AA - Ethnobotany of The Andes - COMPLETE

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions
Series Editors
Rainer W. Bussmann
Department of Ethnobotany
Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden
Ilia State University
Tbilisi, Georgia
Saving Knowledge
La Paz, Bolivia
Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana
Department of Ethnobotany
Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden
Ilia State University
Tbilisi, Georgia
Saving Knowledge
La Paz, Bolivia
Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia
Universidad Mayor de San Andrés
La Paz, Bolivia
Ethnobotanical research in recent years has increasingly shifted into applied aspects
of the discipline, including climate change research, conservation, and sustainable
development. It has by now widely been recognized that “traditional” knowledge is
always in flux and adapting to a quickly changing environment. Trends of global-
ization, especially the globalization of plant markets, have greatly influenced how
plant resources are managed nowadays. While ethnobotanical studies are now
available from many regions of the world, no comprehensive encyclopedic series
focusing on the worlds mountain regions is available in the market. Scholars in plant
sciences worldwide will be interested in this website and its dynamic content.
The field (and thus the market) of ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology has grown
considerably in recent years. Student interest is on the rise, attendance at professional
conferences has grown steadily, and the number of professionals calling themselves
ethnobotanists has increased significantly (the various societies—Society for Eco-
nomic Botany, International Society of Ethnopharmacology, Society of Ethnobiol-
ogy, International Society for Ethnobiology, and many regional and national societies
in the field currently have thousands of members). Growth has been most robust in
BRIC countries.
The objective of this new series on Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions is to take
advantage of the increasing international interest and scholarship in the field of
mountain research. We anticipate including the best and latest research on a full
range of descriptive, methodological, theoretical, and applied research on the most
important plants for each region. Each contribution will be scientifically rigorous and
contribute to the overall field of study.
More information about this series at: https://www.springer.com/series/15885

Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana
Rainer W. Bussmann
Editors
Ethnobotany of the Andes
With 1411 Figures

Editors
Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Rainer W. Bussmann
Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of
Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical
Garden Garden
Ilia State University Ilia State University
Tbilisi, Georgia Tbilisi, Georgia
Saving Knowledge Saving Knowledge
La Paz, Bolivia La Paz, Bolivia
Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia
Universidad Mayor de San Andrés
La Paz, Bolivia
ISSN 2523-7489 ISSN 2523-7497 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-030-28932-4 ISBN 978-3-030-28933-1 (eBook)
ISBN 978-3-030-28934-8 (print and electronic bundle)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1
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Preface
The Andes are the most diverse ecosystems globally from a biological point of view.
They extend from western Venezuela to northern Chile and Argentina and include
large portions of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. It is estimated that around
25% of the world’s biological diversity is found in the Andean region. The countries
that comprise this region are thus considered the most diverse and rich in animal and
plant species in the world.
The Andean ecosystems are home to an estimated 30,000 species of vascular
plants, representing about 10% of the planet’s species and exceeding the diversity of
any other ecoregion. The Andes also lead in unique, endemic plants worldwide. It is
estimated that at least 50% (perhaps 60% or more) of the Andean flora are not found
anywhere else in the world. This means that about 7% of the vascular plants on the
planet are endemic to the Andes, representing only 0.8% of the land area of the plant.
In addition to their biological diversity, the Andes have a very rich cultural
diversity, with more than 40 indigenous groups living in the Andean highlands
alone. These communities play a critical role in economic, political, and land-use
activities, and the history of their settlements dates back much further, with the
ecosystems of the Andes having sustained human settlements during at least the last
13,000–19,000 years. From approximately 500 BC, large human settlements
emerged in the Andes and reached advanced forms of social and political organiza-
tion (e.g., Chavín, Moche, Tiwanaku, Cañari, Muisca, and Inca). Over time all these
societies collapsed or were incorporated into the most important civilization of the
region, the ephemeral Empire of the Incas that emerged around 1400 AD.
These cultures contributed to the domestication of numerous species, making this
region one of the 12 largest centers of origin in the world of plants grown for food,
medicine, and industry. The Andean flora has always been recognized for being
immensely rich in useful plants. Evidence of this is found in the chronicles of the
missionaries who accompanied the conquerors, where reference was made to the use
that the indigenous population gave to the plants that grew in these territories.
The number of publications that have documented the use of plants in this region
includes numerous writings, reports, books, and scientific articles. While many of
them are accessible online, most have not been made available to the general public
due to the mostly unfounded fear of appropriation of this knowledge by outsiders
and bioprospecting. Bioprospecting has been seen as an activity that goes against the
v
vi Preface
objectives of protecting biological and cultural diversity. The focus of this activity
underlines the problem in relation to indigenous rights, cultural knowledge, and
traditional resources, issues where intellectual property protection regulations have
not yet been properly developed. However, although this concern is valid, it ignores
the importance of publishing this information and its role in preventing this knowl-
edge from being patented by putting it into the public domain.
It is still unknown how large the proportion of useful plant species in the Andes is
in relation to the total flora, and even less is known about all their respective uses and
their use tradition. Currently the Andean area has a human population of more than
57 million inhabitants who depend heavily on the goods and services from the
region's ecosystems. Better knowing and documenting them may be the most
valuable tool to conserve them. Conservation must include the native flora found
in inhabited rural areas. It must also seek to interact with communities to achieve the
sustainable management of these resources and support their conservation, as well as
ensure the transmission of ancestral knowledge to future generations.
In Ethnobotany of the Andes we seek to address these issues and try to make
information about the use of plants in the Andes available to the wider general
public, as well as to scientists and conservationists. In this way we hope that future
studies will take into account existing information and develop research to fill in the
information gaps that still exist. This book should therefore be considered as the
starting point of an effort committed to study the native flora of the Andes within a
context that considers it as a natural resource of immense importance for the region.
Contents
Volume 1
Part I Regions ........................................... 1
Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions: Andes – Bolivia, Chile, Peru . . . . . 3

Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Javier Echeverría
Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions – Andes – Colombia and
Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Carolina Romero, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann
Part II Plant Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Rainer W. Bussmann
Achillea millefolium L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and Carolina Romero
Achyrocline alata (Kunth) DC. Achyrocline bogotensis (Kunth) DC.
Achyrocline satureioides (Lam.) DC. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Acmella oppositifolia (Lam.) R.K. Jansen ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Javier Echeverría, and
Carolina Romero
Adesmia atacamensis Phil. Adesmia erinacea Phil. Adesmia minor
(Hook. & Arn.) Burkart var. caespitosa (Phil.) Ulibarri & Burkart
Adesmia rahmeri Phil. Adesmia spinosissima Meyen Adesmia
subterranea Clos FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Adiantum concinnum Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. Adiantum raddianum
C. Presl. ADIANTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
vii
viii Contents
Agave americana L. AGAVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Ageratum conyzioides L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Airampoa ayrampo (Azara) Doweld CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Allionia incarnata L. NYCTAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Allium cepa L. Allium fistulosum L. Allium ramosum L. Allium
sativum L. AMARYLLIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Alnus acuminata Kunth BETULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. ASPHODELACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Aloysia deserticola (Phil.) Lu-Irving & O’Leary Aloysia triphylla
Royle VERBENACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Carolina Romero
Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze Alternanthera halimifolia (Lam.)
Standl. ex Pittier Alternanthera porrigens (Jacq.) Kuntze
Alternanthera villosa Kunth AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Amaranthus caudatus L. Amaranthus deflexus L. Amaranthus
hybridus L. Amaranthus retroflexus L. Amaranthus spinosus
L. AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Carolina Romero
Ambrosia arborescens Mill. Ambrosia artemisioides Meyen & Walp.
ex Meyen Ambrosia cumanensis Kunth ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Carolina Romero
Anacardium occidentale L. ANACARDIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Anethum graveolens L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Anthemis arvensis L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Contents ix
Apium graveolens L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Argemone mexicana L. PAPAVERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Argyrochosma nivea (Poir.) Windham PTERIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Artemisia absinthium L. Artemisia annua L. Artemisia copa Phil.
ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Carolina Romero
Astragalus arequipensis Vogel FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Atriplex glaucescens Phil. Atriplex imbricata (Moq.) D. Dietr. var.
imbricata Atriplex madariagae Phil. AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Avena sativa L. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Azorella atacamensis G.M. Plunkett & A.N. Nicolas Azorella
compacta Phil. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Baccharis alnifolia Meyen & Walp. Baccharis boliviensis (Wedd.)
Cabrera Baccharis caespitosa (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers. Baccharis ciliata
Gardner Baccharis indica L. Baccharis juncea (Cass.) Desf. Baccharis
pentlandii DC. Baccharis salicifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers. Baccharis
santelicis Phil. Baccharis tola Phil. Baccharis vaccinioides Kunth
ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Carolina Romero
Baccharis genistelloides (Lam.) Pers. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Carolina Romero, and
Javier Echeverría
Baccharis latifolia (Ruiz. & Pav.) Pers. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, Carolina Romero, and
Javier Echeverría
Bactris gasipaes Kunth ARECACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Bauhinia variegata L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
x Contents
Bellardia trixago (L.) All. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

Berberis rigidifolia Kunth ex DC. BERBERIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Bidens laevis (L.) Britton, Stern & Poggenb. Bidens pilosa
L. Bidens pseudocosmos Sherff Bidens sp. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Carolina Romero
Bixa orellana L. BIXACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Bomarea angustifolia Benth. Bomarea dulcis (Hook.) Beauverd
ALSTROEMERIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and Rainer W. Bussmann
Borago officinalis L. BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Brassica oleracea L. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Brosimum rubescens Taub. MORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Browningia candelaris (Meyen) Britton & Rose CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . 373
Brugmansia candida Pers. Brugmanisa sanguinea (Ruiz & Pav.) D.
Don. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Bryantiella glutinosa (Phil.) J.M. Porter POLEMONIACEEA . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Buddleja americana L. Buddleja coriacea J. Rémy SCROPHULARIACEAE . . . 385
Bursera graveolens (Kunth.) Triana & Planch. BURSERACEAE . . . . . . . . 391
Caesalpinia paipai Ruiz & Pav. Caesalpinia spinosa (Molina)
Kuntze FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Caiophora chuquitensis (Meyen) Urb. & Gilg Caiophora rosulata
(Wedd.) Urb. & Gilg LOASACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Contents xi
Calceolaria bartsiifolia Wedd. Calceolaria buchtieniana Kraenzl.

Calceolaria engleriana Kraenzl. Calceolaria inamoena Kraenzl.
Calceolaria stellariifolia Phil. Calceolaria rugulosa Edwin
CALCEOLARIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Calendula officinalis L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Cantua buxifolia Juss. ex Lam. Cantua flexuosa (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.
Cantua quercifolia Juss. POLEMONIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Capparis crotonoides (Kunth) Iltis & Cornejo Capparis scabrida
Kunth CAPPARACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Capsicum annuum L. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Carica papaya L. Vasconcellea pubescens A. DC. CARICACEAE . . . . . . . . 453
Carpobrotus chilensis (Molina) N.E. Br. AIZOACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Cassia occidentalis L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Cecropia andina Cuatrec. Cecropia mutisiana Mildbr. Cecropia
peltata L. CECROPIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Centaurium erythraea Rafn GENTIANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Ceroxylon parvifrons (Engl). H. Wendl. Ceroxylon quindiuense
(H. Karst). H. Wendl. Ceroxylon vogelianum (Engl). H. Wendl.
ARECACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Cestrum auriculatum L’Hér. Cestrum buxifolium Kunth Cestrum
nocturnum L. Cestrum parqui L’Hér. Cestrum strigilatum Ruiz & Pav.
Cestrum undulatum Ruiz & Pav. Cestrum sp. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . 505
xii Contents
Cetraria islandica (L.) Ach. PARMELIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513

Chara sp. CHAROPHYCEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Cheilanthes myriophylla Desv. Cheilanthes pruinata Kaulf.

PTERIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Chenopodium album L. Chenopodium quinoa Willd. Chenopodium
hircinum Schrad. Chenopodiastrum murale (L.) S. Fuentes, Uotila &
Borsch AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Carolina Romero
Chersodoma arequipensis (Cuatrec.) Cuatrec Chersodoma jodopappa
(Sch. Bip.) Cabrera ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Chorizanthe commissuralis J. Remy POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

Chuquiraga atacamensis Kuntze Chuquiraga jussieui J.F. Gmel.

Chuquiraga spinosa Less. Chuquiraga weberbaueri Tovar
ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Carolina Romero
Cicer arietinum L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549

Cinchona officinalis L. Cinchona pubescens Vahl RUBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . 553
Cistanthe amarantoides (Phil.) Carolin ex Hershkovitz Cistanthe

celosioides (Phil.) Carolin ex Hershkovitz MONTIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
Citrus aurantifolia Swingle Citrus maxima (L.) Osbeck Citrus medica L.
Citrus reticulata Blanco RUTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
Clusia lechleri Rusby Clusia minor L. Clusia pachamamae Zenteno

Ruiz & A. Fuentes Clusia sp. CLUSIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Coffea arabica L. RUBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583

Contents xiii
Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist Conyza deserticola Phil.

ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Carolina Romero
Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pav.) Oken Cordia lutea Lam.
BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
Coriandrum sativum L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
Corryocactus brevistylus (K. Schum. ex Vaupel) Britton & Rose
CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Cortaderia speciosa (Nees & Meyen) Stapf POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
Corynaea crassa Hook. f. BALANOPHORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Crescentia cujete L. BIGNONIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
Croton draconoides Müll. Arg. Croton lechleri Müll. Arg.
EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
Cryptantha hispida (Phil.) Reiche BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
Cucumis dipsaceus Ehrenb. ex Spach CUCURBITACEAE .............. 641
Cucumis sativus L. CUCURBITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
Cucurbita maxima Duchesne Cucurbita moschata Duchesne
CUCURBITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Cumulopuntia sphaerica (C.F. Först.) E.F. Anderson CACTACEAE . . . . . . 657
Cuphea carthagenensis (Jacq.) J.F. Macbr. Cuphea ciliata Ruiz &
Pav. Cuphea racemosa (L. f.) Spreng. Cuphea strigulosa Kunth
LYTHRACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
Cupressus lusitanica Mill. Cupressus sargentii Jeps. CUPRESSACEAE . . . . 667
xiv Contents
Cydonia oblonga Mill. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671

Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675

Cynara cardunculus L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681

Daucus carota L. Daucus montanus Humb. & Bonpl. ex Spreng.

APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl BRASSICACEAE ............. 697

Desmodium molliculum (Kunth) DC. Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC.

FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
Dianthus caryophyllus L. Dianthus plumarius L. CARYOPHYLLACEAE . . . 707

Dictyocaryum lamarckianum (Mart.) H. Wendl. ARECACEAE ......... 715

Dioscorea tambillensis R. Knuth Dioscorea trifida L. f.

DIOSCOREACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
Diplostephium cinereum Cuatrec. Diplostephium gynoxyoides

Cuatrec. Diplostephium sagasteguii Cuatrec. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . 741
Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745

Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. SAPINDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749

Drimys granadensis L. f. WINTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755

Dunalia spinosa (Meyen) Dammer SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759

Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants

AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
Contents xv
Echinopsis pachanoi (Britton & Rose) Friedrich & G.D. Rowley

CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
Elatteria cardamomum (L.) Maton ZINGIBERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
Ephedra americana Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. Ephedra breana
Phil. Ephedra multiflora Stapf Ephedra rupestris Benth.
EPHEDRACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
Equisetum bogotense Kunth Equisetum giganteum L.
EQUISETACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Hér. ex Aiton GERANIACEAE ............. 805
Errazurizia multifoliolata (Clos) I.M. Johnst. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
Eryngium foetidum L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
Erythranthe glabrata (Kunth) G.L. Nesom PHRYMACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
Erythrina fusca Lour. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
Erythroxylum coca Lam. ERYTHROXYLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. Eucalyptus globulus Labill.
MYRTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
Euphorbia klotzschii Oudejans EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837
Fabiana bryoides Phil. Fabiana densa J. Remy Fabiana denudata
Miers Fabiana ramulosa (Wedd.) Hunz. & Barboza Fabiana
squamata Phil. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841
Festuca chrysophylla Phil. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
xvi Contents
Ficus carica L. Ficus insipida Willd. MORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851

Flaveria bidentis (L.) Kuntze ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
Fragaria vesca L. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
Galium hypocarpium (L.) Endl. ex Griseb. RUBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
Gentianella alborosea (Gilg.) Fabris ex J.S. Pringle Gentianella bicolor
(Wedd.) Fabris ex J.S. Pringle Gentianella brunneotincta (Gilg) Pringle
Gentianella crassicaulis J.S. Pringle Gentianella dianthoides (Kunth)
Fabris ex J.S. Pringle Gentianella graminea (Kunth) Fabris Gentianella
thyrsoidea (Hook.) Fabris GENTIANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879
Geoffroea decorticans (Gillies ex Hook. & Arn.) Burkart FABACEAE . . . 893
Geranium ayavacense Willd. ex Kunth Geranium humbloldtii Willd.
ex Spreng. Geranium sessiliflorum Cav. GERANIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
Gilia laciniata Ruiz & Pav. POLEMONIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
Glycine max (L.) Merr. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
Grindelia boliviana Rusby Grindelia tarapacana Phil. ASTERACEAE . . . . 919
Guazuma ulmifolia Lam. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921
Haageocereus fascicularis (Meyen) F. Ritter CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . 925
Halerpestes cymbalaria (Pursh) Greene RANUNCULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
Haplopappus rigidus Phil. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929
Contents xvii
Hedera helix L. ARALIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933

Hesperomeles obtusifolia (Pers.) Lindl. CLETHRACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937
Hoffmannseggia doellii Phil. ssp. doellii Hoffmannseggia eremophila
(Phil.) Burkart ex Ulibarri FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941
Hordeum vulgare L. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945
Hura crepitans L. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949
Hymenea courbaril L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 953
Hypericum aciculare Kunth Hypericum laricifolium Juss.
Hypericum thesiifolium Kunth HYPERICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
Hypochaeris chondrilloides (A. Gray) Cabrera Hypochaeris
taraxacoides (Walp.) Ball ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965
Hyptis capitata Jacq. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969
Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and Carolina Romero
Ilex guayusa Loes. AQUIFOLIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973
Volume 2
Inga edulis Mart. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977

Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Ipomoea pauciflora M. Martens &
Galeotti CONVOLVULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
Iresine diffusa Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. Iresine herbstii Hook
AMARANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 991
Jaborosa caulescens Gillies & Hook. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997
Jacaranda caucana Pittier BIGNONIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
xviii Contents
Jarava leptostachya (Griseb.) F. Rojas POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005

Jatropha curcas L. Jatropha gossypifolia L. Jatropha multifida L.
EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
Juglans boliviana (C. DC.) Dode Juglans neotropica Diels
JUGLANDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017
Junellia digitata (Phil.) Moldenke var. digitata Junellia minima
(Meyen) Moldenke Junellia seriphioides (Gillies & Hook. ex Hook.)
Moldenke VERBENACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025
Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. CRASSULACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
Krameria lappacea (Dombey) Burdet & B.B. Simpson
KRAMERIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033
Lachemilla pinnata (Ruiz & Pav.) Rothm. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1039
Lactuca sativa L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043
Lampayo medicinalis F. Phil. VERBENACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049
Lantana cujabensis Schauer VERBENACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
Lathyrus odoratus L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057
Lavandula angustifolia Mill. Lavandula latifolia Medik. LAMIACEAE . . . 1063
Lepechinia meyenii (Walp.) Epling. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Lepidium bonariense L. Lepidium virginicum L. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . 1073
Ligaria cuneifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Tiegh. LORANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079
Lilaeopsis macloviana (Gand.) A.W. Hill APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081
Contents xix
Lilium candidum L. LILIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085

Limosella australis R. Br. SCROPHULARIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
Linum usitatissimum L. LINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091
Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E. Br. ex Britton & P. Wilson VERBENACEAE . . . . . 1099
Lobivia formosa (Pfeiff.) Dodds CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
Lophopappus tarapacanus (Phil.) Cabrera ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1107
Loricaria ferruginea (Ruiz & Pav.) Wedd. Loricaria pauciflora
Cuatrec. Loricaria thuyoidea (Lam.) Sch. Bip. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . 1109
Lupinus altimontanus C.P. Sm. Lupinus mutabilis Sweet FABACEAE . . . . 1117
Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. Lycopersicon hirsutum Dunal
Lycopersicon peruvianum (L.) Mill. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1125
Maihueniopsis boliviana (Salm-Dyck) R. Kiesling ssp. ignescens
(Vaupel) Faúndez & R. Kiesling Maihueniopsis camachoi (Espinosa)
F. Ritter CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1133
Malva parviflora L. Malva sylvestris L. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137
Mangifera indica L. ANONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147
Manihot esculenta Crantz EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1153
Marrubium vulgare L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165
Matricaria chamomilla L. Matricaria discoidea DC. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . 1169
Carolina Romero
Mauria heterophylla Kunth ANACARDIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1179
xx Contents
Maytenus krukovii A.C. Sm. Maytenus laevis Reissek EBENACEAE . . . . . 1185

Medicago sativa L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191
Melilotus albus Medik. Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam. LAMIACEAE . . . . . 1197
Melissa offcinalis L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203
Menta x piperita L. Mentha spicata L. Mentha suaveolens Ehrh.
LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209
Carolina Romero
Micromeria gilliesii Benth LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1221
Minthostachys mollis Grieseb. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223
Momordica charantia L. CUCURBITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1231
Morus alba L. MORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1235
Moschopsis monocephala (Phil.) Reiche CALYCERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1241
Muehlenbeckia volcanica (Benth.) Endl. POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1245
Mutisia acuminata Ruiz & Pav. Mutisia hamata Reiche Mutisia
lanigera Wedd. Mutisia orbygniana Wedd. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1251
Myrcianthes discolor (Kunth) McVaugh Myrcianthes fragrans (Kunth)
McVaugh Myrcianthes hallii (O. Berg.) McVaugh MYRTACEAE . . . . . . . 1259
Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc. HALORAGACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263
Myristica fragrans Houtt. MYRISTICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1267
Myrosmodes nervosa (Kraenzl.) Novoa, C. Vargas & Cisternas
ORCHIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1271
Contents xxi
Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1275

Nasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1281
Neuontobotrys tarapacanus (Phil.) Al-Shehbaz BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . 1287
Neurolaena lobata (L.) Cass. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289
Niphidium crassifolium (L.) Lellinger Phlebodium decumanum
(Willd.) J. Sm. POLYPODIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1293
Nostoc sp. NOSTOCACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1299
Nototriche clandestina (Phil.) A.W. Hill Nototriche estipulata A.W.
Hill ex B.L. Burtt Nototriche parviflora A.W. Hill MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . 1301
Ocimum basilicum L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1305
Ombrophytum subterraneum (Aspl.) B. Hansen BALANOPHORACEAE . . . . 1313
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1315
Oreocereus leucotrichus (Phil.) Wagenkn. ex F. Ritter CACTACEAE . . . . . 1321
Oriastrum revolutum (Phil.) A.M.R. Davies Oriastrum sphaeroidale
Reiche CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1325
Origanum majorana L. Origanum vulgare L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . 1329
Oscillatoria tenuis C. Agardh ex Gomont OSCILLATORIACEAE . . . . . . . . . 1337
Otholobium glandulosum (L.) J.W. Grimes Otholobium mexicanum
(L.f.) J.W. Grimes Otholobium pubescens (Poir.) J.W. Grimes
FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1339
Oxalis tuberosa Molina OXALIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1345
xxii Contents
Oxychloe andina Phil. JUNCACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1353

Papaver somniferum L. PAPAVERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1355
Parastrephia lucida (Meyen) Cabrera Parastrephia quadrangularis
(Meyen) Cabrera Parastrephia teretiuscula (Kuntze) Cabrera
ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1359
Paronychia microphylla Phil. CARYOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1365
Passiflora caerulea L. Passiflora edulis L. Passiflora ligularis Juss.
Passiflora mollissima (Kunth) L.H. Bailey Passiflora punctata L.
Passiflora quadrangularis L. PASSIFLORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1369
Pelargonium odoratissimum (L.) L’Hér. Pelargonium roseum Willd.
Pelargonium zonale (L.) L’Hér. GERANIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1385
Peperomia alata Ruiz & Pav. Peperomia blanda (Jacq.) Kunth
Peperomia fraseri C. DC. Peperomia galioides Kunth Peperomia
hartwegiana Miq. Peperomia inaequalifolia Ruiz & Pav. Peperomia
quadrifolia (L.) Kunth PIPERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1391
Persea americana Mill. LAURACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1405
Petiveria alliacea L. PETIVERIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1413
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1417
Peumus boldus Molina MONIMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1425
Phoradendron nervosum Oliv. SANTALACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1429
Phyllanthus niruri L. Phyllantus stipulatus (Raf.) G.L. Webster
Phyllanthus urinaria L. PHYLLANTHACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1435
Phytolacca bogotensis Kunth Phytolacca icosandra L.
PHYTOLACCACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1443
Contents xxiii
Pimpinella anisum L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1449

Piper acutifolium Ruiz & Pav. Piper aduncum L. Piper aequale Vahl.
PIPERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1455
Pisum sativum L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1465

Pitraea cuneato-ovata (Cav.) Caro VERBENACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1469
Plantago australis Lam. Plantago lanceolata L. Plantago linearis

Kunth Plantago major L. Plantago rancaguae Steud. Plantago
sericea Ruiz & Pav. PLANTAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1471
Carolina Romero
Plukenetia carolis-vegae Bussmann, Paniagua Zambrana & Téllez

Plukenetia huayllabambana Bussmann, C. Téllez & A. Glenn
Plukenetia volubilis L. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1489
Polylepis pacensis M. Kessler & Schmidt-Leb. Polylepis racemosa

Ruiz & Pav. Polylepis tomentella Wedd. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1497
Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1509
Portulaca oleracea L. PORTULACACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1515

Prosopis alba Griseb. Prosopis laevigata (Humb. & Bonpl.

ex Willd.) M.C. Prosopis pallida (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Kunth
FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1521
Psammisia spp. ERICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1527
Pseudognaphalium dysodes (Spreng.) S. E. Freire, Bayón &

C. Monti Pseudognaphalium psilophyllum (Meyen & Walp.) Anderb.
ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1531
Psidium guajava L. Psidium guineense Sw. MYRTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1537

xxiv Contents
Pycnophyllum bryoides (Phil.) Rohrb. Pycnophyllum macropetalum

Mattf. CARYOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1543
Pyrethrum parthenium (L.) Sm ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1549

Raphanus sativus L. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1553

Reyesia juniperoides (Werderm.) D’Arcy SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1561

Rheum officinale Baill. Rheum palmatum L. POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . 1563

Ricinus communis L. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1569

Rosa centifolia L. Rosa odorata (Andrews) Sweet ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . 1577

Rubus robustus C. Presl ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1581

Rumex acetosella L. Rumex crispus L. Rumex cuneifolius Campd.

POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1589
Ruta chalepensis L. Ruta graveolens L. RUTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1595

Salix chilensis Molina SALICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1605

Salvia ayavacensis Kunth Salvia cuspidata Ruiz & Pav. Salvia discolor
Kunth Salvia hispanica L. Salvia macrophylla Benth. Salvia microphylla
Kunth Salvia palifolia Kunth. Salvia rosmarinifolia G. Don. Salvia
sagittata Ruiz & Pav. Salvia tubiflora Sm. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1611
Salvia officinalis L. Salvia rosmarinus Scheid. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . 1621

Sambucus canadensis L. Sambucus nigra L. ADOXACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . 1631

Sanguisorba minor Scop. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1641

Contents xxv
Satureja boliviana (Benth.) Briq. Satureja pulchella (HBK) Briquet.

