected in Turkish cuisine. Anatolia
has a long history, and it has a rich culture of eating and drinking due to its fertile lands (Güneş, 2012:
235). The food culture of a society is influenced by various factors such as geographical location,
religion, climate, cultural values and lifestyles. Food and beverages are a product of local life, history,
culture, economy and society, but are shaped by the local lifestyle throughout the historical process
(Yarış, 2014: 15). The fame of Turkish cuisine is derived from the use of a variety of ingredients and
580
flavors in various ways (Özdoğan and Işık, 2008: 1060). Foods and drinks are cultural elements with a
sociocultural meaning (Tezcan, 2000: 1). The richness of Turkish cuisine is one of the known facts of
the world. Not only food but also drinks have an important place in Turkish cuisine. Drinks such as
ayran (buttermilk), sherbet, tea, salep, boza and compote are the most popular beverage groups in
Turkey.
The first drink that comes to mind in Turkish cuisine is undoubtedly Ayran. It is a drink that is frequently
consumed by all segments of the people without social class discrimination. It is recognized as a
national drink in Turkey. It is made of yoghurt, water and salt. It has been associated with health and
well-being for long years (Arslantas et al., 2008: 240; Glanville et al., 2015: 6). Preparation of Ayran
varies from region to region. Some kinds of ayran such as Susurluk Ayran in Sakarya and Misis Ayran in
Adana, attract attention throughout the country. The sherbet is a fragrant drink that complements our
cuisine. The sherbet can be served refreshingly at any time of the day and can be served with meals as
well as being served. At the palace, mansion and pavilion tables, a variety of sherbet was used to drink
sherbet instead of water (Akçiçek, 2002: 745). Nowadays, sherbet culture has been replaced by fruit
juices. However, in some villages in Anatolia, sherbet made from herbs is partially consumed. These
drinks, which are slowly being forgotten, are superior to today's drinks in terms of taste and health
(Özdogan and Işık, 2008: 1074). Serbets are derived from many different plant in Turkey. It is called
with the food used in making each syrup or event such as apple sherbet, mulberry sherbet, rose
sherbet and maternity sherbet. One of the world's largest tea market in Turkey is an integral part of
the Turkish lifestyle and culture. Tea is cheaper than coffee, and it is easier to prepare as soon as it
became. Therefore, it has become the favorite drink of people (Duman, 2008). Although there are
different types of teas and preparation methods today, it is brewed with Turkish style tea, powdered
roasted black tea and served with small cups which are known as certain fine (Güneş, 2012: 237). With
the increasing consumption of cold weather in Turkey, Salep has an important place in traditional
culture. Salep is made from the powdered root of wild orchids used as food and drugs. Salep is
commonly used mixed with milk to make the hot drink known as Salep, which is served sprinkled with
cinnamon (Develi Işıklı et al., 2015: 6556-6557). Boza is a fermented malt drink made from cereals
fermented with lactic acid bacteria and yeast (Hancıoğlu and Karapınar, 1997: 271; Todorov et. al.,
2008: 465). It is a drink that is also consumed in winter.
terms of drink variety. Regional food and beverages are powerful and effective means of improving or
deteriorating a region's tourism destination profile (Green and Dougherty, 2008: 150). Especially
foreign visitors do not know enough about drink variety in Turkey. Also, it is limited to the experiences
of foreign visitors. Drinks that play an important role in tourist experience need to be used effectively
in gastronomic tourism. In this context, the aim of the study is to determine the perceptions of
foreigners about Turkish drinks, and to emphasize the importance of matching the drink inventory of
Turkish cuisine with traditional dishes.
Method
This study was carried out using a screening model. Screening models are a research approach that
tries to define a situation that exists in the past or today as it is. In this approach, it is tried to be defined
in its own conditions and as it is before it is attempted to change the event, change or influence. In the
scanning approach, the researcher can examine the object or the individual directly or by interpreting
the scattered data that will be obtained by integrating it with his own observations by referring to the
various records and other people who have been previously held by others (Karasar, 2014: 77).
In the first stage of the study, the thoughts of foreign tourists about Turkish drinks were determined.
Turkish drinks were evaluated from the customer comments made on Turkish restaurants on
581
Tripadvisor. Within the scope of the research, reviews of 1263 foreign visitors visited total 150 food
and beverage companies operating in Istanbul (25), Ankara (10), Antalya (20), Izmir (15), Bursa (5),
Mugla (15), Konya (10), Trabzon (5), Eskisehir (10), Mersin (5), Adana (10), Gaziantep (10), Mardin (5)
and Van (5) were evaluated. The opinions that are not about Turkish drinks are excluded from scope
of the research. Later, descriptive analysis method was used in the analysis of data. According to this
approach, the data obtained are summarized and interpreted according to the previously determined
themes. In descriptive analysis, the data are analyzed in four stages (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2013): (1)
forming a framework for descriptive analysis, (2) finding the themes, (3) identifying the findings, (4)
interpreting the findings. One of the strategies used in qualitative research to ensure the validity and
reliability of the research is expert examination (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2013: 302). In this study, an expert
review was conducted to ensure the reliability of the study. The researchers came together with
experts on the field and methods to evaluate all processes orally and evaluate them with experts.
In the next stage of the study, Turkish beverages were determined from the literature. In this context,
books, articles, reports and theses about Turkish drinks were examined. A 5-person commission
consisting of experts in the field has been established to match the drinks determined from the
literature with the dishes of Turkish cuisine. The commission stated their opinions on the
harmonization of the taste based on the standard recipes of the determined beverages and dishes and
determined the co-ordination of the food and beverage to be matched by over 100 points. The final
meal and drink association was determined by the researchers and the opinions were communicated
back to the experts before the consensus was reached.
Results
When the comments made to Turkish food and beverage companies are examined, it is seen that the
customer opinions are about Turkish food in general. The comments made by the visitors on
Tripadvisor about Turkish cuisine are shown in Figure 1 with the word cloud. Reviews on Turkish
restaurants on Tripadvisor are mostly about meals. Customers' opinions about restaurants are often
indicated by the food they order. Interpretations other than meals generally relate to the physical
evidence of restaurants. Within the scope of the research, the opinions of the customers about the
Turkish cuisine are about certain issues. These are meat, fish and kebab dishes in Turkish cuisine.
Another remarkable aspect is about the breakfast. The overall satisfaction level of the customers
visiting Turkish restaurants is high.
582
Figure 1. Word Cloud of Comments about Turkish Cuisine on Tripadvisor
The opinions of visitors shared publicly in tripadvisor.com were collected and their views on Turkish
drinks were selected for the study. In the light of the data obtained, 1263 foreign visitors’ comments
about Turkish drinks were collected under two themes with content analysis. These themes were
determined as alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks. Then, the views on the themes were visualized in
Figure 2 with the word cloud. The drinks left in the memories of foreign visitors were mostly Ayran and
Turkish coffee. They mentioned that the Turks drank too much tea. Besides, it is noteworthy that
Lemonade is another important drink in their minds. The selected drinks are perceived by foreign
visitors as average quality drinks.
583
Figure 2. Drinks Mostly Mentioned on Tripadvisor
In the other part of the study, Turkish dishes known by foreigners are determined from the literature
and comments on the social media. The number of the dishes, identified as 82 at the first stage, was
reduced to 27 by taking expert reviews. The dishes are intended to be as most known dishes as possible
by foreigners. Afterwards, drinks that are specific to Turkish cuisine have been selected from the geo-
targeted products by the Turkish Patent and Trademark Office and from the products defined on the
site of kulturportali.com. In addition to the expert opinion, 25 beverages were determined to be
matched with dishes (Table 1).
Table 1. List of the Selected Dishes and Drinks

LIST OF DISHES LIST OF DRINKS
Tas Kebab with Begendi (Cream Sauce with
Non-alcoholic Beverages
Eggplant)
Adana Kebab Ayran
Pasty (Manti) Boza
Cig Kofte Salgam (Turnip Juice)
Meatball Lemonade
Lamb Tandoori Cherry Sherbet
Hamsi Tava Tamarind Sherbet
Kuyu Kebab Cranberry Sherbet
Iskender Kebab Pickle juice
Ali Nazik Kebab Turkish Tea
Doner Kebab Turkish coffee
Kokorec Linden Tea
Kavurma Sage Tea
Sucuk Salep
Lahmacun Rosehip Tea
Pide Kefir
Sirkencübin (Syrup Made By
Leaf Wrapping with Olive Oil
Mixing Honey and Vinegar)
Hardaliye (Grape Juice
Arnavut Cigeri
Flavored with Mustard)
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Kuru Fasulye (Made of Stewed Dried

Alcoholic Beverages
Beans)
Stuffed Mussels Wine
Menemen Beer
Dolma Raki
Traditional Turkish Raspberry
Piyaz
Liquor
Traditional Turkish Strawberry
Lentil Meatball
Liquor
Simit Traditional Turkish Rose Liquor
Traditional Turkish Apricot
Baklava
Liquor
Traditional Turkish Cherry
Ashura
Liquor
In order to be able to match these beverages, a 5-person commission consisting of chefs, experts and
gastronomy specialists was established and they were asked to match the beverages that could
accompany the meals with 0-100 points. First of all, the determined dishes were prepared in
accordance with the geographical indications. Their recipes were taken from the Turkish Patent and
Trademark Office and kulturportali.com. The same method was applied in the preparation of
beverages as well. Members of the commission were asked to try and score meals given to them by
the researchers. They scored food and beverage pairings. Table 2 shows the couples with the highest
scores from these matches.
Table 2. Some of Matched Dishes and Drinks

DISHES DRINKS
Tas Kebab with Begendi (Cream Sauce with Ayran (95), Şalgam (75), Beer
Eggplant) (50)
Ayran (90), Şalgam (80), Raki
Adana Kebab
(75)
Ayran (100), Raki (80),
Meatball
Traditional Turkish Cherry Liquor (50)
Ayran (100), Sirkencübin (80),
Lamb Tandoori
Wine (75)
Şalgam (70), Beer (65), Pickle
Hamsi Tava
juice
Doner Kebab Ayran (90), Wine (75), Beer (75)
Salgam (Turnip Juice) (75),
Kokorec
Pickle juice (70), Ayran (60),
Turkish Tea (95), Lemonade
Menemen
(75), Hardaliye (50)
585
Conclusion
As a result of the research, geographically marked Turkish drinks and meals were matched and a
roadmap was tried to be drawn for further studies. With this study, it is found that Turkish cuisine and
drinks occupy an important place for Turkish cuisine, but foreigners cannot be reminded often enough
about these drinks and visitors, because of the bad experiences they develop negative attitudes against
Turkish drinks. Even though there are many Turkish drinks, the majority of the participants tried to
emphasize Ayran consumption. It can be said that Ayran, the first thing that comes to mind when
talking about the Turkish drink, is not only for foreigners, but also for Turkish gastronomy experts. It
should also be noticed that there are other beverages apart from Ayran in Turkish cuisine.
The first things to do in this regard are below:

• Particular attention should be paid to the use of sherbets, which are beneficial for health, in
daily life.
• The drinks that have been forgotten should be taken under protection and brought to Turkish
cuisine.
• The selection of alcoholic beverages from domestic products instead of imported products will
create awareness for Turkish beverages.
• Turkish beverages should be actively used in touristic businesses serving foreign tourists.
• A design product for the sake of memory should be developed and people should not only
drink those drinks but they should also be able to remember and embody their experiences.
References
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İstanbul: Çalış Ofset.
Arslantas D., Metintas S., Unsal A., Isikli B., Kalyoncu C. and Arslantas A. (2008). Prevalence of
osteoporosis in middle Anatolian population using calcaneal ultrasonography method.
Maturitas, 59(3), 234–241. Doi: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2008.01.007
Develi Işıklı, N., Dönmez, M. N., Kozan, N. and Karababa, E. (2015). Rheological properties of salep
powder-milk mixture. Journal of food science and technology, 52(10), 6556-64.
Glanville, J. M., Brown, S., Shamir, R., Szajewska, H. and Eales, J. F. (2015) The scale of the evidence
base on the health effects of conventional yogurt consumption: findings of a scoping
review. Frontiers in pharmacology, 6, 246. Doi: 10.3389/fphar.2015.00246
Green, G. P. and Dougherty, M. L. (2008). Localising linkages for food and tourism: culinary tourism as
a community development strategy. Community Development, 39(3), 148-158.
Güneş, S. (2012). Türk çay kültürü ve ürünleri. Milli Folklor Dergisi, 93, 235-251.
Hancioglu, O. and Karapinar, M. (1997). Microflora of boza, a traditional fermented Turkish beverage.
International journal of food microbiology, 35(3), 271–274.
Karasar, N. (2014). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemi. (26. Baskı). Ankara: Nobel Yayınevi.
Özdoğan, Y. and Işık, N. (2008. Geleneksel Türk mutfağında şerbet. 38. ICANAS (International Congress
of Asian and North African Studies). Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu, Ankara,
Türkiye.
Tezcan, M. (2000). Türk yemek antropolojisi yazıları. Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları.
Todorov, S. D., Botes, M., Guigas, C., Schillinger, U., Wiid, I., Wachsman, M. B., Holzapfel, W. H. and
Dicks, L. M. T. (2008). Boza, a natural source of probiotic lactic acid bacteria. Journal of Applied
Microbiology, 104(2), (465-986), (2011). Doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2007.03558.x
Yarış, A. (2014). Mardin’de gastronomi turizmi: turist görüşlerine ilişkin bir uygulama. Mardin Artuklu
Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Mardin.
Yıldırım, A. and Şimşek, H. (2013). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. (9. Baskı). Ankara:
Seçkin Yayıncılık.
586
Biographical Notes
İsmail Konuk is an instructor in the Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Anadolu University,
Eskisehir, Turkey. His research focuses on Postmodern Gastronomy.
587
7781
EVALUATION OF HUNTING TOURISM IN TURKEY
Önder Yayla
Research Assistant
Eskisehir, Turkey
Şeyda Yayla
Lecturer
Eskisehir, Turkey
Semra Günay Aktaş

