Original Article J. Phys. Ther. Sci.

18: 149–154, 2006

Relationship between Balance Performance
and Leg Muscle Strength in Elite and
Non-Elite Junior Speed Skaters

KATSUSHI AKAHANE, MSc, RPT1), TEIJI KIMURA, PhD, RPT1), GOH AH CHENG, PhD, RPT1),
TAKAYUKI FUJIWARA, PhD, RPT, MD2), IWAO YAMAMOTO, DE3), AKIRA HACHIMORI, DE3)

1)Department of Physical Therapy, School of Health Sciences, Shinshu University :3-1-1 Asahi,
Matsumoto, Nagano 390-8621, Japan. TEL +81 263-37-2413 FAX +81 263-37-2413
E-mail: kakaha@shinshu-u.ac.jp
2)Koriyama Institute of Health Sciences
3)Department of Functional Polymer Science, Faculty of Textile Science and Technology,

Shinshu University

Abstract. The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship between balance performance
during one-leg and two-leg standing and leg muscular strength in junior speed skaters, and to formulate one
indicator for on-land training. There were a total of 48 subjects comprising 22 junior elite and 26 junior
non-elite speed skaters. The method involved analyzing the unit trajectory length (LNG/TIME), the peak
value for center of gravity fluctuations (RMS) and the area where fluctuations in the center of gravity are
concentrated (SD-A) in keeping one-leg and two-leg standing; and measuring the maximum isometric
muscular strength for knee extension with a leg muscular strength measurement device, and thereby
calculating a weight-bearing index (WBI). As far as the characteristics for the center of gravity were
concerned, significantly lower values in the elite group compared with the non-elite group were exhibited
for the peak center of gravity fluctuations (RMS) and the area in which fluctuations in the center of gravity
were concentrated (SD-A). However, no significant differences were observed in the unit trajectory length
(LNG/TIME). In addition, no significant differences between the groups were observed when the right leg
was kept standing. The elite group exhibited significantly higher values in the weight-bearing index (WBI)
compared with the non-elite group for both legs. With regards to the differences between the left and right
leg WBI, the elite group exhibited significantly higher values for the left leg than the right leg, but no
significant difference was observed between left and right in the non-elite group. Based on this, it is
suggested that there is a need to carry out qualitative training for improving the ability to keep the left leg
standing in a posture simulating skating, and to carry out quantitative training for increasing the muscle
strength of knee extensors, in order to improve the competitiveness of junior speed skaters.
Key words: Speed skating, One-leg standing, Stabilometry

(This article was submitted Apr. 13, 2006, and was accepted Jun. 8, 2006)