Satureja sericea (C. Presl. ex Benth.) Briq. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1647
Schinus areira L. Schinus molle L. ANACARDIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1653
Carolina Romero
Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . 1661
Scoparia dulcis L. PLANTAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1665
Senecio adenophyllus Meyen & Walp. Senecio atacamensis Phil. Senecio
breviscapus DC. Senecio candollei Wedd. Senecio canescens (Bonpl.)
Cuatrec Senecio chinogeton Wedd. Senecio ctenophyllus Phil. Senecio
filaginoides DC. Senecio haenkeanus Cuatrec. Senecio nutans Sch. Bip.
Senecio olivaceobracteatus Ricardi & Martic. Senecio pappii Ricardi &
Martic. Senecio proteus J. Rémy var. proteus Senecio pseudotites
Grieseb. Senecio puchii Phil. Senecio scorzonerifolius Meyen & Walp.
Senecio smithioides Cabrera Senecio volckmannii Phil. Senecio
xerophilus Phil. var. xerophilus Senecio zoellneri Martic. & Quezada
ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1669
Carolina Romero
Sida rhombifolia L. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1687
Sigesbeckia orientalis L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1693
Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1697
Smilax kunthii Killip & C.V. Morton Smilax medica Schltdl. &
Cham. Smilax officinalis Kunth SMILACACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1703
Solanum albidum Dunal Solanum americanum Mill. Solanum fragile
Wedd. Solanum herba-bona Reiche Solanum mammosum L. Solanum
marginatum L. f. Solanum nigrum L. Solanum nitidum Ruiz. & Pav.
Solanum nudum Dunal SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1709
Carolina Romero
Solanum melongena L. Solanum tuberosum L. SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . 1723
xxvi Contents
Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Sonchus oleraceaus L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . 1735

Spartium junceum L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1743
Stachys pusilla (Wedd.) Briq. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749
Stellaria chilensis Pedersen CARYOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1755
Tagetes elliptica Sm. Tagetes erecta L. Tagetes filifolia Lag. Tagetes
minuta L. Tagetes multiflora Kunth ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1759
Carolina Romero
Tamarindus indica L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1771
Tarasa tarapacana (Phil.) Krapov. Tarasa tenella (Cav.) Krapov.
MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1775
Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777
Tessaria absinthioides (Hook. & Arn.) DC. Tessaria integrifolia Ruiz
& Pav. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1785
Carolina Romero
Thelypteris argentina (Hieron.) Abbiatti THELYPTERIDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . 1791
Theobroma cacao L. MALVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795
Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum. APOCYNACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1801
Thymus vulgaris L. LAMIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1807
Tiquilia atacamensis (Phil.) A.T. Richardson Tiquilia dichotoma
(Ruiz. & Pav.) Pers. Tiquilia paronychioides (Phil.) A.T.
Richardson BORAGINACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1813
Tribulus terrestris L. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1821
Contents xxvii
Trichocereus atacamensis (Phil.) Backeb. CACTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1827

Trichocline caulescens Phil. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1833

Triticum aestivum L. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1839

Trixis cacalioides (Kunth) D. Don ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849

Ullucus tuberosus Caldas BASELLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1853

Uncaria guianensis (Aubl.) J.F. Gmel. Uncaria tomentosa

(Willd.) DC. RUBIACEAE Mimosa acantholoba (Humb. & Bonpl.
ex Willd.) Poir. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1857
Urtica dioica L. Urtica echinata Benth. Urtica magellanica Juss. ex

Poir. Urtica urens L. URTICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865
Carolina Romero
Valeriana convallarioides (Schmale) B.B. Larsen Valeriana decussata

Ruiz & Pav. Valeriana microphylla Kunth Valeriana micropterina Wedd.
Valeriana nivalis Wedd. Valeriana officinalis L. Valeriana pilosa Ruiz &
Pav. Valeriana plantaginea Kunth Valeriana rigida Ruiz & Pav.
Valeriana scandens L. Valeriana urbanii Phil. CAPRIFOLIACEAE . . . . . . . . 1875
Carolina Romero
Verbena bonariensis L. Verbena litoralis Kunth Verbena officinalis L.

VERBENACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1891
Carolina Romero
Vicia faba L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1899

Viola odorata L. Viola tricolor L. VIOLACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1903

Vitis vinifera L. VITACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1909

xxviii Contents
Werneria aretioides Wedd. Werneria glaberrima Phil. Werneria

heteroloba Wedd. Werneria nubigena Kunth Werneria pumila Kunth
Werneria pygmaea Gillies ex Hook. & Arn. Xenophyllum ciliolatum
(A. Gray) V.A. Funk Xenophyllum humile (Kunth) V.A. Funk
Xenophyllum incisum (Phil.) V.A. Funk Xenophyllum poposum (Phil.)
V.A. Funk Xenophyllum weddellii (Phil.) V.A. Funk ASTERACEAE . . . . . . 1923
Xanthium spinosum L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1933
Xylopia peruviana R.E. Fr. ANNONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1939
Zea mays L. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1941
Zingiber officinale Roscoe ZINGIBERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1953
About the Editors
Dr. Paniagua-Zambrana was born in La Paz, Bolivia.

She received her Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from the
Autonomous University of Madrid, Spain, in 2016.
Dr. Paniagua-Zambrana is one of the most published
researchers in Bolivia, according to a regional report
by Elsevier. Her research has resulted in over
60 per-reviewed papers, more than 100 book chapters,
and 15 books. In addition, she works with undergradu-
ate, master’s, and doctoral students around the globe
who are interested in ethnobotanical studies, many of
them young women scientists. She is a member of the
Society for Economic Botany, where she currently
serves on the council, the Latin American Association
of Botany, the Latin American Group of Ethnobotany –
Bolivia Chapter, the Bolivian Organization for Women
in Science, and the Organization for Women in Science
for the Developing World (OWSD). Dr. Paniagua-
Zambrana’s research focuses on documenting and pro-
tecting traditional knowledge of plant use by indigenous
populations and local communities, especially in
Bolivia, and taxonomically has mostly focused on
native palms of the Andes and the Amazon. She works
to provide local populations with tools that allow them
to make decisions about the conservation of their natural
resources and associated traditional knowledge, and has
worked consistently to disseminate the results of her
research among the local communities with whom she
works. Her research has been incorporated into educa-
tional materials in local schools and has also served as
important documentation protecting the traditional
knowledge of local communities to elaborate strategies
to conserve their natural resources.
xxix
xxx About the Editors
Dr. Bussmann earned his M.Sc. (Diploma) in Biology

from Universität Tübingen, Germany, in 1993 and his
doctorate from Universität Bayreuth, Germany, in 1994.
He is an ethnobotanist and vegetation ecologist and
currently Co-director of Saving Knowledge, La Paz,
Bolivia; as well as Principal Scientist at the Department
of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany, Ilia State Univer-
sity, both of which he co-founded. Before retiring from
Missouri Botanical Garden, Dr. Bussmann was director
of the William L. Brown Center at Missouri Botanical
Garden, William L. Brown Curator of Economic Bot-
any, and Senior Curator. Before accepting the director-
ship of WLBC, he held academic appointments as
Research Fellow in Geography and the Environment at
the University of Texas at Austin from 2006 to 2007, as
Associate Professor of Botany and Scientific Director of
Harold Lyon Arboretum at the University of Hawaii
from 2003 to 2006, and as Assistant Professor at the
University of Bayreuth from 1997 to 2003, following a
postdoc at the same institution from 1994 to 1997. He
holds affiliate faculty appointments at Washington Uni-
versity St. Louis, USA; University of Missouri
St. Louis, USA; Florida Atlantic University Boca
Raton, USA; Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Brazil;
Universidád Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Perú; and
at Ilia State University, Republic of Georgia, and serves
as external thesis advisor at multiple other universities
worldwide. His work focuses on ethnobotanical
research, and the preservation of traditional knowledge,
in Bolivia, Peru, Madagascar, the Caucasus, and the
Himalayas. To date, Dr. Bussmann has authored over
270 peer-reviewed papers, over 750 book chapters, and
authored or edited over 30 books.
Dr. Bussmann is a past President of the Society for
Economic Botany and has served as board/council
member of the International Society for Ethnophar-
macology, Society of Ethnobiology, Botanical Society
of America, and International Society of Ethnobiology.
See more of his work on his website (https://www.
cejaandina.org/rainer-w-bussmann/) and download pub-
lications from ResearchGate (https://www.researchgate.
net/profile/Rainer_Bussmann).
Contributors
Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and

Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia
Javier Echeverría Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry
and Biology, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile
Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany
and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia
Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia
Carolina Romero William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis,
MO, USA
xxxi
Part I
Regions
Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions:
Andes – Bolivia, Chile, Peru
Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann, and

Javier Echeverría
Introduction
Location
The Andes mountain range occupies the western part of South America bordering its
entire Pacific Ocean coast. It has a length of 8,500 km, making it the longest
continental mountain range on Earth. From its north end, in western Venezuela, it
crosses Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; it serves as a natural border between
Chile and Argentina and has its southern end in Tierra del Fuego. It has a variable
width between 250 and 750 km. It occupies an approximate surface of
2,870,000 km2. Its average height is between 3,000 and 4,000 m above sea level
and houses the highest volcanoes on the planet and its highest point is the
N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana
Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany and Bakuriani Alpine Botanical Garden, Ilia State
University, Tbilisi, Georgia
e-mail: nyaroslava@yahoo.es
R. W. Bussmann (*)
e-mail: rainer.bussmann@iliauni.edu.ge; rbussmann@gmail.com
J. Echeverría
Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Universidad de
Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago de Chile, Chile
e-mail: javier.echeverriam@usach.cl
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 3

N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobotany of the Andes,
Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_2
4 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana et al.
Aconcagua, whose 6,960 m make this mountain the highest on the planet outside of
Asia. Because of its important volcanic activity, it is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire.
In the central zone, the Andes widen, giving rise to the high plateaus of the high
plateau and the puna, shared by Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. From the central
highlands to the north of Peru and in Ecuador, it becomes narrow again and in
Colombia it is divided into three branches, one of which continues northwest
entering Venezuela. From the high plateau to the south, the mountain range has a
north-south general direction and an area where the highest mountains are.
It was formed at the end of the Mesozoic era, at the end of the late Cretaceous, by
the movement of the convergence of the Nazca plate under the South American
plate. Subsequent seismic movements and volcanic activity have been more impor-
tant in the relief configuration than external erosive agents. In the current morphol-
ogy are high mountain ranges, along with extensive high plateaus and deep
longitudinal valleys parallel to the great mountain ranges. Transversal valleys are
scarce, except in the Argentine-Chilean Andes.
Geography and Geology
The Central Andes develop between the Gulf of Guayaquil in Ecuador and the Gulf
of Penas (46 300 S) in Chile. This area is bordered by the Nazca plate which is
subdivided by the Nazca dorsal which is a volcanically inactive dorsal (seismic). In
this area the Western Cordillera and the Eastern Cordillera border the plateaus of the
Altiplano and Puna. It is the longest area and is usually subdivided into northern,
central, and southern sectors. The central Andes include a Peruvian segment that
extends from northwest to southeast called the Northern Central Andes, and the one
part of the Andes of Chile and Argentina with north-south direction called the
Central Andes of the South. The Central Andes extend from Peru to Tres Cruces,
located on the border between Argentina and Chile, and do not have a single
mountain pass below 4,000 m. The highest mountain of the northern section is
Huascarán (6,757 m) and in the south Ojos del Salado (6,891 m). Towards the
parallel 22 S appears the Puna de Atacama dominating the west of the volcanic
zone. The climate is arid warm, and the predominant biome is desert.
The Andean region of Bolivia and Northern Chile is characterized by the Eastern
Andes Mountain Range (Cordillera Oriental) which almost bisects Bolivia from
north to south, separating Amazon Basin to the East from the highlands (Altiplano)
with Lake Titicaca in the West. Lake Titicaca, which Bolivia shares with Peru, is the
highest navigable lake on Earth, forming the most outstanding feature of the
Altiplano, at 3,811 m altitude, and a surface area of 9,064 km2. The lake is so big
and deep that it moderates the climate for a considerable distance around it, making
production possible – one reason for the early human occupation of the area.
In western Bolivia and Northern Chile, the Cordillera Occidental is a chain of
dormant volcanoes and volcanic vents emitting sulfurous gases. Bolivia’s highest
peak, the snowcapped Nevado Sajama 6,542 m, is located here. The entire cordillera
is of volcanic origin and an extension of the volcanic region found in southern Peru.
Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions: Andes – Bolivia, Chile, Peru 5
Most of the northern part of this range has an elevation of about 4,000 m the southern
part is lower. Rainfall, although scanty everywhere, is greater in the northern half,
where the land is covered with scrub vegetation. The southern area receives almost
no precipitation, and the landscape consists mostly of barren rocks. Rainfall in the
Altiplano decreases toward the south, and the scrub vegetation grows sparse,
eventually giving way to barren rocks and dry red clay. The land contains several
salt flats, the dried remnants of ancient lakes. The largest of these is the Uyuni
Saltpan, which covers over 9,000 km2. The much older Cordillera Oriental enters
Bolivia on the north side of Lake Titicaca, extends southeastward to approximately
17 south latitude, then broadens and stretches south to the Argentine border. The
northernmost part of the Cordillera Oriental, the Cordillera Real, is an impressive
snow-capped series of granite mountains with peaks exceeding 6,000 m and partly
large glaciation.
Climate
An area so vast that it offers such marked differences in latitude, height, and
appearance as the Andes mountain range is naturally subject to great climatic
variations. Therefore, only the general aspects of the weather conditions can be
mentioned, not forgetting that there are very complex microclimatological types.
The most notable effect of the Andes is to create a vertical climate zone, particularly
in terms of temperature.
Four climatic zones are recognized in the Andes:
The lower tropical zone reaches from the sea level to about 900 m, except, naturally,
in the temperate South of the continent, where the hot climates do not occur. This
area is tropical and humid, in which the average annual temperature is
23.88–28.33 C with little monthly variation.
Mountains between 900 and 2,000 m form the temperate zone appears, subtropical
zone, with average temperatures of 17.22–23.88 C.
The cold zone stretches from 2,000 to about 3,000 m, where a temperate climate
prevails and temperatures range between 10 C and 17.22 C.
From 3,000 to 4,300 m, cold and deserts dominate, an area where the temperature
varies greatly during the day and suffers violent winds.
In the tropical areas of the Andes, the snow line occurs at an altitude between
4,600 and 4,900 m, and due to the increasing aridity rises towards the S to about
5,200 in the central west of Peru and up to 6,100 in the N of Chile. Further to the S
the snow line descends until on the island of Tierra del Fuego, at the S end, it is
around 750 m.
Precipitation, depends on latitude, altitude, relief, and orientation, is subject to as
many variations as temperature. The slopes of both sides of the Andes can receive
copious rainfall, while the deep and sheltered Inner-Andean valleys often lack rain
and are partly semi-desert.
From the South of Ecuador to about 30 S latitude, the precipitation is lower, with
the exception of the eastern slopes, and much of the mountain range is dry and even
desert. This is due to the insufficient trade winds of the dominant SE to carry
moisture beyond the eastern slopes. Between 30 and 40 latitude S, both flanks of
the Andes are equally arid due to the dry air descending from these latitudes and the
drying effect that the oceanic cold currents of these coasts exert on the winds that
come from the sea. South of 40 S latitude, the Andes fall under the dominance of the
Pacific winds carrying moisture, which spill abundant rainfall on the western slopes,
but little in the eastern and scarce in western Argentina.
Plant Use in the Andes: The Example of Northern Peru
The Central Andes represent one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, carrying an
extremely diverse flora, stretching from coastal dry forests (Fig. 1), to very wet cloud
forests (Figs. 2 and 3), and the highest Andean peaks (Fig. 4). Access to the region is
often still very difficult (Figs. 5 and 6).
While very pristine in appearance, most of these ecosystems are, however, a post-
Columbian artifact, and previous to European conquest, most of the area was
actually densely populated. Human burials are common, from the coast (Fig. 7),
up to seemingly impenetrable forests (Fig. 8).
Fig. 1 Dry forest, Marañon Valley, Northern Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Fig. 2 Wet cloud forest, Uchumarca, Northern Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Fig. 3 Tree ferns (Cyathea sp.) in wet cloud forest, San Martín, Northern Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
Fig. 4 Illampu massif, Cordillera Real, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Fig. 5 Mule path to Chilchos Valley, San Martín, Northern Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
Fig. 6 Plant collecting

expedition, Alto Huayalla,
Northern Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 7 Human skull and

jawbone from robbed Chimu
burial (fourteenth century),
Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
The Central Andes from Southern Ecuador to Northern Bolivia and Chile repre-
sent the “Health Hub” of South America, with roots going back to traditional
practices Cupisnique culture (1000 BC). Nowadays, this ancient occupation is still
being reflected by walls and terraces, easily visible in high altitude areas (Fig. 9) or
hidden in dense forests (Fig. 10).
Fig. 8 Laguna de los Condores, San Martin, Peru – burial site of the Chachapoya culture. (Photo
Fig. 9 Pre-Columbian terraces, Laguna Huayllabamba, Amazonas, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann
and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
Fig. 10 Pre-Columbian Chachapoya-Inca settlement and terraces, Pampa Hermosa, San Martín,
Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
Fig. 11 Totora fishing boats,

Hunachaco, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Traditional practices can still be widely found, be it in the use of totora boats for
fishing at the Peruvian coast (Fig. 11), or the continuous use of old agricultural
terraces like in Colca canyon (Fig. 12) or Uchumarca, Northern Peru (Fig. 13).
During almost two decades of research, semi-structured interviews with healers,
collectors, and sellers of medicinal plants and bioassays to evaluate the effective and
plant toxicity were carried out. Most (83%) of the 510 species used were native to
Peru. 50% of the plants used in colonial times disappeared from the pharmacopoeia.
Common and exotic plants were mostly used for common ailments, while plants
Fig. 12 Continuously used terraces, Colca Canyon, Southern Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 13 Terraces landscape, Uchumarca, Northern Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
with magical purposes were only employed by specialist healers. About 974 prepa-
rations with up to 29 ingredients treated 164 conditions. Almost 65% of the
medicinal plants were applied in mixtures. Antibacterial activity was confirmed in
most plants used for infections. The aqueous extract 24% and 76% ethanolic extracts
showed toxicity. Traditional preparation methods take this into account when choos-
ing the appropriate solvent for the preparation of a remedy. The increasing demand
did not increase the significant cultivation of medicinal plants. Most plants are wild
collected, causing doubts about the sustainability of trade. Dedicated programs aim
to establish in situ collections of important species, as well as to repatriate traditional
knowledge in local language, under the guidelines of the Nagoya Protocol.
Traditional Medicine
Traditional Medicine is used globally and has a rapidly growing economic impor-
tance. In developing countries, Traditional Medicine is often the only accessible and
affordable treatment available. In Uganda, for instance, the ratio of traditional
practitioners to the population is between 1:200 and 1:400, while the availability
of Western doctors is typically 1:20,000 or less. Moreover, doctors are mostly
located in cities and other urban areas and are therefore inaccessible to rural
populations. In Africa, up to 80% of the population uses Traditional Medicine as
the primary healthcare system. In Latin America, the WHO Regional Office for the
Americas (AMRO/PAHO) reports that 71% of the population in Chile and 40% of
the population in Colombia have used Traditional Medicine. In many Asian coun-
tries, Traditional Medicine is widely used, even though Western medicine is often
readily available. In Japan, 60–70% of allopathic doctors prescribe traditional
medicines for their patients. In China, Traditional Medicine accounts for about
40% of all healthcare and is used to treat roughly 200 million patients annually.
The number of visits to providers of Complementary-Alternative Medicine (CAM)
now exceeds by far the number of visits to all primary care physicians in the USA
(WHO 1999a, b, 2002a, b, c).
Complementary-Alternative Medicine is becoming more and more popular in
many developed countries. Forty-eight percent of the population in Australia, 70%
in Canada, 42% in the USA, 38% in Belgium, and 75% in France have used
Complementary-Alternative Medicine at least once (WHO 1998; Fisher and Ward
1971; Health Canada 2001). A survey of 610 Swiss doctors showed that 46% had
used some form of CAM, mainly homeopathy and acupuncture (Domenighetti et al.
2000). In the United Kingdom, almost 40% of all general allopathic practitioners
offer some form of CAM referral or access (Zollmann et al. 2000). In the USA, a
national survey reported the use of at least 1 of 16 alternative therapies increased
from 34% in 1990 to 42% in 1997 (Eisenberg et al. 1998; UNCTD 2000).
The expenses for the use of Traditional and Complementary-Alternative Med-
icine are exponentially growing in many parts of the world. In Malaysia, an
estimated US$ 500 million is spent annually on Traditional Medicine, compared
to about US$ 300 million on allopathic medicine. The 1997 out-of-pocket
Complementary-Alternative Medicine expenditure was estimated at US$ 2,700

million in the USA. In Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom, annual
Complementary-Alternative Medicine expenditure is estimated at US$ 80 million,
US$ 2,400 million, and US$ 2,300 million, respectively. The world market for
herbal medicines based on traditional knowledge was estimated at US$ 60,000
million in the late 1990s (Brevoort 1998). A decade later it was around US$
60 billion (Tilbert and Kaptchuk 2008) with estimates for 2015 at US$ 90 billion
(GIA 2012). The sales of Herbs and herbal nutritional supplements in the USA
increased 101% between May 1996 and May 1998. The most popular herbal
products included Ginseng (Ginkgo biloba), Garlic (Allium sativum), Echinacea
spp., and St. John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum) (Brevoort 1998).
Traditional and Complementary-Alternative Medicine are gaining more and more
respect by national governments and health providers. Peru’s National Program in
Complementary Medicine and the Pan American Health Organization recently
compared Complementary Medicine to Allopathic Medicine in clinics and hospitals
operating within the Peruvian Social Security System. A total of 339 patients –
170 being treated with Complementary-Alternative Medicine and 169 with allo-
pathic medicine – were followed for one year. Treatments for osteoarthritis, back
pain, neurosis, asthma, peptic acid disease, tension and migraine headache, and
obesity were analyzed. The results, with 95% significance, showed that the cost of
using Complementary-Alternative Medicine was less than the cost of Western
therapy. In addition, for each of the criteria evaluated – clinical efficacy, user
satisfaction, and future risk reduction – Complementary-Alternative Medicine’s
efficacy was higher than that of conventional treatments, including fewer side
effects, higher perception of efficacy by both the patients and the clinics, and a
53–63% higher cost efficiency of Complementary-Alternative Medicine over that of
conventional treatments for the selected conditions (EsSalud 2000).
According to WHO (2002a, b, c), the most important challenges for Traditional
Medicine/Complementary-Alternative Medicine for the next years are:
• Research into safe and effective Traditional Medicine and Complementary Alter-
native Medicine treatments for diseases that represent the greatest burden,
particularly among poorer populations.
• Recognition of the role of Traditional Medicine practitioners in providing
healthcare in developing countries.
• Optimized and upgraded skills of Traditional Medicine practitioners in develop-
ing countries.
• Protection and preservation of the knowledge of Indigenous Traditional
Medicine.
• Sustainable cultivation of medicinal plants.
• Reliable information for consumers on the proper use of Traditional Medicine
and Complementary-Alternative Medicine therapies and products.
Northern Peru represents the “health axis” of the old Central Andean cultural area
stretching from Ecuador to Bolivia. The traditional use of medicinal plants in this
region, which encompasses in particular the Departments of Piura, Lambayeque, La

Libertad, Cajamarca, Amazonas, and San Martin possibly dates as far back as the first
millennium B.C. (north coastal Cupisnique Culture) or at least to the Moche period
(A.D. 100–800), with healing scenes and healers frequently depicted in ceramics.
Precedents for this study have been established by early colonial period chroni-
clers (Monardes 1574; Acosta 1590; Cobo 1653, 1956; the plant collections
(293 plants in crates 11 and 12 of 24) of Bishop Baltasar Jaime Martínez Compañón
sent to the Palacio Real de Madrid along with cultural materials in 1789 under the
title Trujillo del Perú in nine illustrated volumes (Martinez Compañon 1789;
Schjellerup 2009; Sharon and Bussmann 2006); the travel journals of H. Ruiz
from 1777 to 1788 (Ruiz 1777–1788); the work of Italian naturalist Antonio
Raimondi (1857); ethnoarchaeological analysis of the psychedelic San Pedro cactus
(Sharon 2000); curandera depictions in Moche ceramics (Glass-Coffin et al. 2004);
and research on the medicinal plants of Southern Ecuador (Béjar et al. 1997, 2001;
Bussmann 2006; Bussmann and Sharon 2007a, b).
Medicinal Plant Research and Traditional Medicine in Peru
Containing 78 of the 107 eco-regions of the world, in 1993, it was estimated that
Peru had 17,143 taxa of spermatophytes in 2,485 genera and 224 families (Brako
and Zarucchi 1993). It is thought that only 60% of the Peruvian flora has been
studied, with 1,400 species described as medicinal (Brack Egg 2004).
The importance of biodiversity for the Peruvian economy is enormous since 25%
of all exports are living species, the uses of which are essential to local populations in
terms of firewood, meat, lumber, medicinal plants, and many other products. Of
particular importance are vegetal species, with 5,000 plants applied in 49 different
uses of. Of the 5,000 plants in use some 4,400 are native; only 600 are introduced.
The majority of useful native species are not cultivated; only 222 can be considered
to be domesticated or semi-domesticated (Brack Egg 1999).
Transculturation is resulting in an enormous loss of traditional knowledge of great
value to the science and technology of Peru. The flora of the country represents 10%
of the world’s total, of which 30% is endemic. Peru is the fifth country in the world in
number of plant species with known properties utilized by the population (4,400
species); it is the first in domesticated native species (Brack-Egg 1999).
In all Peruvian ethnic groups, plant knowledge is invaluable because it reinforces
national identity and values, which are being lost in the complementary processes of
modernization and globalization. In the current situation, the emerging recognition
and incipient application of these resources and associated knowledge emphatically
underscores the critical need for ethnobotanical research.
Over the last 20 years considerable progress has been made in the overall
taxonomic treatment of the flora of Peru. However, while the Amazon rainforests
have received a great deal of scientific attention, the mountain forests and remote
highland areas are still relatively unexplored. Until the late 1990s little work had
been done on vegetation structure, ecology, and ethnobotany in the mountain forests
and coastal areas of the North. In spite of the fact that this region is the core of what
Peruvian anthropologist Lupe Camino (1992/1999) calls the “health axis” of Central
Andean ethnomedicine, little ethnobotanical and ethnomedical research has been
published on the rich flora found here.
Issues in the Globalization of Traditional Medicine
Moran, King, and Carlson (2001) trace the emergence of biodiversity prospecting.
On 5 June 1992, in order to alleviate the loss of earth’s flora and fauna the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was inaugurated at the UN Earth Summit
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. CBD objectives are: (1) conservation of biodiversity,
(2) sustainable use of components of biodiversity, and (3) equitable sharing of
benefits derived from commercial use of genetic resources.
For biodiversity-rich developing countries, the most critical element in the CBD
is sovereignty over bioresources by nation states, since the treaty recognizes their
right to regulate and charge outsiders for access to their biodiversity. The sovereignty
component is meant to replace the “common heritage” paradigm, which provides
unrestricted access to biological resources. Ideally this paradigm shift is supposed to
balance the way in which all involved interest groups can gain from biodiversity use
by recognizing the economic, sociocultural, and environmental values of
bioresources and the cost of their preservation.
In the time since the CBD was initiated, few of the 178 signatory nations have
introduced legislation requiring benefit sharing for outside commercial access to
their national bioresources, although some suggestions for implementation of the
CBD have been brought forward (Iwu 1996; Buitron 1999). Despite the lukewarm
response to the CBD by nation states, the global shift in awareness concerning
tropical deforestation provided an opportunity for ethnobotanists to assert that
everyone has an interest in preserving rainforests because they might contain
compounds that could cure cancer, HIV-AIDS, and other diseases (Schultes and
Raffauf 1990; Elisabetsky and Castilhos 1990; Cox and Balick 1994; Schultes 1994;
Brown 2003). In addition, income derived from the marketing of traditional medic-
inal knowledge was seen as an instrument to alleviate poverty and to finance
conservation efforts (Reid 1993; Mooney 1993; Baker et al. 1995). Within a few
years, however, for its critics, ethnobotany – initially seen as instrument that could
help to salvage declining traditional knowledge and biodiversity – had simply
become an instrument of theft and “biopiracy.”
In his book Who Owns Native Culture? anthropologist Michael Brown (2003) has
a chapter entitled “The Ethnobotany Blues” which documents high-profile projects
launched in Africa and Latin America in the early 1990s. They were organized under
the US initiative known as the International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups
(ICBG), administered by the Fogarty International Center for Advanced Study in
Health Sciences, part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), with additional
funding from the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the US Agency for
International Development (USAID). Projects involved partnerships between
American and host-country scientists as well as major drug companies, including

