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Wear Particle Analysis - A Predictive Maintenance Tool, by Rob Lovicz & Ray
Dalley, PREDICT

This presentation was originally made at PdM-2005 - The Predictive Maintenance Technology
Conference, September 19-22, 2005 Atlanta Georgia. Click here for future dates

Abstract: Wear particle analysis and Ferrography in particular is an effective

means to identify and respond to maintenance needs. The development of this
technology includes image analysis, on-line sensors, automated oil analysis
screening tools, electronic transfer of evaluation results, and artificial intelligence.
This technical paper describes different ways on how Ferrography works and its
application in the real world through case histories.

Key Words: Ferrography; predictive maintenance; Used Oil Analysis; Passport

System V; Wear Particle Types; Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer; Viscosity

Wear Particle Analysis or Ferrography

Ferrography is a technique that provides microscopic examination and analysis of

wear particles separated from all type of fluids. Developed in the mid 1970’s as a
predictive maintenance technique, it was initially used to magnetically precipitate
ferrous wear particles from lubricating oils.

· This technique was used successfully to monitor the condition of military

aircraft engines, gearboxes, and transmissions. That success has
prompted the development of other applications, including modification
of the method to precipitate non-magnetic particles from lubricants,
quantifying wear particles on a glass substrate (Ferrogram) and the
refinement of our grease solvent utilized in heavy industry today.

· Three of the major types of equipment used in wear particle analysis are
the Direct-Reading (DR) Ferrograph, the Analytical Ferrograph System
and the Ferrogram Scanner.

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Direct Reading (DR) Ferrograph: The DR Ferrograph Monitor is a trending tool

that permits condition monitoring through examination of fluid samples on a
scheduled, periodic basis. A compact, portable instrument that is easily operated
even by a non-technical personnel, the DR Ferrograph quantitatively measures the
concentration of ferrous wear particles in a lubricating or hydraulic oil. The DR
Ferrograph provides for analysis of a fluid sample by precipitating particles onto
the bottom of a glass tube that is subjected to a strong magnetic field. Fiber optic
bundles direct light through the glass tube at two locations where large and small
particles are deposited by the permanent magnet. At the onset of the test, before
particles begin to precipitate the instrument is automatically “zeroed” with a
microprocessor chip as the light passes through the oil to adjust for its opacity. The
light is reduced in relation to the number of particles deposited in the glass tube,
and this reduction is monitored and displayed on a LCD panel. Two sets of
readings are obtained: one for Direct Large >5 microns (DL) and one for Direct
Small <5 microns (DS) particles. Wear Particle Concentration is derived by adding
DL + DS divided by the volume of sample, establishing a machine wear trend
baseline.

Machines starting service go through a wearing in process, during which the

quantity of large particles quickly increases and then settles to an equilibrium
concentration during normal running conditions. A key aspect of ferrography is that
machines wearing abnormally will produce unusually large amounts of wear
particles indicating excessive wear condition by the DR Ferrograph in WPC
readings. If WPC readings are beyond the normal trend a Ferrogram sample slide
is made with the fluid for examination by optical microscopy.

The Analytical Ferrograph: Additional information about a wear sample, can be

obtained with the Analytical Ferrograph system, instruments that can provide a
permanent record of the sample, as well as analytical information. The Analytical
Ferrograph is used to prepare a Ferrogram -- a fixed slide of wear particles for
microscopic examination and photographic documentation. The Ferrogram is an
important predictive tool, since it provides an identification of the characteristic wear
pattern of specific pieces of equipment. After the particles have deposited on the
Ferrogram, a wash is used to flush away the oil or water-based lubricant. After the
wash fluid evaporates, the wear particles remain permanently attached to the glass
substrate and are ready for microscopic examination.

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Ferrogram Maker Instrument

The Microscope: Ferrograms are typically examined under a microscope that

combines the features of a biological and metallurgical microscope. Such
equipment utilizes both reflected and transmitted light sources, which may be used
simultaneously. Green, red, and polarized filters are also used to distinguish the
size, composition, shape and texture of both metallic and non-metallic particles.

Types of Wear Particles: There is six basics wear particle types generated
through the wear process. These include ferrous and nonferrous particles which
comprise of:

1. Normal Rubbing Wear: Normal-rubbing wear particles are generated as the

result of normal sliding wear in a machine and result from exfoliation of parts of the
shear mixed layer. Rubbing wear particles consist of flat platelets, generally 5
microns or smaller, although they may range up to 15 microns depending on
equipment application. There should be little or no visible texturing of the surface
and the thickness should be one micron or less.

2. Cutting Wear Particles: Cutting wear particles are generated as a result of one
surface penetrating another. There are two ways of generating this effect.

· A relatively hard component can become misaligned or fractured,

resulting in hard sharp edge penetrating a softer surface. Particles
generated this way is generally coarse and large, averaging 2 to 5
microns wide and 25 microns to 100 microns long.