Professor Doctor
Eskisehir, Turkey
Abstract
Turkish tourism is concentrated in coastal bands in general, unfortunately, it has a sea-sand-sun-
focused appearance. It is important for the future of Turkish tourism that the coastal area and the
intensified tourism should be concentrated in different destinations and low season. Among
alternative tourism types, hunting tourism has a significant potential for diversification of Turkish
tourism. The purpose of the study is to determine the spatial distribution of species that are allowed
to hunt. In addition, it has been assessed in which regions the animal species allowed to be hunted and
the superiority of the upper structures in these regions for tourism in this study. The species of animals
allowed for hunting in 2018-2019 were identified within the scope of the research. As a result of the
research, it is obvious that the destinations determined for hunting tourism have been significantly
improved compared to previous years, but there are still planning problems in these destinations.
Key words: Hunting tourism in Turkey, animal species for hunting tourism, map of hunting tourism
areas, trophy hunting.
Introduction
Hunting is an effort that has begun with the existence of mankind and has been changing continuously.
It was a necessity for people to survive in ancient times and has become an activity for sports and
entertainment by the time. It is perceived in many different ways for people living in different countries
or even within the same country. In order to be able to hunt, many people travel around the country
and abroad. Hunting tourism is the activity of the hunter with the principles determined for the
purpose of hunting. Hunting tourism aims to use of hunting and wildlife resources under the
supervision of domestic and foreign hunters, and contribute to the national economy by the evaluation
of these resources in terms of the recreational and touristic aspects of the country tourism (Özdönmez
et al., 1996). Another type of it is trophy hunting which is the hunting of animals for sport purposes to
keep the head, skin or horns of the killed animal for souvenir purposes. Meat is sometimes used as
food (Ulusoy, 2015: 75).
588
Hunting tourism is growing day by day with the tendency of people to return to nature. People are
looking for new alternative tourism types besides mass tourism, exploring new cities and seeing
beautiful beaches. This can be called the transition from mass tourism to special interest tourism. The
desire to find the alternative pushes people to explore and travel. Here is one of the motivations that
push people to travel, perhaps the most unusual is the risk. In this context, it may be necessary to build
a bridge between risk, excitement and adventure (Sarıbaş and Öter, 2013: 53-57). Hunting tourism is
rapidly developing and becoming an important source of foreign currency in recent years. The wealthy
hunters of some countries prefer hunting in other countries in order to satisfy their hunting feelings
and to have an adventure. The countries observing this situation open their hunting areas to hunters
in order to meet the demands of foreign hunters and thus to obtain foreign exchange income (Ukav,
2012: 6).
Contributing to the national economy by allowing game animals to have enough population is the most
important aim of hunting tourism. Hunting tourism can be seen as an additional employment and
income-generating industry in traditional rural sectors such as agriculture and forestry. It is a type of
tourism with high income level due to the large amount of monetary expenditure. The importance of
hunting tourism in Turkey is emerging at this point (Yıldızbakan and Keleş, 2011). Tourists participating
in hunting tourism are those with a high tendency to spend. Therefore, they spend high rates on
purchases. In some settlements, village mansions are offered to the hunters. Along with the
accommodation fee, the products produced and the dishes made by the peasant women constitute a
significant source of income for the region. Hunting tourism brings more income on a person basis
than other types of tourism. While a normal tourist spends $750, the expenses for hunting tourism go
up to $2000 per tourist. In some cases, this amount can reach 10-20 thousand dollars
(www.milliparklar.gov.tr).
When the history of hunting tourism is examined in our country, it is seen that domestic and foreign
hunters started hunting in the 1950s without paying any price and until 1975s foreign hunters
continued their hunting with many hunting animals without any rules. Turkey became a member in
1967 for the "International Council for Hunting and Game Animals", which was established for the
purpose of regular development of hunting among the countries, and for the protection of game
animals and living environments. In order to organize the activities of travel agencies, in 1973, "Hunting
Tourism Regulation" was issued and various arrangements were made for hunting tourism (Demir et
al., 2012: 28). In 1977, arrangements were made for the hunting of foreign tourist hunters by paying a
price through travel agencies and the first hunting tourism practice in Turkey in 1977 was started with
wild boar hunting. In 1981, wild goats were included in hunting tourism. In 1984, foreign hunters, such
as domestic hunters started the season in the scope of tourism (Ulusoy, 20015: 76).
Geographical structure, vegetation and wildlife of Turkey is appropriate for the development of
hunting tourism. In contrast to the general belief, hunting tourism does not destroy the wild life and
develops in line with the principle of protection-use. Nowadays, many countries in the world are able
to protect and develop their natural life with their income from hunting tourism. Turkey hunting is
permitted to hunt the animal husbandry is far behind. Hunting tourism will not be enough share unless
the value and importance is given to hunting tourism (Kırıkçı, 2012: 49). Hunting tourism development
of the system as a precondition for the arrival of hunting can be shown in Turkey. Hunting tourism
allows hunters to come to the courtyards individually or as a group. In hunting tourism, the consumer
has to buy the produced product directly from the place where the production is made. In other words,
it is not possible to deliver the product to the consumer by means of distribution channels. In this
context, the company accepting domestic or foreign hunters has carried out an export in terms of
balance of payments within the borders of the country without incurring costs (Şafak, 2003: 139).
589
Hunting periods of game animals for hunting tourism in Turkey is regulated by the Hunting and Wildlife
Protection Department. Arrangement and planning are based on the fact that prey animals are not
disturbed during breeding and they are not hunted while they are puppies. In this way, the balance of
natural life is preserved. This is also important for sustainable hunting tourism to increase and stabilize
the populations of game animals. If the balance cannot be established and the game animals cannot
be protected, the extinction of the game animals will be faced. Since poaching is the first reason for
extinction of prey animals. The hunters shall be subject to legal proceedings except for the specified
dates; they are given a prison sentence and a fine. All applications will be made under hunting tourism
in Turkey is determined by the commission to include every hunting year. In these decisions, the
species allowed to be hunted, the areas allowed to be hunted, hunting dates, wages, fishing principles,
prohibited methods are specified. Hunting tourism in Turkey is carried out under the following
principles (yigm.kulturturizm.gov.tr/Eklenti/810,avveyabanhayatindaavturizmidoc.doc?0):
1- To ensure the continuity of the numbers of wild animals, to maintain the populations by taking
measures to protect against pest and to prevent the maintenance and reproduction of
animals.
2- To ensure the sustainable management of wildlife resources by allowing hunting animals to
reach enough population by taking into account the carrying capacity with inventory studies.
3- To ensure that hunting is carried out consciously without damaging the natural life.
4- To ensure sustainable use of natural resources for tourism purposes.
5- To ensure that local people benefit from the added value of the wildlife resources by taking
into consideration the basic principles of supporting rural development.
The majority of hunters come to Turkey for wild boar hunting. The most basic reason is completely
about wildness and sizes of the boars in Turkey. Since they have a reputation in the world. Anatolian
wild goat hunting is also effective on foreign tourists coming to Turkey. The reason for this is that
Anatolian Wild Goat, as the name suggests, is unique to Anatolia. The 2018 - 2019 Hunting Year (1 April
2018 - 31 March 2019) includes the following species of animals to be hunted
(http://www.milliparklar.gov.tr/dosyalar/avturizmi_talimat.pdf):
1) Large mammal hunting and wild animals
a) Anatolian wild sheep
b) Wild goat
c) Mountain goat with hook horns
d) Red deer
e) Hybrid wild goat
f) Gazelle
g) Roe
h) Wild boar
2) Predators
a) Coyote
b) Fox
The purpose of the study is to determine the spatial distribution of species that are allowed to hunt.
Also it is aimed to evaluate of the hunting tourism in terms of geographical distribution of the animal
species.
Method
Screening method was used in this study. The data were defined by calculating the percentage
distribution tables and frequency analysis. Within this research, animal species and quotas set for
hunting tourism in Turkey has been mapped. The allocated hunting areas in Turkey which are
590
concentrated in the region, and the regions are assessed by the investigators as to whether suitable
for alternative tourism.
Results
The dates determined for specific animals according to the 2018-2019 hunting calendar are shown in
Table 1. The hunting season is more intense in autumn and winter, as opposed to seasonality in mass
tourism. Animal hunting is not allowed especially in the spring and summer seasons determined as the
breeding period of animals.
Table 1. 2018-2019 Hunting Season by Animal Species
Start Date
End Date
of
September
November
December
Animal Species of Hunting
February
October
Hunting
January
August
Season
March
Season
April
June
May
July
Anatolian Wild
1.09.2018 31.01.2019 X X X X X
Sheep
20.08.201
Coyote 31.01.2019 X X X X X X
8
Gazelle 1.09.2018 15.11.2018 X X X X
Hook Horned
1.08.2018 31.01.2019 X X X X X X
Mountain Goat
Roe 1.05.2018 31.10.2018 X X X X X X
Red Stag
1.09.2018 31.01.2019 X X X X X
Deer Pile Horn
15.10.201
Fox 15.01.2019 X X X X
8
Billy
1.08.2018 31.03.2019 X X X X X X X X
(Individual)
Hybrid 1.08.2018 31.03.2019 X X X X X X X X
Wild
1.08.2018 31.10.2018 X X X
Goat Faulty
Horn 1.02.2019 31.03.2019 X X
Nanny
1.07.2018 31.01.2019 X X X X X X X
(Individual)
Battue 1.09.2018 20.02.2019 X X X X X X
Wild Track 1.04.2018 31.03.2019 X X X X X X X X X X X X

Boar The hunt
for fighting 2018-2019 - Central Hunting Commission decides.
purposes
The locations where animals are allowed to hunt are generally natural parks. It is shown in Table 2 that
the cost of entering into the areas for hunting purposes. Even if hunting activity is not done, the fees
are collected in order to support the sustainability of the courtyards and to support the nature. It is
possible that these fees directly contribute to the living space of animals. It is important that some of
591
the economic problems brought about by the lack of interest in nature parks in our country can be
solved by buying activity. Although the cost of hunting is different according to the type of hunters,
high hunting fee is generally taken from foreign hunters. The cost of hunting for local hunters is
generally the lowest. The highest cost of hunting is for Anatolian Wild Goat. Anatolian wild sheep
followed by wild goats and red deer respectively. The species with the lowest hunting costs are wild
animals such as wild boar, jackal and fox which can damage local areas like plantation, pasture and
domestic animals.
Table 2. Hunting Permission Fee

Animal Species Foreign Domestic/Local
Anatolian Wild Sheep 1000
Hook Horned Mountain Goat 300
Gazelle 350
Roe 300 150
Billy 750 350

Red Deer
Pile Horn 200
Hybrid Wild Goat 350
Billy 400 300
Wild Goat Nanny (Individual) 100
Faulty Horn 0 100
Governmental / General / Operational

Sample Hunting Area / Battue and
50 25
Track Hunt For Fighting Purposes/
Wild Boar
Battue and Track Hunt
Operated Sample Hunting Area 25 0
Special Hunting Areas 25 0
Poultry Courts Operated Poultry Sample Hunting Area 25 0
Other Species Coyote and Fox 25
The number of species allowed to be hunted in the 2018-2019 hunting season is shown in Table 3. For
2018-2019, a total of 511 animals are allowed to hunt for 10 different species. The number of these
animals varies according to the species grown by year and the quota determined by the ministry. In
511 animals, the most allowed animal species is the wild goat with the 281 amount. Roe and red deer
follow the wild goat. For the pile horn species in 10 different species, only 1 quota is reserved for the
local hunters. Apart from this, the Anatolian Wild Sheep is the least permitted species allowed to hunt
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due to be cultivated and taken under the protection of them. It is followed by gazelle and nanny
(female) wild goats.
Table 3. Hunting Fees of Animals Allowed to Hunt