Monsanto, Bristol-Myers Squibb, and American Cynamid. Brown (2003) describes
ICBG-Peru’s troubled relationship between the Aguaruna of the Peruvian Amazon
and Washington University (St. Louis), criticizing “paternalistic interventions that
leave native peoples on the margins of decision-making and profit-taking” (p. 114).
In Mexico, he documents how ICBG-Maya was shut down by an indigenous healers’
organization and their activist allies on the grounds that it was an effort to steal native
knowledge and resources. And he traces the failure of Shaman Pharmaceuticals, a
California company which folded in 1999, in trying to adapt ethnobotanical
bioprospecting to the “magic-bullet” paradigm of the pharmaceutical industry.
In the late 1990s, anthropologist Cori Hayden (2003) conducted an ethnography
of an ICBG bioprospecting agreement inaugurated in 1993 between the University
of Arizona and its pharmaceutical partners (whose contribution was a discount on
the use of their equipment!) and a team of plant researchers at Mexico’s National
Autonomous University (UNAM) headed by ethnobotanist Robert Bye. Under the
agreement, UNAM researchers sent extracts of Mexican medicinal plants to the USA
in exchange for research funds and promises of a percentage of royalties 10–20 years
in the future – should a drug result from the collaboration. The project was also
designed to collect ethnobotanical knowledge and to direct some royalties back to
source-communities. It concluded in 2003 when UNAM opted out of a second
renewal.
Hayden elucidates the complex issues that emerged during the project, in partic-
ular the paradoxical effects of NIH’s advocacy of benefit-sharing according to the
neo-liberal paradigm of bioprospecting. For NIH, this meant that field researchers
were supposed to sign contracts with each individual supplier of plants. Suppliers –
and, by implication, their communities – were presumed to be “authors” and
“stewards” of resources as well as future benefit-recipients. For UNAM ethnobota-
nists, drawing on a well-established research methodology, this meant collecting
initial plant species from urban marketplaces and rural roadsides, a major disruption
of a fundamental biopropecting assumption that plants and knowledge “come with”
clearly identified local stewards, authors, and claimants.
In stark contrast with the ICBG approach, there is the Mexican Institute for Social
Security (IMSS) model put into practice at its Southern Center for Biomedical
Research (CIBIS) in Cuernavaca and focused on the production of herbal medicines.
On 20 February 1997, Hayden (2003) interviewed Miguel Antinori, a prominent
CIBIS official who denigrated bioprospecting agreements for using Mexico’s chem-
ists as “cheap labor” and for sending extracts abroad for “more sophisticated” work.
Further, he added, “It’s hard to see an assertion of [Mexican] national identity in
these contexts—up north, they just see Mexico as a source of raw material and
certainly not as research partners or collaborators. Why don’t they locate more of the
development part here? Because they don’t trust Mexican science.”
Shaman Pharmaceuticals scientists Moran, King, and Carlson (2001) discuss the
irony in the situations described above, indicating that the majority of the biotech
industry is not involved in bioprospecting, since most companies favor the use of
cheaper and faster synthetic technologies over the complex process involved in
exploring for natural products. Nonetheless, biotechnology spawns ethical, social,

and legal debates at the margins of pharmaceutical bioprospecting, including the
collaboration between big business and big science, the ethics of genetic engineer-
ing, and the patentability of life forms as well as ideas about genetics and racism,
culture, and ethnicity. However, it is significant to note that, since the inauguration of
the CBD, no pharmaceutical bioprospecting product developed by using traditional
knowledge has generated an economic profit. (But this does not mean that pharma-
ceutical companies do not try to impede or co-opt efforts to get natural plant products
to market.) Also, only a small number of bioprospecting research expeditions begin
by using ethnobotany as a discovery methodology, with the work soon evolving into
economic botany as the laboratory focus shifts to the plant’s chemistry, biological
activity, and pharmacology/toxicology. During drug discovery, active chemical
components are isolated, often modified, and patented. Patented information then
becomes a commodity in itself.
Peruvian pharmaceutical researcher Angulo (2009) discusses new approaches to
research on medicinal plants contrasting Western and Eastern methodologies. For
example, whereas the West does not value popular wisdom and usage developed
over centuries by local cultures, the East uses this knowledge as a paradigmatic base
for its model of science. Whereas the West has exclusively followed the Cartesian
model of scientific skepticism, Eastern pragmatism, building on tradition, has
formalized usage and then applied the methods of modern science. Whereas the
West has ignored traditional knowledge in designing artificial studies that isolate
chemical components and evaluate their toxicity and bioactivity to later take finished
products into clinical settings, the East has followed an inverse strategy, i.e., valuing
traditional knowledge by applying original remedies and therapies in the medical
clinic and then subjecting those that work to biochemical research and development.
Whereas the West followed a basic research paradigm of random screening, com-
ponent analysis, and synthesis, the East recognized the holistic action of herbal
medicines in seeking ways to industrialize them. As a result of the foregoing factors,
Western science has developed economic botany, which uses a methodology of
chemical taxonomy based on the assumption that only by knowing the chemistry
of plants can we discover their active principles and bioactivity. This has led to the
current emphasis on synthetic chemistry for the development of modern medicines.
Angulo (2009) points out that, by uncritically following the Western model for
biochemical research promoted by large European and American pharmaceutical
corporations, Peru has acquiesced to the notion that countries like Peru and Mexico
lack the technical and economic resources necessary to compete with foreign
consortiums. As a result, these countries, for the most part, have denigrated their
own indigenous knowledge and neglected the development of viable national
research programs in ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology. Joining Elisabetsky
and Castilhos (1990), Angulo suggests that:
Traditional medicine should be the basis for the development of drugs, given that it includes
the knowledge of the therapeutic value of local flora. Thus, knowledge of the practices of
Traditional Medicine plays a crucial role in the selection of species to subsequently be
considered as potential sources of universally applicable drugs. Elizabetsky concludes that the
interaction between anthropology and ethnopharmacology is the basis on which should be
developed the holistic investigation of medicinal plants in particular and healthcare in general.
We would only add that applied research on natural plant remedies should also be
on the national agendas of Peru and neighboring republics.
By focusing on indigenous knowledge as it relates to the environment, the
Convention on Biological Diversity managed to sidestep some of the more politi-
cally charged aspects of the intellectual property rights (IPR) issue. The greatest
impact on concerns over indigenous and local-community rights can be traced to the
mercurial rise of biotechnology on the international trade front and the 1995 version
of the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). These two factors have created a large poten-
tial market for indigenous and local knowledge and resources, while at the same time
raising concerns about the risk that these resources will be misappropriated. Thus,
this knowledge is receiving increasing international attention in terms of its relation-
ship to human rights as well as its relevance to modern science. The situation has
created opposing pressures calling for the rights of local and indigenous peoples on
the one hand and further exploitation of their knowledge on the other. Moran, King,
and Carlson (2001) and Greaves (1995), indicate that the biggest problem with the
orthodox intellectual property system is its focus on material aspects of knowledge at
the expense of the cultural. They advocate recognition of alternative worldviews in
the formulation of new indigenous knowledge rights that are localized, relevant,
pertinent, and effective.
In their article in Cultural Survival Quarterly, Bannister and Barrett (2001)
contend that bioprospecting is a form of economic botany that can run contrary to
the ethnobotanical objectives of protecting biological and cultural diversity. The
economic focus of this activity highlights issues concerning indigenous rights,
cultural knowledge, and traditional resources – areas in which current intellectual
property protection regimes are inadequate and inappropriate. However, indigenous
communities are increasingly forced to employ intellectual property rights to protect
these resources. Protection issues ought to be addressed well before the point at
which employing intellectual property mechanisms seems to be the only alternative.
Significant control lies at the point of decision about publication and dissemination
of knowledge to the wider community, which raises important questions about
facilitating the appropriation of cultural knowledge. The authors advocate a more
“precautionary” approach to ethnobotanical inquiry in assisting indigenous commu-
nities in protecting their cultural heritage and intellectual property rights.
Probably the major concern in many traditional communities is that their spiritual
legacies will be profaned by a secularized and consumer-driven outside world.
Often, however, legitimate economic considerations also play a role in the defensive
reactions of these societies to the well-intended but naïve desire of the academic
world to place its findings in the public domain. Greaves (1995) and Bannister and
Barrett (2001) have warned that the downside in this approach is that a
“colonializing archive” can become easily “mined” for clues in the search for new
drugs without the inconvenience of fieldwork or inclusion of source communities in

the benefits derived from products resulting from research.
However, although acknowledging genuine concerns about neocolonialism and
biopiracy, we would submit that each situation has to be considered on its own
merits, especially with regard to its specific cultural context. A first step in the
evaluation process should involve the important distinction between “indigenous
peoples” and “local communities” (Moran, King, and Carlson 2001). The latter for
the most part are farmers who speak the national language, practice the majority
religion, and identify with the nation-state, especially with regard to their socioeco-
nomic aspirations, whereas the former tend to be tribal and/or ethnic minorities, who
seek collective rights and self-determination for their biological and cultural
resources. Although it is often the case that in both communities, traditional knowl-
edge and resources are undocumented and in danger of disappearing, this danger
tends to be more pressing in local communities as their members continue to adapt to
privatization and globalization. In cases such as this, successful ethnobotanical
intervention requires a methodology that combines “salvage ethnography” with
“rapid assessment.” This is the methodology that we initially applied in Peru,
motivated by our prior experience in Southern Ecuador where traditional knowledge
of medicinal plants similar to those found in Northern Peru is diminishing at an
alarming rate. However, with our database firmly established as a research vehicle,
we can now turn our attention to facilitating proactive issues of education, conser-
vation, and sustainable development of natural plant products.
India provides a positive example of the proactive application of this approach.
Taking advantage of the “novelty” criterion in international patent law, with regard
to the documentation of Ayurvedic and other traditional medicine, millennial San-
skrit texts as well as modern publications are included in a traditional knowledge
database, which is subsequently provided to patent agencies. The expectation is that,
by placing the knowledge about long-term cultural precedents for traditional uses in
the public domain, this research will prove that contemporary patent applications
derived from local medicinal knowledge lack originality, i.e., that they are not
“novel” enough to qualify as inventions warranting protection under international
patent law and are thus not patentable.
Fortunately, in 2002, with the support of the International Phyto-Genetic
Resource Institute (Rome, Italy), Peru promulgated Law 27811 for the protection
of the collective knowledge of indigenous peoples related to biological resources.
Article 17 of the law establishes a National Public Register to include collective
knowledge that is in the public domain. This register is administered by INDECOPI
(National Institute of Competitive Defense and Intellectual Property), with the
obligation to send the information recorded to principal patent offices around the
world, a protective defense mechanism intended to prevent the granting of patents
which do not meet the criteria of novelty and degree of inventiveness (Venero 2005;
Ferro and Ruiz 2005a, b).
As noted earlier, Peru has also activated the Peruvian National Commission
Against Biopiracy. In the Congressional Forum of 2004 which led to the formation
of the Commission, a number of important issues were addressed, including
intellectual property, the high protein cereal Quinua and biopiracy, passage of the
law for the protection of Peruvian biodiversity and the collective knowledge of
indigenous peoples, and efforts to annul the US patent for the virility stimulant Maca
as well as suggestions for combating biopiracy (Ferro et al. 2005a, b). Briefly noted
was the issue of genetically modified foods, anticipated as a concern that was likely
to emerge with approval of a free trade agreement. When the Commission was
legally mandated, later in 2004, 19 plant claims were slated for review. By 2010,
claims for 69 plants were being researched, 17 cases of biopiracy had been identified,
and seven (from France, Japan, and South Korea) had been successfully blocked.
One hopes that in all these deliberations the following remarks by forum panelist
Jorge Agurto (1996) will be borne in mind:
The problem underlying biopiracy is the open recognition of the rights of the indigenous
peoples and communities. Many times they have been excluded and marginalized from the
politics of Government. Even today we encounter members of Congress who are either
unaware of the existence of indigenous peoples or who do not recognize their rights. It is
impossible to speak of biopiracy if we do not defend the holders of many genetic resources,
those who have achieved the domestication, knowledge, and technology to utilize biodiver-
sity in a sustainable fashion. They are also the holders of the right to prior informed consent,
a fundamental right to know the objectives of the exploration and exploitation of their
resources and traditional knowledge and the consequences or potential benefits that can
come with industrial, commercial or scientific uses.
Spanish anthropologist Luisa Abad (2003) concludes in her book Etnocida y

resistencia en la Amazonia Peruana that foreign and domestic development policies
contribute to the marginalization of indigenous peoples:
Underdeveloped, developing, Third World, North-South. . ., perhaps the language has been
changing in these times and the terminology has been adapting itself to partially new habits,
but the unequal, hierarchical reality remains the same, given that those who exercise power
continue to be the same. International assistance also keeps promoting unequal development
between peoples.
Biodiversity Conservation and Traditional Medicine
A policy report, Biodiversity, Traditional Knowledge and Community Health:

Strengthening Linkages, published by the United Nations University, Institute of
Advanced Studies in Yokohama, Japan, addresses many of the issues discussed
above (Unnikrishnan et al. 2015). Building on the WHO Alma Ata Declaration of
1978 relating to Traditional Medicine and primary health care, the UN Convention
on Biological Diversity of 1992, and the UN’s Middle Development Goals (MDGs)
of 2011, this document shows that links between Traditional Medicine and biodi-
versity are strengthened by three processes: (1) a medical approach involving
national efforts to integrate Traditional Medicine into institutional healthcare deliv-
ery which includes challenges related to safety, quality, efficacy, access, and
regulation; (2) a market-oriented approach focused on drug development or tourism

promotion focused on biomedical products and services as marketable commodities;
and (3) a community-focused approach activated by civil society organizations
focused on conservation implemented through a grassroots mobilization process
involving health professionals, botanists, conservationists, and community activists.
The community-based approach shows allegiance to the Alma Ata primary health
care model. Examples include the barefoot doctors’ strategy in China and the social
health activist programs in India. Given the centrality of biodiversity in human lives,
there still is a need to develop sustainable strategies for health maintenance com-
bined with conservation of biological resources and linked to local knowledge and
practices. This is relevant even in developed countries where there is an increasing
demand for alternative and complementary medicine.
Two Decades of Ethnobotanical Research in Southern Ecuador

and Northern Peru
Work up to 2012 – besides developing a database of 510 medicinal plants

(Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, b, 2007a) and 974 remedies of mixtures (Bussmann
et al. 2010a) – has demonstrated that herbal commerce in Peru is a major economic
resource (Bussmann and Sharon 2007b), which, although used alongside modern
pharmaceutical products, is showing signs of diminished popular knowledge of
applications (Bussmann and Sharon 2007b; Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2009a).
Laboratory research on most of the database has ranged from minimum inhibition
concentrations (Bussmann et al. 2010b) to toxicity screening (Bussmann et al. 2011)
as well as bioassays to determine antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008a, b,
2009b, c) and phytochemical analysis (Bussmann et al. 2009c; Perez et al. 2012)
with more focused analyses of herbal treatments for acne (Bussmann et al. 2008a)
and malaria (Bussmann and Glenn 2010). Other studies have sought to identify
Ulluchu, a ceremonial plant of the pre-Hispanic Moche culture (Bussmann and
Sharon 2009a) as well as surveying colonial sources of medicinal plants in Northern
Peru and Southern Ecuador (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b). An ethnography of
peasant herbalists which documented aspects of the market supply chain showed that
suppliers are not adequately remunerated and revealed threats posed by lack of
conservation measures and overharvesting (Revene et al. 2008; Carrillo 2012)
criticized the scientific reductionism of laboratory research in attempting to appro-
priately verify traditional remedies. Anthropological studies of traditional
curanderos and their curing altars (mesas) include articles by Sharon et al. (2009),
Sharon and Gálvez (2009), Sharon (2009), and Glass-Coffin et al. (2004).
It is worth noting that, during the decade that we have been working in the field
and the laboratory, there has been a sea change in attitudes and perceptions of
Traditional Medicine. In Trujillo, Lima and Arequipa a pilot program prescribing
medicinal plants, scientifically validated by WHO/PAHO, has been initiated by
EsSalud’s National Program for Complementary Medicine, an initiative begun in

1999 with three centers which has grown to 26 to date (Fernández 2005). In Trujillo,
the Missouri Botanical Garden’s Sacred Seeds program has started an herbal garden
and educational outreach program at the site museum of the pre-Hispanic Chimú city
of Chan Chan. In Huamachuco, a program of ethnobotany and conservation manifest
in community gardens and seed banks of medicinal and food plants is slowly
emerging through collaboration between three local peasant communities, the
Beneficencia Publica and regional hospital, MBG’s Sacred Seeds program,
MHIRT, and the Peace Corps. Future work will involve developing a supply chain
between Huamachuco and CCM-Trujillo with scientific validation by MBG, UB
(SUNY), the Biotransformation and Natural Products Laboratory at UNT, and the
Interdisciplinary Research Group at UPAO as coordinated by MHIRT and MBG.
Plant Nomenclature in Northern Peru
The naming of plant species follows three general patterns. Plant names already used
by original indigenous populations are often maintained, although slightly modified.
Plants similar to species already known, or with similar habitus, often receive the
same name (transposition). In other cases, completely new names are created
(neology) (Van den Eynden et al. 2004).
The vernacular names of the plants used in Northern Peru reflect the historical
development of plant use in the region. Introduced species (e.g., Apium graveolens –
Apio, Foeniculum vulgare – Hinojo), native species similar to species found in Spain
(e.g., Adiantum concinnum – Culantrillo, Matricaria frigidum – Manzanilla), as well
as species growing mostly in the coastal regions of the area (e.g., Alternanthera
porrigens – Sanguinaria) are often addressed with names derived from Spanish
roots. Plants from the mountain forests and especially the Andean highlands or the
Amazon are often known by their Quechua names (e.g., Pellaea ternifolia – Cuti
Cuti, Amaranthus caudatus – Quihuicha, Banisteriopsis caapi – Ayahuasca), and a
few plant names can be traced back to Mochica (the original indigenous language
spoken at the coast of Northern Peru) roots (e.g., Nectandra spp. – Espingo)
(Bussmann and Sharon 2009b). Van den Eynden et al. (2004) observed similar
patterns in Southern Ecuador, although her study focused only on edible species.
Nine hundred thirty-eight vernacular names were recorded for 510 plant species.
About one third if all names represented Quechua names or had Mochica roots,
while 66.5% of all names were of Spanish origin or at least had Spanish components.
In comparison, 41% of the vernacular names of edible plants in Southern Ecuador
were found to be of Spanish origin. More than half of the indigenous species carried
only one vernacular name, with the remaining species carrying a variety of indige-
nous names, often derived from the same root. In comparison, almost 75% of the
introductions were known by one name only. The slight differences in plant names
indicate that the species have been used in the region for a long time and that their
names reflect small variations in the local dialects.
Fig. 14 Study area: Peruvian Departments of Amazonas, Piura, Lambayeque, La Libertad,

Cajamarca, San Martin, and the Ecuadorian Province of Loja. Dry forest (above) and Cloudforest
(below) indicating the striking moisture gradient
Two decades of Ethnobotany in Northern Peru and Southern

Ecuador
Since 1995 ethnobotanical data were collected in Northern Peru and Southern
Ecuador (Fig. 14), from plant sellers while purchasing plant materials in local
markets, by accompanying local healers (curanderos) to the markets when they
purchased plants for curing sessions, and into the field when they were
harvesting. In addition, plants were collected by the project members in the
field, and – together with the material purchased in the markets – taken to the
homes of curanderos to discuss the plants’ healing properties, applications,
harvesting methodology, and origins. The project region represents a floristic
hotspot in Peru, with striking gradients from coastal deserts and dry forests, to
some of the wettest Paramos known, to the Amazon lowlands (Fig. 15). At the
curanderos’ homes, the authors also observed the preparation of remedies and
participated in healing rituals. Plant uses were discussed in detail with infor-
mants, after seeking prior informed consent from each respondent. Following a
semi-structured interview technique, respondents were asked to provide detailed
information about the vernacular plant name in Spanish or Quechua; plant
properties (hot/cold); harvesting region; ailments for which a plant was used;
Fig. 15 A 50 km transect in Southern Ecuador from dry forest (250 mm precipitation, left) to
Podocarpus National Park Paramo (10,000 mm precipitation, middle) to Amazon lowlands (right)
best harvesting time and season; plant parts used as well as mode of preparation
and application; and specific instructions for the preparation of remedies, includ-
ing the addition of other plant species.
Many of the species reported from northern Peru are widely known by
curanderos and herb vendors as well as the general population of the region and
are employed for a large number of medical conditions. One hundred fifty to two
hundred plant species, including most of the introductions, are commonly sold in the
local markets (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b). Rare indigenous species were either
collected by the healers themselves or are ordered from special collectors or herb
vendors. The same plants were frequently used by a variety of healers for the same
purposes, with only slight variations in recipes. However, different healers might
give preference to different species for the treatment of the same medical condition.
All species found were well known to the healers and herb vendors involved in the
study, even if they themselves did not use or sell the species in question. Many
species were often easily recognized by their vernacular names by other members of
the population. This indicates that these remedies have been in use for a long time by
many people. The use of some species, most prominently San Pedro (Echinopsis
pachanoi), Maichil (Thevetia peruviana) and Ishpingo (various species of
Nectandra), can be traced back to the Moche culture (A.D. 100–800).
Representations of these plants are frequently found on Moche ceramics, and the
remains of some were found in a variety of burials of high-ranking individuals of the
Moche elite, e.g., the tomb of the Lord of Sipán (Bussmann and Sharon 2009b).
Medicinal Uses
Five hundred ten plants with medicinal properties were registered in Northern Peru.
The same species was often used for various medical conditions and applied in
different ways for the same condition. For example, nervous disorders might be
treated using different parts of a plant in different applications, e.g., topical (as a
Poultice or Bath), oral (ingestion of plant extracts), and by supplying the patient with
a seguro, a bottle filled with herbs and perfumes, which serves as a protective charm.
Two thousand four hundred ninety-nine different uses were registered for the
510 species encountered. In the following, the total number of uses/applications
and the number of species used are given, rather than only the number of plant
species used to treat a condition, in order to emphasize the importance of the
treatment of specific conditions.
The highest number of species (207, 40.4%) is used for the treatment of “mag-
ical” ailments, with 682 (27.3%) of all conditions. Respiratory problems (95 species,
18.5%) were mentioned as 233 (9.3%) of all uses; 98 species (19.1%) are used to
treat psychosomatic and nervous system problems, with 176 applications (7%).
Kidney and Urinary tract disorders are treated with 85 species (16.6%), for 111 con-
ditions (4.4%). Rheumatic and arthritic symptoms are mentioned in 103 uses (4.1%),
with 45 species (8.8%) used for treatment. Infections of female organs are treated
with 66 species (12.9%) and comprised 100 (4.4%) of all conditions.
Treatments are most often performed in the homes of the individual healers, who
normally have their mesas (healing altars) setup in their backyards (Fig. 16). Healers
also treat patients at altars and consultation chambers (consultorios) in their homes,
Fig. 16 Contemporary
healing altar (mesa) in
Southern Ecuador
Fig. 17 Contemporary healing altar (mesa) in Northern Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
at sacred sites in the countryside, or at sacred lagoons high in the mountains. Healing
altars (mesas) bearing a large number of power objects are often employed (Fig. 17).
A curing ceremony normally involves purification of the patient by orally spraying
blessed and enchanted herbal extracts on the whole body to fend off evil spirits and
by nasal ingestion of tobacco juice and perfumes. Plant supplies come mostly from
the local markets (Fig. 18).
Two hundred seventy-eight different medical conditions were recorded. Most
plants were used for the treatment of multiple ailments. The large variety of
conditions is grouped into 72 main categories.
Magical Uses
Mental, neurological, and psychosomatic disorders are highly prevalent on a global

scale. The burden of mental health problems has been seriously underestimated.
Although neurological problems are only responsible for about 1% of global deaths,
they contribute to over 11% of the global disease burden. It is estimated that this
share will rise to 15% by 2020 (WHO 2009a, b). Western medicine often offers little
help for patients afflicted by these disorders.
Fig. 18 Plant preparations

and raw plants for sale in
Mercado Mayorista, Trujillo.
(Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Healing altars (mesas) in Northern Peru often follow the old tradition by includ-
ing a large variety of “power objects,” frequently with a “pagan” background.
Objects such as seashells, pre-Columbian ceramics, staffs, stones, etc., are very
common on Peruvian mesas and are blended with Christian symbols such as crosses
and images of saints. Treatments are most often performed in the homes of the
individual healers, who normally have their mesas set up in their backyards. Healers
also treat patients at altars and consultation chambers (consultorios) in their homes,
at sacred sites in the countryside, or at sacred lagoons high up in the mountains. A
curing ceremony normally involves purification of the patient by orally spraying
blessed and enchanted herbal extracts on the whole body to fend off evil spirits and
by “Spiritual Flowerings” (baños de florecimiento). In most cases, the cleansing of
the patients involves drinking boiled San Pedro juice and the nasal ingestion of
tobacco juice and perfumes. Sometimes extracts of Jimson weed (Datura ferox),
Brugmansia spp., and tobacco are also used to purify the patients. While the
incantations used by healers during their curing sessions include Christian compo-
nents (e.g., the invocation of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and any number of saints),
references to Andean cosmology (e.g., to the apus or the spirits of the mountains) are
very common. The use of guinea pigs as diagnostic instruments is standard in