· Hard abrasive particles in the lubrication system, either as contaminants

such as sand or wear debris from another part of the system, may
become embedded in a soft wear surface (two body abrasion) such as a
lead/tin alloy bearing. The abrasive particles protrude from the soft
surface and penetrate the opposing wear surface. The maximum size of
cutting wear particles generated in this way is proportional to the size of
the abrasive particles in the lubricant. Very fine wire-like particles can be
generated with thickness as low as .25 microns. Occasionally small
particles, about 5 microns long by 25 microns thick, may be generated
due to the presence of hard inclusions in one of the wearing surfaces.

· Cutting wear particles are abnormal. Their presence and quantity should
be carefully monitored. If the majority of cutting wear particles in a
system are around a few micrometers long and a fraction of a micrometer
wide, the presence of particulate contaminants should be suspected. If a

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system shows increased quantities of large (50 micrometers long) cutting

wear particles, a component failure is potentially imminent.

3. Spherical Particles: These particles are generated in the bearing cracks. If

generated, their presence gives an improved warning of impending trouble as they
are detectable before any actual spalling occurs. Rolling bearing fatigue is not the
only source of spherical metallic particles. They are known to be generated by
cavitation erosion and more importantly by welding or grinding processes. Spheres
produced in fatigue cracks may be differentiated from those produced by other
mechanisms through their size distribution. Rolling fatigue generates few spheres
over 5 microns in diameter while the spheres generated by welding, grinding, and
erosion are frequently over 10 microns in diameter.

4. Severe Sliding: Severe sliding wear particles are identified by parallel striations
on their surfaces. They are generally larger than 15 microns, with the length-
to-with thickness ratio falling between 5 and 30 microns. Severe sliding wear
particles sometimes show evidence of temper colors, which may change the
appearance of the particle after heat treatment.

Severe Sliding Wear

5. Bearing Wear Particle: These distinct particle types have been associated with
rolling bearing fatigue:

· Fatigue Spall Particles constitute actual removal from the metal

surface when a pit or a crack is propagated. These particles reach a
maximum size of 100 microns during the microspalling process. Fatigue
Spalls are generally are flat with a major dimensions-to-thickness ratio of
10 to 1. They have a smooth surface and a random, irregularly shape
circumference.

· Laminar Particles are very thin free metal particles with frequent
occurrence of holes. They range between 20 and 50 microns in major
dimension with a thickness ratio of 30:1. These particles are formed by
the passage of a wear particle through a rolling contact. Laminar
particles may be generated throughout the life of a bearing, but at the
onset of fatigue spalling, the quantity generated increases. An increasing
quantity of laminar particles in addition to spherical wear is indicative of
rolling-bearing fatigue microcracks.

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6. Gear Wear Two types of wear have been associated with gear wear:

· Pitch Line Fatigue Particles from a gear pitch line have much in
common with rolling-element bearing fatigue particles. They generally
have a smooth surface and are frequently irregularly shaped. Depending
on the gear design, the particles usually have a major dimension-
to-thickness ratio between 4:1 and 10:1. The chunkier particle result from
tensile stresses on the gear surface causing the fatigue cracks to
propagate deeper into the gear tooth prior to spalling.

· Scuffing or Scoring Particles is caused by too high a load and/or

speed. The particles tend to have a rough surface and jagged
circumference. Even small particles may be discerned from rubbing wear
by these characteristics. Some of the large particles have striations on
their surface indicating a sliding contact. Because of the thermal nature
of scuffing, quantities of oxide are usually present and some of the
particles may show evidence of partial oxidation, that is, tan or blue
temper colors.

Many other particle types are also present and generally describe particle
morphology or origin such as chunk, black oxide, red oxide, corrosive, etc. In
addition to ferrous and non-ferrous, contaminant particles can also be present and
may include: Sand and Dirt, Fibers, Friction polymers, and Contaminant spheres.

Contaminant particles are generally considered the single most significant cause of
abnormal component wear. The wear initiated by contaminants generally induces
the formation of larger particles, with the formation rate being dependent on the
filtration efficiency of the system. In fact, once a particle is generated and moves
with the lubricant, it is technically a contaminant.

Passport System V Software and Instruments

The combination and enhancement of WPA and UOA within the past few years
have been oriented towards managing a predictive maintenance program efficiently
with the advent of software and high tech tools. Of the recent development of our
Passport System V software and instrumentation allows the user to incorporate all
different types of predictive maintenance tools with a customized approach. The
Passport System V is sophisticated, yet simple to use, state of the art data
management and report writing tool, which provides users the most advanced
capability available for computerized storage, comparison data, and evaluation of
lube and wear data. The software design makes the creation of tables, charts,
digitized pictures, drawings, and qualitative reports, previously produced manually,
a faster and easier task, with more accurate results.

