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Leadership and Power

BA5105 – Organizational Behavior
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Leadership
 Leader Someone who can influence others and who has managerial
authority
 Leadership The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of
a vision or set of goals.
 Leadership is about coping with change
o All leaders are not managers
o All managers are not leaders
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Importance of Leadership
1. To influence others
2. For optimal effectiveness
3. To create vision of the future
4. To inspire members
5. To create confidence and trust
6. To motivate employees
7. To build morale
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Leader Versus Manager

Leader Characteristics Manager Characteristics
Innovates Administers
An original A copy
Develops Maintains
Focuses on people Focuses on system and structure
Inspires trust Relies on control
Long range perspective Short range perspective
Asks what and why Asks how and when
Eye on the horizon Eye on the bottom line
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Leader Characteristics Manager Characteristics

Originates Imitates
Challenges the status quo Accepts the status quo
Own person Classic good soldier
Does the right thing Does things right
Proactive Reactive
Transformational Transactional
Focused on vision and purpose Focused on result
Born leader Trained manager
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Power
 Power refers to a capacity that ‘A‘ has to influence the behavior of
‘B‘ so ‗B‘ acts in accordance with ‗A‘s wishes.
 Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is
a function of dependence.
 The greater ‗B‘s dependence on ‗A’, the greater ‗A‘s power
in the relationship.
 Dependence - ‗B’s relationship to ‘A‘ when ‘A‘ possesses
something that ‘B‘ requires.
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Bases of Power
1. Formal Power
Based on an individual’s position in an organization.
 Coercive Power A power base that is dependent on fear of
the negative results from failing to comply.
 Reward Power Compliance achieved based on the ability to
distribute rewards that others view as valuable.
 Legitimate Power The power a person receives as a result of
his or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization.
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2. Personal Power
Influence derived from an individual’s characteristics.
 Expert Power Influence based on special skills or knowledge.
 Referent Power Influence based on identification with a
person who has desirable resources or personal traits.
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Power Centers
 Power center is a person who is in close surrounding area
of higher management and whom management trusts and
takes feedback from.
 It is very important to understand that these people may
not be on very important designations but may be the
supply of information to the boss.
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Ways to use Power Center

 You should use to advertise your achievements and your
plan to these people in a very separate manner, which does
not disclose the full plan but gives only hints.
 Discuss what you are doing and what you will do in the future with
these people.
 Never ever criticize the company or your boss in front of these
people.
 Pass on the negative information about your competitors to these
people and thus insult your competitors tell them how
others are giving loss to the company
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Precautions while dealing with
Power Centers
 Identify and select more than one power center
 Selectively disclose the things
 Make them feel important
 Never criticize the company or boss
 Maintain relations
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Power Tactics
Ways in which individuals translate power bases into specifications.
 Legitimacy. Relying on your authority position or saying a
request accords with organizational policies or rules.
 Rational persuasion. Presenting logical arguments and factual
evidence to demonstrate a request is reasonable.
 Inspirational appeals. Developing emotional commitment by
appealing to a target’s values, needs, hopes, and aspirations.
 Consultation. Increasing the target’s support by involving him or
her in deciding how you will accomplish your plan.
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 Exchange. Rewarding the target with benefits or favors in

exchange for following a request.
 Personal appeals. Asking for compliance based on friendship or
loyalty.
 Ingratiation. Using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to
making a request.
 Pressure. Using warnings, repeated demands, and threats.
 Coalitions. Enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the
target to agree.
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 Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and

consultation tend to be the most effective, especially when
the audience is highly interested in the outcomes of a
decision process.
 Pressure tends to backfire and is typically the least
effective of the nine tactics.
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Preferred Power Tactics by

Influence Direction
Downward
Upward Influence Lateral Influence
Influence
Rational persuasion Rational persuasion Rational persuasion
Inspirational appeals Consultation
Pressure Ingratiation
Consultation Exchange
Ingratiation Legitimacy
Exchange Personal appeals
Legitimacy Coalitions
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Politics: Power in Action

