13.

1 Introduction
• In expendable mold casting, a separate mold is
produced for each casting
– Low production rate
– Quality control issues, such as dimensional and
property variation due to
• Mold to be crated each time
• Variation in mold consistency
• Mold strength
• Mold moisture content
• Pattern removal
 13.1 Introduction
Multiple-use molds
Assets:
– Higher productivity
– Good product quality

Liability:
– Metal molds are limited to low melting temperature
nonferrous metals and alloys
– Part size limitation
– Higher cost of dies or molds
 13.2 Permanent-Mold Casting
• Also known as gravity die casting
• Mold materials:
– Gray cast iron, alloy cast iron, steel, bronze, or
graphite
• Most molds are made in segments with
hinges to allow rapid and accurate closing
– Molds are preheated to improve properties
• Liquid metal flows through the mold cavity by
gravity flow
 Permanent Mold Casting
• Process can be repeated immediately
because the mold is still warm from the
previous casting
• Most frequently cast metals
– Aluminum, magnesium, zinc, lead, copper, and
their alloys
– If steel or iron is to be used, a graphite mold must
be used
 Advantages of Permanent-Mold Casting
• Near- net shapes
• Little finish machining
• Reusable molds
• Good surface finish
• Consistent dimensions
• Directional solidification
• Fast cooling rate to produce a strong structure
• Core can be used to increase complexity
 Disadvantages of Permanent Mold Casting
• Limited to lower melting temperature alloys
• High mold costs
– Mold life is strongly tied to cost
– Mold life is dependent on the following factors:
• Alloys being cast, especially melting temperature
• Mold material
• Pouring temperature
• Mold temperature
• Mold configuration
– High production runs can validate high mold costs
• Limited mold complexity
Permanent Mold Casting
 Low Pressure Permanent-Mold Casting
• Molds are not permeable
– Venting in Permanent Casting
• Slight crack between mold halves
• Very small vent holes to permit escape of trapped air,
but not passage of molten metal
• Design feature affects mold life
– Difference in section size through mold
• Removal castings immediately after
solidification
 Low Pressure Permanent-Mold Casting

• Tilt-pour permanent-mold casting

– Mold is rotated to force flow into the cavity
• Low pressure permanent-mold casting
– Mold is upside down and connected to a crucible that contains the
molten metal
– Pressure difference induces upward flow
– Metals are exceptionally clean because it is fed directly into the mold
– Little or no turbulence during flow
– No risers, yields > 85%
• Typical metals cast using low pressure process
– Aluminum, magnesium, and copper
Low-Pressure Permanent-Mold Casting

Figure 13-2
Schematic of the low-
pressure permanent-
mold process.
(Courtesy of Amsted
Industries, Chicago,
IL.)
 Vacuum Permanent-Mold Casting
• Atmospheric pressure in the chamber forces
the metal upward after the vacuum is drawn
• Thin-walled castings can be made
• Excellent surface quality
• Cleaner metals than low pressure
– Lower dissolved gas content
• Better mechanical properties than low
pressure casting.
 Vacuum Permanent-Mold Casting

Figure 13-3
Schematic illustration
of vacuum
permanent-mold
casting. Note the
similarities to the
low-pressure
process.
 13.3 Die Casting
• Molten metal is forced into the mold under
high pressure
• Held under high pressure during solidification
• Castings can have fine sections and complex
details
• Long mold life
• Typical metals cast
– Zinc, copper, magnesium, aluminum, and their
alloys
 Advantages of Die Casting
• High production rates
• Good strength
• Intricate shapes
• Dimensional precision
• Excellent surface qualities
• Small-medium sized castings
 Disadvantages of Die Casting
• High cost for dies
• Less flexibility for products
• Limited to small- to –medium-sized parts
• Most for nonferrous metals and alloys
 Die Modifications and Die Life
• Die complexity can be improved through the use
of
– Water cooled passages
– Retractable cores
– Moving pins to eject castings
• Die life
– Limited by erosion and usage temperature
– Surface cracking
– Heat checking
– Thermal fatigue
 Die Modifications and Die Life
• Die Materials
– Harden tool steels, since cast iron cannot
withstand casting pressures
• Vary Pressure on Molten Metal during casting
– Reduce turbulence and air entrapment by lower
injection pressures, and followed by higher
pressures after mold has been filled completely
and metal starts to solidify.
 Basic Types of Die-Casting
• Hot chamber castings
– Gooseneck chamber for molten metal
– Plunger to control molten metal flow