Northern Peru (Sharon 1978, 1980, 1994, 2000; Joralemon and Sharon 1993).
Traditional Medicine is also gaining more attention by national governments and
health providers. Peru’s National Program in Complementary Medicine and the Pan
American Health Organization recently compared Complementary Medicine to
allopathic medicine in clinics and hospitals operating within the Peruvian Social
Security System (EsSalud 2000).
Mal Aire (Bad Air), Mal Viento (Bad Wnd), Susto or Espanto (Fright), Mal Ojo
(Evil Eye), and Daño or Brujería (Sorcery) are seen as very common illnesses in
Andean society. Causes include sudden changes in body temperature (Mal Aire, Mal
Viento), any kind of shock (Susto, Espanto), “humors,” or spells cast by other people
(Mal Ojo), poisoned food, curses, etc. (Daño, Brujeria). Medical problems caused
by outside influences were reported in a wide variety of studies (Girault 1987;
Oblitas 1992). The Western concept of “psychosomatic disorders” comes closest
to characterizing these illnesses.
These illness categories are deeply rooted in Andean society, and Western medicine
does not offer efficient alternatives to traditional treatment. This might explain why this
category has still such outstanding importance. Treatment in many cases involved the
participation of the patient in a cleansing ceremony or limpia. This could either be a
relatively simple spraying with perfumes and holy water, or an all-night ceremony
involving the healer’s curing altar (mesa). In the days after an all-night ceremony,
patients are normally treated with a baño de florecimiento (flowering bath) in order to
relieve them of any remaining adversary symptoms or spirits. In addition, patients
frequently receive seguros (herbal amulets) for protection against further evil influences
and for good luck. Seguros are flasks filled with powerful herbs, as well as perfumes,
pictures of saints, and the hair and fingernails of the patient.
The enormous number of plant species used for the treatment of psychosomatic
disorders indicates that the curanderos of Northern Peru are valued specialists who
are consulted mainly for these conditions. This is all the more interesting since
Western medicine has still not found efficient treatments for psychosomatic disor-
ders. The plant species used for “magical or ritual” disorders come mostly from the
high Andes, especially from the vicinity of sacred lakes, since plants from those
regions are regarded as especially powerful. This links the present-day curing
practices directly to ancient Andean cosmology. The use of purgatives and laxatives
to literally “expel” evil spirits is also very common.
A total of 222 plant species belonging to 172 genera and 78 families were
documented and identified as herbal remedies used to treat nervous system problems
in Northern Peru. Most species used were Asteraceae (36 species, 16.21%), followed
by Solanaceae (15 species, 6.76%) and Lamiaceae (14 species, 6.31%). The most
important nervous system families are somewhat over-represented in comparison to
the overall medicinal flora, while some other medicinally important families (e.g.,
Poaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Euphorbiaceae) are completely missing or under-
represented from the nervous disorder portfolio (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b).
The majority of herbal preparations were prepared from the whole plant (31.56%),
while the leaves (24.48%), stems (21.24%), and flowers (8.55%) were used less
frequently. Whole plants and stems were more often used than characteristic for the
overall medicinal preparations found in the region (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b). This
indicates that the local healers count on a very well-developed knowledge about the
properties of different plant parts. In over 60% of the cases, fresh plant material was used
to prepare remedies, which differs slightly from the average herbal preparation mode in
Northern Peru. Interestingly, only about 36% of the remedies were applied orally, while
the majority was applied topically (46.65%), often as bath, and the remaining ones were
used as spiritual safeguard (seguro). This is different from the regional average of
application and underlines the importance of spiritually oriented treatments. Over 79%
of all remedies were prepared as mixtures with multiple ingredients by boiling plant
material either in water or in sugarcane spirit.
Respiratory System
The WHO reports that respiratory illnesses are of high importance as a cause of death
and morbidity at a global scale. WHO elaborated a Strategy for Prevention and
Control of Chronic Respiratory Diseases (CRDs), (WHO 2002a, b, c), and respira-
tory problems are a major cause for infant deaths in Peru (Weil 1978).
A total of 91 plant species belonging to 82 genera and 48 families were documented
and identified as respiratory system herbal remedies in Northern Peru. Most species
used were Asteraceae (15 species, 16.67%), followed by Lamiaceae and Fabaceae
(8.89% and 5.56%). Most other families contributed only one species each to the
pharmacopoeia. The most important families are clearly similarly well represented in
comparison to the overall medicinal flora, although some other medicinally important
families (e.g., Euphorbiaceae, Lycopodiaceae, Cucurbitaceae) are completely missing
from the respiratory portfolio (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a).
The majority of respiratory disorder herbal preparations were prepared from the
leaves of plants (27.69%), while the whole plant (18.46%), flowers (13.85%), and
stems (17.69%) were used less frequently. This indicates that the local healers count
on a very well-developed knowledge about the properties of different plant parts. In
almost 55% of the cases fresh plant material was used to prepare remedies, which
differs little from the average herbal preparation mode in Northern Peru. About 86%
of the remedies were applied orally, while the remaining ones were applied topically.
Over half of all remedies were prepared as mixtures of multiple ingredients by
boiling plant material either in water or in sugarcane spirit.
Respiratory disorders are so common globally, and over-the counter remedies,
both allopathic and complementary, so frequently sold, that much effort has been put
into the verification of traditional remedies. Almost 50% of the plants found in the
respiratory pharmacopoeia of Northern Peru, or their congeners have been studied
for their medicinal properties. The original hypothesis that many species employed
for respiratory illnesses would be nonnative, introduced to treat diseases that were
originally also introduced by colonialists, did not hold however. Quite contrarily,
many remedies for respiratory ailments are native to the study area. From this
perspective, it is surprising to see how many species have actually been studied at
least preliminarily.
Urinary System (Kidneys, Bladder)
The recent WHO report on urinary tract infections (UTI) indicates that UTIs are one
of the most common bacterial infections seen, in particular in children. It has been
estimated that UTI are diagnosed in 1% of boys and 3–8% of girls. In the first year of
life, UTI is more prevalent in boys with rates of 2.7% compared with 0.7% in girls.
The reported rate of recurrent UTI is around 12–30% with risk greater in infants
<6 months, severe vesico-ureteric reflux and abnormal nuclear renal scans at time of
first infection (WHO 2005). Studies have shown a higher UTI prevalence of 8–35%
in malnourished children, with the risk of bacteriuria increasing significantly with
the severity of malnutrition (WHO 2005).
documented and identified as herbal remedies for kidney and urinary tract problems
in Northern Peru. Most species used were Asteraceae (8 species, 11.43%), followed
by Fabaceae and Poaceae (both 5 species, 7.14%). All other families mostly con-
tributed only one species each to the pharmacopoeia. The most important families
are represented similarly as in the overall medicinal flora, while some other medic-
inally important families (e.g., Lycopodiaceae, Cucurbitaceae) are completely miss-
ing from the kidney portfolio (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b).
The majority of kidney herbal preparations were prepared from the whole plant
(27.78%), while the leaves of plants (25.56%), flowers (12.22%), and stems
(16.67%) were used less frequently (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b). This indicates
that the local healers count on a very well-developed knowledge about the properties
of different plant parts. In almost 64% of the cases, fresh plant material was used to
prepare remedies, which differs little from the average herbal preparation mode in
Northern Peru. About 88% of the remedies were applied orally, while the remaining
ones were applied topically. Over half of all remedies were prepared as mixtures of
multiple ingredients by boiling plant material either in water or in sugarcane spirit.
Kidney and urinary system problems are very common globally, but allopathic
treatments, in particular with regard to renal calculi, are mostly focused on dilation of
the ureter and pain management. Although a large number of plants are used in
traditional medicine to treat this problem, less than 35% of the plants found in Peru
or their congeners have been studied at all for their medicinal properties. Kidney and
urinary tract diseases are a major health challenge worldwide. Many plant species are
traditionally used for kidney disease treatment, and some have been investigated for
their efficacy with positive results. An often-limiting factor to these investigations is
lack of comprehensive ethnobotanical data to help choose plant candidates for
potency/efficacy tests. Since the plant parts utilized in preparation of kidney reme-
dies are reported in this survey, it serves as an indication of species that may need
further ecological assessment on their regeneration status.
Rheumatic Problems
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) reports that an estimated 23.5 million
Americans suffer from autoimmune diseases and that this number is expected to
grow. Medical research has currently identified 80–100 autoimmune diseases, and
40 additional diseases are suspected to have an autoimmune basis. Autoimmune
diseases collectively rank in the top ten leading causes of death for women aged from
adolescents up to age 64. In Western medicine, the most common treatments are
immuno-suppressants, which are known to have devastating long-term side effects
(Gillett and Chan 2000).
The housing conditions already described, as well as difficult working conditions,
lead to a wide spectrum of muscular-skeletal disorders, including rheumatism,
arthritis, and bone- and muscle-pain. A total of 55 plant species belonging to
53 genera and 43 families were documented and identified as autoimmune herbal
remedies in Northern Peru. Most species used were Fabaceae (4 species, 7.27%),
followed by Rosaceae and Myrtaceae (both 3 species, 5.45%). All other families
contributed only one or two species each to the. The most important families are
clearly over-represented in comparison to the overall medicinal flora, while some
other medicinally important families (e.g., Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Euphorbiaceae,
Apiaceae, Lycopodiaceae, Cucurbitaceae) are less commonly used for the treatment
of autoimmune disorders and pain or are completely missing from the portfolio
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b).
The majority of the herbal preparations were prepared from the leaves of plants
(35%), while the whole plant (21.25%), and stems (17.5%) were used less fre-
quently. This indicates that the local healers count on a very well-developed knowl-
edge about the properties of different plant parts. In 60% of the cases, fresh plant
material was used to prepare remedies, which differs little from the average herbal
preparation mode in Northern Peru. Only about 55% of the remedies were applied
orally, while the remaining ones were applied topically. This is little different from
the regional average of application. Over half of all remedies were prepared as
mixtures of multiple ingredients by boiling plant material either in water or in
sugarcane spirit.
Very little western scientific evidence exists to prove the efficacy of the species
employed as remedies in Northern Peru to treat autoimmune problems. Less than a
pitiful 22% of the plants found or their congeners have been studied at all for their
medicinal properties.
Internal Organs (Liver, Gallbladder)
Disorders of internal organs fall far behind the most commonly treated medical
conditions. (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b). This is an indication that curanderos in
Northern Peru are to a large extent specializing in the treatment of psychosomatic
disorders and that “bodily” illnesses are treated more as a sideline. However, a large
number of plant species was used by local healers to treat liver and gallbladder ailments.

documented and identified as liver and gallbladder herbal remedies in Northern
Peru. Most species used were Asteraceae (9 species, 17.66%), followed by
Euphorbiaceae (4 species, 7.85%) and Gentianaceae (3 species, 5.89%). All other
families contributed only one or two species each to the pharmacopoeia. Asteraceae
are clearly over-represented in comparison to the overall medicinal flora, while some
other medicinally important families (e.g., Solanaceae, Lycopodiaceae,
Cucurbitaceae, Rosaceae) are completely missing from the liver ailment portfolio
The majority of herbal preparations employed for liver ailments were prepared
from the whole plants (35.38%), while the leaves (24.61%), flowers (9.23%), and
stems (12.32%) were used less frequently. Whole plants were more often used than
characteristic for the overall medicinal preparations found in the region, while stems
of plants were employed much less frequently (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b). This
indicates that the local healers have a less well-developed knowledge about the
constituents of individual plant parts in the case of liver and gallbladder treatments
than for other applications. In almost 65% of the cases, fresh plant material was used
to prepare remedies, which differs little from the average herbal preparation mode in
Northern Peru. Most of the remedies were applied orally (over 90%), while the
remaining ones were applied topically. This is highly different from the regional
average of application. Over 71% of all remedies were prepared as mixtures with
multiple ingredients by boiling plant material either in water or in sugarcane spirit.
This indicates that the local healers have a very profound knowledge about the
synergistic effects of plants in multi-ingredient preparations.
Almost no scientific evidence exists to date to prove the efficacy of the species
employed as liver and gallbladder remedies in Northern Peru. Only 8% of the plants
found or related species in the same genus have been studied at all.
Diarrhea, Stomach Problems, and Other Intestinal Ailments
Foodborne diseases are a serious public health problem worldwide. Some foodborne
diseases are well recognized but have recently become more common. Outbreaks of
salmonellosis have been reported for decades, but within the past 25 years the disease
has increased in incidence on many continents. While cholera has devastated much of
Asia and Africa for years, its introduction for the first time in almost a century on the
South American continent in 1991 makes it another example of an infectious disease
that is both well-recognized and emerging. While cholera is often waterborne, many
foods also transmit infection. Infection with Escherichia coli serotype O157:H7
(E. coli) was first described in 1982. Subsequently, it has emerged rapidly as a
major cause of bloody diarrhea and acute renal failure. Outbreaks of infection,
generally associated with beef, have been reported in Australia, Canada, Japan, United
States, in various European countries, and in southern Africa (WHO 2002a, b, c).
documented and identified as herbal remedies for intestinal ailments in Northern
Peru. Most species used were Lamiaceae (13.33%), followed by Asteraceae and
Rutaceae (both 5 species, 6.67%). Most other families contributed only one species
each to the pharmacopoeia. The most important anti-infectious families are clearly
over-represented in comparison to the overall medicinal flora, while some other
medicinally important families (e.g., Asteraceae) are much less important
The majority of anti-infectious herbal preparations were prepared from the leaves
of plants (29.25%), the whole plant (22.64%), and stems (16.04%). This indicates
that the local healers count on a very well-developed knowledge about the properties
of different plant parts. In almost 60% of the cases, fresh plant material was used to
prepare remedies, which differs little from the average herbal preparation mode in
Northern Peru. Interestingly, only about 83% of the remedies were applied orally,
while the remaining ones were applied topically. Over half of all remedies were
prepared as mixtures of multiple ingredients by boiling plant material either in water
or in sugarcane spirit.
Large parts of the species used for intestinal disorders in Northern Peru are
introductions from other parts of the world, especially Europe. Many of these are
well known, and almost 50% of the plants found in this study have shown efficacy in
scientific studies.
Reproductive Problems and Female Health
According to 1999 WHO estimates reproductive problems, including, 340 million

new cases of curable Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STIs; syphilis, gonorrhoea,
chlamydia and trichomoniasis) occur annually throughout the world in adults aged
15–49 years. In developing countries, STIs and their complications rank in the top
five disease categories for which adults seek health care. Infection with STIs can lead
to acute symptoms, chronic infection and serious delayed consequences such as
infertility, ectopic pregnancy, cervical cancer, and the untimely death of infants and
adults (WHO 2007).
documented and identified as herbal remedies for reproductive problems in Northern
Peru. Most species used were Asteraceae (9.52%), followed by Lamiaceae and
Fabaceae (8.57% and 6.67%). Other families were less important, and 44 contributed
only one species each to the pharmacopoeia. The most important families are clearly
represented very similarly to their overall importance in the local pharmacopoeia
The majority of herbal preparations for reproductive issues were prepared from
the leaves of plants (22.72%), the whole plant (21.97%), and stems (21.21%), while
other plant parts were used much less frequently. This indicates that the local healers
count on a very well-developed knowledge about the properties of different plant
parts. In almost 62% of the cases, fresh plant material was used to prepare remedies,
which differs little from the average herbal preparation mode in Northern Peru. Over
70% of the remedies were applied orally, while the remaining ones were applied
topically. Many remedies were prepared as mixtures of multiple ingredients by

boiling plant material either in water or in sugarcane spirit.
Little scientific evidence exists to prove the efficacy of the species employed as
reproductive disorder remedies in Northern Peru. Only 34% of the plants found or
their congeners have been studied at all for their medicinal properties.
Heart and Circulatory System
Cardiovascular diseases are collectively the number one cause of death on the globe,
accounting for over 30% of all deaths worldwide, 80% of which occur in lower
income countries with often little western healthcare available. Lower income
groups have generally a higher prevalence of risk factors (WHO 2009). Traditional
medicine is used globally and has rapidly growing economic importance. In devel-
oping countries,
Traditional healers are frequently consulted to treat heart problems and disorders
of the circulatory system. The healers encountered used a wide variety of terms
relating to heart problems, that in part generalized the condition (e.g., “heart dis-
ease”), included references to conditions as underlying cause of heart problems (e.g.,
“cholesterol”), or simply used terms to indicated treatment options (e.g., “blood
irrigation” as term referring to “thin” a patients’ blood, “blood purification,” or
“refreshing the heart” as terms indicating a process cleansing the blood from
suspected toxins, or “blood circulation,” indicating a treatment that would improve
circulation). The use of western style bio-medicinal terms is not surprising, given
that all informants were of Mestizo origin and lived in an urban environment.
Most treatments of the circulatory system involved the purification of the blood in
order to improve the general condition of the patient. In addition, the fashionable
concept of “weight management” and conditions related to obesity has entered into
the domain of Peruvian healers. All healers readily acknowledge the negative
influence of high cholesterol levels, and plant remedies were used specifically to
lower cholesterol as well as weight loss therapies, while plants used for weight gain
were insignificant.
documented and identified as heart herbal remedies in Northern Peru. Most species
used were Asteraceae (7 species, 11.67%), followed by Lamiaceae (6 species, 10%),
and Solanaceae (4 species, 6.67%). Fabaceae, Amaranthaceae, and Cucurbitaceae
each contributed 3 species (5%) to the heart pharmacopoeia. All other 27 families
contributed only one or two species each to the pharmacopoeia. Asteraceae are in
general under-represented as heart remedies in comparison to the medicinal flora
used in Northern Peru; Lamiaceae and Euphorbiaceae are clearly overrepresented in
comparison to the overall medicinal flora, while some other medicinally important
families (e.g., Poaceae, Lycopodiaceae, Rosaceae) are completely missing from the
heart portfolio (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b).
The majority of heart remedies were prepared from whole plants (37.18%), while
the leaves (24.36%), stems (15.38%), and flowers (7.69%) were used less frequently.
Whole plants were more often used than characteristic for the overall medicinal
preparations found in the region (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b). In almost 70% of
the cases fresh plant material was used to prepare remedies, which differs little from
the main herbal preparation mode in Northern Peru. Over 90% of the remedies were
applied orally, while the remaining ones were applied topically. This is very different
from the regional average of application. Over 65% of all remedies were prepared as
mixtures with multiple ingredients by boiling plant material either in water or in
sugarcane spirit. This indicates that the local healers have a very profound knowl-
edge about the synergistic effects of plants in multi-ingredient preparations.
Little scientific evidence exists to date to prove the efficacy of the species
employed as heart remedies in Northern Peru. Only 33% of the plants found or
related species in the same genus have been studied at all.
Inflammation and Bacterial Infections
Bacterial infections and inflammation are among the ailments responsible for a large
number of deaths worldwide and are often treated by traditional healers (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006a; WHO 2009).
documented and identified as anti-infective herbal remedies in Northern Peru.
Twenty percent of the species were introductions, while 80% belonged to the native
flora of Peru. Most species used belong to Asteraceae (18.95%), followed by
Fabaceae and Euphorbiaceae (7.37% and 5.26%). Most other families contributed
only one species each to the pharmacopoeia. The most important anti-infectious
families were over-represented in comparison to the overall medicinal flora, while
some other medicinally important families (e.g., Lycopodiaceae, Cucurbitaceae) are
completely missing from the anti-infective portfolio.
The majority of herbal preparations were prepared from the leaves of plants
(31.34%), while the whole plant (18.66%), flowers (12.69%), and stems
(17.16%) were used less frequently. In almost 67% of the cases, fresh plant
material was used to prepare remedies. Only about 55% of the remedies were
applied orally, while the remaining ones were applied topically. Over half of all
remedies were prepared as mixtures of multiple ingredients by boiling plant
material either in water or in sugarcane spirit. Infections, in particular by strains
of Staphylococcus aureus are very common, and increasingly difficult to treat,
due to widespread formation of drug resistance. Fungal infections, due to the
structure of the organisms involved, have always been a hard task to treat. Given
the high importance of infections, it is not surprising that anti-infective agents are
high on the list for drug development, and a large number of species used
traditionally have undergone screening. Almost 43% of the plants used in North-
ern Peru to treat infections or their congeners have been studied for their medic-
inal properties.
Malaria and Fever
Malaria is still a major global public health problem in most tropical countries. It is
thought that malaria is by far the most serious tropical disease causing one to two
million deaths per year, and it plays a major role in the high mortality seen in infants
and children (El Kamali and El Kijalifa 1997; Milliken 1997). It is also responsible
for miscarriages, premature deliveries, growth retardation, low birth weight, and
anemia (Connally et al. 1996; Gbile 1984; Minakawa et al. 2002; Hay et al. 2003).
The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that about 2 billion people
in over 100 countries are exposed to malaria, with 247 million cases in 2006 alone,
and half of the world’s population is potentially exposed to the disease (WHO 2009).
The worsening global economic situation makes it difficult to expand modern health
services, hence effective low-cost delivery medical system is urgently needed
(El Kamali and El Kijalifa 1997).
This is even more pressing because the use and misuse of over the counter
antimalaria remedies like chloroquine to prevent and treat falciparium malaria has
led to widespread appearance of resistant parasites (Milliken 1997). This is compli-
cated by the fact that global warming may lead to expansion of areas in which the
ambient temperature and climatic conditions are suitable for Plasmodium transmis-
sion. Climatic variability has been associated with some of the recent epidemics
(Minakawa et al. 2002).
documented and identified as antimalarial herbal remedies in Northern Peru. Most
species used were Asteraceae (3 species, 17.66%), followed by Fabaceae and
Solanaceae (both 2 species, 11.77%). All other families contributed only one species
each to the pharmacopoeia. The most important antimalarial families are clearly
over-represented in comparison to the overall medicinal flora, while some other
medicinally important families (e.g., Lamiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Poaceae,
Apiaceae) are completely missing from the antimalarial portfolio (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006b). In the context of the questionnaires, healers and venders often
referred to “Fever” when talking about malaria. Fever however included a variety
of conditions, from fevers accompanying flu to fever as a result of malaria. Malaria
was recognized as a parasitic infection and treated accordingly, while other plant
species were used to treat fever as a symptom, mainly focusing on lowering body
temperature.
The majority of antimalarial herbal preparations were prepared from the leaves of
plants (38.46%), while the whole plant (26.92%), flowers (15.38%), and stems
(11.54%) were used less frequently. Leaves and stems were used more often for
malaria treatments than would have been expected in comparison to the overall
medicinal preparations found in the region, while seeds of plants were employed
much less frequently and other plant parts not at all (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b).
This indicates that the local healers count on a very well-developed knowledge about
the properties of different plant parts. In almost 70% of the cases, fresh plant material
was used to prepare remedies, which differs little from the average herbal prepara-
tion mode in Northern Peru. Interestingly, only about 55% of the remedies were
applied orally, while the remaining ones were applied topically. This is little different
from the regional average of application. Over half of all remedies were prepared as
mixtures of multiple ingredients by boiling plant material either in water or in
sugarcane spirit.
The very limited number of plants employed at the Peruvian coast to treat malaria
and fevers might on a first glance surprise, if compared to studies from other regions
of the country. However, malaria has always been of relatively minor importance in
the coastal desert areas, and thus it is not surprising that few remedies are employed.
There are indications that health practices are in the process of changing, and
traditional healers start to treat a patient with prepared western remedies (e.g.,
Aspirin, Primaquin, Malaraquin, or Lariam) although plant preparations are still
important (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a; Bussmann et al. 2007a, 2009a).
Little scientific evidence exists to prove the efficacy of the species employed as
malaria remedies in Northern Peru. Only 41% of the plants found or their congeners
have been studied at all for their medicinal properties.
Cancer and Tumors
Forty-seven plant species belonging to 42 genera and 30 families were used by

curanderos in Northern Peru to treat cancerous conditions and diabetes symptoms.
Most species used were Asteraceae (9 species, 19.15%), followed by Gentianaceae
(3 species, 6.37%), and 7 families with 2 species each (4.25%). All other families
contributed only one species each to the pharmacopoeia. Asteraceae as the most
important anticancer and antidiabetic family is clearly over-represented in compar-
ison to the overall medicinal flora, while most other medicinally important families
are either under-represented or completely missing from the portfolio (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006b).
The majority of anticancer and antidiabetic herbal preparations were prepared
from the leaves of plants (30.77%), while the whole plant (20%), stems (20%), and
flowers (6.15%) were used less frequently. Leaves and stems were more often used
than characteristic for the overall medicinal preparations found in the region, while
whole plants were employed less frequently (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b). This
indicates that the local healers count on a very well-developed knowledge about the
properties of different plant parts. In almost 60% of the cases, fresh plant material
was used to prepare remedies, which differs little from the average herbal prepara-
tion mode in Northern Peru. Over 90% of the remedies were applied orally, while the
remaining ones were applied topically. This is significantly different from the
regional average of application. More than 50% of the remedies included multiple
plants.
Little scientific evidence exists to date to prove the efficacy of the species
employed as anticancer and antidiabetic remedies in Northern Peru. Only 38.71%
of the plants found as diabetes treatments and 17.65% employed as anticancer
remedies or related species in the same genus have been studied at all.
Parts of Medicinal Plants Used and Mode of Application
Northern Peruvian curanderos prefer to use either the leaves (in 25% of all uses) or
the whole plant (24%) for the preparation of their remedies. In 19% of the cases, the
stems of the plants were used, most commonly together with the leaves. Flowers
(10%), seeds (7%), fruits and roots (4% each), bark (3%), fruit peel (2%), and latex
and wood (1% each) were only used for a small number of preparations.
Almost two-thirds (64%) of the remedies employed in Northern Peru are prepared
using fresh plant material. Many of the introduced species are cultivated in fields and
gardens, but the majority of the indigenous species are collected wild. This indicates
that a widespread system of plant collectors is needed to supply the fresh plant
material needed in Traditional Medicine. Most healers agreed, however, that in most
cases dried material could be used if fresh plants were not available. In 36% of all
cases, the remedies were prepared using specifically dried plant material. Fresh
material was not used in these situations (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b).
Healers in Northern Peru often employ very sophisticated mixtures of a variety of
plants in their treatments. The use of single species for treatments was rare. Most
commonly, plant material was boiled in water, or in some cases in sugarcane alcohol
(aguardiente) to extract the active compounds. In some cases, plant material was
macerated in cane alcohol or wine for longer periods of time before use.
The curanderos all had strikingly exact recipes for treatment, with very specific
quantities of plant material used to prepare remedies. These quantities did not differ
greatly from one healer to another. Also, the amount of a specific remedy that was
given to a patient was very similar among the different curanderos.
The most frequent way to administer remedies was to prepare a decoction and
ingest it orally (52% of all uses) followed by application as a poultice (38%, plant
crushed and/or boiled and applied). Seven percent of all plant uses entailed the
preparation of a seguro, a bottle or small flask filled with plant material along with
various perfumes. This amulet has to be carried by the patient at all times, or it is
placed in the house and used for periodic blessings. Seguros contained anything
from a handful to more than three-dozen different ingredients. In two percent of the
plant uses, the material was employed to fabricate charms, and in one percent of all
applications the plant material was burned as incense, with the smoke inhaled for
treatment.
Many traditional healers rely on herbal preparations, often consisting of complex
ingredients and with very specific preparations, to treat their patients’ illnesses, rather
than just employing single plant extracts. However, studies documenting these prep-
arations and analyzing the composition of the mixtures are almost nonexistent. Most
ethnobotanical studies to date document the “use” of single species, without asking the
important question if the plants in question are really employed alone, or if they are in
fact part of a more complex preparation. Cano and Volpato (2004) were among the first
authors to respond to this challenge and reported on plant mixtures employed in Cuba
and the Middle East, and Vandebroek et al. (2010) demonstrated the great complexity
of plant preparations in the Dominican Republic. No information however was
available for the very species rich Andean pharmacopoeia.
The present publication attempts to give a detailed overview on the herbal