Nam Distri
e of the Fo Do L Dip T bution Rate
Animal reign mestic ocal lomat otal by Animal
Species Species
Wild 18 2 2
72 3 54,99
goat 0 6 81
Fault
1 2
y Horned 0 9 0 4,50
4 3
Wild Goat
Nann
y (Female)
0 0 8 0 8 1,57
Individual
Wild Goat
Hybri 1
13 5 1 0 3,72
d Wild Goat 9
Hook
Horned 2
14 9 0 0 4,50
Mountain 3
Goat
Anat
olian Wild 5 0 0 0 5 0,98
Sheep
Red 4
23 21 2 0 9,00
Deer 6
Pile
Horned Red 0 0 1 0 1 0,20
Deer
Gazel
4 2 0 0 6 1,17
le
9
Roe 37 60 0 2 19,37
9
27 5 5 100,0
Total 178 5
6 2 11 0
Distri
bution Rate 54 34, 1 0,9 1
by Hunter ,01 83 0,18 8 00,00
Types
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Table 4 shows the animals in which hunting areas are allowed. The areas designated for hunting are
away from of mass tourism regions in Turkey, and it is important to spread the tourism to different
regions. Since hunting tourism is inherently built in rural areas or mountainous areas, it does not
coincide with mass tourism activities. In these regions, hunting tourism can be a kind of tourism with
a significant economic return.
Table 4. Provinces for Hunting Tourism
Name of the Animal Species Province
Adana,
Adiyaman, Antalya,
Artvin, Bingol, Erzincan,
Erzurum, Giresun,
Wild goat
Gumushane, Hatay,
Isparta, Karaman,
Kayseri, Konya, Mersin,
Mugla, Nigde, Sivas
Artvin, Giresun,
Faulty Horned Wild Goat Karaman, Sivas, Mugla,
Mersin
Giresun,
Nanny (Female) Individual Wild Goat
Mersin, Erzurum
Adıyaman,
Hybrid Wild Goat
Giresun
Artvin, Bingol,
Hook Horned Mountain Goat
Erzincan, Rize
Anatolian Wild Sheep Ankara, Konya
Afyonkarahisar,
Ankara, Bolu, Corum,
Denizli, Düzce,
Red Deer
Eskisehir,
Kahramanmaras,
Kastamonu, Kutahya
Pile Horned Red Deer Kahramanmaras
Gazelle Sanlıurfa
Bartin, Corum,
Duzce, Giresun,
Roe
Kastamonu, Sinop,
Ordu, Karabuk
594
Figure 1 shows the areas that can be done hunting tourism in Turkey. In Turkey, hunting tourism is
generally done in the interior part of the country where tourism activities are low. In addition to this,
in most of the provinces like Erzincan, Bingol, Artvin, Karabuk, Duzce, Nigde, Kahramanmaras, Giresun,
Gumushane and so on where the cluster is formed, tourism is almost negligible. Hunting tourism can
be considered as an important tourism activity in these regions. Hunting tourism can be an important
opportunity for tourism enterprises in provinces such as Antalya and Mugla to continue their activities
in low season.
Figure 1. Provinces for Hunting Tourism in Turkey
Conclution
Hunting tourism will play a significant role for geographical distribution of tourism in Turkey. There are
some debates in Turkey that tourism is stacked in particular geography. It causes some inevitable
problems in those areas. Especially, sustainability of those areas are being harmed in most cases.
Hunting tourism contributes to the protection of local species. In particular, it is important to
reintroduce endangered animals. It is also effective in raising awareness about animal protection.
Their contribution to providing employment to local people cannot be ignored. Thanks to the hunting
tourism, idle areas such as mountains, grasslands and plateaus can be used as income generating areas
for local economy what they need. It is also known that the local people contribute to their economic
revenues.
Particularly on the tourism activities in locations that continuous migration from Turkey's far-flung
areas, will help to stimulate the local economy. It is a kind of tourism will contribute to the spread of
tourism activities in all seasons in Turkey. The creation of the distribution maps of other game animals
in Turkey will be useful for tourism planners.
References
595
Demir, M., Okutucu, M. A., Ağyürek, C. and Güven, M. (2012). Av turizminin alternatif turizm
kapsamında Erzurum ili turizmine etkisi (araştırma).
http://yayin.ogm.gov.tr/yaydepo/1625.pdf (Date of access: 13.06.2018)
Kırıkçı, K. (2012). Özel Avlaklar ve Katkıları. Av Tutkusu, 174, 44-52.
Özdönmez, M, İstanbullu, T., Akesen A. and Ekizoğlu, A. (1996). Ormancılık politikası [Forest policy].
İstanbul: İ. Ü. Basımevi ve Film Merkezi.
Sarıbaş, Ö. and Öter, Z. (2013). Risk as a motivation in adventure tourism and its use in terms of tourism
marketing, 8th Silk Road International Conference on "Development of Tourism in Black and
Caspian Seas Regions", May 24-26, Tbilisi-Batumi, Georgia. Proceedings Book, pp. 53-57.
Şafak, İ. (2003). Türkiye`deki av turizmi uygulamalarının özel avlak işletmelerine etkileri. Süleyman
Demirel Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, A(2), 133-148.
Ukav, İ. (2012). Adıyaman’da Av Turizmi. II. Disiplinlerarası Turizm Araştırmaları Kongresi, (3-18), 12–
15 Nisan 2012, Kemer, Antalya.
Ulusoy, H. (2015). Av Turizminin Kırsal Turizm Açısından Kırsal Kalkınma Üzerindeki Etkisinin
İrdelenmesi. Türk Bilimsel Derlemeler Dergisi, 8(2), 74-80.
Yıldızbakan, A. and Keleş, H. (2011). Yaban Keçisi (Capra aegagrus Erxleben 1777) Avının Mersin İli
Turizm ve Ekonomisine Katkısı. I. Ulusal Akdeniz Orman ve Çevre Sempozyumu, (1276-1285),
26-28 Ekim, Kahramanmaraş, Türkiye.
http://www.milliparklar.gov.tr (Date of access: 05.05.2018).
http://www.milliparklar.gov.tr/dosyalar/avturizmi_talimat.pdf (Date of access: 12.05.2018).
yigm.kulturturizm.gov.tr/Eklenti/810,avveyabanhayatindaavturizmidoc.doc?0 (Date of access:
07.05.2018).
Biographical Notes
596
7792
CULTURAL LANDSCAPES OF AVIATION PARK IN TERMS OF VISITORS’
VIEWPOINT: CASE OF ESKISEHIR AVIATION PARK
Semra Günay Aktaş
Professor Doctor
Eskisehir, Turkey
Önder Yayla
Research Assistant
Eskisehir, Turkey
Sema Ekincek
Research Assistant
Eskisehir, Turkey
Abstract
Aviation Park is a part of the cultural landscape of Eskisehir where historical and technological
processes are exhibited. The aim of this study is to reveal the cultural landscape of the park by using
thoughts of the visitors of Eskisehir Aviation Park. In this study, qualitative research method was
conducted. Interviews were carried out in the park with 33 participants. Visitors’ perceptions on the
aviation park were analyzed with content analysis method. Findings were examined under four
headings as the reasons to visit the aviation park, significant elements of the landscape of the park for
visitors, feelings aroused by Aviation Park and objects, people or events that make them feel such
intense feelings. In the result of the study, it was seen that the elements consisting of the park's cultural
landscape were aircraft, airplane, historical background, garden, Vecihi Hürkuş and Cengiz Topel.
Key words: Cultural Landscape, Aviation Park, Eskisehir.
Introduction
Landscape can be defined as an appearance emerged as a result of the combination of natural and
cultural environments. Landscapes are "areas of interaction, and action of natural and/or human
agents as people perceive" (Çakcı and Çelem, 2009: 89). The natural landscape is the appearance of
the areas where human being has no or little influence; therefore natural order is well preserved in
those areas. A categorization can be made as mountain landscape, sea landscape, lake landscape and
so on (Gül, 2000: 100). On the other hand, cultural landscape is the area in which natural landscape
has been changed by people (Duran Gökalp and Yazgan, 2013: 26). Some places have embraced the
minds of societies with their strong beliefs, artistic and aesthetic values and traditional attire to
embody the extraordinary relationship between people and nature. In addition, it shows the human
relations developed with the natural environment.
597
Cultural landscapes are linked to the characteristics of the natural environment in which human being
lives. It is also the result of a special relationship between human and nature. Cultural landscapes are
indicators of the natural environment, humanity, creativeness, social development, imagination,
evolution of settlement, land usage technologies, economical structure and cultural powers.
Accordingly, cultural landscapes are geographical areas having cultural and aesthetic values related to
historical events, activities and people, and keep natural and cultural resources together. A cultural
landscape occurs from physical elements such as roads, buildings, industrial site, park, garden,
graveyard, campus and vegetation as well as non-physical elements reflecting tradition, custom,
cultural values. It can be said that cultural landscapes have the three main components: natural
structure, cultural life and historical process (Özsüle, 2005: 8-10).
UNESCO separates cultural landscapes into three groups. These are

(https://whc.unesco.org/en/culturallandscape/):
a) The areas, which are clearly defined areas and deliberately designed and created by people,
are the most easily identified geographic landscapes. These include parks, gardens, majority
of religious buildings and monumental buildings built for aesthetic reasons.
b) Geographically evolved landscapes constitute the other class. Initially, they were formed as a
result of social, economic, administrative and/or religious necessity, and developed in
accordance with the natural environment. They are divided into two subcategories:
i. Relict/fossil landscapes: although the evolutionary processes have ended, important
distinctive features and materials are still visible.
ii. It is the geographical view of contemporary societies that is related to the traditional
way of life, and the evolutionary process is still going on.
c) The last category is the associative cultural landscape. The inclusion of such landscapes on the
world heritage list is justifiable by virtue of the powerful religious, artistic or cultural
associations of the natural element rather than material cultural evidence that may be
insignificant or even absent.
Cultural landscapes have different characteristics and cannot be reduced to a single origin or
dimension. They may be related to a person or event, and may range from a small area to a region that
covers thousands of acres. What is important is that the cultural landscape includes the narratives of
culture and expresses the regional identity. Cultural landscape foundation defines four types of cultural
landscapes. These are (https://tclf.org/places/about-cultural-landscapes):
- Designed landscapes: Areas designed in compliance with design principles in a recognized style
or pursuant to a tradition.
- Ethnographic landscapes: Landscapes including various natural and cultural sources
concerning ethnographic structure.
- Historical landscapes: Places that represent a historical phenomenon, event or person.
- Vernacular (local) landscapes: Landscapes reflecting social and cultural behaviors of
individuals, families or communities as well as physical, biological and cultural features of daily
life.
The cultural landscape has evolved by people who shaped it with their activities. The landscape reflects
the physical, biological and cultural characteristics of everyday life with the social or cultural attitudes
of an individual, a family or a community. Rapid population growth, development with increasing
acceleration all around the world, urbanization, rural areas, expansion of industry, expansion of energy
production areas, lack of sensitivity to preservation of cultural geographical appearance in legal
regulations and spatial changes represent the roots of the past threatens views.
598
Cultural landscapes that help societies to understand themselves better and offer them natural,
economic, ecological, social, entertainment and educational opportunities are heritage for all people.
Cultural landscapes that provide natural, economic, ecological, social, entertainment and educational
opportunities that help societies better understand themselves are heritage for all people
(https://tclf.org/places/about-cultural-landscapes). Due to the fascinating interplay between people
and the environment, the cultural heritage and the preservation of traditional cultures are maintained
by the UNESCO in the world heritage sites (https://whc.unesco.org/en/culturallandscape/).
Anadolu University Aviation Park as a Part of Cultural Landscape

Aviation Park is located in Eskisehir, and has historical roots in Eskisehir. Eskisehir had a significant
location for aviation both in independence war and in early years of Turkish republic, and has even
today. All kinds of activities concerning aviation is settled in Eskisehir. Most distinguished engineer
soldiers of air forces command work in air supply center localized in Eskisehir. Sportive aviation
activities are performed. Anadolu University provides associate degree, bachelor’s degree,
postgraduate degree and doctoral programs concerning aviation. Even pilot trainings are provided.
Anadolu University incorporates a civil airport. It provides a commercial air transportation training.
There is a company producing parts for aviation. Aviation Park has been established by Eskisehir
provincial environment protection foundation in 1997. It was assigned to air force command in 2006
and to Anadolu University in 2011. As Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of republic of Turkey, stated
that “Future is in the sky”, its mission was specified in 2012 as aviation science communication.
Eskisehir is a significant center of republic of Turkey in terms of aviation history. Selahattin Reşit Alan
was sent to abroad by Atatürk, returned to Turkey after completion of his education and, started his
career in Eskisehir. He was a pilot at the same time and has designed the second military aircraft of
turkey However, he could not receive the necessary support. Later, he resigned from the public service
and made first Turkish aircrafts with Nuri Demirağ who planned to establish national aviation industry.
He was martyred in 1938 with the aircraft made by himself as result of his aircraft hit the ditch on the
runway while landing on the acceptance facilities in Eskisehir. Selahattin Reşit Alan virtual reality
hangar was built in Aviation Park in the memory of him.
The area where Aviation Park is located is classified in the city plan as green-field for land usage.
Aircrafts constitute the main factors of the park and these aircrafts are exhibited outdoors. Aircrafts
are exhibited in the park amongst trees, meadows, walking trails, pools and benches. Park is arranged
very beautifully. There is a controlled gate and a security officer at the entrance of the park, the
entrance to the park is free and free-of-charge. Park is centrally located in the city. The intercity
tramway station is in front of the park and park’s name was given to the tramway station. After
Aviation Park adopts in 2012 by the central mission of science communication, a number of projects
were applied. Aircrafts which are cults for aviation enthusiasts were moved to the park. An aircraft in
the aviation park was painted in colors that children will appreciate in accordance with opinions of an
expert. Two aircrafts were painted in their original colors with specialist teams in accordance with
expert opinions.
An aircraft from Turkish stars acrobatics team has been one of the aircrafts with which people took
the pictures the most. A virtual reality hangar was built in the memory of Selahattin Reşit Alan who is
a very important figure for Turkish aviation history, and virtual flights were organized with Vecihi XIV
aircraft and under piloting of Vecihi Hürkuş. It has been an important field of event for aviation
enthusiasts and students. Vecihi XIV was characterized with 3D picture. This has been one of the areas
on which people took pictures the most. It raises awareness on Vecihi Hürkuş and his aircrafts. Vecihi
Hürkuş is a Turkish pilot who took the flight over Eskisehir, which changed the destiny of independence
599
war. He mentions in his memories that he was embraced by the aviation enthusiast residents of
Eskisehir. 3D picture of Vecihi XIV, which is an aircraft designed and produced by him, was drawn in
the entrance of the Aviation Park. Park also started attracting attention as a photo shooting area for
brides and grooms. This situation may be considered as a proof of landscape beauty.
Method
Researcher visited the aviation park in order to specify the field of study and made an interview with
the head of the aviation park. The audio records that were recorded during the interview were
deciphered and a content analysis was performed thereafter. An observation was made in relation
with the park, and the observations were supported with images. Two weeks later, Aviation Park was
revisited for renewing observations. The findings obtained were recorded, and the research was
supported with the images recorded by researches as well as the images obtained from archive of
management of aviation park concerning the development of the park.
In this study, interview technique was used as a data collection tool. It is a data collection tool that
tries to reveal the factors that direct people's feelings, attitudes and feelings and behaviors about a
case (Ekiz, 2009). A semi-structured questionnaire was used in the study. While creating the questions
of the interview form, the literature was used. Data for this study was collected on May 10, 2018.
Interviews were carried out in Aviation Park with 33 participants. Descriptive analysis method, which
is one of qualitative research methods, is used in analyzing interview data. The data obtained are
summarized and interpreted according to the previously determined themes.
The voices recorded during the interviews were transferred from the audio recorder to the computer
and deciphered. In order to ensure the reliability of the research, a variety of researchers were
conducted and an expert review was conducted. Data analysis was carried out by three different
experts in the field. The researchers evaluated the study together with a person who had general
knowledge about the research subject and specialized in qualitative research methods.
Findings
The findings related to the demographic information of the participants are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Demographic information of the participants

Groups f %
18-25 years old 14 42.42
26-35 years old 6 18.18
Age 36-45 years old 6 18.18
46 years old and
7 21.21
above
High school degree 14 42.42
Associate’s or
Education 16 48.48
Bachelor’s degree
Level
Master’s or Doctoral
3 9.09
degree
As seen in Table 1, 42.42% of the participants are in the 18-25 age range; 21.21% of them are 46 years
old and above. 18.18% of them are in the 26-35 age range, and 18.18% of them are in the 26-35 age
range. According to the education level of the participants, 48.48% of them have Associate’s or
600
Bachelor’s degree, 42.42% of them have high school degree, and 9.09% of them have Master’s or
Doctoral degree. Majority of the participants are young and well educated persons.
The findings arising from the views of the participants about the aviation park were interpreted by
making quotations directly from the participants' opinions under the related theme topics. The
questions used in the study were taken as themes. These themes are examined under four headings
as the reasons to visit the aviation park, significant elements of the landscape of the park for visitors,
feelings aroused by Aviation Park and objects, people or events that make them feel such intense
feelings.
Theme 1. Reasons for Visiting Aviation Park

The reason why the participants visited the aviation park was primarily to show their relatives around.
Therefore, the participants visit the aviation park in order to show their wives, friends, children or
friends around. It was also seen that participants generally wanted to show the planes to the people
they went along with. When these findings are examined, it is seen that people who see Aviation Park
usually want to show this area to their relatives and they want to share this area with their loved ones.
In addition, the participants have such feelings like wonder and desire to visit the aviation park.
Theme 2. Significant Elements of the Landscape of Aviation Park for Visitors

In the research, it is found that the most significant elements of the landscape of aviation park are;
aircrafts, location, planes, historical background and garden in it. As Aviation Park is also an aviation
museum, it has been seen that the main elements that attract the attention of the visitors and
reflected to the park are the aircrafts, airplanes and historical background. On the other hand, garden
in the museum is seen as a significant element for the aviation park. When we consider all these
elements in general, it is seen that geographical location is considered as a significant element. Visitors
emphasized the fact that the airplanes are in the garden, in the open air, in the greens and being on
the ring road as the location, being close to the main road and being seen from the tram. The fact that
there are areas to relax and relax in the park is emphasized by the visitors. It was also considered as
an interesting element of the placement of planes and the layout of the area. At the same time, the
historical narrative of the airplanes was also mentioned by the visitors. It was said that airplanes and
aircraft missiles were remarkable. Old warplanes and many different planes are the first elements
getting attraction of visitors. For example, f104 is considered by many to be an interesting element.
Detailed information about the aircraft is also mentioned as an attractive element. The fact that
touching helicopters is a good experience has also been described as an interesting element by the
visitors.
Theme 3. Feelings Aroused By Aviation Park

The emotions aroused by people in the aviation park are determined as proud, nationalism, happiness,
thriller, excitement. National feelings of people come to the fore in the aviation park. The story of the
old planes and their ancestors' heroic stories greatly affected the participants during their visit. For this
theme, the visitors stated that they wanted to be the Turkish aircraft and that the feelings of
nationalism were swelling. The fact that there are a lot of American airplanes made me sad. Most of
the visitors were so proud of these sentiments that they aroused my national feelings.
They also stated that they were touched after they learned the history of airplanes. Touching the
planes and watching them excited. They said that it made them happy to live the flight moment. Some
visitors have stated that they have a sense of war. In addition to saying that national consciousness
and knowledge have increased, many participants have emphasized that this visit adheres to happiness
and good feelings. Many visitors emphasized the experience that he saw in the sky, seeing objects
601
close to him, even to ride into and even said that he liked the contact very much. Besides, they stated
that they felt feelings like national consciousness and admiration.
Theme 4. Objects, People or Events That Make You Feel Such Intense Feelings
The factors that play an important role in feeling the emotions of the participants are respectively
airplanes, aircrafts, Vecihi Hürkuş and Cengiz Topel. The most prominent expressions for this theme
are also expressed as the factors causing people to find themselves in the history of aviation. Vecihi
Hürkuş and Cengiz Topel have been mentioned especially since they have caused many emotions in
Aviation Park due to their place and importance in aviation history. In addition to the airplane and the
aircraft, the Turkish flags on the airplanes, the fact that the airplanes are real and the solo Turkish and
Turkish stars are the points that are mentioned.