 Politics When employees in organization convert their power into
action, we describe them being engaged in politics.
 Organizational Politics Focused on the use of power to affect
decision making in an organization or on behavior by members that
are self-serving and organizationally non-sanctioned.
 Political Behavior Activities that are not required as part of a
person’s formal role in the organization but that influence, or
attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and
disadvantages within the organization.
Reasons for Organizational Politics
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or Negative Effects of
Organizational Politics
 Unclear goals: More unclear goals leads to politics in the
organization
 Autocratic decision: Autocratic style of leadership, the leader
dictates or the decision or orders, and the subordinates have no point
out.
 Flexible authority: Organization provides positions with
flexible authority that is used based on individual judgment.
 Power politics: Managers like power to use over people and
things because it satisfies them.
 Biased performance appraisal: In some case the employees’
performance cannot be based on achievement.
Managing Organizational Politics or 19

Strategies to Minimize Political

Behavior
 Jobs needs to be clearly defined: Political behavior is
caused in the organization in the absence of clarity of job. Clarity
of job helps to minimize the political behavior.
 Management should discourage the dysfunctional
behavior of people: When the top management is engaged in
dysfunctional behavior, the people at the lower levels also follow it. So
they should discourage it.
 Action should be taken to overcome the
dysfunctional behavior in the grow: The first function of
the dysfunction behavior, the management should take immediate
action to overcome that.
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 People should be rewarded objectively: Much of

dysfunctional form of political behavior can be checked and the
people are rewarded for their positive behavior and penalized for the
negative one.
 Open communication: Open communication help to minimize
the political behavior.
 Reduction in uncertainty: Reduction in uncertainty is helps to
reduce the political behavior in the organization
 Awareness: Making people aware of the causes
Factors influencing Political
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Behavior
Employee Responses to Organizational
Politics 22

When employees see politics as a

threat, they often respond with
defensive behaviors —
reactive and protective behaviors to
avoid action, blame, or change.
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Leadership Theories
I. Trait Theories
 Theories that consider personal qualities and characteristics that
differentiate leaders from non-leaders.
 A review in the late 1960s of 20 different studies
identified nearly 80 leadership traits, but only 5 were
common to 4 or more of the investigations.
 By the 1990s, after numerous studies and analyses, about
the best we could say was that most leaders ―are not like
other people,‖.
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 A breakthrough, of sorts, came when researchers began

organizing traits around the Big Five personality
framework. Most of the dozens of traits in various
leadership reviews fit under one of the Big Five, giving
strong support to traits as predictors of leadership.
 Ambition and energy are part of extraversion.
 A comprehensive review of the leadership literature,
when organized around the Big Five, has found
extraversion to be the most important trait of effective
leaders, but it is more strongly related to the way leaders
emerge than to their effectiveness.
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 Unlike agreeableness and emotional stability,

conscientiousness and openness to experience also
showed strong relationships to leadership, though not
quite as strong as extraversion.
 Another trait that may indicate effective leadership is
Emotional Intelligence (EI). Advocates of EI argue
that without it, a person can have outstanding training, a
highly analytical mind, a compelling vision, and an endless
supply of terrific ideas but still not make a great leader.
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 Why is EI so critical to effective leadership?

 A core component of EI is empathy. Empathetic leaders
can sense others‘ needs, listen to what followers say (and
don‘t say), and read the reactions of others.
 Based on the latest findings, we offer two conclusions.
 First, we can say that traits can predict leadership.
 Second, traits do a better job predicting the emergence of leaders
and the appearance of leadership than actually distinguishing
between effective and ineffective leaders.
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Seven Traits Associated with Leadership:

1. Drive.
2. Desire to lead.
3. Honesty and integrity.
4. Self-confidence.
5. Intelligence.
6. Job-relevant knowledge.
7. Extraversion.
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II. Behavioral Theories

 Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from
non-leaders.
 Trait research provides a basis for selecting the right people
for leadership.
 In contrast, behavioral theories of leadership implied
we could train people to be leaders.
1. The University of Iowa studies: 29
 Explored three leadership styles to find which was the
most effective.
 The Autocratic Style described a leader who dictated work
methods, made unilateral decisions, and limited employee
participation.
 The Democratic Style described a leader who involved
employees in decision making, delegated authority, and
used feedback as an opportunity for coaching employees.
 Finally, the Laissez–Faire Style leader let the group make
decisions and complete the work in whatever way it saw
fit.
 The researchers‘ results seemed to indicate that the
democratic style contributed to both good quantity and
quality of work.
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2. Ohio State Studies:

 The most comprehensive theories resulted from the Ohio
State Studies in the late 1940s, which sought to identify
independent dimensions of leader behavior.
 Beginning with more than a thousand dimensions, the
studies narrowed the list to two : initiating structure and
consideration.
 Initiating Structure The extent to which a leader is likely to
define and structure his or her role and those of subordinates in the
search for goal attainment.
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 Consideration The extent to which a leader is likely to have job

relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinates’
ideas, and regard for their feelings.
 A more recent review of 160 studies found the followers
of leaders high in consideration were more satisfied
with their jobs, were more motivated, and had more
respect for their leader.
 Initiating structure was more strongly related to higher
levels of group and organization productivity and more
positive performance evaluations.
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3. University of Michigan’s Study:

 Leadership studies at the University of Michigan‘s Survey
Research Center had similar objectives: to locate
behavioral characteristics of leaders that appeared related
to performance effectiveness.
 The Michigan group also came up with two behavioral
dimensions: the employee-oriented leader and
production oriented leader
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 Employee–oriented Leader A leader who emphasizes

interpersonal relations, takes a personal interest in the needs of
employees, and accepts individual differences among members.
 Production–oriented Leader A leader who emphasizes
technical or task aspects of the job.
 A leader high in initiating structure (relatively task-
oriented) will do best and can make decisions in a
relatively autocratic manner.
 A manager who scores high on consideration (people
oriented) may find that style backfiring
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4. The Managerial Grid Model

 This model (1964) is a leadership style model developed
by Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton.
 This model originally identified five different leadership
styles based on the concern for people and the concern for
production.
 The model is represented as a grid with concern for
production as the x-axis and concern for people as the y-axis;
each axis ranges from 1 (Low) to 9 (High). The resulting
leadership styles are as follows:
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 The impoverished style (1,1): Evade and Elude. In this

style, managers have low concern for both people and
production. Managers use this style to preserve job and
job seniority, protecting themselves by avoiding getting
into trouble. The main concern for the manager is not to
be held responsible for any mistakes, which results in less
innovation decisions.
 The country club style (1,9): Yield and Comply. This style
has a high concern for people and a low concern for
production. Managers using this style pay much attention
to the security and comfort of the employees, in hopes
that this will increase performance. The resulting
atmosphere is usually friendly, but not necessarily very
productive.
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 The Authority–Compliance style (9,1): Control and
Dominate. With a high concern for production, and a low
concern for people, managers using this style find
employee needs unimportant; they provide their
employees with money and expect performance in return.
Managers using this style also pressure their employees
through rules and punishments to achieve the company
goals.
 The middle-of-the-road style (5,5): Balance and
Compromise. Managers using this style try to balance
between company goals and workers' needs. By giving
some concern to both people and production, managers
who use this style hope to achieve suitable performance
but doing so gives away a bit of each concern so that
neither production nor people needs are met.
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 The team style (9,9): Contribute and Commit. In this style,

high concern is paid both to people and production. As
suggested by the propositions of Theory Y, managers
choosing to use this style encourage teamwork and
commitment among employees. This method relies
heavily on making employees feel themselves to be
constructive parts of the company.
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III. Contingency / Situational Leadership Theories:

1. The Fiedler Model
 The theory that effective groups depend on a proper match between a
leader’s style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which
the situation gives control and influence to the leader.
 Identifying Leadership Style
 Fiedler believes a key factor in leadership success is the
individual’s basic leadership style.
 He created the least preferred co-worker (LPC)
questionnaire to identify that style by measuring
whether a person is task or relationship oriented.
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 The LPC questionnaire asks respondents to think of all

the co-workers they have ever had and describe the one
they least enjoyed working with by rating that person on a
scale of 1 to 8 for each of 16 sets of contrasting
adjectives (such as pleasant–unpleasant).
 If you describe the person you are least able to work with
in favorable terms (a high LPC score), Fiedler would label
you relationship oriented .
 If you see your least-preferred co-worker in unfavorable
terms (a low LPC score), you are primarily interested in
productivity and are task oriented.
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 Defining the Situation

 Fiedler has identified three contingency or situational
dimensions:
 1. Leader–member relations
 2. Task structure
 3. Position power
 Combining the three contingency dimensions yields eight
possible situations in which leaders can find themselves.
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 Matching Leaders and Situations