INTRODUCTION characteristic of distance events in speed skating

competitions.
The harmonization of the element of physical It has been reported, as an index of the element of
strength and the element of technique according has physical strength, that a significant correlation has
been strongly emphasized as a competitive been found between the maximum anaerobic ability
150 J. Phys. Ther. Sci. Vol. 18, No. 2, 2006
and muscular strength for knee extension and
competitive results in short distance events1–3). It
has also been reported that there is a significant
correlation between the maximum oxygen intake,
which is the index of the maximum aerobic ability,
and competitive results in long distance events4). In
addition, when it comes to specific physical
strength training methods, the fact that high altitude
training and low oxygen training5–7) are effective at
not only improving aerobic ability but also
anaerobic ability, has attracted attention. Moreover,
there are also reports that in specific on-ice training
methods 8) for distance, the element of physical
strength which affects competitive results differs
depending on the skating distance.
As far as the element of technique is concerned,
the Japan Skating Federation’s Uniform Coaching
System Project Group has advocated the importance
of improving the orientation of the slant of the
blades and acceleration in curve skating in both
short distance and long distance events, and also
weight transfer between the left and right legs in
straight skating and initial instantaneous force at the
initial skating speed based on the number of pitches
at the start of short distance events9).
Previous studies on such technical characteristics
has suggested, in the case of previous work on short
distance events, that the posture of the upper body,
the skating motion of the legs and technique in using
the blades are the crucial elements at the start, during
straight skating and during curve skating10–12). In
addition, based on the results of 3-dimensional
motion analysis on the starting motion of world-
class athletes, it has been reported that the key
features are: the starting position of such athletes is
linear and the open angle is small, and that the
lateral displacement of the center of gravity
trajectory is small13–15).
As shown above, studies about the physical
strength element and technical element whose
purpose is to improve competitiveness in speed
skaters have been reported from various aspects.
However, at present it is not possible to find any
previous work on the ability to control the balance
of the body under unstable conditions in which the
body is balanced on blades that are merely 1 mm
[thick] and are attached to the bottom of skating
boots. It is possible that this factor also constitutes
a major element in terms of skating technique.
However, the ability to control dynamic posture
under the unstable conditions of skating boots with
thin blades attached on ice, which has a low friction
coefficient, is thought to be a major technical
characteristic that affects physical balance during
starting motion, straight skating and curve skating.
Improving a skater’s ability to control dynamic
posture may be a particularly important element for
junior skaters, who are going through a period of
growth when various physical functions are
improving.
Accordingly, it is necessary to examine indices of
on-land training the goal of which is to improve the
competitiveness of junior speed skaters in terms of
technique. The purpose of this study was to
investigate the relationship between the
characteristics of balance during one-leg and two-
leg standing and leg muscular strength in elite and
non-elite junior speed skaters.
METHODS
Subjects
The subjects in the elite group were the 22 (10
males, 12 females) speed skaters from the special
elite junior athletes (n = 12) and elite junior athletes
(n = 10) publicly announced by the Japan Skating
Federation (2004–2005) 16) , and 26 athletes (15
males, 11 females) from 4 high schools in Nagano
and Hokkaido prefectures. The ages of the athletes
in the elite group were 16 to 18 years old (17.0 ± 0.6
years), and the ages of the athletes in the non-elite
group were 15 to 18 years old (16.4 ± 0.7 years).
Their average years of experience were 10.7 years
in the elite group and 10.0 years in the non-elite
group. A detailed breakdown and subject
characteristics are given in Table 1.
When the study was undertaken, the details of the
study was explained to all subjects, and their
consent to participate in the study was obtained.
Subjects were allowed to withdraw from the study
at any time, without any penalty.
Procedure
Among all skating motions, this study’s purpose
was to analyze the ability to control a posture like
the skating posture during straight skating, and
analysis of the balance performance during one-leg
(such as maintaining a posture when the skater is
made aware that this is during skating, and the
skater is propelling himself or herself with only
one-leg) and two-leg standing (commonly used as a
balance test) was done by measuring as indices the

Table 1. Subject Characteristics (mean ± SD)
Elite group
Males
Number 10
Age (year) 17.3 ± 0.7
No. of years experience (year) 10.7 ± 2.7
Height (cm) 169.7 ± 3.3
Weight (kg) 63.2 ± 5.1
fluctuations in the center of gravity on a
stabilometer. In addition, the maximum isometric
muscular strength for knee extension for both legs
were measured as the leg muscular strength, and the
relationship between the characteristics of the
fluctuations in the center of gravity and the
maximum isometric muscular strength for knee
extension was analyzed.
1) Fluctuations in the center of gravity
Measurements were made twice with a
stabilometer (SG-1, Anima KK, Tokyo, JAPAN)
for both the left and right legs for balance
performance during one-leg and two-leg standing.
The fluctuations in the center of gravity over 10
seconds in a two-leg standing posture (ST), a one-
leg standing posture with the knees extended (OLS)
and a one-leg standing in skating posture with the
knees bent (basic posture of straight skating)
(OLSS). For the OLSS, a posture that the athletes
felt was closest to their own skating posture was
adopted. The observation points were set at 2
meters ahead and a height of 1.5 meters from the
floor for both ST and OLS, and at 2 meters ahead
and a height of 0.5 meters from the floor for OLSS.
The analysis items were the unit trajectory length
(LNG/TIME), the effective value for center of
gravity fluctuations (RMS) and the area where
fluctuations in the center of gravity are concentrated
(SD-A).
2) Leg muscular strength
For the measurement of the leg muscular
strength, the maximum isometric muscular strength
for knee extension in a seated position, which was
set at a 90 degree flexion angle at the hip and knee
joints was measured twice for both the left and right
legs, with an isometric muscular strength
measurement device (GT-30, OG Giken, Tokyo,
JAPAN). The analysis item was the weight-bearing
index (WBI), which was calculated by dividing the
mean value of the leg muscle strength (in kg) by the
151
Non-elite group
Females Males Females
12 15 11
16.7 ± 0.6 16.6 ± 0.8 16.5 ± 0.5
10.6 ± 2.6 9.6 ± 2.1 10.5 ± 1.8
160.1 ± 4.8 170.4 ± 4.6 158.4 ± 6.4
57.4 ± 3.6 64.0 ± 5.4 55.4 ± 3.5
body weight (in kg).
Data Analysis
A comparative examination was done by
analyzing the various parameters for the
fluctuations in the center of gravity and the
differences of the mean values in muscular strength
between the elite and non-elite speed skaters for
knee extension by the Mann-Whitney U-test. In
addition, the correlations between the various
parameters for the fluctuations in the center of
gravity and the maximum isometric muscular
strength for knee extension were analyzed with
Spearman’s correlation coefficient for the elite and
non-elite speed skaters. For the statistical analysis,
the level of significance of the test was set at 5%.
Analyse were performed by SPSS (version 11.0J for
Windows, SPSS, Inc.).
RESULTS
Differences between groups: Fluctuations in the
center of gravity
With respect to fluctuations in the center of
gravity, the values for RMS and SD-A in the left leg
OLSS exhibited significantly lower values in the
elite group than in the non-elite group (p<0.05)
(Tables 2 and 3), but no significant differences was
observed in LNG/TIME (Table 4). Moreover, no
significant differences were observed between the
two groups in ST, OLS and OLSS.
Differences between groups: Leg muscular strength
With respect to the two groups, the elite group
exhibited significantly higher WBI values than the
non-elite group for both legs (right leg: p<0.05; left
leg: p<0.01). With respect to the difference
between the left and right legs, the left leg exhibited
significantly higher WBI values than the right leg in
the elite group (p<0.05), whereas no significant
152 J. Phys. Ther. Sci. Vol. 18, No. 2, 2006