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The Passport System V incorporates a video camera to capture and transmit the
particle image magnified on the microscope to a personal computer. The data
management features enable the technician to rapidly prepare a report and
compare the current machine condition with the previous analysis history. The
computer screen act as a regular display for report writing or reviewing information,
while another part of the screen high resolution images are display from the
microscope or from earlier reports, or pictures from the Wear Particle Atlas. With
these combined features and having predictive maintenance information at your
fingertips allows the technician to provide a comprehensive report with quality
condition monitoring recommendations.

Passport System V

The Passport System V is a significant enhancement to predictive maintenance

monitoring. The data management capability is obviously valuable to industry
today. The technology to capture, digitize, transfer, and store images has
progressed rapidly such that the quality is now equal or even better than still
photography. The system enables the user to establish their own predictive
maintenance reference guides for their machinery. The Modem/Internet e-mail
system enables the technician to communicate with distant sister facilities' sites
and with other technicians including our own experts. Perhaps most exciting of all
is the prospect of developing an artificial intelligence base for diagnosis and
decision making.

Case History

Safety Components Fabric Technologies, Inc. is a major worldwide producer of

material used in the manufacture of air bags for passenger vehicles. Safety
Components Fabric Technologies, Inc. instituted a predictive maintenance program
in February 1998. Their program consisted of vibration analysis and Ferrographic

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Wear Particle Analysis. Included in their program were 205 weaving machines (the
focus of this paper), air compressors, chillers, motors, pumps, and fans.
Vibrational Analysis is performed on a 90-day cycle on all units. All units found to
be outside of specified Vibrational limits are sampled immediately and sent to
Predict/DLI for Wear Particle Analysis. The Wear Particle Analysis consists of
Direct Reading Ferrography and Analytical Ferrography. Initially, the standard
gearcase program was used to detect premature failures in these units, but was
found to be inadequate, as the machines would fail long before expected. With
the help of the customer and Predicts Ferrographic expertise, an innovative plan
was developed that best incorporated the unit’s design, sampling oddities, and the
condition monitoring tools employed. This plan, or Modified Program, allowed for
accurate detection of premature gearcase failures in these machines long before
any unexpected downtimes could occur.

Safety Components Fabric Technologies, Inc. employs dual rapier-weaving

machines to weave yarn into cloth. A rapier weaving machine works as such: The
warp (lengthwise) threads are secured on the loom through the heddle eyes (a
thread, wire, metal or Texsolv polyester loop held by the shaft sticks with eyes for
threading the warp ends[i]) and attached to the loom beam located in the rear of
the loom. The dual rapiers are fingerlike arms that carry filling yarn halfway
through a shed of warp yarns (a shed is a separation of the warp ends into an
upper and lower system of threads that permit the rapiers to pass through the
space that has been formed). The filling (crosswise) thread is placed by the
two-rapier system between the warp thread shed. The rapiers are located directly
across from each other on each side of the loom [see figure 1].

The rapiers meet one another halfway through the shed and the filling yarn carried
by the left hand rapier is transferred to the right hand rapier and is carried the rest
of the way across the loom where it is cut and the process is repeated at a
constant rate[ii]. As the warp ends are drawn through the heddles, via the rotation
of the loom’s lower drive gearcase, the shed is formed with each turn and the
fabric is woven concurrently as the rapiers add the fill yarn inside the shed [iii]. The
loom in general and the rapiers are driven by identical transmission gearcases on
each side of the loom.

The weaving machines are driven by a continuously running AC motor over a

magnetic clutch-brake assembly. This motor is connected to a drive shaft by three
V-belts. Gearcase speed depends upon the size pulley on the motor shaft. This

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drive shaft transmits power to the loom’s left transmission gearcase. The left hand
transmission gearcase [see figure 2] then powers a shaft that is connected to the
right hand gearcase and drives it in unison.

Each of the right and left hand transmission gearcases contains a lower and an
upper drive gear assembly. The lower drive gearing primarily contains a pinion
gear and a bull gear. The pinion gear [arrow F2g], which is attached to the drive
shaft [arrow F2e], transmits power to the left hand gearcase’s lower bull gear
[arrow F2d], which drives the right hand gearcase, the loom, and the double cam
follower. The double cam follower [arrow F2a] transmits the power generated by
both of the lower drive gearcase’s bull gears to each of the upper drive gear
assemblies via the toothed segment gear [arrow F2c]. The double cam is a vital
component of this unit because it transmits the power very evenly and smoothly to
the upper gearcase and thereby insures that the filling is inserted gently by the
rapiers. The gearing and cams in the loom are expertly engineered and
synchronized with the connecting shafts so that all componentry moves in a
specific sequence of motions and the fabric is woven precisely and efficiently.

The upper drive gearcase [arrow F2b and figure 3] powers each of the rapiers.
Based on the high rapier speeds and loading, the major stress loading in this unit
is found in the upper drive gear assembly [see figure 3]. Based on that fact, the
upper drive gear

assemblies are the most susceptible to abnormal wearing in both the cylindrical
antifriction bearings and gearing.