 Fiedler concluded that task-oriented leaders perform better in
situations very favorable to them and very unfavorable.
 So, when faced with a category I, II, III, VII, or VIII
situation, task-oriented leaders perform better.
 Relationship oriented leaders, however, perform better in
moderately favorable situations—categories IV, V, and VI.
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 Fiedler has condensed these eight situations down to

three.
 He now says task-oriented leaders perform best in situations of
high and low control, while relationship-oriented leaders perform
best in moderate control situations.
 There are only two ways to improve leader effectiveness.
 First, you can change the leader to fit the situation
 The second alternative is to change the situation to
fit the leader
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2. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership

Theory – Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard
 Also called as Situational Leadership Theory
 It says successful leadership depends on selecting the
right leadership style contingent on the followers‘ readiness,
or the extent to which they are willing and able to
accomplish a specific task.
 A leader should choose one of four behaviors depending on
follower readiness.
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 SLT uses the same two leadership dimensions that Fiedler

identified: task and relationship behaviors.
 Telling (high task–low relationship): The leader defines
roles and tells people what, how, when, and where to
do various tasks.
 Selling (high task–high relationship): The leader
provides both directive and supportive behavior.
 Participating (low task–high relationship): The leader
and followers share in decision making; the main role
of the leader is facilitating and communicating.
 Delegating (low task–low relationship): The leader
provides little direction or support.
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 The final component in the model is the four stages of
follower readiness:
 R1: People are both unable and unwilling to take
responsibility for doing something. Followers aren‘t
competent or confident.
 R2: People are unable but willing to do the necessary
job tasks. Followers are motivated but lack the
appropriate skills.
 R3: People are able but unwilling to do what the leader
wants. Followers are competent, but don‘t want to do
something.
 R4: People are both able and willing to do what is
asked of them.
 The SLT says; 48
 Situation 1: If followers are at R1 (unable and
unwilling), the leader needs to use the telling style and
give clear and specific directions;
 Situation 2: If followers are at R2 (unable and willing),
the leader needs to use the selling style and display high
task orientation to compensate for the followers‘ lack
of ability and high relationship orientation to get
followers to ―buy into‖ the leader‘s desires;
 Situation 3: If followers are at R3 (able and unwilling),
the leader needs to use the participating style to gain
their support; and
 Situation 4: If employees are at R4 (both able and
willing), the leader doesn‘t need to do much and
should use the delegating style.
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3. Path-Goal Theory – Robert J. House

 A leadership theory that says the leader‘s job is to assist
followers in attaining their goals and to provide direction
or support needed to ensure that their goals are
compatible with the goals of the group or organization.
 The term path-goal is derived from the belief that effective
leaders remove the roadblocks and pitfalls so that
followers have a clearer path to help them get from where
they are to the achievement of their work goals.
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 House identified four leadership behaviors:

 Directive leader: Lets subordinates know what’s expected
of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific guidance
on how to accomplish tasks.
 Supportive leader: Shows concern for the needs of
followers and is friendly.
 Participative leader: Consults with group members and
uses their suggestions before making a decision.
 Achievement oriented leader: Sets challenging goals
and expects followers to perform at their highest level.
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 Path-Goal theory proposes two situational or contingency

variables that moderate the leadership behavior–outcome
relationship:
 those in the environment that are outside the control
of the follower (task structure, formal authority system, and
the work group) and
 those that are part of the personal characteristics
of follower (locus of control, experience, and perceived
ability).
 Environmental factors determine the type of leader behavior
required if subordinate outcomes are to be maximized;
 Personal Characteristics of the follower determine how the
environment and leader behavior are interpreted.
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4. Leader–Participation Model – Victor H. Vroom and

Phillip W. Yetton
 Leadership theory that provides a set of rules to determine the form
and amount of participative decision making in different situations.
 Argues that the way the leader makes decisions is as
important as what she or he decides.
 The model is normative—it provides a decision tree of
seven contingencies and five leadership styles for
determining the form and amount of participation in
decision making.
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 Autocratic (A1): You use the information that you already have
to make the decision, without requiring any further input from your
team.
 Autocratic (A2): You consult your team to obtain specific
information that you need, and then you make the final decision.
 Consultative (C1): You inform your team of the situation and
ask for members' opinions individually, but you don't bring the
group together for a discussion. You make the final decision.
 Consultative (C2): You get your team together for a group
discussion about the issue and to seek their suggestions, but you still
make the final decision by yourself.
 Collaborative (G2): You work with your team to reach a group
consensus. Your role is mostly facilitative, and you help team
members to reach a decision that they all agree on.
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IV. Contemporary Leadership Theories:

1. Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory:
 A theory that supports leaders’ creation of in-groups and out-
groups; subordinates with in-group status will have higher
performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction.
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2. Transformational–Transactional Leadership:
 Transactional Leaders: Leaders who lead primarily by using
social exchanges (or transactions).
 Transformational Leaders: Leaders who stimulate and
inspire (transform) followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes.
 Transactional and transformational leadership shouldn‘t
be viewed as opposing approaches to getting things done.
 Transformational leadership develops from transactional
leadership.
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 Transformational leadership produces levels of employee

effort and performance that go beyond what would occur
with a transactional approach alone.
 Moreover, transformational leadership is more than
charisma, because the transformational leader attempts to
instill in followers the ability to question not only
established views but those views held by the leader.
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 Transactional Leader Characteristics:

 Laissez-Faire: Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making
decisions.
 Management by Exception (passive): Intervenes only
if standards are not met.
 Management by Exception (active): Watches and
searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes correct
action.
 Contingent Reward: Contracts exchange of rewards for
effort, promises rewards for good performance, recognizes
accomplishments.
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 Transformational Leader Characteristics:

 Individualized Consideration: Gives personal
attention, treats each employee individually, coaches, advises.
 Intellectual Stimulation: Promotes intelligence,
rationality, and careful problem solving.
 Inspirational Motivation: Communicates high
expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important
purposes in simple ways.
 Idealized Influence: Provides vision and sense of
mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust.
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3. Charismatic–Visionary Leadership:
 Charismatic Leader: An enthusiastic, self-confident leader
whose personality and actions influence people to behave in certain
ways.
 Visionary Leadership: The ability to create and articulate a
realistic, credible, and attractive vision of the future that improves
upon the present situation.
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 The most comprehensive analysis identified five personal

characteristics of the charismatic leader:
 They have a vision,
 The ability to articulate that vision,
 A willingness to take risks to achieve that vision,
 A sensitivity to both environmental constraints and follower
needs, and
 Behaviors that are out of the ordinary.
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 Although the term vision is often linked with charismatic

leadership, visionary leadership is different;
 This vision, if properly selected and implemented, is so
energizing that it ―in effect jump-starts the future by
calling forth the skills, talents, and resources to make it
happen.‖
Leadership Styles
1. The University of Iowa studies: 67
 Explored three leadership styles to find which was the
most effective.
 The Autocratic Style described a leader who dictated
work methods, made unilateral decisions, and limited
employee participation.
 The Democratic Style described a leader who involved
employees in decision making, delegated authority, and
used feedback as an opportunity for coaching employees.
 Finally, the Laissez–Faire Style leader let the group make
decisions and complete the work in whatever way it saw
fit.
 The researchers‘ results seemed to indicate that the
democratic style contributed to both good quantity and
quality of work.
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2. Leadership Continuum Model

 Robert Tannenbaum and Warren H.Schmidt
 They have developed a leadership continuum on which various styles
of leadership have been shown ranging from highly boss centered to
highly subordinate centered.
a. Leader:
 The forces that operate while leading subordinates
are the managers personality, skill, ability and attitude
towards the work, employees and the organization he is
serving.
 Confidence in subordinates and his personal inclination
towards leadership style which play a dominating role in
selecting a particular style of leadership.
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b. Subordinate:
 According to Tannenbaum and Schmitt, a manager can allow
greater participation and freedom when employees crave
independence and freedom of action, want to have decision–making
responsibility, identify with the organization’s goals and are experienced
enough to deal with a problem efficiently.
 When these conditions are non existent, the managers initially can
have tight control and use authoritarian type of leadership.
c. Situation:
 They include organizational value system, tradition, delegation of
authority, group cohesiveness, organizational effectiveness and time
management.
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3. Likert’s Four Systems of Management