Cultural landscapes cover urban or rural areas, including historic settlements (Mrda ve Bojanić Obad
Šćitaroci, 2016). Aviation Park is a part of the cultural landscape of the Eskisehir urban area. Historical
and technological processes are exhibited. Old aircrafts which are deemed as unique parts for aviation
enthusiasts are exhibited in their original and most attractive forms in Anadolu University Aviation
Park. Events are organized for students and parents in compliance with the science communication
mission regarding aviation. Aviation is an important activity for Eskisehir. For this reason, Aviation Park
is a well localized, well arranged and well managed area. Considering the roots of aviation history, it
may be considered as a historic designed landscape. In addition to the historical roots of the city, it
refers to important people and aircrafts and even to incidents available in the aviation history. For this
reason, it is appropriate to define it as a historic vernacular landscape. It has a position of recreation
area for the city residents. It also serves as a training area in terms of raising awareness in the aviation
area. By means of this feature, it reflects the feelings of a daily life in the city, by communing with the
departments, airports and even pilot trainings of Anadolu University faculty of civil aviation. Aviation
Park can be considered as one of the important centers of attraction in Eskisehir by evaluating it in
terms of cultural tourism.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by Anadolu University Scientific Research Projects Commission under grant
No: 1705E153
References
Cakci, I. & Celem, H. (2009). Kent parklarında görsel peyzaj algısının değerlendirilmesi [Assessment of
visual landscape perception of urban parks]. Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi, 15(1), 88-95.
Ekiz, D. (2009). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri [Scientific research methods]. Ankara: Ani Yayincilik.
Gökalp, D. D., & Yazgan, M. E. (2013). Kırsal peyzaj planlamada agroturizm ve agriturizm [Rural
landscape planning in agro-tourism and agri-tourism]. Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey Üniversitesi
Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 2013(1), 25-29.
Gül, A. (2000). Peyzaj-insan ilişkisi ve peyzaj mimarlığı [Landscape and human being relation and
lanscape architecture]. SDÜ Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 97-114.
Hall, C. M. & Müller, D. K. (Eds.). (2004). Tourism, mobility, and second homes: between elite landscape
and common ground (Vol. 15). Channel View Publications.
Mrda, A. & Bojanić Obad Šćitaroci, B. (2016). Relationship between tourism and cultural landscape –
A new sustainable development model. Proceedıngs of Tcl2016 Conference, Infota 2016, 376-
384.
602
Özsüle, Z. (2005). Geleneksel yerleşimlerin korunması açısından kültürel peyzaj değerlendirmesi:

Mudanya örneği [An assessment of cultural landspace for the conservation of traditional
settlements: A case study of Mudanya], Doktora Tezi, İstanbul Üniversitesi/Fen Bilimleri
Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
https://tclf.org/places/about-cultural-landscapes/ Retrivied 10 June 2018.
https://whc.unesco.org/en/culturallandscape/ Retrivied 15 June 2018.
Biographical Notes
603
7809
THE PLACE OF SHERBET IN BEVERAGE PREFERENCES OF UNIVERSITY
STUDENTS
Assistant Professor Dr.
Eskisehir, Turkey
Hasan Hüseyin Çakıcı

Student of Tourism Management
Eskisehir, Turkey
hh_cakici@anadolu.edu.tr
Eren Altunbağ
Student of Tourism Management
Eskisehir, Turkey
erenaltunbag@anadolu.edu.tr
Abstract
When we look through the historical process of drinking habits of Turkish people, we can observe that
different drinks came into prominence in the Turkish cuisine. One of the oldest drinks of the Turkish
cuisine is sherbet (şerbet) just like kumiss (kımız), ayran, wine, beer, boza and coffee. The sherbet
which its origin reaches to the communities of Central Asia is a drink obtained after the syrup is diluted
and softened by the addition of sugar to various plants, flowers, fruit, root, shell or seeds. With the
acceptance of Islam, sherbet started to be consumed more among Turkish people. Sherbet has been
served in glasses in the shops and on the streets since Seljuks to the present days. During the Ottoman
period where it was used most commonly, sherbet was a drink which was produced and consumed by
everyone from poor to rich. It is also known that since the mid-seventeenth century, that famous
baverage of the Ottomans "sherbet" was exported to Britain with its lemon, rose, violet flavoured
varieties. Sherbet formed the basis of the products known as "sorbet" in French, "sherbet" in English
and "sorbetto" in Italian. The consumption of the sherbet decreased gradually with the increase of the
production of the carbonated drinks by the domestic producers in 20th century and especially with the
start of coke sales after 1960. With the increase of the production of the industrial juices in the same
period, sherbet has become unable to compete with these drinks. This situation has caused the sherbet
culture to be forgotten. This study was carried out to determine the drinking preferences of the young
people, the factors which are effective in their choices and the place of sherbet among the drinks that
young people prefer. The research population is constituted by the students who studied in the Faculty
of Tourism at Anadolu University in the academic year 2017-2018. In this study, 361 questionnaries
were evaluated and descriptive statistics and cross-tables were used in the analysis of the data.
Research results show that the sherbet is known among the young people however it is not being
consumed too much. It is thought that the sherbet which has existed in the Turkish cuisine for
centuries, needs to be turned into a preferred drink in order to be transferred to the next generations.
The study includes recommendations in order to increase sherbet’s recognition and consumption.
604
Key words: Sherbet, Beverage, Preference, Turkish Cuisine, Beverage Preferences.
Introduction
Beverage is always important for humanity. A society’s life, their belief and their environment affect
their production and consumption of beverage. People product beverages such as sweet, spicy, non-
alcoholic in a liquor form according to their beliefs and life style.It is thought that beverages shapes
from culture.
Turkish people always put emphasis on cuisine culture and when we look at the Turkish cusine history
there are different beverages in different times. One of the most important beverage is sherbet which
is sweetened fruit juice (Şahin, 2016).Sherbet which is constantly used in Ottoman and Seljuk
period,had its golden time in Ottoman age,it even exported at that time (Sandıkçıoğlu,2016). During
the last years of Ottoman Empire, with the consumption of fizzy drinks and fruit juice the production
and consumption of sherbet decreased.Even though it is thought that sherbet is important for Turkish
culture, today it is not that much favoured.
This study aims to show college students' beverage choices and to show factors of that choices and
aims to show if students prefer sherbet or not. For this reason primarily sherbet and beverage choices
being examined. The data paraphrased and recommendations made for increase sherbet
comsumption.
Sherbet
Sherbet is a mix of various flowers, fruits, roots and plants with addition of sugar and water. After this
process the drink becomes more smooth like a syrup (Akçiçek, 2014, p. 90)Sherbet was used to freshen
the body. Sherbet was served aside the food and was preferred as a cold beveredge even instead of
water. (Sürücüoğlu, 1997). The words including soup in Arabic, syrup, sherbet and wine are
paronymous. Sherbet get round to West with Ottoman. The word sherbetis "sorbet" in French ,
"sherbet" in English ,"sorbetto" in Italian (Tez, 2015, p. 39).
It is seen that Turkish people always drink cold beverage with the food and it is called "sogukluk"
(Sürücüoğlu & Özçelik,2005, p. 36-38). After Islam banned alcohol the beverage that contains no
alcohol such as "milk, boza, salep, hosaf, syrup, ayran and sherbet" become prominent in Turkish
cuisine and they are known as most famous ones (Soner, 2016, p. 164). It is known that sherbet is
always a part of Turkish cuisine since the Central Asia period and it was consumed alot at the time of
Seljuk. At that times they produced and consumed sherbets which were had nice smell. It is known
that they put milk and spices into sherbet to make it more delicious (Oral, 1957, p. 33). In the times of
Ottoman Empire the main beverage was water but some people who was rich preferred sherbet. In
the times of Ottoman sherbet was consumed a lot especially in summer in daily lives (D'Ohsson, 1980).
Traditional sherbet can be made in two different ways. First one is squishing the fruit and adding sugar
to its water. Second one is boiling the stum with sugar. Second way is more useful for conservation the
sherbet so that sherbet can be more intense to drink it mix that intense sherbhet with cold water, then
it is ready to serve. (Şavkay, 2000).
There were sherbets prepared as a hard candy and consumed mixing with water. There were also
"visney" which were cherry syrups exported to France and England in 1800's (Sandıkçıoğlu, 2016).
605
At the times of Ottoman Empire the favourite sherbets were rose, lily, violet, daffodil, jasmine,
elaeagnus, woald and pond lily. There were also some other sherbets made in palace such as
lemonade, apple, grape, pear, quince, plum, almond, melon, pomegranate, berry, unripe grape,
walnut, blackberry, strawberry, mandarin, orange, cherry, rose, amber, locust bean and pistachio
(Sarıoğlan & Cevizkaya, 2016, p. 241).And the sherbets were handed from country to palace includes ;
"hummas" from Egypt, "dibas" from Damascus, pomegranate from Bursa,"anberbaris" from Yanbolu
and rose from Edirne (Özdoğan & Işık, 2008, p. 1064).
"Gazozhanes" which were opened at late 1900's in Istanbul with the production of beverages including
cola in 1960's in Turkey and the industrial production of fruit juice in 1970's caused sherbet being
forgotten from Turkish cuisine slowly. Moreover; decreasing consumpiton of sherbet depends on
change in form of life of a society, women started to working and so they coudn't cook in home like
before and couldn't were not able to do the households and spent their times in the kitchen as
before.Besides with the affect of TV programs and advertisements started from 1980's which are
followed by the many Turkish people decreased the consumption of sherbet since people started to
prefer more modern the beverages that they meet on televisions. Thanks to these newly preferred
beverages they did not spent their times in making sherbets and this saved their daily times. There can
be a connection with norms of lives and nutrition habits. It is possible to state that ones culture,
psychological history and habits have ties with the beverages and the food that one prefer. According
to this belief education, communication and developments in technology field affects people's
nutrition habits so people’s choice in food changes (Fırat et al., 2014).Today it can be observed that
fruits and sherbets are still consumed in some regions even they have lost their old popularity In recent
years, there is an attention on traditional and local food and this attention helps some old beverages
to be remembered. Especially at Ramadan sherbet which consumed at the times of Ottoman becomes
the main topic of conversation (Soner, 2016, p. 168).
Beverage Preference
Through the life cycle, the beverage preferences of the individuals vary and change. In the first year
of babies the only beverage they have is milk, then water is welcomed to their lives; nevertheless, ın
the following years a vairety of cold (fruit juice, mineral water and fizzy drinks), hot (tea, coffee and
sahlep) or alcolic beverages (raki, beer and a like) start to take a wide place in human’s life. It is stated
in the studies regarding the beverage preferences in literature that the biggest changes occurred in
the university years(Bowman, 2002, p.1237) which is the period when the habits relevant to this issue
begin to take a shape (Kvaavik et al., 2005).
The study results of Kangal Demir & Yalçın (2016), indicate that drink preferences of individuals differ
according to gender as it is reveald in many studies. (Forshee & Storey, 2003, p.297; Grim et al., 2004,
p.1246; Harnack et al., 1999, p.439; Lien et al., 2001, p.220; Oleary et al., 2012, p.119; Sdrali et al.,
2010, p.687; Storey et al., 2006, p.1992; Verzeletti et al., 2010), also coincide with the literature. In
the study, the writers found that cola drinks were the type of beverage most preferred by participants.
Female students consumed less carbonated beverages than male students. The taste appeared as a
decisive factor among the participants and that the mood of young consumers had great importance
in beverage selection.
In the literature survey on beverage preferences, it was observed that the current studies mostly
focused on industrial-intensive beverages such as alcoholic beverages, carbonated beverages and
energy drinks. In this study, it is aimed to determine the reputation and preference of the sherbet -
which is one of the most important beverages of Turkish cuisine for centuries- among the university
students, even though its industrial production started less than 10 years ago.
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Method
Investigations which aim revealing the current situation and making sense of the present situation
have descriptive character (Büyüköztürk et al., 2016, p. 23). This research is structured in accordance
with the descriptive research model in order to identify the determination of beverage preferences of
university students who were born in 1990s-the period that sherbet started to be forgotten in Turkey.
This research also aims to find out the elements that are effective in the preferences as well as how
much the students prefer sherbet among the beverages in their daily lives. The primary data collected
from the field with the questionnaire technique were tested by quantitative methods.
The subjects of the research were consisted the students studying at Anadolu University Tourism
Faculty in the 2017-2018 academic year. In the mentioned period, there were 741 students (389
tourism management departments, 179 tourism guidance departments and 173 gastronomy and
culinary arts departments) enrolled in the faculty. Questionnaires were applied to the students with
face-to-face questionnaire technique before the final exams which all students were obliged to attend
in the 2017-2018 fall and spring semesters. Data were collected from 457 students who agreed to
participate in the study. Questionnaires were examined after compilation; 361 questionnaires were
taken into consideration by excluding 96 inconsistent responses from the study.
In the selection of the survey as the data collection technique, the desire to obtain data from a large
number of participants has been effective in a short period of time. The questionnaire used in the
survey is composed of four parts. In the first part of the questionnaire, the demographic questions are
asked. In the second part, the participants are asked to determine the frequency of consumption of
various beverages. In the third part, questions are asked to determine the factors that affect beverage
preferences. In the fourth part, questions were asked to determine the preference and frequency of
sherbet consumption. The drinks in the second section of the questionnaire were determined based
on the literature and sherbet was added between the determined drinks. In the third part, Tam et al.’s
(2017) quintet Likert Type Scale’s Turkish translation has been used and ‘Being traditional of the drink’
expression has been added to this scale in work’s scope. Cronbach Alpha Test was conductedto find
the scale’s internal consistency and the parameter was found as 0,764. According to Hair et al. (1998,
p. 188), Alpha parameter’s being bigger than 0, 70 is preferred. Pilot study was conducted with a small
sample group. The purpose of the pilot study was to confirm that all the questions were understood
by the participants. ‘Statictic Programme for Social Science’ (SPSS) ver. 24 was used for data analysis.
As the study aims to find out the current situation, descriptive statistics and cross tables were used in
the analysis of data.
Mann Whitney U Test was used to determine wether the gender difference affect drink preferences
of the students and their drink consumption frequency.
Findings and Comment