• Fast cycling times

• No handling or transfer of molten metal
• Can’t used for higher-melting-point metals
– Aluminum tends to pick up some iron of casting
equipments
• Used with zinc, tin, and lead-based alloys
Die Casting (Hot-Chamber)

Figure 13-5 (Below)

Principal
components of a
hot-chamber die-
casting machine.
(Adapted from
Metals Handbook,
9th ed., Vol 15, p.
287, ASM
International,
Metals Park, OH.)
 Basic Types of Die Casting
• Cold-chamber machines
– Used for materials not suitable for hot chamber machines
– Separated furnace
– Drive measured quantity of molten metal into unheated
chamber by hydraulic plunger
– Maintain or increase pressure until solidification done
– Typical materials
• Aluminum, magnesium, copper, and high-aluminum zinc
– Longer operating cycle than hot-chamber
– High productivity
Die Casting (Cold-Chamber)

Figure 13-6 (Above)

Principal components
of a cold-chamber
die-casting machine.
(Adapted from
Metals Handbook,
9th ed., Vol 15, p.
287, ASM
International, Metals
Park, OH.)
 Summary of Die Casting
• Dies fill so fast with metal, only little time for the air in
the runner and die to escape
• Molds offer no permeability
– Air can become trapped and cause defects
• Risers are not used because of the high pressures used
• Sand cores can’t be used due to high pressures
– Cast-in inserts can be used
• High production rates
• Little post casting finishing necessary
Die Casting
Die Cast Materials
 13.7 Melting
• Selection of melting method is based on several factors
– Temperature needed to melt and superheat the metal
– Alloy being melted
– Desired melting rate and quantity
– Desired quality of metal
– Availability and cost of fuels
– Variety of metals or alloys to be melted
– Batch or continuous
– Required level of emission control
– Capital and operating costs
 Types of Furnaces
• Indirect Fuel-Fired Furnace
– Crucibles or holding pots are heated externally which in turn heats the
metal
– Low capital and operating costs
• Direct Fuel-Fired Furnace
– Similar to small open-hearth furnaces
– Flame passes directly over metal
Figure 13-14
Cross section
of a direct
fuel-fired
furnace. Hot
combustion
gases pass
across the
surface of a
molten
metal pool.
 Arc Furnaces

Figure 13-15
Schematic diagram
of a three-phase
electric-arc furnace.