mixtures employed by traditional practitioners in Northern Peru and the specific
applications they are used for, in order to provide a baseline for more in-depth
studies on efficacy and safety of these preparations, as well as the possible applica-
tions in the public health system.
The investigation of plant mixtures used in traditional medicine in Northern Peru
yielded a total of 974 herbal preparations used to treat 164 different afflictions
(Bussmann et al. 2010a). The classification of diseases followed the curandero’s
terminology. To allow a better overview, the different disease concepts were grouped
in more inclusive disease categories, according to their similarity. Psychosomatic
disorders were the most outstanding afflictions treated with traditional herbal mix-
tures, with almost 30% of all recipes applied, followed by respiratory illnesses,
female issues, kidney problems, and heart problems. Susto (fright), problems of the
nervous system, general systemic inflammation, and bronchitis together accounted
for almost 25% of all remedies used. In many cases, healers used only one or two
common mixtures to treat an illness. This degree of consensus between different
healers shows great sophistication in the diagnosis and treatment of specific disor-
ders. On the contrary, when it came to the treatment of unspecific disease categories
like “inflammation” or “bronchitis,” every healer seemed to use her/his own specific
mixture to treat the problem. This was particularly obvious in the treatment of
neurological and psychosomatic problems, for which the majority of plants and
mixtures was employed. Up to 49 different preparations were used to treat the same
disease. This seems to indicate a high degree of experimentation that is still ongoing
in order to find a working cure for unspecific symptoms and that there is very little
consent amongst the individual healers as which cure to employ. This low consen-
sus, especially where spiritual and nervous system/psychosomatic aspects are
involved, might also indicate that the individual healers are reluctant to exchange
knowledge about their dedicated, specific, and guarded treatment methodology in
these areas, while the knowledge about “simple” treatments is much more
widespread.
Altogether 330 plant species, representing almost 65% of the medicinal flora used
in the region (Bussmann et al. 2010a) were applied in mixtures. Of these, 64 species
(19.39%) were introductions, which falls within the range of introduced species as
percentage of the whole medicinally used flora. Among the plants employed,
Asteraceae expectedly stood out, and the number of species of this family used
was comparable to the percentage of Asteraceae in the medicinal flora of the region
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, b). The overwhelming number of plant mixtures
contained 2–7 different plant species, although in the most extreme case 27 distinct
species were included. A large number of species appeared in various mixtures. The
plant species for each mixture are listed in the order given by the curanderos in order
to express the importance of the individual species, rather than providing an alpha-
betical listing. For a detailed overview on quantities and parts of each plant use, see
Bussmann and Sharon (2006b).
The cluster analysis confirmed that mixtures used for applications like inflamma-
tions, infections, and blood purification, as well as cough, cold, bronchitis or other
respiratory disorders, or urinary infection and kidney problems had similar floristic
compositions. However, a few interesting clusters stood out: Mixtures used for
nervous system disorders, anxiety, and heart problems often had a similar composi-
tion for example, as did mixtures for prostate and bladder problems; kidney prob-
lems, gallbladder disorders, diabetes, and cholesterol were treated with the same
preparations, as were rheumatic illnesses and asthma. Our research suggests that this
indicates that the local healers have a very detailed understanding of disease
concepts, and are choosing their remedies very carefully, based on what underlying
cause they diagnose, i.e., heart problems get treated differently if they are caused by
stress, versus a physical agent, kidney infections are treated differently from kidney
problems linked to diabetes and/or obesity.
The floristic composition as well as the complex phytochemistry of traditional
herbal mixtures remains woefully understudied. This is the more surprising as
traditional one-plant one single-compound based drug discovery efforts have yielded
very little results in the last decades and might in fact be an explanation as to why so
many plant species that have been documented for a certain use are “inefficient” or
“toxic” when introduced to clinical trials.
Our research indicates that a large number of plants used in traditional healing in
Northern Peru are employed in often-sophisticated mixtures, rather than as individ-
ual plants. Peruvian curanderos appear to employ very specific guidelines in the
preparation of these cocktails and seem to have a clear understanding of disease
concepts when they diagnose a patient, which in turn leads them to often apply
specific mixtures for specific conditions. There seems to be a widespread exchange
of knowledge about mixtures for treatment of bodily diseases, while mixtures for
spiritual, nervous system, and psychosomatic disorders appear to be more closely
guarded by the individual healers.
Traditional herbal mixtures, with their wealth of compound fragments and new
compounds originating in the preparation process, could well yield new clues to the
treatment of a wide variety of disease. The present paper provides detailed baseline
information on composition and use of traditional mixtures in Northern Peru, and
further studies to compare the compound composition of these preparations versus
single plant extracts as well as investigations comparing efficacy and toxicity of
herbal preparations versus their single plant ingredients are in progress.
Does Traditional Medicine Work? A Look at Antibacterials Used

in Northern Peru
Plants with potential medicinal activity have recently come to the attention of
Western scientists, and studies have reported that some are bioactive (Perumal
Samy and Ignacimuthu 2000). Potentially active compounds have been isolated
from a few of the plants tested (D’Agostino et al. 1995a, b; Okuyama et al. 1994;
Rodriguez et al. 1994).
In order to evaluate the antibacterial activity of species used in TM in Northern
Peru, 525 plant samples of at least 405 species were tested in simple agar-bioassays
for antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Salmo-

nella enterica Typhi, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. A much larger number of
ethanolic plant extracts showed any antibacterial activity compared to water extracts
for all antibacterial activity. One hundred ninety-three ethanolic extracts and
31 water extracts were active against S. aureus. In twenty-one cases, only the
water extract showed activity (for all bacterial species) compared to ethanol only.
None of the aqueous extracts were active against the other three bacteria, with the
activity of the ethanolic extracts also much reduced, as only 36 showed any activity
against E. coli, and three each against S. enterica Typhi and P. aeruginosa. Eighteen
ethanol extracts were effective against both E. coli and S. aureus, while in two cases
the ethanol extract showed activity against E. coli and the water extract against
S. aureus. The ethanol extract of Dioscorea trifida was effective against E. coli,
S. aureus and P. aeruginosa. Caesalpinia spinosa was the only species that showed
high activity against all bacteria, including Salmonella enterica typhi and Pseudo-
monas aeruginosa, when extracted in ethanol (Bussmann et al. 2010b).
Two hundred twenty-five extracts came from plant species that are traditionally
employed against bacterial infections. One hundred sixty-six (73.8%) of these were
active against at least one bacterium. Of the 300 extracts from plants without
traditional antibacterial use, only 96 (32%) showed any activity. This shows clearly
that plants traditionally used as antibacterial had a much higher likelihood to be
antibacterially active than plants without traditional antibacterial use. However, the
efficacy of plants used traditionally for antibacterial-related applications did vary,
which underlines the need for studies aiming to clearly understand traditional disease
concepts. Plants used for respiratory disorders, inflammation/infection, wounds,
diarrhea and to prevent postpartum infections were efficacious in 70–88% of the
tests. Plants used for “kidney inflammation” had a much lower efficacy against
bacteria and fell within the range of species that are traditionally used to treat other
bodily disorders. Only species used for spiritual/ritual treatments scored worse. Of
these only 22% showed some antibacterial; activity. However, among the “spiritual”
plants, 38% of the species used for cleansing baths did in fact show activity, while
only 15% of the plants often used in protective amulets (mostly species with the
families of Lycopodiaceae and Valerianaceae) showed limited antibacterial activity.
A variety of species showed higher efficacy than the control antibiotics employed,
e.g., Ambrosia peruviana, Iresine herbstii, Niphogeton dissecta, Opuntia ficus-
indica, Smilax kunthii were particular effective against Escherichia coli. Berberis
buceronis, Caesalpinia paipai, Caesalpinia spinosa, Cestrum strigilatum, Cydista
aequinoctialis, Dioscorea trifida, Escallonia pendula, Escobedia grandiflora, Euca-
lyptus citriodora, Eucalyptus globulus, Eugenia obtusifolia, Eustephia coccinea,
Gallesia integrifolia, Geranium sessiliflorum, Hedyosmum racemosum, Iresine
herbstii, Lycopersicon hirsutum, Mauria heterophylla, Phyllanthus niuriri,
Porophyllum ruderale, Salvia cuspidata, Senecio chionogeton, Smilax kunthii,
Tagetes erecta, and Taraxacum officinale showed high activity against Staphylococ-
cus aureus. The same holds true for Ephedra americana, Gentianella bicolor,
Mandevilla cf. trianae. However, extracts of these three species were highly incon-
sistent in their efficacy.
The comparison of closely related species traditionally employed for different

purposes (e.g., different Alternanthera spp., Passiflora spp., Senecio spp. and Salvia
spp. for spiritual purposes and against bacterial infections) showed that the “spiri-
tual” species normally were not effective against bacteria, while the species used as
antibacterials had increased effectiveness. The example of Plantago sericea var.
sericea (used in seguros, no efficacy) and Plantago sericea var. lanuginosa (used for
vaginal infections, high efficacy against S. aureus) is a particularly compelling case
that indicates the sophistication of traditional knowledge. However, we did find
examples like Chuquiragua spp., where closely related species were used as anti-
bacterials, but only one of them did in fact show efficacy, clearly indicating that in
this case traditional knowledge did not produce reliable results.
On the other hand, extracts of the same species traditionally used to treat
infections often produced vastly diverging results when collected from different
localities. Good examples are Iresine herbstii, Schinus molle, Eustephia coccinea,
Oreopanax eriocephalus, Myroxylum balsamum, Spartium junceum, or Gentianella
dianthoides. Most of these species did not produce particularly high inhibition rates
in any case and were not the first choice of healers when trying to find remedies for
bacterial infections. Many traditional remedies for concepts like “kidney inflamma-
tion” did not produce any antibacterial results, which underlines that research into
efficacy does need to closely take traditional disease concepts into account.
Many remedies used for spiritual healing and other noninfection purposes did
show antibacterial efficacy in vitro but were not listed as such by the local healers.
This might be explained by the fact that they either are very inconsistent in their
activity (e.g., Mandevilla trianae, Loricaria spp., Lonicera japonica, Hypericum
laricifolium, Hyptis sidifolia, Mentha piperita, Brachyotum naudinii, Cydonia
oblonga) or are so closely related that identification, especially when dried, can be
a problem, e.g., in the case of Baccaris spp., Gentianella spp., and Valeriana spp., or
are prone to toxic side effects like Ephedra americana and Brugmansia spp.
Almost all remedies are traditionally prepared as water extracts, although ethanol
(in the form of sugarcane spirit) is readily available. This might at a first glance seem
astonishing, given the low efficacy of water extraction found in this study. However,
initial results from Brine-Shrimp toxicity assays indicate that the ethanolic extracts
are by far more toxic than water extracts of many species, and thus ethanolic
extraction might in many cases not suitable for application in patients. This again
indicates the considerable sophistication and care with which traditional healers in
northern Peru chose their remedies for a specific purpose.
If the botanical documentation of Peruvian medicinal plants has been neglected,
investigations of the phytochemical composition of useful plants are lagging even further
behind. Most studies on the phytochemistry of Peruvian plants concentrate on a few
“fashionable” species that have been marketed heavily on a global scale, especially Maca
(Lepidium meyenii), Sangre del Drago or del Grado (Croton lechleri), and Uña de Gato
(Uncaria tomentosa and Uncaria guianensis). The number of other Peruvian plants for
which at least some phytochemical studies exist is still miniscule, and most efforts are
fuelled by the fads and fashions of the international herbal supplement market. Studies
involving multiple species were initiated as late as the 1990s.
Minimum inhibitory concentrations found for Peruvian plant extracts ranged from
0.008 to 256 mg/ml. The very high values in many species indicate only a very limited
antibacterial efficacy. The ethanolic extracts exhibited stronger activity and a much
broader spectrum of action than the water extracts. The most interesting activity on
E. coli was obtained from ethanolic extracts of Baccaris sp., Ochroma pyramidale,
Croton lechleri, Banisteriopsis caapii, Miconia salicifolia, and Eugenia obtusifolia.
Only the latter species also showed strong activity in the aqueous extract. A much
wider range of species, including most species active against E. coli showed inhibition
of S. aureus. Poropohyllum ruderale, Senecio sp., Corynaeae crassa, Dioscorea trifida,
Senna monilifera, Spartium junceum, Pelargonium odoratissimum, Satureja pulchella,
Cuphea sp., Malva parviflora, Brosmium rufescens, Syzygium aromaticum,
Sanguisorba minor, Citrus limetta, Verbesine sp., and two unidentified species all
showed MIC values between 1 and 4 mg/ml. Most of them however did not portray
any efficacy in aqueous extract. Hypericum laricifolium, Hura crepitans, Caesalpinia
paipai, Cassia fistula, Hyptis sidifolia, Salvia sp., Banisteriopsis caapi, Miconia
salicifolia, and Polygonum hydropiperoides showed the lowest MIC values and
would be interesting candidates for future research (Bussmann et al. 2010b).
Most species effective against S. aureus are traditionally used to treat wound
infection, throat infections, serious inflammations, or postpartum infections. Inter-
estingly many species used in cleansing baths also showed high activity against this
bacterium. Many of these species are either employed topically, or in synergistic
mixtures, so that possible toxicity seems not to be an issue. The species effective
against E. coli were mostly employed in indications that traditional healers identified
as “inflammation.”
Most of the plants used by the healers have antibacterial activity, but only 8 of the
141 plants (5.6%) examined in this study show any MIC values of 200 or less mg/ml
of extract. Of these eight plants five are used to treat diseases believed to be in
bacterial origin by TM, one is a disease not believed to be caused by bacteria and one
is used for undefined treatment purposes.
Nine out of 141 plants (6.3%) tested were not used for diseases believed to be
bacterial in origin by TM and 5 showed high antibacterial activity with MIC values
below 16 mg/ml. Four of these were among the most potent plants tested with MIC
values of 2 or less mg/ml including the hallucinogen and extracts used to treat
diabetes and epilepsy. Diseases such as diabetes often compromise the health of the
individual and antibacterial treatments can be warranted for secondary complications
of the disease.
Toxicity in Traditional Medicine
Crude medicinal activities have been investigated for a wide variety of plants, but
while toxicity assays are available for a wide variety of countries, no data exists on
the potential toxicity of Peruvian medicinal species.
Brine shrimp (Artemia) are frequently used as agent in laboratory assays to
determine toxicity values by estimating LC50 values (median lethal concentration).
The Brine shrimp lethality activity of 501 aqueous and ethanolic extracts of
341 plant species belonging to 218 genera of 91 families used in Peruvian traditional
medicine was tested (Bussmann et al. 2011). The aqueous extracts of 55 species
showed high toxicity values (LC50 below 249 μg/ml), 18 species median toxicity
(LC50 250–499 μg/ml), and 18 low toxicity (LC50 500–1,000 μg/ml). The alcoholic
extracts proved to be much more toxic: 220 species showed high toxicity values
(LC50 below 249 μg/ml, with 37 species having toxicity levels of >1 μg/ml),
43 species median toxicity (LC50 250–499 μg/ml), and 23 species low toxicity
(LC50 500–1,000 μg/ml). Over 24% of the aqueous extracts and 76% of the alcoholic
extracts showed elevated toxicity levels to brine-shrimp. Traditional preparation
methods are taking this into account – most remedies are prepared as simple water
extracts, thus avoiding potential toxic effects. Excellent examples where the water
extracts are nontoxic while the ethanolic extracts show high toxicity are Ocimum
basilicum L., Salvia sp., or Laccopetalum giganteum (Wedd.) Ulbrich. In contrast,
Cinchona officinalis L. ethanolic extracts were nontoxic and are traditionally used,
while the highly toxic water extract has no traditional use.
Species which showed higher levels of toxicity were Bejaria aestuans L.,
Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Her., Brachyotum naudinii Triana, Miconia salicifolia
(Bonp. ex Naud.) Naud., Cuscuta foetida Kunth, Caesalpinia spinosa (Molina)
Kuntze, and Phyllactis rigida (Humb. and Bonpl.) Pers. Achillea millefolium L.,
Artemisia absinhitum L., and Eucalyptus globulus Labill all frequently used as
medicinal teas also fall in this group, as do Lupinus mutabilis Sweet, and Ilicium
verum Hook. f. Solanaceae (e.g., Nicotiana tabacum L. and Solanum americanum
Mill.) proved highly toxic, while other species, known to be highly toxic when
ingested (e.g., Datura sp. and Brugmansia spp.), did not show toxicity in Brine
Shrimp.
Multiple extracts from different collections of the same species showed in most
cases very similar toxicity values. However, in some cases the toxicity of extracts
from different collections of the same species varied from nontoxic to highly toxic.
Examples for such variation in toxicity were found for Chersodoma deltoidea M.-
O. Dillon and Sagast., Satureja sericea (C. Presl. and Benth.) Briq., Eugenia
obtusifolia Cambess., Epidendrum sp., Capparis crotonoides Kunth, Sambucus
peruviana Kunth, and Malva sp. In case of these frequently used species, harvest
time, collection locality, or use of specific plant parts might be important for a
reduction of toxicity.
Markets and Sustainability
The Pharmacopoeae of Southern Ecuador and Northern Peru:

Colonial Regimes and Their Influence on Plant Use
Local markets are an important source of medicinal plants in Bolivia, Colombia, and
Peru, and detailed information on larger markets in the countries has become
available over the last decades. However, little comparative research reports on the
pharmacopoeia sold and the use-diversity between the markets of different countries.
In our own studies, we encountered that both species composition and uses of
species did show much larger differences across the evaluated countries than
expected. Even in case of introduced species, we did hardly find any coincidence
between the markets of the three countries. This might be explained by the great
differences in the origin of populations, the floristic diversity, and the very distinct
plant use knowledge and preferences of migrant populations in the respective cities
that are transferred to the markets through customer demand. Our study clearly
indicated that studies in single markets cannot give an in-depth overview on the plant
supply across related regions.
The differences in medicinal plant use between Southern Ecuador and Northern
Peru are striking. Both regions share the same cultural background and have a very
similar flora, with a comparable number of plant species that to a large extent
overlap. Many plants mentioned in Martinez Compañon (1789) are still found in
local markets today (Fig. 19). However, the medicinal flora of Southern Ecuador
includes only 40% of the species used in Northern Peru. The differences in tradi-
tional medicinal use can be explained by comparing the development of the phar-
macopoeia of both areas from the start of the colonial period until today. Colonial
chroniclers often included detailed descriptions of useful plants in their reports. The
most comprehensive early accounts of the economically interesting flora of Northern
Peru and Southern Ecuador were provided by Monardes (1574), Acosta (1590), and
Cobo (1653). Later treatments were included in Alcedo (1786–1789). Martínez
Fig. 19 Flor de San Juan from drawing in Martinez Compañon (1789) and recent market purchase.
(Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
Compañon, Archbishop of Trujillo, had a complete inventory of his dioceses

prepared (1789). Finally, Ruiz and Pavón provided the first real botanical inventory
of the region (1777–1788). The account of Martínez Compañon (1789) provides the
best baseline for a comparison of the colonial and modern medicinal flora of the
region. The work includes detailed paintings for every species, which allows a close
comparison with the modern medicinal flora, indicating that the vernacular names of
useful plants have not changed significantly since colonial times. It contains 526 use-
ful plant species. A preliminary review of this work seems to indicate that the
number of plants used has not changed significantly since the late 1700s, with
over 500 plant species still found in modern Peruvian markets. A closer comparison
shows, however, that only 41% of the species mentioned by Martinez Compañon
(1789) are still sold nowadays in Peru. An additional 32% are still used in the
Amazon basin, but do not reach the coastal markets anymore. Twenty-seven percent
have completely disappeared from modern day use.
This means that 58% of the species sold in Peruvian markets and 41% of the
species used in Ecuador were added to the pharmacopoeia within the last 200 years
(Fig. 20).
A cluster analysis of the colonial and modern plant inventories showed a striking
explanation for the use differences between Ecuador and Peru and helps to explain
why the plant inventories changed so significantly in the eighteenth century: The
Matrix correlation: r = 0.89658

(=normalized Mantel statistic Z)
1576 ACosta
Correlation of modern and historic inventories 1576
1580 Monardes
1580
1780
Alcedo
1780
2006A Ecuador
2006
1653 Cobo
1653
1788
Ruiz &
Pavon
1788
2006B
Peru
2007
2006, 2007
1789 Comp.
1789
050 058 077 085 093
Coefficent
Fig. 20 Differences in plant usage between Peru and Ecuador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Comparison of species assemblies
60
58
Percentage of species
50
40 41
41
found
30 32
27
20
10
0
MC shared MC Amazon MC Peru new Ecuador new
with discontinued
contemporary
Fig. 21 Cladogram of linkage of historic sources and current pharmacopoeia. (Photo

current pharmacopoeia of useful flora in Ecuador was most similar to the early
colonial flora mentioned in Monardes (1574), Acosta (1590), Cobo (1653, 1956),
and Alcedo (1786–1789). This indicates that the Ecuadorian medicinal flora did not
develop much between early and late colonial times. In contrast, the modern
Peruvian healing flora was much more similar to later collections (Fig. 21). An
explanation for this lies in the different treatment of traditional practices in
Ecuador and Peru: In Ecuador, traditional medicinal practitioners were immedi-
ately persecuted once the colonial administration took hold, while the Peruvian
administration was much more tolerant. This also reflects in the establishment of a
National Institute for Traditional Medicine in Peru in the 1980s, while traditional
medicine was illegal in Ecuador, until a constitutional change in 1998. This meant
that Ecuadorian healers had no opportunity to experiment with new species to cure
diseases introduced by Europeans, while Peruvian healers were able to explore the
rich flora of the region in order to find new remedies. This experimentation also
extended to “magical” disease concepts like Mal Aire, Mal Ojo, Susto, and Envidia
that were introduced from Spain during the colonial regime. Peruvian healers
developed a vast array of medicinals to treat these conditions, which to a large
extent explains the shift in the medicinal flora between the late 1700s and modern
times. Experimentation in Ecuador remained restricted to the treatment of common
diseases, while spiritual treatments were outlawed until a constitutional revision in
1998 recognized the right of the population to use traditional medicinal practices
(Fig. 22) (Bussmann and Sharon 2009b).
Plant usage in Peru and Ecuador - Percentage

45
Peru
40
Ecuador
35
Percent of species used
30
25
20
15
10
es s er r s s r ea
lin
g
ue tes nc de on on ve od
ea erv ss be Ca lad isi cti Fe rrh Fo
alh i c /N i o ni Dia allb ofv i nfe - Dia
itu t t -G t l l
/R
a uc al me
n ria tin
a
al om rod cte es
os tin ce Ba Int
agic y ch d rep n tes h an
M Ps an I n
/E
irth en
e -b i nog
l c
ma llu
Fe Ha
Fig. 22 Plant use differences in Ecuador and Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
The Case of Ulluchu
Ulluchu is the common name assigned to a plant frequently depicted in the art of the
Moche culture, which thrived on the north coast of Peru from A.D. 100 to 800. It is a
grooved, comma-shaped fruit with an enlarged calyx found mainly in fine-line
scenes painted on Moche ceramics (Fig. 23). The term first appeared without
linguistic explanation in the work of pioneer Moche scholar Rafael Larco Hoyle
(1938, 1939, Fig. 58; 1940, 98, Figs. 166 and 167). In his 1939 publication, he
reported that the peoples of the sierras and the coastal region (Viru and Moche
valleys) believed that the fruit had to be picked silently to prevent it from turning
bitter. He wondered if the plant symbolized the silence and discretion of richly attired
Moche messengers, some of whom wear belts adorned with Ulluchus. In his 1938
publication, he labeled a Moche fineline drawing of Ulluchu as Phaseolus
sp. (a bean). Larco clearly recognized that Ulluchu had nothing whatsoever in
common with “ulluco” (Ullucus tuberosus), and Andean tuber still widely cultivated
and consumed in Peru nowadays.
Fig. 23 Ulluchu in Archaeology. (a) Ulluchu fruit from cache at Sipán. (After photograph by
Christopher B. Donnan). (b) Ulluchu fruit from Dos Cabezas burial. (After photograph from Donald
McClelland). (c) Bone beads in form of Ulluchus from Huaca de la Luna. (After photograph of
Donald McClelland). (d) Golden Ullucho bead. (After photograph by Donald McClelland). (e)
Spondylus shell bead in form of Ulluchu. (After photograph by Donald McClelland). (f) Supernat-
ural figure seated holding a gourd, possibly containing ground Ulluchu seeds. Ulluchus painted on
headdress. (Private collection. After photograph by Christopher B. Donnan, from McClelland
(2008)). (g) Anthropomorphized hawk runners. Ulluchu on belts, Ulluchu seeds floating above,
runner carrying snuff tube. (The Art Institute of Chicago. After drawing by Donna McClelland
(2008)). (h) Ulluchu harvest. Note tree with opposite leaves and extracted seeds on bottom right.
(After McClelland (2008), Private collection)
The symbolic importance of Ulluchu in Moche iconography was firmly

established by Moche scholars Donnan and McClelland (McClelland 1977). Based
upon a meticulous review of the UCLA Moche Archive, she showed that its
distribution was nonrandom and that its varied usage displayed definite patterns
with the greatest variability among background elements and the most frequent
representation found on the belts of warriors and runners. She demonstrated that
“the leaves of the Phaseolus do not resemble the ulluchu leaf depictions”
(McClelland 1977, 43) Pepino (Solanum muricatum) and aji (Capsicum annum),
which are clearly depicted in Moche art and do not resemble Ulluchu were also
eliminated “since the ulluchi [sic] fruit is suspended from the plant by its smaller
pointed end, whereas these two are suspended by the large end” (McClelland 1977,
437). She also indicated that the plant had not been botanically identified, pointing
out that, if it turned out to be a mythical plant, no identification would be possible.
A decade after McClelland’s seminal article, S. Henry Wassen (1987) of the
Gothenburg Ethnographical Museum eliminated Persea americana Miller var.
americana (a wild relative of avocado) as a candidate and concluded that Ulluchu
was Carica candicans A. Gray (a species of wild papaya). He also co-authored an
article describing the enzyme papain, which can be extracted from unripe papaya, for
use as a blood anticoagulant (Hulten et al. 1987). In the latter article, the authors
proposed that papain was used in the Moche sacrifice ceremony to prevent the
coagulation of blood drawn from sacrificed warriors for later consumption by priests.
In a paper presented at the Sibley Conference at the University of Texas at Austin,
in November 2003, McClelland (2008), in addition to updating her 1977 paper in the
light of a vastly expanded Moche Archive and archaeological discoveries of real
Ulluchu, refuted the papaya hypothesis. She also discussed the presence in the art of
yellow oleander seeds (Thevetia peruviana) as legging rattles as well as espingo
seeds (Nectandra sp.) which (Wassen 1976) had earlier suggested might have been
added to corn beer for medicinal and psychotropic purposes. McClelland concluded
that the largest remaining challenge was an identification of Ulluchu.
Issues Surrounding the Name Ulluchu
The name Ulluchu seems to have been coined by Larco (1939). According to his
description, the name originated in the Virú River Valley and is supposedly of
Mochica origin. However, there is no linguistic evidence that such a term indeed
existed in the Mochica or Yunga language. The most comprehensive Mochica-
Spanish dictionary available, compiled from the writings of Moche scholar
E. Brüning (2004), has no such term. In addition, the local population, as well as
market vendors, plant collectors, and curanderos interviewed, had no knowledge of
Ulluchu whatsoever, other than what they derived from Larco. Since this first
publication the term has been copied by all subsequent authors (McClelland 1977;
Wassen 1987), without any regard to its validity. It is unlikely that Brüning (2004)
would have missed the name when doing his research early in the twentieth century,
if it indeed was still being. Brüning lists quite a few Mochica plant names, some of
which are still used for the same plants today, e.g., “faik” = Acacia macracantha
( faique, espino), from “fáçek, fáçke” = spine.
The only language that has a somewhat similar word from which Ulluchu
could be derived is Quechua: “uchu” translates to “chili, pepper,” while “ullu”
translates as “penis.” The term “ullu uchu” is sometimes used as a name for
Columellia ovata R. & P. (Columelliaceae), a small high-Andean plant, described
as “a very thick tree; its wood is suitable for various purposes, and its leaves have
febrifugal properties and are very bitter” (Ruiz 1777). However, this plant has no
likeness whatsoever to the Moche Ulluchu. Thus, we must conclude that the term
Ulluchu was most likely coined by Larco (1940, 98) based on a Quechua term for
a species with somewhat similar fruits that has no relation to the species used by
the Moche.
Botanical Identification: Why Is Ulluchu Not Carica candicans?
Carica candicans is a wild relative of papaya (Carica papaya L.). Although the
fruits are not marketed, they are occasionally consumed by the local population, and
some market vendors and healers interviewed did know the plant under its vernac-
ular name, “mito.” Larco (1939, 1940) never mentions the plant in relation to
Ulluchu. Assuming that he indeed encountered a plant with that name, it cannot
have been C. candicans, because this species would have been named “mito.”
McClelland (2008) argues that Ulluchu “cannot be a papaya, which belongs to a
group of plants called ‘cauliflory’ [i.e., stem flowery]. The flowers and fruit of a
cauliflory grow on the trunk of the tree and not on the limbs. Ulluchus depicted in
Moche art, however, hang from limbs. Papaya leaves do not resemble ulluchu
leaves, which are triangular, ovoid, or boomerang shapes hanging from limbs.
Each large palmate papaya leaf grows on a stem from the top of the tree.” However,
further complicating this matter, it turns out that C. candicans happens to be one of
the few papayas that are not cauliflorous, that have triangular leaves with entire
margins, and the fruits do hang from branches. Thus, judging from the iconography
alone, C. candicans actually could be Ulluchu.
Based on recent archaeological evidence however (Fig. 24) (McClelland
2008; Alva and Donnan 1993; Alva 1994; Donnan and Castillo 1994), it has
become clear that the actual fruits found in burials do not resemble C. candicans.
In addition, the explanation that papain might have been extracted by the Moche
from unripe papaya for use as a blood anticoagulant (Hultin et al. 1987), albeit
reasonable, does not make much sense from a phytochemical perspective. Cul-
tivated papaya (C. papaya) is often depicted in Moche pottery, and the species
contains large amounts of papain. Why would the Moche have resorted to a rare
wild species, when they could have used a cultivar with the same properties that
grew on their very doorstep? Also, C. candicans fruits are often 10–15 cm. long,
and while this would relate to the size of some of the Ulluchus in the iconography,
Fig. 24 Front view of