People’s demographic qualities can be effective on selection and consumption preferences in many
issues. Therefore, first of all, participants’ demographic qualities were analyzed and the result shows
that 43% of the subjects (157 people) woman, 57% (204 people) man. Besides, it has been found ages
between 18-25 composed the majority. Because all participants are university student, educational
status and income variants were not included in the content of the study.
When the findings about the participants’ drink consumption frequency have been analyzed it has
been found that the most frequently consumed drink is water, buttermilk and ice tea respectively. It
is remarkable that fizzy drinks (especially coke) come after buttermilk, ice tea, soda and fruit juice and
just soda pop takes place before the least preferred drink -sherbet-. It is thought that sherbet’s late
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entry to retail drink market when compared with other drinks in the list is effective in it’s being among
the rarely preferred drinks.
Table 1. Drink Consumption Frequencies
Drink name Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always Average
% % % % % X
Water 0 0,8 4,5 13,9 80,8 4,75
Ayran 2,5 10,9 27,1 42,2 17,3 3,61
Ice tea 15 23,1 26,1 24,2 11,6 2,94
Soda 13,4 24,8 29,2 24 8,6 2,90
Fruit juice 12,8 29 33,7 17,5 7 2,77
Cola 23,1 20,3 25,7 22,8 8,1 2,72
Iced coffee 28 29,7 19,3 14,6 8,4 2,46
Lemonade 16,4 39,6 30,6 10,3 3,1 2,44
Fruit soda 23,5 32,4 29,1 13,1 1,9 2,37
Soda pop 25,2 35,5 30,7 7,2 1,4 2,24
Fruity soda pop 36,6 33,5 23,5 5,9 0,5 2,00
Sherbet 64,3 24,2 6,7 3,7 1,1 1,53
Source: author’s field observations
Mann Whitney U test was used to find out whether the youngers' drink consumption frequencies
differentiate according to gender and test results are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Change of Drink Consumption Frequency According to Gender

Variable Gender N S.O. U Z p
Female 156 186,11
Water 14881,0 -1,426 0,154
Male 203 175,31
Female 154 184,67
Ayran 14911,5 -0,867 0,386
Male 204 175,6
Female 156 177,05
Ice tea 15374,5 -0,563 0,573
Male 204 183,13
Female 155 182,67
Soda 15396,0 -0,438 0,662
Male 204 177,97
Female 155 171,23
Fruit juice 14450,5 -1,448 0,148
Male 204 186,66
Female 155 163,27
Cola 13216,5 -2,732 0,006
Male 204 192,71
Female 154 186,65
Iced coffee 14453,0 -1,257 0,209
Male 203 173,2
Female 156 191,73
Lemonade 14159,5 -1,885 0,059
Male 204 171,91
Female 157 170,58
Fruit soda 14378,0 -1,73 0,084
Male 204 189,02
Female 157 162,34
Soda pop 13085,0 -3,124 0,002
Male 204 195,36
Fruity soda Female 157 163,45
13258,0 -2,734 0,006
pop Male 201 192,04
Female 154 176,09
Sherbet 15183,5 -0,454 0,650
Male 202 180,33
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When we observe Table 2, participants’ drink preferences differentiate in fizzy drinks ( coke, soda
water and soda pop) and it is seen that these three drink are more preferred in males. This finding is
coherent with the other studies in literature.
Table 3, which reflects the effective factors in the youngers' drink preferences, shows that the most
effective things in drink choice is taste and their effects on health. Drink’s harmony with food and
feeling of conforting follow these effective things. Ttraditionalism is the least effective factor in drink
choice, kilo control, appearance and price are among the other determinants which effect the choice
a little. Examining the table, it can be said that to popularize sherbet consumption among the young,
marketing and advertisement activities (especially product’s doing people’s heart good and it’s relaxing
qualities) should be more impresive.
Table 3. Factors Affecting Drink Preferences

Factors 1 2 3 4 5 Average
% % % % % X
Tastes good 4,7 2,8 14,1 27,7 50,7 4,17
Makes me feel good 2,5 3,6 18,3 37,1 38,5 4,06
Accordance of the food with drink 4,7 7,8 17,1 35,2 35,2 3,88
Helps with stress 6,1 7,5 22,6 31,7 32,1 3,76
Whether the drink is healthy 8,3 15,2 23,3 26,6 26,6 3,48
Easy available 9,4 12,5 24,7 28,6 24,8 3,47
To be familiar with the drink 10,6 11,5 22,6 31,6 23,7 3,46
Good value for Money 10 13,9 24 27 25,1 3,43
Capacity to keep someone vigilant 13,1 12,2 23,1 24,2 27,4 3,41
Keeps me healthy 10,2 14,4 26 23,5 25,9 3,40
Smells nice 18,1 16,1 27,2 23,6 15 3,01
Cheap 19,2 16,2 29,2 18,7 16,7 2,97
Looks nice 21,3 28 30,2 9,7 10,8 2,61
Helping to control weight 35,6 17,2 20,6 10,8 15,8 2,54
Traditional 32,5 22,8 22,2 10,3 12,2 2,47
(1Strongly disagree, 2Disagree, 3Neither agree nor disagree, 4Agree, 5Strongly agree)
Mann-Whitney's U test was used to examine the gender affects young people's beverage preferences.
The test results show that there are remarkable differences between males and females in terms of
seven variables in site of science. As shown in Table 4; while the accordance of the food with drink, to
be familiar with the drink, whether the drink is healthy, capacity to keep someone vigilant, being
nutritious and helping to control weight are more effective in women's preference the more the
traditional is the drink the more it is effective in preferences for males.
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Table 4. Variation of Factors Affecting Drink Choice by Gender
Variable Gender N S.O. U Z p

Female 157 181,48
Tastes good 15938,0 -0,084 0,933
Male 204 180,63
Female 157 184,22
Makes me feel good 15508,5 -0,546 0,585
Male 204 178,52
Accordance of the food with Female 157 194,37
13914,5 -2,242 0,025
drink Male 204 170,71
Female 156 180,41
Helps with stress 15614,0 -0,152 0,879
Male 202 178,80
Female 157 208,30
Whether the drink is healthy 11727,5 -4,484 0
Male 204 159,99
Female 157 182,35
Easy available 15645,0 -0,305 0,760
Male 203 179,07
Female 156 191,82
To be familiar with the drink 13834,0 -2,041 0,041
Male 202 169,99
Female 156 179,34
Good value for money 15731,0 -0,109 0,914
Male 203 180,51
Capacity to keep someone Female 156 192,54
14034,0 -1,97 0,049
vigilant Male 204 171,29
Female 157 204,05
Keeps me healthy 12395,5 -3,781 0
Male 204 163,26
Female 157 189,62
Smells nice 14503,5 -1,498 0,134
Male 203 173,45
Female 156 180,19
Cheap 15804,5 -0,031 0,975
Male 203 179,85
Female 157 192,48
Looks nice 14212,0 -1,892 0,058
Male 204 172,17
Female 157 198,03
Helping to control weight 13183,5 -2,905 0,004
Male 203 166,94
Female 157 166,49
Traditional 13736,0 -2,317 0,021
Male 203 191,33
The question in the questionary form “Is sherbet frequently prepared at your home?”was replied by
52,9 % of the participants as “never”, 29.4% as “rarely”, 11.4% as “occasionally”, 4.9% as “frequently”
and 1.4% as “always”. The question “Have you ever tasted sherbet” was answered by 65,7 % of
participants as “yes”. (30,7% as “no” and 3,6% unanswered). The answers of these two questions
indicate that the sherbet which used to be prepared at almost every home in the past and which was
famous and important enough to be exported to abroad is hardly ever prepared. Most of the
participants answered the question “Where did you taste sherbet for the first time?” as “at home”
(69,2%). This shows that youths can consume the sherbet as a ready drink from the markets İf it would
industrial production. The other answers for this question were 16,5% at food and beverage shops,
2,5% at sherbet shops, 4,2% from sherbet costers and 7,6% from other places.
When the Table 5 which shows the distribution of syrup consumptions of the participants by meals is
examined, it is seen that sherbet, which is almost never preferred in mornings and lunch, in evening.
It is thought that pre-post-up preferences of the sherbets can be increased by emphasizing the
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therapeutic, absorbing or appetizing properties of it. It is thought that sherbets can be served as an
alternative to a lunch meal in the two nutritional systems offered by many scientists working on
nutrition recently.
Table5. Sherbet Consumption Frequency in Meals

Meal name Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always Average
% % % % % X
Morning 87,1 8,6 2,6 1,3 0,4 1,19
Noon 73,8 16,3 6,9 2,6 0,4 1,39
Evening 57,4 24,1 11,4 5,9 1,2 1,70
Non-meal 55,9 30,7 10,9 2,1 0,4 1,61
Table 6 shows the frequency distributions of the responses given to the question asked in order to
determine the popularity of sherbet varieties among university students and which sherbet is more
preferred. It is seen that while Ramadan sherbet is rarely consumed by young people, the other sherbet
is almost never consumed.
Table6. Consumption Frequency of Some Sherbets

Sherbet name Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always Average
% % % % % X
Ramadan sherbet 35,2 35,2 18,2 7,6 3,8 2,10
Cranberry sherbet 53,4 32,8 8,6 2,6 2,6 1,68
Strawberry sherbet 67,1 19,9 6,5 3,5 3 1,55
Quince sherbet 69,1 17,2 7,3 4,7 1,7 1,53
Pomegranate sherbet 72 15,1 6,9 3 3 1,50
Rose sherbet 66,8 23,6 5,7 1,3 2,6 1,49
Tamarind sherbet 78,9 14,2 3,9 1,7 1,3 1,32
Lohusa sherbet 79,4 15,9 2,1 1,7 0,9 1,29
Grape sherbet 83,6 11,2 1,3 2,6 1,3 1,27
Licorice root sherbet 87 7,4 3,5 1,7 0,4 1,21

The data obtained from the research area indicate that sherbet consumption is not common among
university students and that the families do not prepare sherbet in their homes. This is an indication
that the sherbet, which was consumed until the end of the Ottoman period, is about to disappear. This
is an indication of the extinction of sherbet and sherbet culture, Sherbet was a frequently consumed
drink for Turks from their Middle East settlement to the end of Ottomon period. Another striking result
obtained from the study is that the Ramadan sherbet is the most preferred one among the young
people. Because Ramadan Sherbet is an industrial beverage produced by various soft drink producers
especially in Ramadan and delivered to consumers by markets. This finding supports the idea that the
production of sherbet in the houses has ended almost generation ago. For instance;
• The sherbets made in the Seljuk and Ottoman periods should be determined and standard recipes
should be created for each sherbet.
• In food-beverage education institutions, traditional drinks-themed courses should be opened and
young people should be informed about the origin, history, characteristics, production,
ceremonies and the customs related to these beverages.
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• In pre-school and primary education, sherbet should be mentioned and fun activities like serving
sherbet to students The new generation should be provided with the opportunity to learn sherbet.
• Considering that young people consume sherbet more than they do, it is thought that beverage
companies should produce it in 200ml, 330ml and 500ml options by diversifying their grams. This
diversity can be effective in increasing the recognition and consumption of the sherbet and enable
it to be a product of grocery stores and food and beverage establishments.
• Public spots may be used to promote awareness that home-made sherbet is healthier than instant
drinks, especially those containing unhealthy ingredients like glucose syrup and fizzy drinks. In
various TV programs such as TV series, films and cartoons; it is possible to include scenes that
encourage the production of sherbet and sherbet consumption.
• The media can be used to transfer ceremonies that continue to exist today, such as the puerpera
sherbet, to future generations.
• Sherbets made of honey can be added to the menus in the cafeterias and canteens of schools,
hospitals and a like.
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[Traditional places, food and drinks in the context of Turkish culinary culture]. A. Dündar Arıkan
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Üniversitesi Yayınları.
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Biographical Notes
Alev Dündar Arikan is an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Tourism, Anadolu University, Eskişehir-
Turkey, where she teaches courses on Turkish cuisine culture, food and beverage management,
gastronomy tourism and career management. Her research field focuses on gastronomy, local food
and tourism. She is currently vice dean of Faculty of Tourism at the Anadolu University.
Hasan Hüseyin Cakıcı graduated from Canakkale 18 Mart University gastronomy program. He started
master degree in 2017 in Anadolu University Tourism Management. His research fields are
gastronomy, local and ancient foods.
Eren Altunbag graduated from Canakkale 18 Mart University gastronomy program. He started master
degree in 2017 in Anadolu University Tourism Management. His research fields are gastronomy and
street food.
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8001
SATISFACTION MAPS FOR THE EUROPEAN AIRPORTS
Nevin Yavuz
Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
Serkan Olgac
Lecturer
Eskişehir, Turkey
Semra Günay Aktaş