 Prof Rensis Likert
 He has developed a model called Likerts Four System
relating to leadership styles.
 System-1 Exploitive–Authoritative
 System-2 Benevolent–Authoritative
 System-3 Consultative
 System-4 Participative–Group
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System-1 Exploitive–Authoritative
 Managers practicing this system of management are highly
autocratic, have no trust in subordinates and put a finger
everywhere. They believe in motivating people through fear
and punishment and occasionally reward them. They engage
in down ward communication and limit decision-making at top
level of management only.
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System-2 Benevolent–Authoritative
 Managers practicing this displays full trust and confidence in
their subordinates. They motivate the employees by giving
occasional rewards but maintain fear amongst subordinates
and awards punishments wherever it is required. They believe
in minimum upward communication and invites some ideas
relating to issue in hand. Managers permit certain decision-
making and delegates authority to a limited measure. They
exercise close control in leading their subordinates.
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System-3 Consultative
 Managers practicing this have substantial but not full confidence
and trust in their subordinates. Usually they make use of ideas
and opinion of subordinates. They believe in upward and
downward communication when dealing with subordinates. To
motivate, the managers issue rewards but occasional punishment is
also awarded. They lay down broad policy and keeps decision
making on important policy matters to top level. However, specific
decision-making is left to subordinates which may relate to day to
day functions within the policy parameter laid down.
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System-4 Participative–Group
 In this system managers have complete confidence and full trust in
subordinates on all matters of organization. They always get ideas
from subordinates and use them constructively. They give economic
rewards for participation and involvement in goal setting. Manager
practicing this encourages decision making by subordinates and merge
themselves in the group and carryout task without any
differentiation. They believe and encourage communication with
subordinates, superiors and with the peer group.
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 Likert‘s findings suggest that a democratic orientation towards

leadership with support and encouragement offered by
the leader tend to improve the chances for long term high
productivity.
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4. The Managerial Grid Model

 This model (1964) is a leadership style model developed
by Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton.
 This model originally identified five different leadership
styles based on the concern for people and the concern for
production.
 The model is represented as a grid with concern for
production as the x-axis and concern for people as the y-axis;
each axis ranges from 1 (Low) to 9 (High). The resulting
leadership styles are as follows:
82
 83

 The impoverished style (1,1): Evade and Elude. In this

style, managers have low concern for both people and
production. Managers use this style to preserve job and
job seniority, protecting themselves by avoiding getting
into trouble. The main concern for the manager is not to
be held responsible for any mistakes, which results in less
innovation decisions.
 The country club style (1,9): Yield and Comply. This style
has a high concern for people and a low concern for
production. Managers using this style pay much attention
to the security and comfort of the employees, in hopes
that this will increase performance. The resulting
atmosphere is usually friendly, but not necessarily very
productive.
 The Authority–Compliance style (9,1): Control and 84
Dominate. With a high concern for production, and a low
concern for people, managers using this style find
employee needs unimportant; they provide their
employees with money and expect performance in return.
Managers using this style also pressure their employees
through rules and punishments to achieve the company
goals.
 The middle-of-the-road style (5,5): Balance and
Compromise. Managers using this style try to balance
between company goals and workers' needs. By giving
some concern to both people and production, managers
who use this style hope to achieve suitable performance
but doing so gives away a bit of each concern so that
neither production nor people needs are met.
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 The team style (9,9): Contribute and Commit. In this style,

high concern is paid both to people and production. As
suggested by the propositions of Theory Y, managers
choosing to use this style encourage teamwork and
commitment among employees. This method relies
heavily on making employees feel themselves to be
constructive parts of the company.
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5. 3-D Leadership Model / Tri–Dimensional Grid

 Professor W. J. Reddin
 He developed the first relatively simple method of
measuring what he called “situational demands” – i.e.
the things that dictate how a manager must operate to be most
effective.
 Based on the two basic dimensions of leadership.
 Task-orientation and
 Relationships-orientation.
 However he introduced what he called a third dimension –
Effectiveness. Effectiveness was what resulted when one used the
right style of leadership for the particular situation.
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 Reddin‘s four basic management styles result from the

different levels of concern for the people and the task.
 From these four basic styles, Reddin added a third
dimension as a means of measuring managerial
effectiveness.
 Where the four styles are being used in the most
inappropriate way, this is the lowest level of effectiveness
and those occupying these quadrants are labeled as:
Missionary, Compromiser, Deserter, and Autocrat.
 Where the four styles are being used in the most
appropriate way and thus at the highest levels of
effectiveness, Reddin labeled the roles as: Developer,
Executive, Bureaucrat, and Benevolent Autocrat.
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 Managerial Grid
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6. The Fiedler Model