Table 2. Center of Gravity Fluctuations: Peak value (RMS; mm)

ST rt OLS lt OLS rt OLSS lt OLSS
Elite 5.6 ± 1.5 8.6 ± 2.5 8.9 ± 1.9 8.3 ± 1.9 7.2 ± 1.3
*
Non-elite 6.1 ± 1.6 8.2 ± 1.7 9.6 ± 3.1 8.3 ± 1.6 8.2 ± 1.4
*p <0.05

Table 3. Center of Gravity Fluctuations: Area of Concentration (SD-A; mm2)

ST rt OLS lt OLS rt OLSS lt OLSS
Elite 63.9 ± 40.0 143.4 ± 87.1 146.3 ± 53.8 138.2 ± 63.2 103.6 ± 37.9
*
Non-elite 67.1 ± 43.9 132.8 ± 52.6 170.3 ± 80.4 135.5 ± 48.9 134.4 ± 44.9
*p <0.05

Table 4. Center of Gravity Fluctuations: Trajectory Length (LNG/TIME; mm)

ST rt OLS lt OLS rt OLSS lt OLSS
Elite 14.7 ± 3.8 36.8 ± 9.8 38.1 ± 13.2 42.6 ± 9.5 41.5 ± 9.1
Non-elite 15.9 ± 4.2 37.3 ± 8.1 39.8 ± 10.2 43.9 ± 7.1 44.7 ± 9.0

difference was observed between the left and right
legs in the non-elite group (Table 5).
Correlation between characteristics of fluctuations
in the center of gravity and WBI
In all postures, ST, OLS and OLSS, for the left
and right legs, no significant correlations were
found in either the elite or non-elite groups between
RMS, SD-A, LNG/TIM and WBI.
DISCUSSION
In this study we analyzed the relationships
between the characteristics of fluctuations in the
center of gravity in one-leg standing, which
simulated a straight skating posture, and the
maximum isometric muscular strength for knee
extension, by employing as subjects the athletes in
an elite group and a non-elite group based on the
2004–2005 publicly announced list of junior speed
skaters by the Japan Skating Federation. The results
demonstrate that the effective value for center of
gravity fluctuations and the area where fluctuations
in the center of gravity are concentrated left leg,
one-leg standing with the knees bent, which is a
simulated skating position, were significantly
smaller for the elite group than for the non-elite
group. In addition, the isometric muscular strength
Table 5. Leg Muscle Strength; Weight-Bearing Index (WBI)
Rt leg Lt leg
*
Elite 0.73 ± 0.1 0.83 ± 0.1
* **
Non elite 0.62 ± 0.2 0.67 ± 0.2
*p <0.05, **p <0.01
for knee extension was significantly higher in the
elite speed skaters than in the non-elite group.
However, no correlation was observed between the
characteristics of fluctuations in the center of
gravity and the weight-bearing index. It is possible
that not only the leg muscular strength (weight-
bearing index) is important, but also that the ability
to control physical posture balance that is adapted to
competitive characteristics is crucial when it comes
to competitive results.
In one 400 meter circuit around a speed skating
rink, straight skating accounts for approximately
56% and curve skating for approximately 44% of
skating in a double track, and the skaters usually
repeat their skating only in a counterclockwise
direction. In straight skating, skaters skate with a
diagonal spiral motion, and the center of gravity
changes by passing from one skate supporting leg to
the other. In curve skating, however, the skater