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The spur gear, located on the upper drive gear shaft, is driven by the toothed
segment gear. Looking at Figure 2, the upper drive gear has been removed from
its original position. When in operation, the upper drive gear assembly is located
in the opening above the toothed segment gear [Figures 2 and 3: arrows F2c and
F3d] where the spur gears are intermeshed. This spur gearing [arrow F3c]
controls how far the rapier arm swivels back and forth. The spiral bevel bull and
pinion gear set [arrows F3b and F3e] transmits the power generated by the upper
drive gear assembly shaft spur gear to the final gear that maneuvers the rapier arm
back and forth in a rack and pinion type assembly. The upper drive gear assembly
employs single and double cylindrical roller antifriction bearings to support loading
on all applicable shafts.

The oil reservoir [Figure 2: arrow F2f] for both gearcases is located at the bottom of
the gearcase, partially immersing the lower drive bull gear. The reservoir volume is
2 gallons. The lubricant used in this unit is ISO 150 grade EP gear oil. An
electronically controlled pumping system applies and recirculates (through a fine
filter) the lubricant to the upper gearing and bearings. After lubricating the upper
portion of the gearbox, the oil cascades down to lubricate all remaining
componentry. In addition, the bull gear is further protected from potential
abnormal wearing because it is partially immersed in the lubricant and the oil
clings to the teeth as it rotates.

Actual Case History of a “Standard Gearcase” Failure

In October of 2000, an extruder reduction gearcase was determined to be

undergoing a major to catastrophic wear mode via Ferrographic Wear Particle
Analysis and was rated CRITICAL. This case history includes all six sample points
taken during the monitored history of this unit and comments about how the
gearcase went from a normal wear mode to a catastrophic wear mode in a
six-month period.

As the Direct Reading (DR) Ferrography graph [figure 14] indicates, the gearcase,
from April to August (five samples), was operating "Within Limits" based on the
Wear Particle Concentration.

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In other words, the samples in the selected timeframe were within the numerical
limits of the Mean of all sample points plus or minus two Standard Deviation units.
On all five samples, Analytical Ferrography observations indicated only normal
rubbing wear on the ferrogram. These five samples, from April to August, were
rated NORMAL based on the Wear Particle Concentration and the Analytical
Ferrography results.

In contrast, the October sample’s DR result was very high. Looking at the graph,
October’s DR Ferrography testing result of 537 was virtually ten times higher than
the Alarm BH point (54) and 500 points higher than when previously sampled in
August. The Alarm BH point on the graph denotes the mean plus two standard
deviation points. Every wear particle concentration value above the established BH
Alarm point is considered "Out of Limits". This result was of great concern. The
next step was to perform Analytical Ferrography. Analytical Ferrography indicated
large amounts and sizes of case hardened steel, low alloy steel, and medium alloy
steel abnormal gear and bearing wear particles up to 120 microns in size [figure
15].

When comparing October’s Analytical Ferrographic results to previously trended

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results (where no abnormal wear particles had ever been detected), it was
confirmed that this unit was undergoing a major to catastrophic abnormal wear
mode. As a result, based on the combination of the very high Wear Particle
Concentration along with the Analytical Ferrography results, this sample was rated
CRITICAL and the customer was notified immediately. The customer inspected the
unit and determined that the unit had undergone abnormal gear and bearing wear
and the unit was overhauled.

This case history for “standard gearcase” failure is an excellent demonstration of

how a typical gearcase can move from a normal wear mode to a catastrophic wear
mode over a period of time. This case history indicated a definite point (the
October sampling) where the unit in question went from a normal wear mode to a
critical wear mode based on both DR testing and Analytical Ferrography. An
inspection of the gearcase confirmed what Analytical Ferrography had predicted.
The customer planned for the downtime and the unit was repaired. Ferrographic
Analysis assists the customer in eliminating unplanned downtimes. Unplanned
downtimes are very expensive and detrimental based on the loss or reduction of
production and excess man-hours expended to correct the problem. Not all
gearcases undergo such dramatic changes in wear modes (normal to critical) in
such a short period. It is also typical for a gearcase to alternate between a normal
to marginal wear mode and vice versa over a long period. This rating alternation is
due to unit loading during a specific period, speed of operation, oil changes, etc.
However, if Ferrographic Analysis indicates wear being generated far in excess of
what trending has shown to be as typical (as recorded by previous normal and
marginal ratings), that unit will be rated critical and the appropriate steps will be
taken to assure that the gearcase is scheduled for appropriate maintenance
actions.

Safety Components Fabric Technologies, Inc. Typical Gearcase Failure

Safety Components Fabric Technologies, Inc. weaving machine gearcase failures

do not conform to the “standard” case history gearcase failure described in the
previous section. Looking at the Wear Particle Trending graph for a typical
weaving gearcase, it is unapparent that this unit is in danger of imminent failure.
From May to October, three lubricant samples were sampled from this gearcase.