crushed Ulluchu. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
it is vastly larger than many of the fruits depicted and much larger than the fruits
found in burials. Finally, the anatomy of C. candicans simply does not correlate
with the fruits encountered in burials.
What Is Ulluchu, and What Was It Really Used For?
Moche fine-line drawings of Ulluchu normally depict seed pods or seeds floating in
the air in sacrificial scenes (McClelland 2008, Fig. 3.14), associated with runners and
messengers (e.g., McClelland 2008, Fig. 3.1) or intoxicated priests (e.g., McClelland
2008, Fig. 3.6). The Ulluchu fruits vary greatly in size, ranging from about 1 to
15 cm. They are normally comma-shaped, often with an “exaggerated round calyx”
with lines on the body of the fruit (e.g., McClelland 2008, Fig. 3.4). Some illustra-
tions show Ulluchu harvested by monkeys, and in such cases the fruit is mostly
shown growing along the axes of the plant’s leaves (e.g., McClelland 2008,
Figs. 3.27 and 3.28).
Starting from this basis in 2002, we built on the work of Donna McClelland and
the archaeological excavations at Sipán in the Lambayeque Valley (McClelland
2008; Alva 1994; Alva and Donnan 1994) and at Dos Cabezas in the Jequetepeque
Valley in the 1990s (McClelland 2008; Donnan and Castillo 1994). Botanically, all
these depictions resemble capsules or drupe-like fruits. It became apparent that in a
biodiversity hotspot like Peru, with a flora of more than 18.000 species, a large
number of plant families have fruits that vaguely resemble Moche fineline drawings
of Ulluchu, and many of these families contain more than one genus with similar
fruits. Examples include: (Apocynaceae: Ambelania; Caricaceae: Carica;
Celastraceae: Maytenus; Chrysobalanaceae: Chrysobalanus, Hirtella, Licania;
Convolvulaceae: Dicranostyles; Fabaceae: Aldina, Alexa, Andira, Dipteryx, Dussia,
Ormosia; Guttiferae: Tovomita; Hippocrateaceae: Cheiloclinum, Salacia;
Icacinaceae: Calatola; Meliaceae: Guarea; Menispermaceae: Abuta, Curarea,
Elephantomene, Telitoxicum; Myristicaceae: Virola; Olacaceae: Cathedra;

Quiinaceae: Lacunaria; Sabiaceae: Meliosma; Sapindaceae: Cupania, Paullinia;
and Sapotaceae: Pouteria. Some of these are still highly important in traditional
societies. For example, Ambelania fruit is often consumed; Ormosia contains potent
poisonous compounds, but is now mostly used in crafts; Curarea is one of the
ingredients of “curare,” the famous Amazonian arrow poison; Virola species are still
used as potent snuffs in the Amazon, and Paullinia is the source of “yopo,” an
important stimulant. However, none of these carry the vernacular name Ulluchu.
Fortunately, at this time the archaeological evidence provides good clues for
identification. The Ulluchu fruits found in burials in the 1990s are clearly capsules
or drupes, slightly comma-shaped, between 1.5 and 5 cm. long, and slightly grooved.
They closely resemble bone, gold, and Spondylus beads found in situ in size, form,
and texture. In the iconography, the fruits are often depicted as located on both sides
of branches, e.g., on headdresses. It is important to note that this figure has widely
extended nostrils, as is often seen in people inhaling hallucinogenic snuffs, and is
holding a gourd and pestle. McClelland (2008, Fig. 3.18) interpreted this as lime
gourd used for chewing coca. We suggest that this might also be a gourd used to
grind the seeds of Ulluchu for inhalation. Further iconographic evidence supports
this hypothesis. Runners and messengers associated with Ulluchu are often winged –
they literally fly, i.e., the inhalation of Ulluchu gives them wings. The personages
have Ulluchu on their belts, Ulluchu seeds floating above their heads, and they hold
instruments that closely resemble a typical double snuff tube that would serve to
inhale powdered hallucinogenic substances. Thus, it seems possible that one of the
uses of Ulluchu may have been as a mind-altering snuff. Another reason for
identifying the seeds in the iconography as hallucinogenic Ulluchus is underscored
from Moche paintings, e.g., a famous Moche scene (McClelland 2008, Fig. 3.34)
where monkeys are picking fruits from an Ulluchu tree. It is important to note that
the tree depicted has opposite leaves and that seeds are extracted from the fruit,
possibly for roasting in a typical oven on the bottom right. The roasted seeds could
then be ground to powder and inhaled. The fruits themselves seem to be five-valved.
The function of Ulluchu as a hallucinogen is reinforced by other imagery (e.g.,
McClelland 2008, Fig. 3.6), where personages surrounded by Ulluchu fruits lie on
the ground in what clearly appears to be an intoxicated state. In addition, prisoners in
sacrificial scenes (e.g., Hocquenghem 2008, Figs. 2.2, 2.3, 2.12, and 2.24), espe-
cially the well-known “lines of prisoners” at Huaca El Brujo and Huaca de la Luna,
all show clearly visible erections (Fig. 25), which may be seen as another indication
of the ingestion of some substance causing this effect. From this perspective Larco’s
term Ulluchu (Larco 1940), if derived from Quechua “ullu-uchu” – “penis pepper,”
would in fact make sense in describing the possible effects of the plant in question.
Also, the association with sexual arousal is reinforced by mythical scenes where an
Ulluchu tree grows out of the back of an erotic couple.
In light of the above, Ulluchu is a tree with opposite leaves and fruits that are
drupes between 1 and 15 cm. long possibly containing active ingredients that would
elevate the blood pressure and cause erections and psycho-active substances. The
only plant family from the list above having representatives that meet all these
Fig. 25 Line of prisoners at

Huaca El Brujo. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
criteria is Meliaceae, and the genus Guarea is the one that most closely fits the
description. It includes mostly trees with pinnate leaves (which is unusual for
Meliaceae) and fruits that are three to five valved capsules, with large, pseudo
arillate seeds. The genus Guarea is found throughout Peru, but is mostly restricted
to tropical lowland forests, with some species reaching could forest habitat. No
species is found along the dry coast of Peru, which indicates that the material must
have been widely traded in Moche times. A typical representative is Guarea
grandifolia DC. (Fig. 26). The species has clearly pinnate leaves, and the fruits
very clearly resemble the archaeological samples. In addition, Guarea contains a large
number of species with varying fruit sizes (from 1 to 15 cm.), calyx swelling, and
grooving on the body of the fruit (Fig. 27), which all correlates with the varied Ulluchu
imagery in Moche fineline drawings. The seeds of Guarea species, with a distinct
white navel, very much resemble the seeds depicted in Moche fineline paintings.
Many species of Guarea are known by a wide variety of vernacular names, e.g.,
Guarea spec.: requia, kushímsakish; G. glabra: yecheñor, yechemor;
G. grandifolia: bola requia; G. guidonia: atapio, latapi, latapi caspi, requia colorada,
requia latapi, xoro; G. kunthiana: requia, paujil ruro; G. purusana: latapi, requia.
The wood of many species is used as timber for construction. The wood, bark, and
leaves contain compounds that act as abortive, emetic, purgative, and antiamoebiac
agents, and the bark is often sold as Coccilliana in expectorant preparations
(Kraemer 1915; Rätsch 1998). The fruits and seeds contain a variety of alkaloids
that are very rarely used due to their high toxicity (Kraemer 1915). Some of the
alkaloids found, e.g., rusbyine, have a structure and effects like emetine, an alkaloid
found in Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes, which has been widely used as an
emetic and expectorant. Other species of Psychotria are well known as components
in ayahuasca preparations due to their high content of N,N-DMT. In large dosages,
ipecac preparations cause high blood pressure, arrhythmia, spasms, and extension of
the blood vessels. While the existing literature on Guarea seed compounds is rather
Fig. 26 Guarea grandifolia. (a) Mature branch, (b) flower, (c) mature fruit, (d) fruit cross section,
(e) seeds, (f) branching pattern. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
fragmentary, it seems clear that a concentrated dosage of Ulluchu seeds, if ingested,

would increase a prisoner’s heartbeat, elevate the blood pressure, and widen blood
vessels thus causing erection. All of this would make it much easier to extract
sacrificial blood. Also, when inhaled by priests, the active compounds could have
a mind-altering effect, which would not necessarily lead to high levels of toxicity,
and could induce very rapid, short-term hallucinations.
We conclude that Ulluchu can be identified as a group of species of the genus
Guarea (Meliaceae) based on morphological characteristics. In addition, the
Fig. 27 Sustainable plant use – from plant documentation with local healers to production of
correctly identified bulk herbal packages and teas for local markets. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
chemical composition of the plant’s compounds supports the theses that it was used
in a sacrificial context to improve the extraction of blood from sacrificial victims. We
also suggest that a ground preparation of Guarea seeds, when inhaled, may have
been used as a hallucinogen. However, more detailed phytochemical research is
needed to corroborate the latter hypothesis.
Changing Markets
Exotics played an important role amongst all pants sold in Northern Peruvian
markets. Fifty-nine species (15%) found in all markets were exotics. However,
among the species most commonly encountered in the inventories, 40–50% were
exotics. Matricaria recutita (chamomile) was found in the inventory of approxi-
mately 70% of vendors. The next most popular species sold in these markets
included Equisetum giganteum, Phyllanthus urinaria, Phyllanthus stipulatus,
Phyllanthus niruri (chanca piedra – stone breaker), Eucalyptus globulus (eucalyp-
tus), Piper aduncum, Uncaria tomentosa (cat’s claw), Rosmarinus officinalis (rose-
mary), Peumus boldus, Bixa orellana (achiote), and Buddleja utilis. However, when
taking sales volume into account, Croton lechleri (dragon’s blood), Uncaria
tomentosa, and Eucalyptus globulus were clearly the most important species
(Bussmann and Sharon 2009c).
While it was very easy for all vendors to name their most important and
frequently sold species, it proofed impossible to get detailed information about
species that vendors observed as “rare” or “disappearing.” In most cases, vendors
mentioned species as rare because they themselves did not sell them, in many cases
these plants were very common outside the market (e.g., Plantago major or common
plantain), or because demand was so low, that it would not have made sense to carry
them in their inventories. Very small vendors had inventories that represented the
most common medicinal plants available and excluded most species in the large
“witchcraft” segment of the pharmacopoeia. On the other hand, well-established
large stands specialized in supplies for healers (including “magical” plants).
All four markets had inventories containing more than 50% of all inventoried
plant species but lacked many of the “generalist” plants sold by other vendors. The
portfolio of these stands focused almost entirely on “magical” species that are
needed to cure illnesses like “susto” (fright), “mal aire” (evil wind), “daño” (dam-
age), “envidia” (envy), and other “magical” or psychosomatic ailments. At the same
time, all four vendors catered also to the esoteric tourism crowd that tends to frequent
the large markets and carried a variety of plants that were not used by curanderos,
but instead were sold to meet tourist demand.
A Look on Sustainability: How Much Plant and for Which Price?
More than two thirds of all species sold in Northern Peruvian were claimed to originate
from the highlands (sierra), above the timberline, which represents areas often heavily
used for agriculture and livestock grazing. The overall value of medicinal plants in
these markets reaches a staggering 1.2 million US$/year. This figure only represents
the share of market vendors and does not include the amount local healers charge for
their cure. Thus, medicinal plants contribute significantly to the local economy. Such
an immense market raises questions of the sustainability of this trade, especially
because the market analysis does not take into account any informal sales.
Most striking was the fact that seven indigenous and three exotic species, i.e.,
2.5% of all species traded, accounted for more than 40% of the total sales volume
(with 30% and 12%, respectively). Moreover, 31 native species accounted for 50%
of all sales, while only 16 introduced plants contributed to more than a quarter of all
material sold. This means that little over 11% of all plants in the market accounted
for about three fourths of all sales. About one third of this sales volume includes all
exotic species traded. None of these are rare or endangered. However, the rising
market demand might lead to increased production of these exotics, which in turn
could have negative effects on the local flora (Bussmann and Sharon 2007b).
A look at the indigenous species traded highlights important conservation threats.
Croton lechleri (dragon’s blood) and Uncaria tomentosa (cat’s claw) are immensely
popular at a local level and each contributes to about 7% to the overall market value.
Both species are also widely traded internationally. The latex of Croton is harvested
by cutting or debarking the whole tree. Uncaria is mostly traded as bark, and again
the whole plant is normally debarked. Croton is a pioneer species, and apart from
C. lechleri a few other species of the genus have found their way in the market.
Sustainable production of this genus seems possible, but the process has to be
closely monitored, and the current practice does not appear sustainable because
most Croton is wild harvested. The cat’s claw trade is so immense, that in fact years
ago collectors of this primary forest liana started complaining about a lack of
resources (Cabieses Molina 2000) and during the years of this study other Uncaria
species, or even Acacia species have appeared in the market as “cat’s claw” (own
observation). As such, the Uncaria trade is clearly not sustainable.
Some of the other “most important” species are either common weeds (e.g.,
Desmodium molliculum) or have large populations (e.g., Equisetum giganteum).
However, a number of species are very vulnerable. Tillandsia cacticola grows in
small areas of the coast as epiphyte (Downer 2006). Its habitat, coastal dry forest and
shrub, is heavily impacted by urbanization and mechanized agriculture, the impact of
the latter worsened by the current bio-fuel boom.
Gentianella alborosea, G. bicolor, G. graminea, Geranium ayavacense, and
Laccopetalum giganteum are all high-altitude species with very limited distribution.
Their large-scale collection is clearly unsustainable, and in case of Laccopetalum
collectors indicate that supply is harder and harder to find. The fate of a number of
species with similar habitat requirements raises comparable concern. The only species
under cultivation at this point are exotics and a few common indigenous species.
When looking at the reasons why people chose medicinal plants or pharma-
ceuticals for greater consumption, it seemed as though the major reasons were
fairly obvious. Many people preferred using plants more often because they are
natural and safe. Pharmaceutical products have too many synthetic chemicals and
foreign substances that can affect the body. Using plants that have been in use for
centuries seems to be a safer and healthier alternative. Many people said that
pharmaceuticals were used for particular illnesses, but often had side effects that
result in negative impacts elsewhere in the body. Respondents agreed, however,
that pharmaceuticals products were more effective than medicinal plants. Even
though they still used plants, they would not completely depend on them,
knowing that there a limit to their use. A lot of agreement was registered for
use of doctor’s prescriptions. Many people have faith in their doctor, and if he
recommends using a certain medicine, they will. This faith is based on the
confidence people have in science and medicine with a great deal of research
available, which has gained the public’s trust. Because of this, people feel safer
relying on modern medicine. Along with the research, people know that medicine
has noticeable effects that can be more easily obtained than those from plants.
Plant remedies take longer and are more subtle in their effects. These are reasons
why pharmaceuticals are used more often. Although the number was minimal,
there were respondents who did say that they used the two kinds of medicine in
the same amounts. What was interesting was that people said that they used both
together. For example, often people said that they would drink a cup of herbal tea
while taking pills. Although people felt that each type of medicine has a role,
most agreed that pharmaceuticals provide the best route taken for fighting certain
sicknesses.
Traditional Medicine is experiencing increasing demand, especially from a Peru-

vian perspective, as indicated by the fact that the number of herb vendors, in
particular in the markets of Trujillo, has increased in recent years. Also, a wide
variety of medicinal plants from Northern Peru can be found in the global market.
While this trend might help to maintain traditional practices and to give traditional
knowledge the respect it deserves, it poses a serious threat, as signs of over-
harvesting of important species are becoming increasingly apparent.
Today the most serious threat to this millennial tradition is the destruction of
medicinal plant habitats. Urban sprawl and the sugar industry have already greatly
altered the coastal plains around Trujillo and Chiclayo. Climatic change and defor-
estation are threatening the mountain forest systems that are the source of many
medicinal species. Most importantly, the high Andean ecosystems and sacred
lagoons where many medicinally active species are found are in danger of being
destroyed by large-scale mining activities (Zamora Pérez 2007). In order to coun-
teract such influences, close work with local healers, in order to document local
knowledge, and use of the results to develop sustainably sourced, and scientifically
identified plant material for local markets, is being developed and the knowledge
also gets repatriated in bilingual form (Fig. 28).
It is apparent that the respondents used medicinal herbs more often than pharma-
ceutical medicines, but only to a small degree. People generally assumed that plants
Fig. 28 Dissemination of traditional knowledge in bilingual books. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
are healthier and better to use because they are natural and are thought to not have
any side-effects. It is difficult to determine if the knowledge of the use of medicinal
plants is growing or decreasing, but the indications are that the last generation knows
Fig. 29 Medicinal plant presentation in Mercado Aviación Lima: (a) packaged ground plat
material, (b) traditional presentation, (c–e) Geranium sessiliflorum, (d) unidentifiable Geranium
fragment, (f) Cheilanthes bonariensis, (g) Argyrochosma nivea, (h) Gentianella thyrsoidea, (i)
Gentianella nitida. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
more than the present. However, most of the present generation does teach their
children about the use of medicinal plants. The present study also showed what
medicinal plants the respondents used for which purposes. It would be interesting to
evaluate the properties of the species used in bioassays. Similarly, the plant knowl-
edge of patients at both facilities was largely identical, with an essentially over-
lapping selection of common, mostly introduced, species, and basically the same
number of medicinal plants mentioned overall. This indicates that traditional medic-
inal knowledge is a major part of a people’s culture that is being maintained while
patients are also embracing the benefits of western medicine.
This attitude does however lead to profound challenges when it comes to the
safety of the plants employed, in particular for applications that require long-term
use. Bussmann et al. (2013) found that various species were often sold under the
same common names. Some of the different fresh species were readily identifiable
botanically, but neither the collectors nor the vendors do make a direct distinction
between species (Fig. 29). However, often material was sold in finely powdered
form, which makes the morphological identification of the species in the market
impossible, and greatly increases the risk for the buyer. The best way to ensure
correct identification would be DNA bar-coding. The necessary technical infrastruc-
ture is however not available locally. The use of DNA bar-coding as quality control
tool to verify species composition of samples on a large scale would require to
carefully sample every batch of plant material sold in the market. The volatility of the
markets makes this is an impossible logistical task. Often the same or closely related
species mentioned in literature sell under wide variety of common names. Worse,
one species might be sold, e.g., as “Hercampuri” in one location or market stand,
while selling under a different name at a neighboring stand. As expected, there is no
consistency in the dosage of plants used, nor do vendors agree on possible side
effects.
Studies indicate that the plant use in Northern Peru, although footing on a
millennial tradition, has changed considerably even during the last decades. Even
in case of plant species used for very clearly circumscribed applications, patients run
a considerable risk when purchasing their remedies in the local markets, and the
possible side effects can be serious. Much more control, and a much more stringent
identification of the material sold in public markets, and entering the global supply
chain via Internet sales, would be needed.
The Nagoya Protocol and Repatriation of Traditional Knowledge
The final implementation of the “Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources

and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the
Convention on Biological Diversity” last month has brought a great boost for the
rights of indigenous and local communities.
The main objective of the protocol is “the fair and equitable sharing of the
benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources, including by appropriate
access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies,
taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and by
appropriate funding, thereby contributing to the conservation of biological diversity
and the sustainable use of its components,” including that “traditional knowledge
associated with genetic resources that is held by indigenous and local communities
is accessed with the prior and informed consent or approval and involvement of
these indigenous and local communities, and that mutually agreed terms have been
established.”
This is naturally of great importance. The establishment of prior informed consent
has, fortunately, been widely practiced already, although there are still projects that
place only limited emphasis on permits and consent, because the process is often
long and tedious. Under the Nagoya Protocol prior informed consent and providing
benefits for knowledge holders is no longer only good ethics, it is also international
law. It is to hope that all major granting agencies, whether private or governmental,
will soon make proof of prior informed consent a requirement for funding.
The concept that “benefits” might result from the documentation of traditional
knowledge is somewhat new to many colleagues. In globalized science, where data
is easily circulated, it is only just to make sure as much as possible that the
knowledge our counterparts share with us is not simply appropriated by parties not
involved in the original study, whether for scientific or commercial purposes. In
practice, this means that the establishment of prior informed consent valid under the
Nagoya Protocol needs to include an explicit statement along the lines that “any
work conducted in a community is carried out under the Nagoya Protocol on Access
to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from
their Utilization, and that the right to use and authorship of any traditional knowl-
edge all informants is maintained, as well as that any use of the information
obtained, other than for the scientific publication does require additional prior
consent of the traditional owners, as well as a consensus on access to benefits
resulting from subsequent use.”
The Nagoya Protocol is to be applied with immediate effect and does not only
cover future research, but any previous data gathered by our institution, unless a
different agreement with the original owners exists.
Benefit sharing in this context needs to also not only include the repatriation of
the new data gathered, in a language and form accessible to the traditional owners,
but also the translation and repatriation of the results of previous studies conducted
in the same indigenous or local community, if not already done by the original
researchers. In addition, informants, should they so desire, must be allowed full
participation as authors in all publications of a study, rather than simply being
mentioned as a sideline in the acknowledgments.
Along these lines we have edited a series of books, authored by the members
of local communities, that repatriate knowledge on plant use, in local language,
and in an appropriate format, as requested by the communities, to the original
knowledge holders. These are given to all participating community members, as
well as local schools. The first reaction in most communities, when presented
with the results of such a collaborative investigation, is astonishment that
researchers actually came back and in fact brought some useful material in
Fig. 30 Repatriation of knowledge – presentation of palm books to local communities. (Photo

local language. This is normally followed by great satisfaction of the participants

to be actual authors of the material (Fig. 30). All publications acknowledge the
local communities, intellectual property under the Nagoya Protocol (Fig. 31), and
the authorship of the local collaborators (Fig. 32). In the case of publications on
palm use, we developed together with the communities easy to understand
symbols for usage categories and plant parts used (Fig. 33). The books include
graphic descriptions of plant parts (Fig. 34), with color examples for different
growth-, leaf-, and fruit-forms (Figs. 35 and 36), followed by in depth description
of the individual species (Fig. 37), and detailed, well-illustrated descriptions of
usage (Fig. 38). In addition to these efforts, WLBC strives to translate previously
published studies on traditional knowledge, to make them available in local
knowledge, to the benefit of the communities that were involved in the original
research. A good example is Bussmann and Paniagua Zambrana (2011). “La
etnobotanica de los Chacobo: Traducción de “Boom, B. – The Ethnobotany of the
Chacobo Indians, Beni, Bolivia”” (Fig. 39).
Fig. 31 Book page: acknowledging local intellectual property and the Nagoya Protocol. (Photo
Fig. 32 Community authors. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Fig. 33 Symbols to explain plant uses and plant parts, developed with local communities. (Photo
Fig. 34 Palm profile – plant parts in local language. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions: Andes – Bolivia, Chile, Peru
69
Fig. 35 Examples for different palm leaf and growth forms. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
70
N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana et al.
Fig. 36 Examples for palm inflorescences and fruits. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions: Andes – Bolivia, Chile, Peru
71
Fig. 37 Illustrated plant description. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
72
N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana et al.
Fig. 38 Richly illustrated description of plant use, with local language terms in addition to Spanish. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
Fig. 39 Repatriation of local

knowledge in local language:
translation of Boom
“Ethnobotany of the Chacobo
Indians”. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Need for a Global Program on Conservation of Useful Plants

and Traditional Knowledge: A Call to Action
There is also a great urgency to address the vital importance of traditional knowledge
about plants, their utility, management, and conservation. This unique, often ancient,
and detailed knowledge is typically held and maintained by local and indigenous
communities (Barve et al. 2013).
The development of a global program on the conservation of useful plants and
associated knowledge is overdue, taking into account the need to:
• Call on the international community and governments to recognize the impor-

tance of wild and cultivated plant diversity, as well as the associated knowledge of
their usefulness as a vital present-day and future resource. This should be
accomplished through the successful implementation of the GSPC objectives and

targets by 2020.
• Highlight the need for a concerted international effort to compile a widely
accessible global catalogue of useful plants of importance for humankind, while
respecting intellectual property rights, local ownership of knowledge and appro-
priate benefit sharing.
• Assist local peoples in the preservation of their traditional knowledge in a
culturally appropriate manner.
• Stress the need for cross cultural and multilevel partnerships in the effort to build
on and share experiences on conservation of culturally significant plants, their
sustainable use, and associated knowledge.
• Develop an international research platform to address gaps in scientific knowl-
edge of useful plants.
• Facilitate capacity building and training opportunities in ethnobotany, particularly
in countries and regions with significant gaps in such resources.
• Support and encourage biocultural knowledge transmission and custodianship.
• Develop the appropriate facilities, methodologies, and techniques to support
culturally sensitive curation of biocultural collections (artifacts, herbarium
vouchers, produces, living collections, etc.) and associated traditional knowledge.
• Elaborate and disseminate educational materials and resources in appropriate
languages that support and promote the study and use of traditional knowledge
and insure their inclusion in educational curricula.
• Develop a toolbox of methodologies, case studies, manuals, and good practices in
order to support the conservation of useful plant and associated knowledge.
• Highlight the need for measurable indicators that monitor progress in the conser-
vation of useful plants and associated knowledge.
• Follow the framework provided by the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic
Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their
Utilization (ABS) to the Convention on Biological Diversity and FAO’s Interna-
tional Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, in order to
manage and achieve ethical standards for access, fair and equitable benefit
sharing, traditional resource and farmers’ rights, and the protection of intellectual
property.
Conclusions
Current research indicates that the composition of the local pharmacopoeia in