inclines his or her body to the left in a state opposed
to centrifugal force, and ends up skating in a state in
which the body’s center of gravity is placed more on
the inside of the curve than the skate supporting leg.
Therefore, given the fact that skaters are skating by
repeated cross motion of the legs in a state in which
the bodyÅfs center of gravity is placed on the left
side, we believe that the weight-bearing properties
of the left leg are a much more important element
that those of the right leg. The present results
suggest that there is a possibility that the weight-
bearing properties of the left leg during curve
skating are greatly reflected in competitive strength
since the weight-bearing index in the elite group
exhibited significantly higher values in the left leg.
In previous work on one-leg squatting, there have
been reports that the muscular action of the gluteus
maximus muscle and the quadriceps muscle is high
during squatting17). It has also been reported that
the muscular activity is particularly high in the
quadriceps muscle without any effect on the flexion
and extension speed 18) , and that the muscular
activity becomes larger as the flexion angle at the
knee joint becomes larger 19, 20) . In skating, a
forward leaning posture is adopted in order to
reduce air resistance, and knee extension strength
may be a necessary and indispensable muscular
strength characteristic for maintaining the skating
posture. This suggests that carrying out training to
reinforce the maximum isometric muscular strength
for knee extension and increase the weight-bearing
index would be effective for improving competitive
results.
From the characteristics of the fluctuations in the
center of gravity, the fact that no significant
correlation was observed between RMS, SD-A and
LNG/TIME, and WBI, and that RMS and SD-A
exhibited significantly lower values only in the left
leg OLSS in the elite group, left leg OLSS may be a
major factor in curve skating wherein the body’s
center of gravity is usually moved to the left side
and supported. Hence, there may be a need to
improve the ability to control static physical posture
in the left leg.
In prior studies of the specific training methods
for improving the characteristics of fluctuations in
the center of gravity21), it has been reported that
when balance training was carried out 25 minutes
per day for 6 weeks prior to muscular strength
training, the stability of maintaining one-leg
standing was improved, and given this we believe
153
that the effects can be anticipated by carrying out
balance training prior to strength training in the
characteristics for each distance. This suggests that
a useful method for on-land training to improve the
competitiveness of junior speed skaters would be to
introduce static balance training to increase the
ability to maintain static one-leg standing of the left
leg in a posture that simulates skating. It is possible
that this training would be more effective when it is
combined with muscle strength training. As far as
the strengthening of muscular strength is concerned,
the importance of muscular strength has been
reported in previous research about the relationship
between leg muscular strength and competitive
results1, 2), and this is a necessary and indispensable
factor in raising competitive skills. However,
Murata 22) has reported that the relationship of
feeling in the soles of the feet and the grasping force
of the feet has a greater effect on the fluctuations in
the center of gravity for maintaining standing on
one foot than the chief muscles of the legs such as
the quadriceps muscle, and this suggests that there
is also a need to continue to improve the feeling in
the soles of the feet and the grasping force of the
feet as well in order to improve competitiveness.
However, one has to consider not only the skater’s
abilities in terms of physical strength and skating
technique, but also other factors such as the
equipment23) like skating boots and blades have a
great effect on actual competitive results in speed
skating. Since it may be possible that sensory-
motor coordination as represented by the ability to
control posture during actual skating motion, or the
ankle strategy during balance24), also affects the
ability to maintain a one-leg standing posture on the
left foot, their relationship must also be examined.
By analyzing these relationships, we believe that we
have made it possible to better understand the
importance of not only dynamic training but also
static training as methods of training to improve
competitiveness.
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