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The Wear Particle Concentration (WPC) did not vary to any great degree with each
sampling. The results were 4.6 in April, 9.1 in May, and 11.9 in October (all in
1999). Analytical Ferrography results indicated normal rubbing wear in the April
and May samples. The October sample indicated a small amount of gear and
bearing wear particles up to 120 microns in size [figure 17]. Originally, the October
sample was rated marginal based on the Analytical Ferrographic results only; the
DR results were well within what is expected to be normal for a “standard”
gearcase.

The Analytical Ferrographic results for the October sample were rated marginal
based on the small amounts of abnormal wear particles. In a “standard” gearcase,
the observed small amounts of abnormal wear particles and the relatively low WPC
would typically constitute a minor overall abnormal wear mode. As stated
previously in the description of equipment condition ratings, assumptions were
made that similar equipment would be rated marginal. A further illustration of the
differing amounts of abnormal wear particles is to observe figures 15 and 17.
Figure 15 illustrates a large amount of abnormal wear particles and an obvious
high wear mode; so much so that the magnetic flux lines are piled up on one
another and are individually indistinguishable. Figure 17, on the other hand,
illustrates a small amount of abnormal wear particles along with a small to
moderate amount of normal rubbing wear in clearly distinguishable magnetic flux
lines.

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Figure 17: low and high alloy steel gear and bearing wear particles (120mm max.) 200X

In reality however, it was found that this unit, along with several others that were
rated similarly, should have been rated critical because the upper drive gear
assemblies in these gearcases were undergoing a

high to catastrophic wear mode and were failing unexpectantly. These gearcases
obviously did not conform to standards set for units that were assumed similar.
Based on this situation, it was unclear whether Ferrographic Wear Particle Analysis
could be employed to accurately predict premature failure in these gearcases.

Vibrational Analysis was shown to be successful in identifying gearcases that were

undergoing some form of an abnormal wear mode. Many of the weaving machine
gearcases, found to be outside of typical predetermined vibrational limits, were
undergoing an abnormal wear mode. However, the disadvantage of Vibrational
Analysis was that it was not specific in determining what degree of wear was
ongoing in each of these units. Not all units found to be outside of vibrational
limits were undergoing a catastrophic wear mode. In order for Ferrographic Wear
Particle Analysis to be successful in this application, it would have to be capable of
differentiating the wear mode ongoing in each unit (if any) where Vibrational
Analysis was unable to distinguish. It would be very valuable to find a
complementary relationship between Vibrational Analysis and Ferrographic
Analysis. Ideally, if this relationship could be employed, Vibrational Analysis could
flag the weaving machine gearcases that were potentially undergoing an abnormal
wear mode, a sample of the lubricant could be pulled from each of the flagged unit
reservoir(s), and Ferrographic Analysis in turn would determine the severity of the
wear mode in each weaving unit. Obviously, the missing link in this relationship
was the Ferrographic Analysis. Steps had to be taken to assure that Ferrographic
Wear Particle Analysis could accurately predict abnormal wearing in these units.
Once it was proven that Ferrography could be utilized, the method would have to
be customized and developed specifically to determine the severity of the wear
mode ongoing in each of the gearcases. This new method would have to be
consistent and accurate in the determination of any ongoing wear modes sent in
for analysis.

GEARCASE INVESIGATION, FAILURE ANALYSIS, and ASSESSMENT of

FINDINGS

Patrick Kilbane, a Predict Machine Condition Analyst, was sent to Safety

Components to assess why the gearcases had failed prematurely. First, a failure

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analysis was performed on the gearcase to estimate how much metal is actually
being worn off the internal componentry that led to a premature failure. If no more
than a small amount of wear is generated when the gearcase fails, it will be difficult
for Ferrographic Analysis to accurately predict a catastrophic wear mode. If the
failed gearcase is found to generate a large amount of abnormal wear, another
avenue must be investigated to explain the ferrographic anomaly. The investigative
team would then have to consider anything relatively unusual in the makeup or
sampling intricacies in the gearcases that would explain why they do not conform
to standard ferrographic analysis methods. After all investigative and failure
analysis information was completed, it would be compiled. This compiled
information would help the investigative staff determine whether Ferrographic
Analysis could be employed and customized to effectively, consistently, and
accurately predict what type and degree of a wear mode is ongoing in this unit.

Failure Analysis: Sixteen failed weaving machine gearcases were opened and
inspected. Very little to no abnormal wearing was found in the lower drive gearing
[Figure 2: arrows F2a, F2d-F2g].