Eskişehir, Turkey
Yeliz Mert Kantar

Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
It is known that air transport provides shorter duration of transportation. The shortening of the
transport time increases the average time in destination where tourists spend time. Besides, distant
points on earth are connected to each other by airway transport and thus tourism market has
expanded in the world. Airports provide the physical and social environment in which all parties come
together in the production of air transport services. On the other hand, airports represent the prestige
of the country. Passenger satisfaction on airport services is an important first step for holiday
satisfaction of holidaymakers because airports are the start and the end points of journeys. Therefore,
airports may have a significant influence on the passengers in order to support future tourism and
commercial activities in the country concerned. For this reason, it is important for airport management
to assess the level of passenger satisfaction in terms of airport services. In this study, maps are driven
according to the general, terminal settings, queuing and cleaning satisfaction factors in airports in
European countries. Spatial correlations between some airports are observed in terms of four
satisfaction types at airport. Since there is a lot of airports in European countries, the first 100 airports
receiving the highest number of passengers is chosen for this study. Passengers’ satisfaction data were
obtained from Skytrax. In conclusion, a spatial review of satisfaction observed at airports will
contribute to the evaluation and comparison of airports in Europe.
Key words: European Airports, Satisfaction Maps, Skytrax, Terminal Cleaning, Queuing Times, Terminal
Seating Facilities.
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Introduction
Transportation is a system that makes a significant contribution to the development of societies in
terms of social, cultural and economic. Also, transportation is one of the most important factors
affecting tourism phenomenon (Yavuz, 2018) since it makes the bridge to the tourism demand
between the points of origin and destination (Sarılgan, 2016). Therefore, transportation enterprises
are the most important component of the tourism sector. Air transportation is one of the most
preferred types of transportation and it provides the most important contribution to the development
of tourism. An important innovation is the time saving factor that air transport has brought. The
shortening of transportation time increases the average time spent by tourists in destination. In
addition, since long-distant points on the world can be connected to each other by air transportation,
thus, tourism market are expanded in the world (Tan, 2008). At the same time, air transportation has
created the development of the third age tourism (Saatçioğlu, 2016). Khan and et al. (2017) concluded
that air transportation has a significant impact in creating tourism demand. Bieger et al. (2006) and
Dimitriou (2018) underline the relationship between tourism and air transport and they conclude that
any changes in aviation efficiency are closely linked to tourism development. Also, Dimitriou and
Aparicio (2018) state that new forms of tourism and new destinations influence air transport demand.
On the other hand, airports provide the physical and social environment in which all parties come
together to produce air transport services (Kuyucak, 2007). Today, airports are considered as
multifaceted service units and they are constructed to serve this purpose (Tan, 2008). Due to the rapid
increase in the number of passengers traveling internationally in recent years and also increase in
private and public sector investments in air transport in many countries, airports have gained huge
importance in the 21 st century.
The airports according to services consist of two parts: flight line (air side) and terminal line (land side)
in order to ensure relation between air and ground modes. Passenger terminals, as a gateway to the
country, provide places for check in, security and customs checks as well as baggage procedures,
waiting and transfer facilities, shopping and other facilities between flights. Technically, terminals are
areas where the physical and routine needs of the visitors are addressed. In the communicative
context, the terminals are usually the first point where the first or the last impression of the passenger
arriving in that country or city. As the result of air transport liberalization, airports are no longer a
simple transportation terminal and they have become a centre fulfilled the most basic needs of tourists
(car rental, shopping, restaurant, cafeteria, bar, bank, exchange offices, support services, etc.) (Tan,
2008). The desirability of increasing commercial income at airports brings about the quality of service
that constitutes the basis of tourism (Tan, 2008). On the other hand, since airports are the starting and
ending point of travel of tourists, it is the first place where tourists will get their first impression of the
holiday experience in the relevant destination and thus the satisfaction of airport services is an
important part of the satisfaction of holiday experiences. Moreover, airports represent the prestige of
countries (Douglas et al. 2001). Contemporary airport terminals should be user-oriented, functional
and renewable (Demir and Terzi, 2012). For these reasons, some basic functions in airport such as
passport and security checks, baggage claims and other shopping and entertainment services should
be effectively and efficiently planned. Thus, effective planning of basic function for basic and
compulsory services will minimize the time spent by tourists and it increases the amount of spending
per person (Rendeiro and Cesar 2006).
With the impact of globalization, the most important developments in airline transportation can be
divided into two groups and these are technological and structural changes. As a result of structural
changes taking place in particular differs expectations for the quality of service of passengers.
Therefore, passengers' perceived quality of service and satisfaction with airport operations are also
significantly affected (Okumuş and Asil, 2007). On the other hand, rapid improvements in travel
comfort and technology increased passenger expectations for airport experience (Chen and Chang,
2005). The passengers make a choice between airports taking into account the airport service which
615
includes all activities from departure to arrival. For this reason, many studies have been conducted in
this area to understand the general satisfaction level of passengers at different airports and also the
degree of loyalty of the tourists to the destination. For example, Işıldak and Tunca (2018) identified
factors affecting customer satisfaction in airport services. These are the factors that affect customer
satisfaction: terminal staff, terminal environment and finding their way, terminal facilities, reliable and
accurate service, terminal conditions, demand and instant service, advantage and convenience,
internet access and terminal physical functionality. Chao, Lin and Chen (2013) emphasized the
importance of the physical properties of the terminal to improve service quality in the Kaohsiung
International Airport. Bogicevic et al. (2013) conducted research at 33 airports. The findings show that
airport cleaning is key to passenger satisfaction. Park and Jung (2011) have done a research on airport
service quality perceptions of transfer passengers in Incheon International Airport, and they found that
passengers who are satisfied with the quality of airport service are more likely to use the airport again
and recommend to other passengers.
Satisfaction and dissatisfaction perceived by passengers or tourists are correlated to the service quality
and customer satisfaction in the airport. Therefore, making necessary plans and strategies by knowing
which services affect customer satisfaction is an important step in ensuring customer satisfaction
(Çolak and Doğan, 2015). In addition, overall satisfaction has a positive effect on intention to
recommend the airport to others. For airport management, it is necessary to develop various strategies
by considering services of the airport where passengers are not satisfied (Kim et al. 2016).
Aviation is one of Europe's most competitive sectors. Airports are a vital part of European aviation
system and airports are increasingly important to economy. Europe has a strategic position as a “hub”
for the world for historical and geographical reasons. European airports faced with intense global
competition nowadays. Over the next 20 years, half of the world's new air traffic is expected to be
located either in or out of the Asia Pacific region. And also over the next five years, air transport growth
will be driven mainly by regions like Asia Pacific, the Middle East and Latin America. Air transport
growth for the next five years will be driven mainly by regions such as Asia Pacific, the Middle East and
Latin America. Moreover, European airports facing two major challenges: these are capacity and
quality (Euro.Com., 2011).
Considering these realities, the aim of the study is to investigate the passenger satisfaction in the
European Airports. As a sample, the first 100 airports receiving the highest number of passengers in
Europe is chosen. In this context, maps are drawn for terminal seating, terminal cleaning, queuing
times and overall satisfaction of passengers in European Airports. Passengers’s satisfaction data were
taken from Skystrax. Skytrax has been conducting an airport survey since 1999. Skytrax collects
passenger reviews of international airports and airline services via the website
(www.airlinequality.com/skytrax-research/). The results of this study are thought to contribute to the
evaluation and comparison of all airports together.
Method: Mapping
Mapping is a graphic representation of the considered variable to gain information. In this study, we
use MapInfo program to draw maps. Inverse Distance Weighted algorithm was used for interpolation.
Low levels are demonstrated by dark blue and soft blue colors. High levels are shown bright red and
orange tones; medium level is marked in yellow.
Findings
Maps for terminal cleaning, terminal seating, queuing times and overall satisfaction according to the
data obtained from passengers’s vote in airports, are given Figure 1, 2, 3 and 4. It is seen form Figure
616
1 for terminal cleaning satisfaction that only four airports, Porto International, Zürih, Gothenburg-
Landwetter and Stavanger, with highest level of satisfaction for terminal cleaning are observed in the
Europe. It is known that the number of passenger and also total air transport in these four airports are
generally less than the others. On the other hand, the lowest satisfaction for terminal cleaning is
observed in Heraklion Airport which is second busiest airport in Grecee, serving over 5 million
international passengers annually making it Crete’s main gateway (Papatheodorou and Arvanitis,
2009).
Figure 1. The terminal cleaning satisfaction in the European Airports receiving the highest number of
passengers
The other satisfaction factor is the terminal seating capacity, its map given Figure 2. Almost all Europe
airports exhibit inadequate satisfaction in terms of terminal seating capacity. Bordeaux, Heraklion,
Nantes Atlantique, Luton, Pisa, Berlin Schoenefeld and Berlin Tegel airports have the lowest seat
capacity. Only İzmir Adnan Menderes Airport is seen as the highest satisfaction according to terminal
seating capasity.
617
Figure 2. Terminal seating capacity satisfaction of the European Airports receiving the highest number
of passengers
At the most of European Airports, passengers’ queuing times satisfaction level is not high (see Figure
3). While passengers are not satisfied at Gran Canaria, Lyon and Paris Beavuals, the highest satisfaction
in terms of queuing times are observed in the Ekaterinburg Koltsovo and Gothenurg Landvetter
Airports.
Figure 3. Queuing times satisfaction of the European Airports receiving the highest number of
passengers
618
Figure 4. Overall satisfaction of the European Airports receiving the highest number of passengers
Overall satisfaction depends on many factors as stated in Paramonovs et al. (2015) and Geng et al.
(2016) and it also includes terminal cleaning, terminal seating capacity and queuing times satisfactions.
In terms of overall satisfactions, Ankara Esenboğa, Bilbao and Porto airports are the most satisficed
airports as seen in Figure 4.
According to all satisfactions types, two airports in Berlin have remarkable worst scores. Generally,
overall satisfaction of the European biggest airports is low in west and south of the continent. As seen
in Figure 1, 2, 3 and 4, overall satisfaction map is similar to the terminal seating capacity and the
queuing times satisfaction maps. Passengers in Airports of France, Italy and England are not satisfied
in terms of cleaning, terminal seating capacity and queuing time factors and thus, these airports are
needed to improve services. Satisfaction depends on many factors. Thus, these factors should be
studied in detail.
Conclusion
In order to achieve high levels of passenger satisfaction, many performance indicators are to take into
account by airport management. Among these indicators, cleaning, terminal seating capacity and
queening are every important factors. Additionally, baggage access time is an important issue that can
increase passenger satisfaction levels at airports (Oflac and Yumurtaci, 2014). Park and Jung (2011)
observed that airport service quality would raise the level of passengers’ satisfaction, value
perceptions, and airport image formation. Also, Al-Refaie et al. (2014) examine various factors that
affect passenger’s overall satisfaction and loyalty in Jordan Airport. Fuchs and Weiermair (2004)
explain that, many tourism destinations regard tourist satisfaction as one of the most important
sources of competitive advantages. According to the Buhalis (2000), One of the important strategic
management goals for destinations is to maximize tourist satisfaction. Considering the fact that
European air transport system is facing with global competition, the importance of increasing
passenger satisfaction in European airports is understood.
In this paper, overall satisfactions level of the European Airports receiving the highest number of
passengers is studied with maps. It is found that all satisfactions are correlated. In Europe, the airports
619
in Berlin are unsatisfied in terms of terminal cleaning, terminal seating capacity and queuing time
factors. Airports in France, Italy and England, which all receive more tourist than the others, present
low levels of passenger satisfaction. Therefore, there is need for further research to increase the level
of satisfactions of these airports. In light of the findings, managerial implications and recommendation
for further research are provided.
Acknowledgements
No: 1705E153
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621
Biographical Notes
Nevin Yavuz is lecturer in the Vocational School of Transportation, University of the Eskişehir Technical,
Turkey where she teaches courses on air transportation and cabin attendant training.
Serkan Olgaç is a lecturer in the Department of Tourism Management, University of the Anadolu,
Eskişehir, Turkey where he teaches courses on statistics and mathematics.
research focuses on Geography, Tourism Geography, Geographic Information Systems
Yeliz Mert Kantar is a Professor in Department of Statistics, Eskisehir Technical University. Her research
areas are statistics, robust statistics, econometrics, spatial statistics, theory of distributions.
622
8047
MODELLING OVERALL SATISFACTION IN THE EUROPEAN AIRPORTS
Yeliz Mert Kantar

Professor Doctor
Eskişehir Technical University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Serkan Olgaç
Lecturer
Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Nevin Yavuz
Lecturer
Eskişehir Technical University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Semra Günay Aktaş

Professor Doctor
Anadolu University
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Transportation in tourism is most often seen as just part of the tourism system. Among transportation
types, air transport involves an important part of a broader travel and tourism sector. Air transport
consists of air/ground services. The first step of tourist’s satisfaction is satisfaction in airports which
depends on various factors. Thus, it is important to identify which factors in airport are unpleasant and
which factors are enhancers of passenger satisfaction. In this paper, we seek to find the factors
affecting the overall satisfaction at 100 airports receiving the highest number of passengers in Europe.
Our analysis is based on a sample data obtained from Skytrax. We consider the airport ownership
(private, public and private-public partnership), seating capacity, cleaning and waiting time as variables
to explain overall satisfaction. We observed that the airport ownership is not statistically significant on
overall satisfaction. We find that the waiting time is the major variable to explain overall satisfaction
in airport. Direction for future research is presented.
Key Words: Airports, Regression, Overall satisfaction, Skytrax.
Introduction
The development of international tourism has increased the competition among tourist destinations
and strategies of tourism management. It is known that “tourist satisfaction” is one of the most
important factors in evaluating the success of tourism management. Similarly, customer satisfaction is
623
described as a critical determinant of behavioural intentions (e.g. revisiting, recommendation, and