 The theory that effective groups depend on a proper match between a
leader’s style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which
the situation gives control and influence to the leader.
 Identifying Leadership Style
 Fiedler believes a key factor in leadership success is the
individual‘s basic leadership style.
 He created the least preferred co-worker (LPC)
questionnaire to identify that style by measuring
whether a person is task or relationship oriented.
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 The LPC questionnaire asks respondents to think of all

the co-workers they have ever had and describe the one
they least enjoyed working with by rating that person on a
scale of 1 to 8 for each of 16 sets of contrasting
adjectives (such as pleasant–unpleasant).
 If you describe the person you are least able to work with
in favorable terms (a high LPC score), Fiedler would label
you relationship oriented .
 If you see your least-preferred co-worker in unfavorable
terms (a low LPC score), you are primarily interested in
productivity and are task oriented.
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 Defining the Situation

 Fiedler has identified three contingency or situational
dimensions:
 1. Leader–member relations
 2. Task structure
 3. Position power
 Combining the three contingency dimensions yields eight
possible situations in which leaders can find themselves.
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 Matching Leaders and Situations

 Fiedler concluded that task-oriented leaders perform better in
situations very favorable to them and very unfavorable.
 So, when faced with a category I, II, III, VII, or VIII
situation, task-oriented leaders perform better.
 Relationship oriented leaders, however, perform better in
moderately favorable situations—categories IV, V, and VI.
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 Fiedler has condensed these eight situations down to

three.
 He now says task-oriented leaders perform best in situations of
high and low control, while relationship-oriented leaders perform
best in moderate control situations.
 There are only two ways to improve leader effectiveness.
 First, you can change the leader to fit the situation
 The second alternative is to change the situation to
fit the leader
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7. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership

Theory – Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard
 Also called as Situational Leadership Theory
 It says successful leadership depends on selecting the
right leadership style contingent on the followers‘ readiness,
or the extent to which they are willing and able to
accomplish a specific task.
 A leader should choose one of four behaviors depending
on follower readiness.
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 SLT uses the same two leadership dimensions that Fiedler

identified: task and relationship behaviors.
 Telling (high task–low relationship): The leader defines
roles and tells people what, how, when, and where to
do various tasks.
 Selling (high task–high relationship): The leader
provides both directive and supportive behavior.
 Participating (low task–high relationship): The leader
and followers share in decision making; the main role
of the leader is facilitating and communicating.
 Delegating (low task–low relationship): The leader
provides little direction or support.
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 The final component in the model is the four stages of
follower readiness:
 R1: People are both unable and unwilling to take
responsibility for doing something. Followers aren‘t
competent or confident.
 R2: People are unable but willing to do the necessary
job tasks. Followers are motivated but lack the
appropriate skills.
 R3: People are able but unwilling to do what the leader
wants. Followers are competent, but don‘t want to do
something.
 R4: People are both able and willing to do what is
asked of them.
 The SLT says; 98
 Situation 1: If followers are at R1 (unable and
unwilling), the leader needs to use the telling style and
give clear and specific directions;
 Situation 2: If followers are at R2 (unable and willing),
the leader needs to use the selling style and display high
task orientation to compensate for the followers‘ lack
of ability and high relationship orientation to get
followers to ―buy into‖ the leader‘s desires;
 Situation 3: If followers are at R3 (able and unwilling),
the leader needs to use the participating style to gain
their support; and
 Situation 4: If employees are at R4 (both able and
willing), the leader doesn‘t need to do much and
should use the delegating style.
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8. Path-Goal Theory – Robert J. House

 A leadership theory that says the leader‘s job is to assist
followers in attaining their goals and to provide direction
or support needed to ensure that their goals are
compatible with the goals of the group or organization.
 The term path-goal is derived from the belief that effective
leaders remove the roadblocks and pitfalls so that
followers have a clearer path to help them get from where
they are to the achievement of their work goals.
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 House identified four leadership behaviors:

 Directive leader: Lets subordinates know what’s expected
of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific guidance
on how to accomplish tasks.
 Supportive leader: Shows concern for the needs of
followers and is friendly.
 Participative leader: Consults with group members and
uses their suggestions before making a decision.
 Achievement oriented leader: Sets challenging goals
and expects followers to perform at their highest level.
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 Path-Goal theory proposes two situational or contingency

variables that moderate the leadership behavior–outcome
relationship:
 those in the environment that are outside the control
of the follower (task structure, formal authority system, and
the work group) and
 those that are part of the personal characteristics
of follower (locus of control, experience, and perceived
ability).
 Environmental factors determine the type of leader behavior
required if subordinate outcomes are to be maximized;
 Personal Characteristics of the follower determine how the
environment and leader behavior are interpreted.
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