Conversely, when the toothed segment gear and the upper drive gear assembly
[Figure 2: arrows F2b-F2c, Figure 3: all arrows] were inspected, a large amount of
abnormal wear was found on most to all componentry. This is clearly illustrated in
figures 18 to 20. Figure 18 is an image of a severely worn upper drive gear
assembly shaft cylindrical roller antifriction bearing. As observed in the image, a
large amount of fatigue spalling was discovered on both of the races and all of the
rollers. All failed gearcases showed this type of wear on every one of the upper
drive gear assembly shaft cylindrical roller bearings. Figure 19 is an image of a
severely worn upper drive gear assembly shaft spur gear from a failed weaving unit
gearcase. As the image illustrates, a large amount of pitch line pitting and spalling
along with scuffing and scoring was discovered on many of the gear teeth. All
failed gearcases demonstrated some degree of this type of wear on this specific
gear. Figure 20 is an image of a spur gear and shaft found in the upper drive gear
assembly pinion gear set. This gear is also from a failed weaving unit gearcase.
As the image illustrates, a large amount of pitch line pitting and spalling along with
scuffing and scoring was discovered on many of the gear teeth. Many of the failed
gearcases demonstrated some degree of this type of wear on the pinion gear set.

The investigators determined in the failure analysis of sixteen (16) upper drive gear
assemblies that the units failed in the same manner. Every upper drive gear
assembly shaft cylindrical roller bearing [figure 18] was severely worn: more so
than any of the other gearbox componentry. Based on that fact and operation
history on the failed unit, it was determined that the upper drive gear assembly

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shaft cylindrical roller bearing would loosen and misalign under very high loads
and speeds, initiating an abnormal wear mode in the gearbox. As the bearing
loosened further, the upper drive pinion gear also became misaligned. The
catastrophic wear mode commenced in these units when the misaligned shaft
gearing began to wear abnormally.

As described and illustrated, a large amount of abnormal wearing was discovered

in the upper drive gear assembly on every failed gearcase. Based on that fact,
quite a lot of abnormal wear would be present in the lubricant. Ferrographic
Analysis should theoretically be capable of differentiating the degree of abnormal
wear ongoing in the weaving unit gearcase. Because there was so much abnormal
wear debris generated in a failure mode and that standard ferrographic methods
were not identifying it, there obviously was an alternate reason why Ferrographic
Analysis was not accurately diagnosing the problem. The weaving machine
gearcases were further investigated.

Investigation of the weaving machine gearcase: Ferrographic Analysis is

dependent on several factors:

One common gearcase factor that may affect Analytical Ferrography results is
sampling location. Ideal sample points can be found in several spots in a
gearcase. The best point is found at the lubricant return line right after the oil has
lubricated the gearing and bearings. This sample is well mixed, uniform, and
representative of the overall lubricant circulating in the system. If it is impossible or
impractical to take a sample at that point, the next best sampling point can be
found one to two inches deep in the reservoir very close to lubricant return line.
This sample is well mixed and uniform, but care has to be taken to assure the
sample is taken in the same place every time to assure consistent trending
results. It is also advisable that the same person takes the sample each time. If it
is impossible to sample at either of those sampling points due to unit design, the
sample should be taken at the most favorable location by the same person, in the
exact same sample position, and utilizing the same sampling technique every
sampling period. That way the ferrographic trending results are consistent from
sample to sample.

Another common gearcase factor that may affect Analytical Ferrography results is
the return flow of the lubricant. It should be confirmed that the returning lubricant
flow is completely homogenous and well mixed once it returns to the sump. If the
sample is not well mixed and uniform, the amount of wear particles in the lubricant
will be diluted and any sample taken and sent in for Ferrographic Analysis will not
be representative of the ongoing wear mode in the unit. The most representative
samples are ones that return in whole to the reservoir via a return line. Some of
the least uniform and representative lubricant samples are found in units where the
oil is sprayed over a large surface area and is allowed to fall over the length of the
sump via gravity. Samples taken from this type of system may be taken in an area
that is wear particle lean or rich compared with the mean amounts of particles
generated by the unit. Ferrographic Analysis of these types of samples has a
lower probability of accurately identifying the ongoing wear mode.

A final common gearcase factor that may affect Analytical Ferrography results is
the effect of differing loading and speeds on each individual gearcase. Each
weaving unit runs at differing speeds. In addition, woven fabric size and yarn type
creates differing loading on a unit. As an example, a heavy rope type thread is
much heavier and more difficult to weave into cloth. This gearcase is powering the

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weaving process under a great deal more loading than an identical unit that is
weaving lighter weight thread into cloth. Therefore, the loading and speeds should
also be investigated on all failed gearcases looking for common failure modes.

Therefore, the next logical step in this investigation was to determine lubricant
sampling locations, return flow, and/or unit loading and speed anomalies that
would explain the small amounts of wear debris that represented a catastrophic
wear mode observed by means of Ferrographic Analysis. The entire lubrication
system and reservoir were thoroughly investigated. Varying degrees of all three
factors were discovered.