Northern Peru and Southern Ecuador has changed since colonial times (Martinez
Compañon 1789; Ruiz 1777–1788; Bussmann and Sharon 2009b). However, in
Northern Peru, the overall number of medicinal plants employed seems to have
remained at a comparable level, while plant use in Southern Ecuador has
decreased. This indicates that the Northern Peruvian health tradition is still
going strong and that the healers and public are constantly experimenting with
new remedies. One example of this is the sudden appearance of Noni (Morinda
citrifolia) fruits and products in large quantities in plant pharmacies and markets
in the region since 2005. This plant was not available before but is heavily
marketed worldwide. Peruvian sellers are clearly reacting to a global market
trend and are trying to introduce this new species to their customers. This
indicates that local herbalists and herb merchants are carefully watching interna-
tional health trends to include promising species in their own repertoire. In
Southern Ecuador, healers were not able to experiment with new remedies due
to persecution and legal restrictions. As a result, the pharmacopoeia in this region
remained on an early colonial level, with loss of significant knowledge.
The use of hallucinogens, in particular the San Pedro cactus (Echinopsis
pachanoi) is still a vital component of Andean healing practices and has been
around for millennia. San Pedro can often be found in Cupisnique and Moche
iconography. Five hundred years of suppression of traditional healing practices
by Western medicine have not managed to destroy this tradition in Peru. The use
of San Pedro, together with additives like Angel’s Trumpet (Brugmansia spp.),
Jimsonweed (Datura ferox), and tobacco, is still a central part of curing ceremo-
nies in Northern Peru. Healers are in fact experimenting with new hallucinogens,
and some northern curanderos have started to include decoctions of Ayahuasca
(Banisteriopsis caapi) in their rituals.
Although not formally acknowledged, Southern Ecuador falls into the Northern
Peruvian cultural area. It appears to represent a region where traditional plant
knowledge, though important, has declined considerably. Southern Ecuadorian
curanderos and parteras (midwives) having almost entirely abandoned indigenous
rituals. In fact, San Pedro usage was not mentioned as a mind-altering plant by any
healer or midwife interviewed and was not used in curing ceremonies. Centuries of
prohibition have led to a pronounced abandonment of traditional knowledge. This is
also reflected in the current study. Many plants used for “magical” purposes in Peru
have disappeared from traditional use in Ecuador. The fear of prosecution is still very
deeply rooted in the healer community, and most healers interviewed stated that they
did not wish to be cited by name. Most healing altars or mesas in Southern Ecuador
are almost entirely devoid of any “pagan” objects such as seashells, pre-Columbian
ceramics, etc. Patients are cleansed, by spraying them with holy water and perfumes.
In rare cases, tobacco juice and extracts of Jimson weed (Datura ferox) are used to
purify the patients. Southern Ecuadorian mesas are also much less elaborate than the
mesas of Peruvian curanderos. The incantations used by healers during their curing
sessions center on Christian symbolism. References to Andean cosmology are
almost entirely absent, and the use of guinea pigs as diagnostic instruments has all
but disappeared from the tool kit of these healers.
Interestingly, Peruvian curanderos have started to fill this spiritual void in
Southern Ecuador. Healers from the Northern Peruvian mountains and coastal plains
frequently cross over to Ecuador to offer their services to patients – including
increasing numbers of foreigners with a “New Age” orientation – who are not
satisfied with the more Westernized approach of Ecuadorian healers. These Peruvian
colleagues have much more elaborate plant knowledge, and their mesas as well as
their incantations follow a more traditional pattern.
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Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions –
Andes – Colombia and Ecuador
Carolina Romero, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and

Rainer W. Bussmann
Location
The Republic of Colombia is located in the northwest corner of South America, and
it is the only South American country that has coasts in both the Atlantic and the
Pacific Oceans. Colombia is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising 32 depart-
ments with the capital in the city of Bogotá. The country lies between latitudes 12 N
and 4 S, and longitudes 67 and 79 W. Colombia is among the world’s 17 mega-
diverse countries, and it is the most densely biodiverse country per square kilometer.
Colombia’s territory encompasses Amazon rainforests, tropical grasslands, coast-
lines along both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and a mountainous zone of Andean
origin (IGAC 2011).
C. Romero
William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO, USA
e-mail: carolina.romero@mobot.org; romero.carito@gmail.com
R. W. Bussmann (*)
e-mail: Rainer.Bussmann@savingknowledge.org; rbussmann@gmail.com;
Rainer.Bussmann@iliauni.edu.ge

84 C. Romero et al.
Colombia has an approximate area of 2,129,748 km2 of which 1,141,748 km2

correspond to its continental and insular territories. The remaining 988,000 km2
correspond to its maritime extension. Colombia’s continental territory extends from
12 260 3000 N in Punta Gallinas (Department of La Guajira) to 4 120 3000 S at the mouth
of the San Antonio creek in the Amazon River (City of Leticia, Department of
Amazonas) and from 60 500 5400 E on the island of San José on the Negro River
(Department of Guainia) to 79 020 3300 W on Cape Manglares at the mouth of the Mira
River in the Pacific Ocean (Department of Nariño). About 87% of the continental
territory of Colombia is located in the Northern Hemisphere as the equatorial line
crosses the country just 4.3 km north of its southern border with Peru (Bernal 2016).
Colombia also includes several insular territories. In the Caribbean Sea off the coast
of Nicaragua is the archipelago of San Andrés and Providencia between 12 and
16 300 N and 78 and 82 W. Also in the Caribbean but closer to Colombia’s
mainland are Fuerte Island, the archipelagos of San Bernardo and the Rosario
Islands, Barú, and Tierrabomba. In the Pacific Ocean, the island territories include
the Gorgona and Gorgonilla Islands at 2 580 N and the Malpelo Island located at 4 N.
Colombia shares land borders with five countries: to the northwest with Panama, to
the east with Venezuela and Brazil, and to the south with Ecuador and Peru. It also
shares maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, the Domin-
ican Republic, Haiti, Venezuela, Panama, and Ecuador.
About two-thirds of the Colombian mainland corresponds to lowlands and only
one-third to mountainous areas mainly associated with the Andean mountains which
cross the country from southwest to northeast (Espinal and Montenegro 1963).
Ecuador has a total area of 283,561 km2, including the Galápagos Islands. Of this,
276,841 km2 is land and 6,720 km2 water. Ecuador lies between latitudes 2 N and
5 S, bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and has 2,337 km of coastline. It has
2,010 km of land boundaries, with Colombia in the north 590 km border and Peru in
the east and south 1,420 km border. It is the westernmost country that lies on the
equator.
The country has four main geographic regions:
The coastal region consists of the provinces to the West of the Andean range,
Esmeraldas, Guayas, Los Ríos, Manabí, El Oro, and Santa Elena. It is the
country’s most fertile and productive land and is the seat of the large banana
exportation plantations especially of companies like Dole and Chiquita. This
region is also where most of Ecuador’s rice crop is grown. The coastal provinces
have active fisheries.
The highlands consist of the Andean and Interandean highland provinces, Azuay,
Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Imbabura, Loja, Pichincha, and Tungurahua. This
land contains most of Ecuador’s volcanoes and all of its snow-capped peaks.
Agriculture is focused on the traditional crops of potato, maize, and quinua.
The Amazon consists of the provinces Morona Santiago, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza,
Sucumbíos, and Zamora-Chinchipe. This region is primarily made up of the huge
Amazon national parks and Amerindian untouchable zones, which are vast
stretches of land set aside for the Amazon Amerindian tribes to continue living
Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions – Andes – Colombia and Ecuador 85
traditionally. It is also the area with the largest reserves of petroleum in Ecuador,
and parts of the upper Amazon here have been extensively exploited by petro-
leum companies.
The insular region is the region comprising the Galápagos Islands, some 1,000 km
west of the mainland in the Pacific Ocean.
Climate
The climate of Colombia is tropical and isothermal (that is without any real change
of seasons) as a result of its geographical location near the Equator presenting
variations depending on the altitude, temperature, humidity, winds, and rainfall
(Pabón et al. 2001). The complex topography of Colombia with its large mountains,
narrow valleys, and wide plains determines a climatic heterogeneity that is reflected
in the extraordinary richness and variability of its vegetation cover characterized for
having climates associated with tropical rainforests, savannas, steppes, deserts, and
mountains. Each of the six natural regions in which Colombia is divided (i.e., the
Caribbean, Pacific, Andean, Eastern Plains, Amazon, and insular regions) maintains
an average temperature throughout the year presenting only slight variations deter-
mined by precipitation during rainy seasons caused by the Intertropical
Convergence Zone.
The climate of the tropical rainforest found in the Amazon region, the central
Magdalena valley, and the northern Pacific coast is characterized by an annual
rainfall of more than 2,500 mm and annual average temperatures above 23 C.
Along the southern Pacific coast, on the Caribbean coast, and at some areas in the
interior (the Quindío department and near the city of Villavicencio in the Meta
department), there occurs a tropical monsoon climate marked by one or more dry
months but still supporting rainforest vegetation (Espinal and Montenegro 1963;
Pabón et al. 2001).
The tropical savanna conditions with alternate wet and dry seasons mark the
predominant climate of the Atlantic lowlands: the dry season occurs from November
to April, and the wet season (broken by some dry periods) from May to October. This
type of climate is also found in the Eastern Plains natural region and in part of the
upper Magdalena valley. Such climatic conditions are characterized by an annual
rainfall between 1,000 and 1,800 mm and annual average temperatures usually
above 23 C. The dry season, accompanied by dust and wind, coincides with the
true winter of the Northern Hemisphere (Espinal and Montenegro 1963; Pabón et al.
2001).
A climate characterized by drier savanna conditions prevails on the Caribbean
littoral from the Gulf of Morrosquillo (Departments of Córdoba and Sucre) to the
La Guajira Peninsula (Department of La Guajira) in the northeast. The rains nor-
mally occur in two brief periods (in April and from October to November) but rarely
exceed 760 mm annually and the average temperature is hot (more than 27 C). This
type of climate also occurs in the rain shadows of the deep gorges of such rivers as
the Cauca, Chicamocha, Patía, and Zulia as well as in parts of the upper Magdalena
86 C. Romero et al.
valley. The climate reaches near-desert conditions in the far northern department of
La Guajira (Espinal and Montenegro 1963; Pabón et al. 2001).
Due to Colombia’s geographical location, the temperature is directly related to the
change in elevation and is characterized by its uniformity throughout the months of
the year, with only some small oscillations. Average temperatures decrease uni-
formly about 0.6 C per 100 m of ascent. These fluctuations are wider in regions of
higher altitudes where frosts are frequently present. In Colombia, the climate
associated with mountainous regions is determined by elevation (the climate altitu-
dinal zones) and popular terminology has recognized distinct climate altitudinal
zones (pisos térmicos). Below 1,000 m in elevation is the “warm” (tierra caliente)
altitudinal zone where temperatures are above 24 C (ca. 82.5% of Colombia’s total
area lies in the warm altitudinal zone). The “temperate” climate altitudinal zone
(tierra templada) located between 1,001 and 2,000 m is characterized for presenting
an average temperature ranging between 17 C and 24 C. The “cold” climate zone
(tierra fría) is present between 2,001 and 3,000 m with temperatures varying
between 10–12 C and 17 C. Beyond the “cold” zone lies the “alpine” zone
including few forested areas and the treeless grasslands of the páramos between
3,001 and 4,700 m with average temperatures below 10 C, fog, overcast skies,
frequent winds, and light rain or drizzle. Above 4,000/4,700 m is the altitudinal zone
of “permanent snow and ice caps” (tierra helada, nieves perpetuas) where temper-
atures are below freezing and the climate is glacial (Banco de la República 1992).
The winds are another factor of great importance among those that influence the
climate of Colombia. The Colombian territory is affected by the Northwest Trade
Winds (Vientos Alisios del Noroeste) during the summer of the Southern Hemi-
sphere and by the Southeast Trade Winds (Vientos Alisios del Sureste) during the
summer of the Northern Hemisphere. There are also local wind circulations in
several valleys and inter-Andean basins which explain the presence of certain dry
enclaves (Espinal and Montenegro 1963).
There is also great variety in the climate of Ecuador, largely determined by altitude.
It is mild year-round in the mountain valleys, with a humid subtropical climate in
coastal areas and rainforest in lowlands. The Pacific coastal area has a tropical
climate with a severe rainy season. The climate in the Andean highlands is temperate
and relatively dry, and the Amazon basin on the eastern side of the mountains shares
the climate of other rainforest zones. The coastal lowlands in the western part of
Ecuador are typically warm with temperatures in the region of 25 C. Coastal areas
are affected by ocean currents and between January and April are hot and rainy.
Orography and Geology
As in the rest of South America a combination of external and internal tectonic,

volcanic, and glacial forces over the eons formed Colombia’s present-day geology.
The continental territory of Colombia didn’t form following a single geological
event but involved six giant blocks of diverse geological origin that came together at
different times. Each of these geological blocks has a history of internal
conformation that precedes its accretion to the main South American continent
(Parra 2016). In general, the continental mass of Colombia is divided into three
major regions determined by its relief: the coastal plains located to the north and west
of the country, the center formed by the Andes Mountains and its foothills, and the
east formed by plains and the Amazon jungle.
The mountainous areas of Colombia occupy approximately 40% of its territory, and
the upper zones are especially characterized by wet grasslands – Páramos (Fig. 1),
with a species rich flora, of which the genus Espeletia (Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5 are
especially characteristic).
The Colombian relief was configured during the Mesozoic era when the geological
processes of folding and subduction led to the recession of oceanic waters allowing
the emergence of the Western and Central mountain ranges. In the following era, the
Cenozoic, the Eastern mountain range, and the other independent mountainous
systems emerged (Bushnell and Hudson 2010).
The mountainous system of Colombia is part of the Andes Mountain range which
runs longitudinally to the Pacific coast of South America. The Andes enter the
Colombian territory by the border with Ecuador forming the Knot of the Pastos
(or massif of the Pastos), and then the mountainous mass separates towards the North
to form the Central Mountain range (Cordillera Central) and the Western Mountain
range (Cordillera Occidental) separated by the great valley of the river Cauca. The
Central Mountain range later forms the Colombian Massif (Macizo Colombiano,
south western departments of Cauca and Nariño), a mountainous labyrinth beyond
Fig. 1 Andean Páramos outside Bogotá, Colombia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
88 C. Romero et al.
Fig. 2 Andean Páramos outside Bogotá, Colombia, with Espeletia argentea. (Photo
Fig. 3 Andean Páramos outside Bogotá, Espeletia argentea Colombia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann
Fig. 4 Espeletia argentea, Andean Páramos outside Bogotá, Colombia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann
Fig. 5 Espeletia grandiflora,

Andean Páramos outside
Bogotá, Colombia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
90 C. Romero et al.
which the Eastern Mountain range (Cordillera Oriental) emerges, and the great
Magdalena River valley separates the Central and the Eastern mountain ranges. The
highest peaks in the Western mountain range exceed 4,700 m, and in the Central and
Eastern mountain ranges they can reach 5,000 m (Espinal and Montenegro 1963).
East of the Andes Mountains lies a region of great topographic uniformity divided
into two contrasting natural landscapes by a major vegetation boundary: the Eastern
Plains or savannas of the Llanos (part of the Orinoco River basin) which form the
largest savanna complex in tropical America, and (in the far south east) the jungle of
the Amazon rainforest (Selva Amazónica). These two lowland areas comprise over
half of Colombia’s territory. In the central part of this huge plain region, between the
Guaviare and Caquetá rivers, the eroded rocks of the ancient Guiana Shield are
exposed and produce a broken topography of low, isolated mountains, tablelands,
and buttes with rapids in their rivers (Espinal and Montenegro 1963).
The country’s two coastlines are characterized by different features: steep and
articulated bays, inlets, capes, and promontories accentuate the shorelines of the
Pacific coast towards the Panama border and also on the Caribbean coast where the
sea beats against the base of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Mountains. These
features are interspersed with sandy beaches along with barrier islands and brackish
lagoons. To the north extend the Caribbean coastal plains consisting of low-lying
undulating plains of varying width, the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Mountains
(which include Colombia’s tallest peaks Pico Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón
Bolívar, both 5,775 m each), and the La Guajira Desert. The narrow and discontin-
uous Pacific coastal lowlands backed by the Serranía de Baudó Mountains are
Fig. 6 Northern Ecuadorian Andes. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
Fig. 7 Espeletia pycnophylla, Páramo El Angel, Ecuador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
covered in dense vegetation and are mostly swampy. The reed-filled marshes of the
area are called ciénagas by the people of Colombia (Espinal and Montenegro 1963).
The main rivers of Colombia are the Magdalena, Cauca, Guaviare, Atrato, Meta,
Putumayo, and Caquetá. Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific
drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin, and the Amazon Basin.
The peaks of the Ecuadorian Andes are very distinct, stretching from large plateaus
and relatively low mountain ranges at the Colombian border (Fig. 6), with some of
the most extensive Páramos like El Angel, covered in Espeletia pycnophylla (Fig. 7).
The Central Ecuadorian Andes in contrast are characterized by volcanic peaks.
Cotopaxi (5,987 m) the highest active volcano in the world (measured from the
earth center, Fig. 8) has an almost perfect cone shape, as does Sangay (5,500 m),
with frequent major volcanic events. With certain frequency, even Pichincha, located
close to Ecuador’s capital Quito shows frequent activity (Fig. 9).
Earthquakes are common throughout Ecuador as the land is being formed. The
lahars around Cotopaxi look like frozen rivers. There are lava flows that flowed
out of Antisana that blocked the rivers above Papallacta and caused a large lake to
form. Volcanic layers laid down eons ago have been folded back on themselves
exactly on the equator visible in cuttings on the road from Guallabamba to
Tabacundo. The volcanic landscape has been modified by the action of glaciers.
Forming the basins in the inter-Andean valley that are now separate provinces of
modern Ecuador. A glacial moraine, where the continental divide crosses from one
cordillera to the other, separates each province. The highest peaks are found in
central and northern Ecuador, while towards the South the Andes recede in height
92 C. Romero et al.
Fig. 8 Cotopaxi volcano, Ecuador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
Fig. 9 Pichincha eruption

1998, Quito, Ecuador. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 10 Southern Ecuadorean Andes. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
Fig. 11 Granitic outcrops,

Lagunas Negras, Southern
Ecuadorean Andes. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
94 C. Romero et al.
Fig. 12 Gold exploitation,

Nambija, Southern Ecuador.
towards the Huancabamba depression (Fig. 10), and shifting from volcanic, to
metamorphic massifs, mostly comprised of sandstones and granite (Fig. 11), forming
ecosystems particularly rich in unique (endemic) species, and comprising the most
prolific gold explorations areas in Ecuador, unfortunately often with large environ-
mental impact (Fig. 12). This, together with clearing of cloud-forest for agricultural
activities, has led to a widely fragmented landscape (Fig. 13).
The southern part of the Colombian-Ecuadorean Andes is characterized by some of
the most species rich cloud-forests of the continent, especially in the vicinity of
Podocarpus National Park (Fig. 14) (Bussmann 2001a, b, 2005; Lozano et al. 2007,
2009, 2010). The frequent landslides in the region are recognized as one of the main
motors for this diversity (Fig. 15) (Lozano et al. 2006, 2008; Ohl and Bussmann
2004).
The Colombian Andes
The Colombian Andean system belongs to the northern portion of the great Andes
mountains which extends along the Pacific coast of South America. In Colombia, the
Andes branch into three mountain ranges: the western mountain range (Cordillera
Occidental), the central mountain range (Cordillera Central), and the eastern moun-
tain range (Cordillera Oriental). These three mountain ranges with their inter-
Andean valleys (Cauca River valley and Magdalena River valley) form the Andean
Fig. 13 Fragmented landscape with cloud-forest remnants, Southern Eucador. (Photo

Fig. 14 Species rich cloud-forest with overgrown landslide scars, Podocarpus National Park,
Southern Eucador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
96 C. Romero et al.
Fig. 15 Natural landslides,