• Preferred method for most factories

• Rapid melting rates
• Ability to hold molten metal for any period of time
• Greater ease of incorporating pollution control equipment
 Heat Treatment and Inspection of Casting
• Heat treatments alter properties while
maintaining shape
• Full anneals reduce hardness and brittleness of
rapidly cooled castings
– Reduce internal stresses
• Nonferrous castings may be heat treated to
provide chemical homogenization or stress relief
• Prepares materials for further finishing
operations
 13.11 Process Selection
• Each casting process has
advantages and
disadvantages
• Typical requirements
– Size, complexity,
dimensional precision,
surface finish, quantity,
rate of production
– Costs for materials (dies,
equipment, and metal)
Figure 13-20 Typical unit cost of castings comparing
sand casting and die casting. Note how the large cost of
a die-casting die diminishes as it is spread over a larger
quantity of parts.
 Summary
• Variety of casting processes
• Each has its own set of characteristics and
benefits
• Care should be taken in properly selecting a
casting process to minimize cost while
maximizing qualities of the finished product
• Most casting processes may be automated, but
the process selected determines the quality of
the finished product
 Die Casting
• developed in the early 1900s
• permanent-mold casting.
• European term for this process is pressure die casting
• Typical parts made by die casting
• housings, business-machine and appliance components, hand-tool
components, and toys.
• weight of most castings ranges from less than 90 g to about 25 kg
• Equipment costs are high
• labor costs are generally low,
• process is semi- or fully automated
• economical for large production runs
• In the die-casting process, molten metal is forced into the die cavity at
pressures ranging from 0.7 to 700 MPa.
• There are two basic types of die-casting machines:
hot-chamber
cold-chamber machines.
• The hot-chamber process - uses a piston - forces a certain volume of metal
into the die cavity through a gooseneck and nozzle.
• Pressures range up to 35 MPa, with an average of about 15 MPa.
• The metal is held under pressure until it solidifies in the die.
• To improve die life and to aid in rapid metal cooling (thereby reducing cycle
time) dies usually are cooled by circulating water or oil through various
passageways in the die block.
• Low-melting-point alloys (such as zinc, magnesium, tin, and lead) commonly
are cast using this process.
• Cycle times usually range from 200 to 300 shots (individual injections) per
hour for zinc, although very small components, such as zipper teeth, can be
cast at rates of 18,000 shots per hour.
• In the cold-chamber process, molten metal is poured into the injection
cylinder (shot chamber).
• The chamber is not heated-hence the term cold chamber.
• The metal is forced into the die cavity at pressures usually ranging from 20
to 70 MPa, although they may be as high as 150 MPa.
Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process
Schematic illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process. These machines are large
compared to the size of the casting, because high forces are required to keep the two halves of
the dies closed under pressure
Process Capabilities and Machine Selection.
It has the capability for rapid production of strong, high-quality parts
with complex shapes, especially with aluminum, brass, magnesium,
and zinc.
• produces good dimensional accuracy and surface details
• parts require little or no subsequent machining or finishing
operations (net-shape forming).
• Because of the high pressures involved, walls as thin as 0.38 mm are
produced
• ejector marks remain, as may small amounts of flash (thin material
squeezed out between the dies) at the die parting line.
• intricate shape and fine surface detail.
• because the molten metal chills rapidly at the die walls, the casting
has a fine-grained hard skin with high strength
• Consequently, the strength-to-weight ratio of die-cast parts increases
with decreasing wall thickness.
• Components such as pins, shafts, and threaded fasteners can be die cast
integrally.
• Called insert molding, this process is similar to placing wooden sticks in
popsicles prior to freezing
• For good interfacial strength, insert surfaces may be knurled , grooved, or
splined.
• Steel, brass, and bronze inserts are used commonly in die-casting alloys.
• In selecting insert materials, the possibility of galvanic corrosion should be
taken into account.
• To avoid this potential problem, the insert can be insulated, plated, or
surface treated.
• Because of the high pressures involved, dies for die casting have a tendency
to part unless clamped together tightly.
• Die-casting machines are thus rated according to the clamping force that
can be exerted to keep the dies closed.
• The capacities of commercially available machines range from about 23 to
2700 metric tons.
• Other factors involved in the selection of die-casting machines are die size,
piston stroke, shot pressure, and cost.
• Die-casting dies -single cavity, multiple cavity (with several identical
cavities), combination cavity (with several different cavities), or unit dies
(simple, small dies that can be combined in two or more units in a master
holding die).
• Typically, the ratio of die weight to part weight is 1000 to 1
• the die for a casting weighing 2 kg would weigh about 2000 kg.
• The dies usually are made of hot-work die steels or mold steels
• Die wear increases with the temperature of the molten metal
• Heat checking of dies surface cracking from repeated heating and cooling
of the die can be a problem.
• dies may last more than a half million shots before any significant die wear
takes place.
 Things that you may recognise
• Things that are made from gravity die
casting are:
• Toaster -

• Lawnmowers -

• Car wheel rims -

 Identifying the process
• When something has been created by
gravity pressure die casting there would
be:
• Section hair lines
• ejector pin marks
• sprue and runner marks
 Materials
• The materials used in gravity die casting is
a mixture of Zinc and aluminium.

• Zinc -

• Aluminium -
 High Pressure Die Casting
• Forcing metal under high pressure to form
a mould.

• These moulds are called dies and are

made from steel.

• This produces non-ferrous metals.

 Materials used
• Metals that are commonly used are also:

Aluminium -

Zinc -
What is made from the process
• In this process you can make:

• Golf club heads -

• Car engine blocks -

• Radiators -
 High pressure die casting process
• First the mould is sprayed with
lubricant and closed.

• Molten metal is then injected into

the mould under high pressure.
 High pressure die casting process
• Once the cavity is filled, the pressure is
kept at a steady level until the casting has
become solid.

• Finally, the die is opened and the casting

is injected.
 Identifying the process
• When something has been created dy
high pressure die casting there would
also be:
• Section hair lines
• ejector pin marks
• sprue and runner marks
 Summary of Die Casting
• Dies fill so fast with metal, only little time for the air in
the runner and die to escape
• Molds offer no permeability
– Air can become trapped and cause defects
• Risers are not used because of the high pressures used
• Sand cores can’t be used due to high pressures
– Cast-in inserts can be used
• High production rates
• Little post casting finishing necessary