As stated above, a common contributing factor that typically affects Analytical

Ferrography results is the sample point and sampling techniques. If the sample is
taken in the incorrect location or in an incorrect manner, the Ferrographic results
are also typically incorrect. In the weaving unit’s gearcase, the only location
available for sampling was found at the drain cap, which is located approximately
one inch above the bottom of the reservoir at the front end. Due to the gearcase
design, there were no alternative sampling points. The same operator took the
samples at the exact same location and utilized the same sampling technique at all
times. This ensures, even though the sample point is less than ideal, that the
Analytical Ferrography results will be consistent from sample date to sample date.
In other words, the precision of all samples is excellent while the accuracy may be
suspect based on how representative the lubricant is of the wear mode ongoing in
the unit (return flow). Therefore, the sample point location and sampling technique
were the best that were practical for this application. The investigation revealed
that sampling and sampling techniques were not likely to be a major factor
inhibiting accurate Analytical Ferrography testing results.

The failed gearcase loading and speeds were investigated and compared to units
that were operating within limits. It was discovered that a large portion of failed
gearcases were under high loads and/or speeds at some time in their history, but
correlations were not always as would be expected. Some units under lower loads
and/or speeds would exceed Vibrational limits and begin to fail while other units
that were under higher loading and/or speeds remained within Vibrational limits
and were not sent in for Analytical Ferrography testing. It was apparent that other
enigmatic factors were affecting these gearcases (such as a slight misalignment)
and not others. The investigation revealed that excessive loading and/or speeds
was a factor in gearcase failure and should indicate a higher amount of abnormal
wear particles via Ferrographic Analysis. However, this did not correlate with every
unit and was not readily apparent in either Vibrational or Ferrographic Analysis.
Therefore, excessive loading and/or speeds could not be easily utilized to aid in the
early detection of a gearcase problem due to potential concealed and enigmatic
factors ongoing in a gearcase.

The return flow of the lubricant was then investigated. The oil is pumped to the
upper drive gear assembly, where it is sprayed onto the gears and bearings. The
lubricant returns over the entire length of the sump by gravity. In analyzing the
sampling techniques of these weaving machines, it was found that any sample
taken would not be completely homogenous and representative of the wear mode.
The sump, which is long, narrow, and shallow, acts to disperse wear particles
generated by the machine because the returning lubricant does not drain into a
single point in the sump via a return line. Rather, the return flow cascades over
the length of the sump. It would be expected that the amounts of wear particles
would be much smaller than expected. Therefore, the investigation revealed this to

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be the crucial factor that explained why so few abnormal wear particles were being
observed via Ferrographic Analysis. In fact, the failing gearcase was generating a
large amount of abnormal wear particles.

The returning lubricant flow was found to be the primary reason that the
application of specific alarm limits was needed on these weaving machine
gearcases. To a lesser extent, the sample point was also a contributing factor
because of its less than ideal location. However, because the samples were taken
by the same operator in a consistent location and utilizing the same sampling
techniques, the trending results would at least be consistent. The limitations on
sampling locations were unavoidable; the weaving units could not be redesigned.
The typical alarm limits for standard gearboxes would not apply in these weaving
machine gearcases due to these factors. In any ongoing wear mode, the amounts
of abnormal wear particles and/or the wear particle concentration would be much
lower than expected for gearcases in general.

The gearcase failure analysis and further investigation yielded an understanding of

the intricacies inherent in these gearcases. These units would generate far less
abnormal wear particles than typically observed in an average gearcase. Analytical
Ferrography could be employed on these units under the proper specifications, but
a new method needed to be developed to compensate for the differences between
this unit and a typical gearcase. A new and customized method would now be
developed specifically to determine the severity of the wear mode (if any) ongoing
in each of the gearcases.

MODIFIED FERROGRAPHIC WEAR PARTICLE ANALYSIS METHOD

The first step in developing the customized Analytical Ferrography method was to
try to determine when an abnormal wear mode begins in these units. The
Analytical Ferrography data from the sixteen failed gearcases was taken. The wear
particle concentration and size of particles was plotted and compared to Vibrational
analysis data and failure analysis data. After reviewing this comparison, it became
obvious that when the Wear Particle Concentration (WPC) rose above twenty (20)
and/or if any abnormal wear particles over 15 microns in size were observed via
Ferrographic analysis, that Vibrational readings and pre-failure analysis indicated a
problem in the gearcase. This finding determined the point where these weaving
machine gearcases entered into an abnormal wear mode.

The second step in developing the customized Analytical Ferrography method was
to attempt to decipher the point when the gearcase enters into a catastrophic wear
mode. It was determined that when the abnormal wear particles reached sizes of
70 microns or higher, failure was imminent. This value was discovered after
comparing the failure inspection and further investigation results with the Analytical
Ferrography abnormal wear particle sizes. Because the amounts of abnormal
wear particles were always going to be small, the abnormal wear particle sizes
were the most important factor in determining the severity of the ongoing wear
mode. This was also based on comparing the Analytical Ferrography results with
the failure analysis and the further investigation results.