spending more) in the various industries (Han, 2013; Kim, Han, Holland, & Byon, 2009; Lam et al., 2011;
Lee, 2014; Qiu, Ye, Bai, &Wang, 2015; Ryu, Lee, & Kim, 2012). Previous studies show that the overall
physical environment (such as seat capacity and cleaning) affects customer satisfaction and therefore
tourist satisfaction. (Ali and Amin, 2014; Heung and Gu, 2012; van Oel and van den Berkhof, 2013). On
the other hand, since airports are the starting and ending point of travel of tourists, it is the first place
where tourists will get their first impression of the holiday experience in the relevant destination and
thus the satisfaction in airport for tourist is an important part of the satisfaction of holiday experiences.
The airport sector is rapidly changing. In recent years, the number of international travellers has
increased rapidly and thus huge and important investments in air transport in many countries have
been done by private and public sector. Moreover, passengers in air transport make a choice among
airports considering the quality of airport service covering all activities from departures to arrivals.
Therefore, many studies have been conducted in this field to understand the level of overall
satisfaction of passengers in different airport and as well as the degree of tourists' loyalty to the
destination. For example, Mohammad Al - Haj Mohammad (2014) based on data taken form Queen
Alia International Airport indicated that five tourist’s satisfaction factors, “Support services”,
“Transportation and cleanliness”, “Variety of services and hospitality”, “Accommodation and food and
beverage” and “Event and safety”, effect on revisit and recommend Jordan as a tourist destination.
Moon et al. (2017) found that airport cleaning has a positive impact on the desire to spend more time
at the airport and Assaker (2011)’s finding supported the obtained results for satisfaction and revisit
intention. On the other hand, Shirazi and Som (2011) claimed that “revisit and positive
recommendation” are two important issues in relationship marketing in tourism destination. While
Hui et al. (2007) indicated importance of satisfaction on loyalty, Wang et al. (2012) researched tourist
experience, known as a mediator between service quality and revisit intention through Chinese
tourists. Gim (2018) studied the relationship among attribute satisfaction, overall satisfaction, image,
and tourist loyalty (intention to revisit and to recommend) in the three areas of the Korean: Seoul,
Incheon, and Gyeonggi.
This study found that overall satisfaction positively affected image and loyalty in all models, lending
support to the findings of previous studies. In Shirazi (2016), a survey questionnaire based on the
earlier studies was developed and applied to international tourists in Penang. Evaluation of tourist
satisfaction is done basic elements in destination including attraction, accessibility, image, amenities,
price, and people working in tourism. ‘Attraction’ is found as the most liked element. The relationship
between the tourists’ perception and satisfaction is identified in (Gnanapala, 2015) by using regression
analysis. Since airports are the starting and ending point of travel of tourists, the satisfaction in airport
for tourist is an important part of the overall tourist satisfaction, thus, various studies have been
conducted to evaluate passenger’s or tourist’s satisfaction in airport. For example, baggage access time
is evaluated in terms of passenger satisfaction levels at airports in (Oflac and Yumurtaci, 2014) and it
is found that baggage access time (after arrival) is a significant factor in overall passenger satisfaction.
Correia et al (2008) studied overall level of service data collection at airport passenger terminals.
Design of seats and large corridors are other factors to provide great satisfaction at airport for users
(Zheng, 2014). It is also concluded from studies on the aviation industry that the comfort of seating
has a significant impact on visitors (Ahmadpour, Lindgaard, Robert and Pownall, 2014; Batra, 2014).
Additionally, since passengers spend at least two hours before departure in airports, seating comfort
is a vital element of main factors of physical environments in gratifying visitors (Moon, Yoon and
Han,2017). Passenger perceptions of service quality with eleven factors was studied in Park (2007).
Sum up, in order to obtain high levels of passenger satisfaction, many performance indicators have to
be taken into account by airport management.
624
The study was driven by the following questions in accordance with the main purpose:
1. How is the distribution of overall satisfaction level of European Airports?
2. Is there any difference between public and private airport in terms of satisfaction?
3. Which satisfaction is expository on overall satisfaction at airports?
Method
In this paper, we seek to find the factors affecting the overall satisfaction at 100 airports receiving the
highest number of passengers in Europe. Our analysis is based on a sample data obtained from Skytrax.
The overall satisfaction level for airports was determined by Skytrax based on the assessment of
seating capacity, waiting time and cleaning variables. Satisfaction levels for airports are shown at 7
degrees. The highest satisfaction is given by 7, the lowest satisfaction level is given by 1. The places of
low satisfaction on the map are indicated by cold spots (blue tones) and high satisfaction levels are
indicated by hot spots (red tones). The first question of this research (How is the distribution of overall
satisfaction level of European Airports?) is researched by map. In order to explain the second question
of this research (Is there any difference between public and private airport in terms of satisfaction? ),
the chi-square test is used. For the explain of the question of “which satisfaction is expository on
overall satisfaction at airports?” we use regression analysis to explain overall satisfaction in terms of
other variables.
Findings
The distribution of general satisfaction with European airports is given in Figure 1. When Figure 1 is
examined, it is understood that the distribution of satisfaction for airports demonstrates spatial
patterns.
Figure 1. Distribution of airport’s overall satisfaction

It is observed that while the satisfaction level is low at the airports in the south of the Iberian Peninsula,
the satisfaction level has increased in the eastern airports and the highest level of satisfaction is seen
at the northern and north-western airports of this Peninsula. The overall satisfaction level of the
airports in France, England and Italy is low. The satisfaction levels of airports in Central, North and East
European countries are generally moderate and good. Satisfaction level of the Turkey airports is
determined is low in southern country but increases to northern side. Airports with the highest overall
625
satisfaction level in Europe are Ankara Esenboğa in Turkey, Porto in Portugal and Bilbao in Spain. Gran
Canaria has the lowest satisfaction level in the European continent.
Table 1. Correlation matrix for satisfaction in airports
Waiting
Overall Seating Cleaning
time
1 0.694 0.677 0.823

1 0.654 0.651
1 0.638
1
Correlation matrix is a square, symmetrical matrix. Each row (and each column) represents a different
statistic, and the value at the intersection of each row and column except the diagonal elements shows
the correlation between the two variables. Correlation matrices are symmetrical about the main
diagonal, which means they are mirror images of themselves above and below the diagonal going from
top left to bottom right (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2007). The correlation coefficient is used to determine
the direction and degree of the relationship between the variables. The correlation coefficient (r) takes
values between -1 and +1. As the absolute value r approaches 1, the degree of the relationship
between the variables increases. In Table 1 , correlation matrix which show the correlation coefficients
between variables is given. According to Table 1, there is a strong relationship between general
satisfaction and waiting times. There is a positive relationship between overall satisfaction and the
seating capacity and cleaning. In other words, satisfaction level of airports increases as seating capacity
increases. Likewise, if the airports are clean, satisfaction level increases in the same direction.
Table 2. The estimates of regression model parameters

Airport 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Private 0 0 7 4 2 1 1 15
Public 0 6 4 5 9 3 0 27
Private-Public 1 4 13 17 7 6 2 50
1 10 24 26 18 10 3 92
It is found that there is no the relationship between overall tourists’ satisfaction and the airport
ownership (private, public and private-public) based on the Chi-square test. Table 2 shows contingency
table proving the frequency between ownership of airport versus overall satisfaction. The Chi-square
test is 16, 81 with p-value, 0.157 and the values of Goodman and Kruskal tau, Cramer V coefficients
are very close to zero. Thus, it can be concluded that there is no correlation between overall
satisfaction in airport according to ownership (private, public and private-public).
626
Frequency of overall satisfaction

30
25
20
15
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure 2. Frequency of overall satisfaction in airport

In the study, the overall satisfaction level for the airports are shown at 7 degrees. Figure 2 shows the
frequencies related to this satisfaction. It is seen that the highest satisfaction frequencies are degree
3 and 4. According to this finding, it can be stated that tourists’ satisfaction is the moderate/ average
levels at the European Airports.
Finally, we use regression analysis to explain overall satisfaction in terms of other variables. That is,
tourists’ satisfaction as the dependent variable is modelled by seating capacity, cleaning and waiting
time as explanatory variables.
Table 3. The estimates of regression model parameters
Coefficient Std.Error t-Statistic p-value
Model 1 Constant 0.158841 0.280899 0.565474 0.57307
Seating 0.321759 0.13897 2.31531 0.02273
capacity
Cleaning 0.182495 0.130709 1.3962 0.16588
Waiting time 0.902222 0.131074 6.88332 0.00000
Model 2 Constant 0.341476 0.249796 1.36702 0.17478
Seating 0.406462 0.125639 3.23514 0.00166
capacity
Waiting time 0.976576 0.120352 8.11431 0.00000
It is seen that from Table 3 that there is positive relationship between overall tourists’ satisfaction and
satisfaction of seating capacity, cleaning and waiting time. Satisfaction for waiting time is the more
efficient factor on overall satisfaction in airports.
Table 4. Tests for the estimated classic linear regression model

Jarque- Condition
Breusch-Pagan
bera number
F test (Heteroscedasticity R2 AIC
(Normality (Multicollinearity
)
) )
DF 4 2 3
Mode Valu 77.776 233.2
26.7579 10.3114 13.0701 0.7084
l1 e 5 7
Prob. 0.0000 0.0000 0.01610
DF 3 2 2 9.63
627
Valu 114.56
Mode 14.7462 8.8521 0.7025 233.2
e 9
l2 7 3
Prob. 0.000 0.00063 0.01196
F test shows that the model 1 is significant and R2=0.7084 is high in terms of fitting ability (See Table
4). Also non-normality and non-constant variance (heteroscedasticity) for error term are rejected
based on Jarque- Bera and Breusch-Pagan tests. The condition number is 13, thus, the regression has
not multicollinearity problem. On the other hand, Simple Model 2 provides similar performance in
terms of R2 and AIC to Model 1. These results indicate that the linear model 2 is suitable to explain to
overall satisfaction.
Conclusions
Tourist satisfaction is crucial for loyalty for destination, which is explained as revisit and
recommendation. Taken into account the review of literature concerning tourism studies, it is
emphasized that satisfaction and loyalty for destination is one of the thrust areas of tourism research.
Wöber & Fesenmaier (2004) stated that visitor satisfaction with the tourism product is one of the
variety indicators which are frequently used to measure the success in tourism destination
management. According to Fuchs and Weiermair (2004), many tourism destinations consider tourist
satisfaction as one of the most important sources of their competitive advantage. As mentioned by
Buhalis (2000), delight tourists by maximizing their satisfaction is one of the key strategic management
objectives for destinations. Tourist destinations include an amalgam of industries such as
accommodation, transportation, food and beverage services, recreation and entertainment, and travel
agencies. Tourist destinations include also public services and facilities, and physical and natural
attractions. All these elements are branded together under the name of the destination (Buhalis, 2000;
Poonyth, et al., 2002; Ritchie and Crouch, 2003; Vassiliadis, 2008). Yen-Lun Su (2004) express that “the
purpose of measuring customer satisfaction is to assess the quality of the existing management
practices and identify directions for improvement”.
As the result of all the above literature and issues, strong relationship between satisfaction and loyalty
provides a probably ground for repeat visitation. It is also taken into account that satisfaction levels of
nationalities can be different (Aktas et al. 2009; Doğan, 2013). The objective of this study is to present
the overall satisfaction at 100 airports receiving the highest number of passengers in Europe and
explain it with other satisfactions Firstly, we analysed the distribution of satisfaction level of the
airports in the European Continent. When the satisfaction level map is examined, it is observed that
there is a spatial pattern of the distribution of overall satisfaction level. It is seen that satisfaction level
increases from the south to the north and from the west to the east. Airports with the highest level of
satisfaction in the European Continent are Ankara Esenboğa in Turkey, Porto in Portugal and Bilbao in
Spain. Airport with the lower level of satisfaction is Gran Canaria. Secondly, we looked up whether
there is difference of overall satisfaction in airport according to ownership (private, public and private-
public). We observed that whether the airport is private or public does not affect the satisfaction. And
finally we found that seating capacity and waiting time satisfaction are major as factors to explain
overall satisfaction. In addition to these results, we intuitively concluded that the level of satisfaction
at airports where is not crowded, is generally high. As a further study, we will investigate whether
there is a relationship between the number of passengers and the level of satisfaction. It would be
useful in examining all aspects of the current study.
628
Acknowledgements
No: 1705E153
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Biographical Notes
Yeliz Mert Kantar is a Professor in Department of Statistics, Eskisehir Technical University. Her research
areas are statistics, robust statistics, econometrics, spatial statistics, theory of distributions.
Serkan Olgaç is a lecturer in the Department of Tourism Management, University of the Anadolu,
Eskişehir, Turkey where he teaches courses on statistics and mathematics.
Nevin Yavuz is lecturer in the Vocational School of Transportation, University of the Eskişehir Technical,
Turkey where she teaches courses on air transportation and cabin attendant training.
research focuses on Geography, Tourism Geography, Geographic Information Systems
630
8074
AIRPORT PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS IN TURKEY:
A REVIEW OF CURRENT SITUATION
Associate Professor
Eskişehir, Turkey
Abstract
Air transportation is an essential public service for modern societies. Airports are basic infrastructure
provider of air transportation service and therefore they have been accepted as public infrastructures
beginning from the early years of modern aviation. Because of this reason, they have been managed
and owned by central or local government bodies. However, factors such as infrastructure capacity
problems, public finance limitations, public management efficiency problems etc. started to seek new
managerial alternatives for airports. In many countries, including Turkey, Public-Private-Partnerships
(PPPs) have becoming to be a part of airport ownership and management. In Turkey airports have been
governed by State Airports Authority (SAA - DHMI). Until 90s, DHMI was the only authority in airport
management in Turkey. After those years, PPP implementations started and private airport and
terminal management companies were established. Airport PPP implementations have been analyzed
based on secondary sources. Historical situation of airport management in Turkey was examined and
new governance models under the PPP scheme were examined in terms of implementation cases.
Those implementations have been discussed in the last part.
Key words: Airport Public-Private-Partnerships, Airport Privatization, Airport Management, Air
Transportation, PPPs
Introduction
Air transport has long been recognized as one of the basic public services required for the comfort of
modern people. From the earliest years of air transportation, airports have been considered the main
infrastructure providers for this public service. Hence, they were operated and managed by central
governments or local governments. However, factors such as increased infrastructure constraints, new
investment requirements, public funding constraints, and lack of or limited accountability as well as
the problems related to productivity problems and quality led to the search for alternative forms of
management of airports.
With a population of 80.3 million and with a per capita income of 10,592 US Dollars, Turkey is a
developing country that has the 17th largest economy, according to World Bank data (Worldbank,
2018). Air transport in Turkey is constantly evolving. Air transport industry showed a growth rate of
5.6% worldwide in the last decade. This rate was 14% in Turkey (IATA, 2017). With each passing day,
airport capacities need to be increased more in big cities, especially in Istanbul. It is not possible to
meet this capacity requirement completely through public funding. In developing countries such as
Turkey, PPPs have emerged as an important investment tool for the infrastructure projects such as
airports, which require very large capital investments. PPPs are used in many areas such as highways,
bridges, health industry, and transportation in Turkey. The present study discusses PPPs in airports in
Turkey.
631
Airport Governance Models and Public-Private Partnerships in Airports

Airport operating models have, in essence, a characteristic in-between completely public and
completely private. Operating models between these completely public and completely private
models are the ones obtained through Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) in airports. (Gillen, 2011)
The most common airport operating model is public ownership and operation. The operation of state-
owned airports generally takes place in three different forms across the world. These are (Graham,
2011, Kuyucak, F., 2007);
• Public ownership and operation,
• Public ownership and commercial public corporation,
• Regional management ownership and operation.
Public ownership and operation often represent a traditional public perspective. However, the concept
of New Public Administration (NPA) in airport management is based on commercialization, corporation
and public-private partnership. Because the economic conditions affecting airports require a
commercial approach in the case of public ownership and operation, there is also a trend in this
direction in the world. Figure 1. presents Public-Private Partnerships in airports.
Figure 1
Airport Management and Ownership Continuum from Public to Private
Public Private Partnership Schemes
Management Overall Fully Private

Fully Public Management Leasing Project Finance
Contract/ Management Joint Venture Management
and Ownership (Concession) Privatization
Outsourcing Contract and Ownership
Low High
Extent of private participation in airport management and ownership
Source: Kuyucak&Vasigh, 2011.