The final step in developing the customized Analytical Ferrography method was to
set Analytical Ferrography specifications so that the weaving machine gearcase
can be accurately rated. These specifications were set according to the two steps
listed above. The ratings are listed below:

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The unit was rated NORMAL if the DR Ferrography results were less than
20 and the Analytical Ferrography results indicated only normal rubbing
wear (particles less than 15 microns in size).

The unit was rated MARGINAL if the DR Ferrography results were greater
than 20 and/or the Analytical Ferrography results indicated abnormal wear
particles (regardless of type) in the range of 15-65 microns in size.

The unit was rated CRITICAL if the Analytical Ferrography results indicated
abnormal wear particles (regardless of type) equal or greater than 70
microns in size.

Since the implementation of these specifications, they have been shown to be very
accurate in determining the severity of a wear mode in these weaving machine
gearcases. In addition, there have not been any unplanned downtimes due to
gearcase failure since the specifications were set. Predict has made timely
predictions of three known premature failures since implementation. These
predictions saved Safety Components fabric Technologies, Inc. the aggravation of
unplanned downtimes along with the additional costs of parts and labor.

Aircraft Gas Turbines

Aircraft and aircraft-derivative jet engines are subject to various failure

mechanisms. Some of these failure modes proceeded very rapidly, whereas others
can be detected hundreds of operating hours before a shutdown condition is
reached. Most failures of gas turbines occur in gas path. Gas-path failures
frequently, but not always, cause an increase in wear particle size and
concentration in the oil system, probably due to the transmittal of imbalance forces
to turbine bearings and other oil-wetted parts. The resulting bearing or gear wear is
then detected by both Used Oil Analysis and Wear Particle analysis.

Determining the exact source of wear problem can be difficult in a gas turbine
because of complexity of the oil-wetted path. Typically several cavities, housing
bearings, or gears will be force lubricated through individual return lines connected
to a tank from which the oil is pumped (at a high rate), then pass through a filter
and heat exchanger, and the cycle repeated. Magnetic chip detectors or magnetic
plugs are often installed in the return lines from various engine parts. These can
help to pinpoint the source of generation in cases where particle metallurgy, as
determined by heat-treating ferrograms, is similar for various engine parts.
However, chip detectors will not give a warning until the wear situation is so severe

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that extremely large particles are being generated. By this time, the opportunity for
predictive maintenance may be lost. Other analytical techniques, such as vibration
analysis, may help to pinpoint the part in distress utilizing expert system software
that provides recommendations for action. In any case, predictive maintenance
tools integrated together offer the maintenance engineer the best decision making
tool.

Conclusion

The benefit of automation is in the use computer programs and emerging software
technologies of artificial intelligence to assist in determining when to remove
equipment from service for maintenance. These case histories provide a real world
scenario that indicates it’s not that easy to put artificial intelligence to make
maintenance decisions. However, this does not mean we do not try. For example,
an advanced system, which integrates emerging technologies in vibration, motor
current analysis, Thermography, ultrasonic, electronics, microprocessing, graphics,
and data management, could regularly sample a number of machines. From a
sampling device, compare the samples to previous samples for trend information
(along with other Data parameters), make the decision to schedule the machine for
maintenance, generate a work order for the maintenance team and send a
purchase/work order to accounting for needed repair parts.

The maintenance manager/engineer could have almost instantaneous reports on

the condition of each machine, along with a dollar figure indicating the optimal
dates for shutdown and other maintenance requirements, basically, a financial
decision.

Technology advances oriented toward maintaining and incorporating all production

data serve as an efficient assessment of manufacturing equipment. Companies as
we know it today can ill afford any shutdowns what so ever due to a tremendous
amount of re-engineering or downsizing occurring worldwide. Therefore, predictive
maintenance tools working in conjunction with production efficiency, analyzed
through a cash flow model are the decisions making tools of today and tomorrow.

Acknowledgments

Wear particle analysis and Used Oil analysis information were extracted from the
wear particle atlas and extensive experience of Predict employees. Other
contributors to the preparation of this technical paper were Rob Lovicz, Mike
Cannon, Pat Kilbane, Carolyn Martovitz, Dr. Rod Bowen, Vernon Westcott, and Bill
Hoskins.

Contact Robert Lovicz or Raymond Dalley, Predict, 9555 Rockside Road #350,
Cleveland, OH 44125; (216) 642-3223, or e-mail rjdalley@predictusa.com

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[i]
“A Glossary of Loom and Equipment Terms”, Hall, Joanne, ©2000,n.p, unpaged

[ii]
“Rapier Loom”, Encyclopedia Britannica, ©2000, unpaged

[iii]
“Textile Glossary”, Knutson, Mervil, ©2000,n.p, page 2

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