As can be seen in the figure, airport management and ownership practices are differentiate between
full public and full private. Although airports cannot usually be completely privatized, PPPs can also be
reviewed under the ‘privatization’ heading. Despite different classifications, the privatization methods
frequently applied in airports include partial or full management contracts, transfer of rights, joint
venture companies, project funding or block sales and stock supply. The project funding method is a
highly preferred model in recent years due to the need for financial funds. The most well-known
among them is Build-Operate-Transfer-BOT, which has various versions such as Lease-Develop-
Operate and Buy-Build-Operate. Through PPPs, economic risk can be shared with investors from
private sector. Therefore, the need for public funding is eliminated or decreased. In addition, this helps
to increase the efficiency of airports while providing more modern, new and high quality airports.
Occurring with the effect of the liberalization and commercialization process, airport privatizations
generally include partial privatization around the world. There are also commercial airports with
completely private ownership and operation model. Although privatization practices at various levels
have become widespread in airport operation, complete private ownership is not usually seen
especially in large airports. This is usually more prevalent in general aviation airports, which are much
smaller. With the Build-Own-Operate-BOO or Buy-Build-Operate-BBO models, airports are built by
private sector and operated for a certain period of time.
In an environment where there is no competition or very limited competition, consumers may face
undesirable results such as high prices, over-investment or poor quality products (Kuyucak Sengur and
632
Vasigh, 2018). To avoid this, states prefer to regulate private sector participation in natural markets.
The main regulation methods applied in airports can be listed as rate of return (ROR), price cap
regulation, light-handed regulation. (Starkie, 2002, Kuyucak and Vasigh, 2011) Each method has its
own advantages and disadvantages in terms of airport operation and different countries prefer
different methods of regulation.
Airport Industry in Turkey

The organization responsible for operating the airports in Turkey is the General Directorate of State
Airports Authority (GDSAA herein SAA). SAA was established in 1933 and has been serving with
different names and status since then. With the latest legal arrangement, it now operates as a State-
Owned Enterprise (SOE) whose services are considered concession. SAA is an SOE with a legal entity,
autonomous in its activities, limited by its capital. SAA is primarily responsible for the operation of
airports in Turkey and the regulation and control of air traffic in the Turkish air space. SAA provides air
navigation and air traffic services to all aircraft flying in Turkish airspace, landing at or departing from
Turkish airports, and/or passing through Turkish air space. For many years, SAA has continued its
activities as the only airport operator in Turkey. Currently, 49 of the 55 airports open to civil air traffic
in Turkey are operated by SAA. 34 of these airports serve both domestic and international passengers.
15 airports serve only domestic passengers. SAA holds the ownership of most of these airports. Some
airports, such as Mugla-Dalaman and Malatya, are military airports open to civilian-military use (DHMI,
2018). Table 1 presents other public and private operators other than SAA in Turkey.
Table 1. Other Airport Operators in Turkey

Airport Name Operator
Istanbul Sabiha Gokcen Airport ISG Airport Investment Construction and Operation Inc.
Eskisehir Hasan Polatkan Airport Eskisehir Technical University Rectorate
Istanbul Hezarfen Airport Hezarfen Aviation Industry Trade Inc.
Antalya Gazipasa Airport TAV Gazipasa Investment-Construction-Operations Co.
Zonguldak Caycuma Airport Zonguldak Private Civil Aviation Industry and Trade Inc.
Zafer Airport IC Ictas Zafer Int. Airport Investment and Operations Co.
Aydın-Cildir Airport Turkish Airlines
Etimesgut Airport - Ankara
Selcuk Airport - Izmir Turkish Aeronautical Association
Inonu Airport - Eskisehir
Karain Airport - Antalya
Source: Compiled by the author.
Until the 1990s, SAA was the only airport operator in Turkey. Parallel to the prevailing policies in the
world in the last quarter century, airport operations in Turkey have changed and a legal and sectoral
infrastructure started to emerge that enables private airports and terminal operations. In this context,
various airports were built and terminal operating models were developed according to the Build-
Operate-Transfer model and various PPP models.
633
Public-Private Partnerships in Airports in Turkey

PPPs in Turkey are examined under the different headings in this section. Policy and legal framework,
the implementation and role of the government will be given shortly.
Policy and Legal Infrastructure

The construction and operation of airports has long been an activity of the public institutions in Turkey.
SAA, operating within the Ministry of Transport, is the organization responsible for operating airports.
General BOT law no. 3996, which was issued in 1994 and forms the foundation of BOT practices in
Turkey, has also paved the way for BOT models in the construction and operation of airports. Law No.
5335 issued in 2005 has enabled DAA to transfer its property rights at the airports and terminals to the
private sector through long-term leasing. Thus, SAA has had two options: operation of the airports
transferred to the state after the expiration of BOT periods, or transfer of the operational rights of the
airports to the private sector for a period no more than 49 years.
Implementation of Airport PPPs

The first PPPs in the airport industry in Turkey dates back to the early 1990s. The first example of PPPs
is the Antalya Airport International Terminal project. The operational rights were transferred to
Antalya Airport International Terminal Management Inc.-AYT in partnership with Bayindir Holding and
Fraport for a period of 9 years. This was followed by Istanbul Atatürk Airport, Antalya Airport 2nd
International Terminal and other terminal and airport projects. Table 2 gives PPP projects in airports.
Table 2. Airport PPPs in Turkey

Build-Operate-Transfer Model in Lease- Operate - Transfer Practices in Turkey
Airports in Turkey
Antalya Airport Terminal I Atatürk Airport International and Domestic Terminal, Multi-
storey Car Park and General Aviation Terminal
Antalya Airport 2nd International Antalya Airport 1st and 2nd Phase International Terminals, CIP
Terminal Terminal, Domestic Terminal and Additional Buildings
Istanbul Ataturk Airport Antalya Airport 1st and 2nd Phase International Terminals, CIP
Terminal, Domestic Terminal and Additional Buildings
Esenboga Airport Domestic and Zonguldak-Caycuma Airport
International Terminal
Dalaman Airport International Gazipasa-Alanya Airport
Terminal
Adnan Menderes Airport Izmir Adnan Menderes Airport International Terminal, CIP
International Terminal Terminal, Domestic Terminal and Additional Buildings
Milas-Bodrum Airport Aydin Cildir Airport
International Terminal
Zafer Airport Milas-Bodrum Airport, International Terminal, CIP / General
Aviation Terminal, Domestic Terminal and Additional Buildings
Istanbul Airport Dalaman Airport, International Terminal, Domestic Terminal and
Additional Buildings
634
Izmir Alacati Ekrem Pakdemirli

Airport
Source: Compiled by the author.

As can be seen in the table most of the major airports in Turkey are under PPP implementations. Public-
Private Partnerships implemented at the airports in Turkey have been realized according to Build-
Operate-Transfer and Lease-Operate-Transfer models. These are discussed in more detail in the
following section.
Role of the Government in Airport PPPs

SAA, is responsible for the implementation of PPPs in airports in Turkey. SAA undertakes the task of
controlling and supervising the compliance of the operation of the airports/terminal, which are
transferred to the private sector by the PPP model. While SAA is the authority responsible for the
regulation and supervision of terminals within the framework of PPP models, the operation of the
airside infrastructure and facilities is also performed by SAA. In exceptions such as Sabiha Gokcen
Airport and Hasan Polatkan Airport, SAA is the authority for both the airside and landside facilities. In
addition to airport operations, air navigation and air traffic services, SAA functions as the responsible
organization in PPPs.
In PPPs, airside and landside service tariffs and concession prices are determined by the company with
the operational rights according to the tariffs determined by SAA. Some PPP contracts indicate a
margin of 25% (+/-) 25% for landside concessions. Price tariffs applied at airports operated by SAA, at
private airports, and at airports built with PPP may enter into force after approval by the Ministry of
Transport and Infrastructure Strategy Development Directorate. A tariff with each type of fee for each
airport is published annually. When airport operators have to make any changes, they have to apply
to the Directorate together with the justification of this change and have to obtain approval.

The airport industry is undergoing a radical transformation around the world. The airports, which have
been regarded as providers of public service from past to present, are now undergoing a
transformation process wherein the market mechanism and competition rules are being implemented.
Albeit at different levels, the airports around the world are undergoing transformation with the
influence of commercialization and privatization policies. Therefore, the market and competition in
the airport industry have reached a global dimension. The industry is becoming international and
global and including the less developed airport markets. Considering these transformations, it is seen
that the airport industry in Turkey has also undergone a transformation with new dynamics parallel to
the trends in the world. It is observed that commercialization, internationalization and globalization
trends emerged and public-private partnerships started to be implemented in Turkey as in the rest of
the world.
In fact, different PPP models have been implemented for a long time in Turkey. PPPs are mainly
implemented as BOT and Long Term Lease as the main funding and operating model in major airports.
It is seen that SAA has increased its experience in PPPs and has occasionally made amendments to BOT
contracts according to new conditions. With a PPP experience of about twenty-five years, SAA has
quite a lot of knowledge with regards to PPPs. After the introduction of PPP models, airport and
terminal operators have emerged in the private sector in Turkey. These operators have gained
international competence in airport and terminal construction and operation.
Air traffic all over the world is increasing day by day. In the markets where air traffic increases more
than the world average, airport operation is becoming more attractive. The rate of increase in Turkey
635
is well above the world average. To meet this growing demand, both new airports should be built and
existing airports should be improved. Furthermore, the challenges of public funding will have to be
tackled. As such, PPP models have become indispensable for airport operations. PPPs started to be
implemented mostly in terminals and major airports in Turkey. Small airports with low traffic, which
are not attractive for the private sector, are operated by SAA. Temporary transfer of airports to local
authorities as in the example of Zonguldak Caycuma Airport shows that this model is also being
implemented in small airports. However, it is also necessary to extend this model to include the private
sector in the operation of small airports. With the dynamism of the private sector, it may be possible
for these airports to reach their real potential. This will reduce the burden on public of the airports,
which are constantly making loss and serving a very small number of passengers and aircraft.
Furthermore, in this way regional air traffic will be developed and thus regional development can take
place. For this reason, it is important that certain incentives are provided by states and PPPs are made
more attractive for the private sector. Only in this way will it be possible to talk about 'public interest'.
References
Devlet Hava Meydanları İşletmesi Genel Müdürlüğü (2018). http://www.dhmi.gov.tr/, Access date:
15.11.2018.
Gillen, D. (2011). The evolution of airport ownership and governance. Journal of Air Transport
Management, 17(1), 3-13.
Graham, A. (2011). The objectives and outcomes of airport privatisation. Research in Transportation
Business & Management, 1(1), 3-14.
Kuyucak Şengür, F., & Vasigh, B. (2018). An Assessment of Airport Governance Policies with a
Stakeholder Perspective. In Stakeholders, Governance and Responsibility (pp. 189-205).
Emerald Publishing Limited.
Kuyucak, F. (2007) ‘Havaalanlarında değer odaklı yönetim yönelimli bilgi sistemlerinin kullanılması ve
Atatürk Havalimanı terminal işletmeciliği uygulaması’, Yayınlanmamış doktora tezi, Anadolu
Üniversitesi, Eskişehir.
Kuyucak, F. and Vasigh B. (2011) Privatization and Regulation: A Review of Airport Industry Practices,
International Journal of Global Business and Economics, Vol. 3, No.2, pp.78-83.
Starkie, D. (2002) ‘Airport regulation and competition’, Journal of Air Transport Management, Vol. 8,
No. 1, pp.63–72.
Biographical notes
Ferhan Kuyucak Sengur works as an Associate Professor at the Aviation Management Department at
Eskisehir Technical University. Her research interests are airline and airport management, innovation
in aviation, social responsibility in aviation, and air transport and regional development. She has been
working as a senior researcher in several national and international projects in aviation.
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i

THE 11th TOURISM OUTLOOK CONFERENCE

Conference Organizers and Academic Partners

Anadolu University Publications No. 3837

T.R. Ministry of Culture and Tourism

T.R. Minister of Culture and Tourism

T.R. Governor of Eskişehir

Rector of Anadolu University

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gökçe YÜKSEK Anadolu University, Turkey

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nor’ain OTHMAN Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia

Prof. Dr. C. Michael HALL University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

Prof. Dr. Alan A. LEW Northern Arizona University, USA

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nor’ain OTHMAN Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia

Sector Meeting 11:00

Stakeholder Panel 13:30

Welcome Reception 16:00

OCTOBER 3, 2018 - WEDNESDAY

Keynote Presentations 11:30 - 12:30

Lunch 12:30 - 13:30

Session I 13:30 - 15:00

Coffee Break 15:00 - 15:30

Session II 15:30 - 17:00

Coffee Break 17:00 - 17:30

Special Presentations 17:30 - 18:30

Gala Dinner 19:30

08:30 Eskişehir (Departure)

OCTOBER 5, 2018 - FRIDAY

Coffee Break 10:30 - 11:00

Session IV 11:00 - 12:30

Lunch 12:30 - 13:30

Session V 13:30 - 15:00

Coffee Break 15:00 - 15:30

Session VI 15:30 - 17:00

7396 Zeynep Kahya, Çağıl Hale Özel

7631 Semra Günay Aktaş, Sema Ekincek

Hall : NASREDDIN HODJA (Presentations will be held in Turkish)

7611 Özgür Oğuz

7324 Mustafa Doğan, Sebahattin Emre Dilek, Gulriz Kozbe

Tourist Environmental Behavior

7401 Emine Yılmaz, Nur Çelik, Funda Ön Esen, Salim Akçay

Hall : PESSINUS (Presentations will be held in English)

7296 Yuliia Borovska, Hakan Yılmaz

Hall : PHRYGIA (Presentations will be held in English)

Experiencing the Photos: The Case of ESOGU Tourism Camp

7392 Volkan Zoğal, Şevket Işık

7385 Bahar Kaba, Gözde Emekli

Hall : NASREDDIN HODJA (Presentations will be held in Turkish)

A Qualitative Method to Determine Problems in Tourism Sector: Focus Group Interviews

7409 Saadet Pınar Temizkan, Beybala Timur, Coşkun Ceviz

7530 Shamshor Mohd-zın, Norliza Aminudin, Salamiah A. Jamal, Hassnah Wee

Hall : PESSINUS (Presentations will be held in English)

Hall : PHRYGIA (Presentations will be held in English)

Hall : NASREDDIN HODJA (Presentations will be held in Turkish)

Evaluation of Alaçatı (Izmir / Turkey) Destination in aspect of Sustainable Tourism Indicators

7414 Hulisi Binbaşıoğlu, Aysun Tuna

7399 Efnan Ezenel, Cemile Ece, Yaşar Sarı

Garden Culture and Tourism: Niğde Example

Hall : PHRYGIA (Presentations will be held in English)

8051 Ferhan Kuyucak Şengül

7338 Tuba Çengelci Köse, Nazlı Gökçe, Erdoğan Kaya

7579 Ali Yılmaz, Seyfullah Gül

Hall : NASREDDIN HODJA (Presentations will be held in Turkish)

Evaluation of Participants’ Acquisitions of Food Competitions