Podocarpus National Park,
Southern Eucador. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Region of Colombia. These mountain ranges originate in the Pastos Massif (Nudo de
los Pastos) and in the Colombian Massif. The Colombian Massif is also known as
the “fluvial star” of Colombia (Estrella Fluvial Colombiana) because it is there where
many of the headwaters of the most important rivers of Colombia originate such as the
Patía, Cauca, Magdalena, and Caquetá rivers (Lobo-Guerrero Uscátegui 1994).
The nonvolcanic western mountain range (Cordillera Occidental) is the lowest of
the three ranges of Colombia. It crosses the western zone of the country forming a
barrier between the Cauca valley and the Pacific coast. It begins in the South of the
country and dies in the department of Antioquia in the Paramillo knot (Nudo de
Paramillo) where the western range forks into three distinct mountainous systems
(serranías): those of Abibe, San Jerónimo, and Ayapel which gradually drop north
into the Caribbean plains. Although it does not reach heights as great as the other two
mountain ranges, it has high peaks such as the Azufral volcano (4,070 m), the
Páramo de Frontino (with heights up to 3,950 m), the Farallones de Cali (about
4,050 m), Farallones de Citará (4,050 m), Cerro Paramillo (3,730 m), and the Cerro
Tatamá (4,100 m) which is its highest elevation (Espinal and Montenegro 1963).
The Cauca River valley separates the western mountain range from the massive
central mountain range (Cordillera Central). This central range is the highest,
shortest, and most volcanic of the Andean ranges of Colombia. It goes from south
to north up to the southern end of the Caribbean plains occupying an intermediate
position between the other two mountain ranges (western and eastern). In the
department of Antioquia, it forms its last branches. This mountain range includes
great elevations with several peaks perpetually covered with snow such as the
volcanoes Nevado del Huila (5,364 m), Ruiz (5,321 m), Tolima (5,276 m), Santa
Isabel (4,950 m), Quindío (4,760 m), Cerro Pan de Azúcar (4,670 m), Puracé
(4,646 m), and El Cisne (4,636 m). In its northernmost extreme (in the department
of Antioquia), the mountain range divides into two branches separated by the Aburrá
valley: the eastern branch terminates in an isolated mountainous formation known as
the San Lucas mountain range (Serranía de San Lucas). The fertile ash released from
the eruptions of its numerous volcanoes gave origin to the high, cool plateaus of the
Nariño department and the often steep northern slopes that support much of
Colombia’s coffee region (Espinal and Montenegro 1963; Flórez 2003).
After separating from the Cordillera Central, the valley of the Magdalena River
(a major transportation artery) separates the central mountain range from the eastern
mountain range (Cordillera Oriental). Along the way it expands to form the
Cundinamarca-Boyacá high plateau, surrounding it with mountain ranges on both
sides. Then, in the Knot of Santurbán (Nudo de Santurbán), the eastern range
bifurcates into two mountainous systems. The one to the northeast enters Venezuela
to form the Sierra de Mérida and the west branch continues in Colombia to form the
mountainous systems of Los Motilones and the Perijá mountains (Serranía del
Perijá) (a thin mountain range which descends northwards along the border with
Venezuela and dies in the south of the La Guajira Peninsula the northernmost area of
the Colombian mainland). The highest peaks in this mountain range are the Ritacuba
Blanco in the Nevado del Cocuy (5,410 m), Páramo de Sumapaz (4,306 m), Páramo
de San Turbán (4,290 m), Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza (4,100 m), Páramo de
Pisba (3,906 m), and Páramo de Cruz Verde (3,500 m) (Espinal and Montenegro
1963; Flórez 2003).
Besides the Andean mountains, the Colombian relief also includes some peripheral
mountainous systems. The Serranía del Baudó runs along the northern portion of the
Pacific coast. These mountains are linked to the Serranía del Darién mountainous
system where it crosses the border with Panama.
Towards the East, there is the system of Sierra de la Macarena which is one of the
most important mountain ranges in Colombia for its unique fauna and flora. It is
located very close to the Eastern Cordillera. There are also some hills located in the
Amazon such as those of Araracuara and Chiribiquete. Most of these are formations
belonging to the Guiana Shield (one of the oldest geological zones of America).
In the Peninsula of La Guajira, there are some mountains such as Macuira, Jarara,
and Cocinas. Towards the Caribbean Sea stands the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta Mountains which includes the “twin peaks” of Cristóbal Colón and Simón
Bolívar (the highest mountains in the country at 5,775 m each). The Sierra Nevada
de Santa Marta is also the highest coastal mountain system in the world since its
summit is located only 42 km from the Caribbean Sea (Espinal and Montenegro
1963; Flórez 2003).
98 C. Romero et al.
Ethnobotanical Studies in Colombia and Ecuador
During the time of the Spanish conquest, the first chroniclers and missionaries sent to
catechize the conquered territories expressed in their writings a great number of their
own personal observations as well as information given by the native American
peoples about the diverse uses of the native plants. Examples of these early chron-
iclers who recorded in an incipient way the “ethnobotany” of indigenous America
were: Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo Historia General y Natural de las Indias,
1526), Bernardo de Vargas Machuca (La Milicia Indígena y Descripción de las
Indias, 1599), and the Jesuit priests Joseph Gumilla (El Orinoco Ilustrado y
Defendido. Historia Natural, Civil y Geográfica de este Gran Río y de sus
Caudalosas Vertientes, 1731) and Filippo Salvatore Gilii (Saggio di Storia Ameri-
cana, o sia Storia Naturale, Civile, e Sacra De Regni, e delle Provincie Spagnuole di
Terra-ferma nell’ America Meridionale, 1780).
The true beginnings of the study of the applied botany in Colombia lie in the studies
of José Celestino Mutis and his “Royal Botanical Expedition of the New Kingdom of
Granada” which took place between 1760 and 1816 (Jara Afanador 1984). As a
medical doctor, Mutis studied assiduously the healing qualities of plants and, as a
vassal of the crown he tenaciously looked for export products that at the time were
useful for the Spanish trade. In the studies of the Royal Expedition appeared the first
serious criticisms about the pre-Columbian ethnobotany, and it was also the forma-
tive school of the first naturalists of the New Granada. Some of them would turn into
heroes of the Independence of Colombia: Juan Eloy Valenzuela, Francisco Antonio
Zea, Francisco José de Caldas, Jorge Tadeo Lozano, José Félix Restrepo, and José
María Cabal. It is to the Royal Botanical Expedition that we owe the first studies
about the cinnamon of páramo (“canela de páramo”: Drymis granatensis), the
cinnamon of Andaquíes (“canela de Andaquíes”: Aniba canelilla), the tea of Bogotá
(“té de Bogotá”: Symplocos theiformis), the “escobo” (Hypericum spp.), the “guaco”
(Mikania glomerata), the “almendrón” (Caryocar amygdaliferum), the coffee
(Coffea arabica), and a wide number of many other plants but mainly the “Quinas”
(Cinchona spp.) of the New Kingdom including those growing in Ecuador (Mutis
1983, 2da. Ed.). Later throughout the nineteenth century, the “Ethnobotany” began
to be practiced in Colombia with the studies of travelers who mainly reported on uses
of plants by the indigenous communities of the Amazon (Pérez Arbeláez 1995).
The first researchers who made ethnobotanical observations were the botanists Karl
F.P. von Martius and Richard Spruce, and the anthropologist Theodor Koch-
Grünberg. Their observations were focused in the northwest region of the Amazon.
Karl von Martius (German, 1794–1868), who was in the Amazon in 1820, collected
plants during 3 years in Brazil and then went to Colombia along the Caquetá River to
reach Araracuara. His field notes were rich in ethnobotanical observations and other
data on the indigenous groups he encountered along the way.
Richard Spruce (English, 1817–1893) spent 15 years in South America where he
collected a great variety of plants, mainly trees. Some of the plants studied by Spruce
included the “cinchonas” (Cinchona spp.), source of the quina, and the rubber trees
belonging to the genus Hevea spp. His field notes were also rich in ethnobotanical
references, and among his most outstanding research is that related to “yagé”
(Banisterosis caapi). On the other hand, the German anthropologist Theodor
Koch-Grünberg (1872–1924) conducted his research in the northwest of the Colom-
bian Amazon and the upper Orinoco. Koch-Grünberg lived with the indigenous
inhabitants of the Upper Negro River between 1903 and 1905. In his publications he
included several ethnobotanical references, collected botanical and geological spec-
imens, and anthropological artifacts. He also took more than 1,000 photographs,
made atmospheric and temperature records, and drew rivers unknown for the time.
Koch-Grünberg’s writings presented strong criticisms about the situation of oppres-
sion and mistreatment towards the indigenous people as was the case of the com-
munities that inhabited the present department of Vaupés (Schultes and Raffauf
1990).
The cataloging and study of the useful plants of Colombia progressed sporadically
from the Royal Expedition promoted by Mutis up to the foundation of the Colom-
bian National Herbarium in Bogotá in 1936. In this period of time, several authors
worked on describing the uses of the native plants of Colombia: Rafael Zerda Bayón,
José Jerónimo Triana, Santiago Cortés, Wilson Popenoe, and the brothers Elías y
Fabio Robledo Uribe in their thesis on the physical characteristics of Colombian
woods (Pérez Arbeláez 1995).
Throughout the twentieth century, general compendiums and catalogs on the Colom-
bian medicinal plants and their uses were produced. Among these publications are
the Plantas Útiles de Colombia (Useful Plants of Colombia) by Enrique Pérez
Arbeláez (1995) and the Flora Medicinal de Colombia (Medicinal Flora of Colom-
bia) by Hernando García Barriga (1974, 1975a, b) (both authors botanists), as well as
the monumental work of Víctor Manuel Patiño (1963, 1964a, b, 1970, 1974),
Plantas cultivadas y animales domésticos en la América Equinoccial (Cultivated
plants and domestic animals of Equatorial America, 1967), which is an exhaustive
compendium of the bibliographical references related to plants and their uses
contained in historical documents and chroniclers’ accounts dating from the six-
teenth century.
With the works by Richard Evans Schultes (United States, 1915–2001) the study of
Ethnobotany in Colombia and Ecuador begun to cement its current research direc-
tions (see Schultes and Hofmann 1982; Schultes et al. 1989; Schultes 1990). During
the 12 years that he remained working in the northwest of the Colombian Amazon,
Schultes collected about 30,000 botanical specimens of which ca. 300 represented
new species to science (Davis 2004). In 1941, the National Research Council of
Washington D.C. entrusted Schultes with a job to travel northwest of the Colombian
Amazon with the aim to study the poisonous substances used by the indigenous
groups in their arrows. From this moment, beginning with his first incursions into the
mountainous areas and eastern foothills of southeastern Colombia in the territories of
the Kamsá and Ingas indigenous groups, Schultes became interested in and
documented the way in which the indigenous healers cultivated the plants they
used in their own orchards. He was also interested in the particular uses given to
medicinal and food plants (Davis 2004). As he developed his research, Schultes soon
realized that it was impossible to know new plants or their properties without taking
100 C. Romero et al.
into account the traditional knowledge of the native peoples as well as their way of
living in the forest. For him, the way the aborigines classified the plants and how
they distinguished the different varieties of the same plant were very remarkable
(Davis 2004). His approaches and methods of interdisciplinary research fusing
botany and ethnography were pioneers in the field of Ethnobotany and even consti-
tute today the very contemporary foundations of this discipline (Archila 2009).
Following the research line drawn up by the studies of Schultes, several researchers
contributed numerous studies in Colombian ethnobotany during the second half of
the twentieth century. In 1959, the ethnobotanist Néstor Uscátegui (1959) published
his work on the use and distribution of narcotic and stimulant plants used by different
indigenous groups in Colombia. In 1953, Silvio Yepes published the work “Intro-
duction to Colombian Ethnobotany” where he collected data obtained in the
Sibundoy valley (Yepes Agredo 1953). In 1964, Irving Goldman published his
ethnography of the Cubeo natives that includes numerous ethnobotanical references
(Goldman 1979). Other works focused on the ethnography and ethnology of diverse
regions of Colombia which also included ethnobotanical references are: those of
Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff (1968, 1977, 1978), Martin Von Hildebrand (1983),
Stephen Hugh-Jones (1988), and Elizabeth Reichel (1989). Additional important
contributions come from the studies of Colombian and foreign botanists such as
Enrique Acero (1982) and Timothy Plowman (1981), among others.
During the 1980s of the twentieth century, the Corporación Araracuara sponsored
ethnobotanical research in Caquetá and Amazonas. Among the works generated
under this initiative are those of Enrique Acero (1982) and Constanza La Rotta
(1983; Constanza La Rotta et al. 1988), among others. In the same decade, the work
of Linda Glenboski (1983) on the ethnobotany of the Tikuna indigenous group was
developed, and in the following decade (1990s), great ethnographies such as those
by Maria Clara van der Hammen (1992) on the Yukuna as well as compilation works
on Ethnobotany such as that of Mauricio Sánchez (1997) came to light. Some of
these studies which have become useful tools for specialists are manuals for iden-
tifying plant parts and contain detailed information on their use and ecology (Herrera
and Urrego 1996).
More recently ethnobotanical research has been carried out in other indigenous
populations of the Andean region (Sanabria Diago et al. 1996; Rodríguez-Echeverry
2010; Sanabria Diago and Argueta Villamar 2015), and with traditional rural groups
(Toscano González 2006; Ariza Cortés et al. 2009; Cardona and Barrientos 2011;
Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Galvis Rueda and Torres Torres 2017),
as well as with rural populations recently settled in big urban centers (Giraldo
Quintero et al. 2015). The emphasis of these studies has been focused on the use
of medicinal, nutritional, and ceremonial plants. In Colombia in recent years, the
Alexander von Humboldt Institute has been the governmental entity in charge of
researching and developing policies related to biodiversity and as such has generated
important informative documents about the uses of native medicinal plants in
Colombia (Díaz 2003; Bernal et al. 2011).
Currently research focused on Ethnobotany plays an important role in the conception
of policies related to the sustainable use of natural resources, biodiversity,
bio-discovery, and bio-trade. The current trend is for local communities to participate
actively in decisions about biodiversity and its conservation through programs that
make it possible to monitor them. On the other hand, it is expected that ethnobio-
logical research will be directly and effectively reverted to local communities and
that it will also be used to help produce appropriate and fair legislation dealing with
the intellectual property and rights related to traditional and intangible knowledge of
indigenous, local groups, and minorities (e.g., Bejár et al. 2001; Bussmann 2006;
Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2014).
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Conservación de la Naturaleza. El folklore botánico y la conservación de los recursos naturales.
Serie Documentos de Conservación No. 4. Lima: Fundación Peruana para la Conservación de la
Naturaleza; 1989. 43 pp.
Toscano González JY. Uso tradicional de plantas medicinales en la vereda San Isidro, municipio de
San José de Pare-Boyacá: un estudio preliminar usando técnicas cuantitativas. Acta Biol
Colomb. 2006;11(2):137–46.
Uscátegui N. The present distribution of narcotics and stimulants amongst the Indian tribes of
Colombia. Bot Mus Leafl Harv Univ. 1959;18:273–304.
Van der Hammen MC. El manejo del mundo. Naturaleza y sociedad entre los Yukuna de la
Amazonia colombiana. Bogotá: Tropenbos; 1992. 376 pp.
Von Hildebrand M. Cosmovisión y el concepto de enfermedad entre los Ufaina. 48–63 p. In: Jimeno
Santoyo M, Triana Antorveza A, editors. Medicina, Shamanismo y Botánica. Bogotá: Pre-
scencia; 1983. 156 pp.
Yepes Agredo S. Introducción a la Etnobotánica colombiana. Bogotá: Publicación Sociedad
Colombiana de Etnología; 1953. 48 pp.
Part II
Plant Profiles
Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl
ROSACEAE
Javier Echeverría, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl: Acaena acroglochin Bitter, Acaena adscendens

(Lam.) Vahl ssp. georgiae-australis Bitter, Acaena adscendens (Lam.) Vahl var.
macrochaeta, Acaena canescens Phil., Acaena glandulifera Bitter, Acaena glaucella
Bitter, Acaena krausei Phil., Acaena laevigata Aiton, Acaena macropoda Bitter,
Ancistrum magellanicum Lam., Acaena adscendens (Lam.) Vahl, Acaena acutifida
Bitter, Acaena adscendens (Lam.) Vahl ssp. glabriscapa Bitter, Acaena affinis Hook.
f., Acaena brachyglochin Bitter, Acaena colchaguensis Bitter, Acaena nudicaulis
Albov, Acaena alboffii Macloskie, Acaena floribunda Bitter, Acaena magellanica
(Lam.) Vahl var. pubescens, Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl ssp. grandiscapa
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)
rainer.bussmann@iliauni.edu.ge

108 J. Echeverría et al.
Bitter, Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl ssp. laevigata (Aiton) Bitter, Acaena
magellanica (Lam.) Vahl ssp. subtuspilosa Bitter, Acaena adscendens (Lam.) Vahl
var. semperpilosa, Acaena adscendens (Lam.) Vahl var. utrinqueglabrescens,
Acaena adscendens (Lam.) Vahl var. luxurians, Acaena macrostemon Hook. f. ssp.
latisepala Bitter, Acaena tomentella Bitter, Acaena hirsuta Phil., Acaena
chamaecaena Bitter, Acaena transitoria Bitter, Acaena sericascens Bitter, Acaena
sericascens Bitter var. tenuibracteolata, Acaena subtusvillosula Bitter, Acaena
compacta Hauman, Acaena oligomera Skottsb., Acaena oligodonta Bitter, Acaena
cadilla Hook. f., Acaena closiana Gay, Acaena coxi Phil., Acaena petiolulata Phil.,
Acaena philippii Gand., Acaena macrostemon Hook. f., Acaena depauperata Bitter,
Acaena exaltata Bitter, Acaena grandistipula Bitter, Acaena grossifolia Bitter,
Acaena hirta Citerne, Acaena humilis Bitter, Acaena ischnostemom Bitter, Acaena
krausei Phil. var. hirsuta, Acaena krausei Phil. var. massonandra, Acaena krausei
Phil. var. meionandra, Acaena laevigata Aiton var. venulosa, Acaena longiaristata
H. Ross, Acaena longistipula Bitter, Acaena macrophyes Bitter, Acaena macro-
stemon Hook. f. ssp. closiana (Gay) Bitter, Acaena macrostemon Hook. f. var.
basipilosa, Acaena macrostemon Hook. f. ssp. longiaristata (H. Ross) Bitter,
Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl ssp. pygmaea Bitter, Acaena magellanica (Lam.)
Vahl var. glabrescens, Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl ssp. venulosa (Griseb.)
Bitter, Acaena neglecta Bitter, Acaena obtusiloba Bitter, Acaena oligoglochin Bitter,
Acaena plioglochin Bitter, Acaena rubescens Bitter, Acaena subflaccida Bitter,
Acaena venulosa Griseb., Acaena longistigma Bitter, Acaena sericascens Bitter
var. sexjuga
Local Names
Chile: Amor seco, Cadilla, Cadillo, Trun, Sítor, Sítur
Botany and Ecology
Plant up to 14 cm high, glabrous stem and short internodes Oblong contour leaves
aligned linearly lanceolate, 2.2–12.5 cm long, with 5–10 pairs of obovate leaflets,
base 6–33 mm long, margin pinnatipartid, 4–7 pairs of segments, glabrous to
pubescent, with more abundant trichomes on the underside. Inflorescence
capituliform, purple to yellow, up to 15 mm in diameter. Sepals 4–5, ovate-elliptic
0.8–2.6 mm long, pubescens, stigma obovoid to lanceloid, yellow to purple,
1.0–2.5 mm long. Cupela conical, tetragon, 4–6 mm long, with 4 apical spines,
unequal up to 10 mm, with strong glochids, with soft, persistent, white hairs and
achenes, 100–3500 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995;
Peñaloza et al. 2013) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl 109
Fig. 1 Acaena magellanica

(Rosaceae), Socaire, Chile.
(Photo Lucas Burchard
Señoret)
Fig. 2 Acaena magellanica

(Rosaceae), Socaire, Chile.
Señoret)
Local Medicinal Uses
The infusion of the plant is used against the conditions of the bladder and the
decomposition of blood (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán
and Castro 2003). Acaena argentea is used in Peru against varicose veins (Sánchez
2014).
Local Handicraft and Other Uses
Used as fodder (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
References
Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936–1995.
Peñaloza A, Pardo V, Marticorena A, Cavieres L, Frugone F. Flora y vegetación del parque nacional
Llullaillaco, Región de Antofagasta, Chile: Peñazola-García. 2013.
Rodriguez R, Marticorena C, Alarcón D, Baeza C, Cavieres L, Finot VL, Fuentes N, Kiessling A,
Mihoc M, Pauchard A, Ruiz E, Sanchez P, Marticorena A. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares de
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Sánchez I. Plantas medicinales en los páramos de Cajamarca. In: Cuesta F, Sevink J, Llambí LD, De
Bièvre B, Posner J, editors. Avances en investigación para la conservación de los páramos
andinos. Lima: CONDESAN; 2014.
Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago de Chile: Editorial
Universitaria; 2003.
Achillea millefolium L.
ASTERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Achillea millefolium L.: Achillea alpicola (Rydb.) Rydb.; Achillea arenaria

A. Heller; Achillea borealis subsp. arenicola (A. Heller) D.D. Keck; Achillea
borealis subsp. californica (Pollard) D.D. Keck; Achillea californica Pollard;
Achillea gigantea Pollard; Achillea lanulosa Nutt.; Achillea lanulosa subsp. alpicola
(Rydb.) D.D. Keck; Achillea lanulosa var. alpicola Rydb.; Achillea laxiflora Pollard
& Cockerell; Achillea megacephala Raup; Achillea millefolium subsp. borealis
(Bong.) Breitung; Achillea millefolium subsp. occidentalis (DC.) Hyl.; Achillea
millefolium var. alpicola (Rydb.) Garrett; Achillea millefolium var. arenicola
(A. Heller) Nobs; Achillea millefolium var. asplenifolia (Vent.) Farw.; Achillea
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero
e-mail: Carolina.Romero@mobot.org; romero.carito@gmail.com

millefolium var. borealis (Bong.) Farw.; Achillea millefolium var. californica (Pol-
lard) Jeps.; Achillea millefolium var. gigantea (Pollard) Nobs; Achillea millefolium
var. lanulosa (Nutt.) Piper; Achillea millefolium var. litoralis Ehrend. ex Nobs.;
Achillea millefolium var. maritima Jeps.; Achillea millefolium var. megacephala
B. Boivin; Achillea millefolium var. nigrescens E. Mey.; Achillea millefolium var.
occidentalis DC.; Achillea millefolium var. pacifica (Rydb.) G.N. Jones; Achillea
millefolium var. puberula (Rydb.) Nobs; Achillea nigrescens (E. Mey.) Rydb.;
Achillea occidentalis (DC.) Raf. ex Rydb.; Achillea pecten-veneris Pollard; Achillea
puberula Rydb.; Achillea rosea Desf.; Achillea subalpina Greene; Achillea sudetica
Opitz; Chamaemelum millefoilum (L.) E.H.L. Krause
Local Names
Colombia: Altamisa, Milenrama (Bussmann et al. 2018), Milefolio, Mil de rama,

Yerba de carpintero, Flor de pluma, Colchón de pobre, Manzanilla de los montes,
Milenrama, Yarrow, Altamisa; Ecuador, Peru: Milenrama, Chonchon (Spanish);
English: Yarrow
Botany and Ecology
Perennial. Rhizome slender, creeping, branched; whole plant more or less covered
with fine white hairs; stems few or solitary, usually weakly pubescent (finely
floccose), (5)20–60(120) cm high, erect or ascending from base, erect, less often
flexuous, simple or branched above, cylindrical, finely sulcate, with short leafy
branches in axils of upper and middle cauline leaves. Leaves lanceolate, oblong-
lanceolate, or almost linear, punctate-alveolate, twice or thrice pinnately cut, with
numerous more or less remote segments (1.5–10 mm apart); lower cauline leaves
and leaves of nonflowering branches 10–40 cm long, 0.8–5 cm wide, rachis 1–2 mm
wide, leaves usually in upper part with solitary teeth between basal segments; lobes
and teeth lanceolate, less often linear, 0.5–1.5 mm long, 0.3–0.4(0.5) mm wide,
terminating in short cartilagenous cusp. Capitula in numerous, unequal, compound
corymbs, 2–15 cm in diameter. Involucre oblong to almost ovoid, 3–4(6) mm long,
(2)3–4(5) mm in diameter; involucral bracts green, carinate, with prominent midrib,
membranous along margin, often brownish; bracts ovate to oblong-elliptical, mem-
branous, floccose above, with scattered hairs on dorsal surface. Ligules of outer
florets white, pink, or red. (1)2–4 mm long, 1.5–3.0(4.5) mm wide, more or less
rotund, 2–3-toothed at apex, limb a half as long as involucre; tubular florets up to
20, glandular-hairy on outside. Flowering July–October. Ural, Caucasus, Altai,
Middle Asia, on dry forest edges, clearings, in open forests, on dry meadows, slopes,
railroad embankments, along roads, on the outskirts of fields (Macbride and
Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Achillea millefolium L. 113
Fig. 1 Achillea millefolium

(Asteraceae), Tbilisi, Georgia.

(Asteraceae), Chicani,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
The species has decongestant, astringent, healing, diaphoretic, antipyretic, and anti-
inflammatory properties. The whole plant (including flowers) is prepared in infusion and
is taken to promote menstruation, as a stimulant, and against hemorrhoids. It is also used
to relieve the symptoms of indigestion, flatulence, and colitis (Fonnegra-Gómez and
Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de
Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Colombia: The whole plant is used to
treat acne, boils, bot fly infestations, bruises, gallbladder, gastritis, strengthens digestive
system, healing wounds, hemorrhage, hemorrhoids, lack of appetite, menstrual colic,
nosebleed, skin ulcers, sores, and as analgesic and tonic; the whole plant, leaves, and
flowers are used to treat indigestion, inflammation, spasms, and as emmenagogue;
leaves and flowers are used for blood cleansing. Ecuador: The infusion of flowers
and roots is used to treat diarrhea and empacho (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi) (de la
Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Fresh flowers and leaves are used to treat gastritis, diabetes,
blood, and cholesterol. The plant is also widely used for psychosomatic and nervous
system disorders, gastrointestinal problems, liver and gallbladder ailments, and spiritual
cleansing, as well as inflammations, and shows antibacterial and antifungal properties. It
is also used as remedy for diabetes and cancer (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2010, 2011a;
Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b, 2011a, b; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2014,
2015a, b). The preparations exhibit low toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b). Species of
Artemisia are also widely used in the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2016).
References
Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Plants used for the treatment of gastro-intestinal ailments in northern
Peruvian ethnomedicine. Arnaldoa. 2010a;17(2):255–70.
Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Peruvian medicinal plants for the treatment of liver and gallbladder
ailments. Arnaldoa. 2010b;17(2):243–54.
Achillea millefolium L. 115
Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Medicinal plants used in northern Peru for the treatment of bacterial and
fungal infections and inflammation symptoms. J Med Plant Res. 2011a;5(8):1297–304.
Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional knowledge for modern ailments – plants used for the treatment
of diabetes and cancer in northern Peru. J Med Plant Res. 2011b;5(31):6916–30.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of
healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:47.
de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN
978-0-9789962-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and
medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN
978-0-9960231-2-2.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y
medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-0-
9960231-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A, Revene Z. Health for sale: the medicinal plant
markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Glenn A. Healing the body, healing the soul. Traditional remedies for
“magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in northern Peru. Afr J Pharm
Pharmacol. 2010;4(9):580–629.
Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S,
Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Antibacterial activity of
northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96.
Martinez M, Carillo L, Walker K, Kuhlman A, Townesmith A. Toxicity of medicinal plants used
in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40.
Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D,
Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti,
Samtskhe-Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia
(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-
016-0110-2.
Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. Astonishing diversity – the medicinal
plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):43. https://doi.org/
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel MP, Macía MJ, Balslev H, (eds) Enciclopedia de las Plantas
Útiles del Ecuador. Quito/Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la
Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador/Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias
Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008.
Fonnegra Gómez R, Alzate Guarín F, Orozco Castañeda C, Vásquez Londoño C, Suárez Quirós J,
García López V, Roldán Palacio F, Correa Silva A, Vasco Correa C. Medicina Tradicional en los
Corregimientos de Medellín. Historias de vidas y plantas. Medellín: Universidad de Antioquia –
Alcaldía de Medellín; 2012. p. 305.
Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Bogotá:
Imprenta Nacional de Colombia; 2008. 311 pp.
Achyrocline alata (Kunth) DC.
Achyrocline bogotensis (Kunth) DC.
Achyrocline satureioides (Lam.) DC.
ASTERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Achyrocline alata (Kunth) DC.: Achyrocline argentea O. Hoffm.; Achyrocline

flavescens Griseb.; Achyrocline madioides Meyen & Walp.; Achyrocline rufescens
DC.; Gnaphalium alatum Kunth; Gnaphalium incanum Kunth; Gnaphalium
pellitum Kunth; Gnaphalium rufescens Kunth
Achyrocline bogotensis (Kunth) DC.: Gnaphalium bogotense Kunth
Achyrocline satureioides (Lam.) DC.: Achyrocline candicans (Kunth) DC.;
Achyrocline satureioides var. vargasiana (DC.) Baker; Achyrocline vargasiana
DC.; Gnaphalium candicans Kunth; Gnaphalium satureioides Lam.; Gnaphalium
satureioides var. candicans (Kunth) Kuntze
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Achyrocline alata: Colombia: Huira-huira, Ishpingo amarillo, Vira-vira, Llatama

blanca, Ishpingo, Cenizo, Suso
Achyrocline satureioides: Colombia: Huira-Huira, Juan Blanco, Kea-Kea, Marcela,
Marcela Hembra, Suso, Vira-Vira, Vira Vira Macho, Viravilona, Yerba de Chivo
Botany and Ecology
Achyrocline alata: Perennial herbs up to 1.5 m tall; stems ascending to decumbent

or scandent, glabrous to tomentose, alate. Leaves sessile; blade linear-lanceolate to
oblanceolate, decurrent on stems, 2–12 cm long, 2–15 mm wide, trinerved from near
the base, glabrous and glandular to densely tomentose beneath and arachnoid above,
base attenuate, apex acute, the margins entire to crenulate. Capitules glomerulate,
cymose-paniculate, dense or open. Capitula 3.0–5.5 mm high, ca. 1.5 mm wide,
sessile; involucres cylindrical to narrowly campanulate, yellow to cream-white;
outer phyllaries ovate to lanceolate, 2–3 mm long, 1–1.5 mm wide, apex acute, the
inner phyllaries linear-spatulate, 4–5 mm long, 0.5–1.5 mm wide, apex acute to
obtuse; pistillate florets 3–11(–23), the corollas 2.5–4.0 mm long; hermaphroditic
florets 1–3(–6), the corollas 2.5–4.0 mm long. Achenes narrowly ellipsoid to ovoid,
0.5–0.7 mm long; pappus ca. 2.5 mm long (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Achyrocline alata has a wide distribution throughout the Andean Cordillera from
Colombia to Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay. It inhabits a variety of environments
within its range, often in secondary vegetation or disturbed roadsides, 2400–4100 m
above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Achyrocline bogotensis: Herbs, up to 1 m tall, erect, covered with woolly arachnoid
tissue. Leaves linear, 5 cm long, uninerved, with acute apex, attenuated, decurrent,
glabrescent abaxial surface, adaxial lanose surface. Branched-paniculate, agglomer-
ate-fasciculate synflorescences. Involucre cylindrical. Hermaphroditic florets in
number of two; female florets three. Achenes ellipsoid. At altitudes between 2800
and 3200 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Achyrocline satureioides: Perennial herbs to 2 m tall, suffruticose; stems much-
branched, ascending to decumbent, densely lanate. Leaves sessile; blade linear to
linear-lanceolate, 4–10 cm long, 2–9 mm wide, apex acute. Capitules glomerate,
cymose-paniculate, terminal and axillary. Capitula 4.5–5.5 mm high, 1.5 mm wide;
involucres narrowly cylindrical; outer phyllaries narrowly ovate to lanceolate,
2.5–3.5 mm long, 1 mm wide, the inner phyllaries lanceolate to linear, 4–4.5 mm
long, 0.5–1 mm wide; pistillate florets 4(–8), the corollas 3.2–3.6 mm long; her-
maphroditic florets 1–2, the corollas 3.4–3.6 mm long. Achenes ovoid, 0.6–0.7 mm
long; pappus ca. 4 mm long. Achyrocline satureioides is widely distributed through-
out South America in sandy soils, usually at elevations below 2000 m (Macbride and
Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Achyrocline alata (Kunth) DC. . . . 119
Fig. 1 Achyrocline alata

(Asteraceae), Pusac, Peru.
Fig. 2 Achyrocline alata

Achyrocline alata is used in Peru to treat arthritis (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a,
2007a, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011). The species is widely traded in
markets (Bussmann et al. 2008a, 2016) and has been shown to have antibacterial
activity (Bussmann et al. 2008b, 2009, 2010a, b, 2011a), while showing low toxicity
(Bussmann et al. 2011b).
Achyrocline bogotensis: In Colombia, the decoction of leaves and stems is applied
externally to treat skin diseases, mainly against pimples and pimples. The most
common use is in the form of an infusion to treat inflammation of the prostate. The
branches prepared in infusion are used in the treatment of renal pains and to relieve
the inflammation of and to clean the urinary tract. The stems, leaves, and fresh or
dried flowers prepared in decoction are used against chronic cough and as an
expectorant in lung diseases (Díaz 2003; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Pro-
tección Social 2008).
Achyrocline hallii is used in Ecuador to treat cough, epilepsy, heart problems, and
nervous system disorders (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b).
Achyrocline satureioides: In Colombia, the plant is used to remove pimples and is
also used to treat various diseases of the skin and malignant tumors (cancer). The
decoction of the whole plant is used for skin diseases (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-
Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Martínez Correa
and Montes Martínez 2017).
In Northern Peru, Achyrocline alata and other species are used for spiritual cleans-
ing (limpia), especially to treat susto (Bussmann et al. 2010c, 2018; Bussmann and
Sharon 2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013).
References
Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Fighting pain. Traditional Peruvian remedies for the treatment of asthma,
rheumatism, arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011;10(3):397–412.
Ethnomed. 2006a;2:44.
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978-0-9789962-3-9.
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9789962-2-2.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
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Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Ly J. From garden to market? The cultivation of native and introduced
medicinal plant species in Cajamarca, Peru and implications habitat conservation. Ethnobot Res
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Cardenas R, Chait G, Castro M, Regalado S, Del Toro-C R,
Malca-G G, Perez-A F, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in northern
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
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Bussmann RW, Malca G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S,
Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A, Effio-Carbajal J, Frías-Fernandez F,
Achyrocline alata (Kunth) DC. . . . 121
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bacterial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010b;132:101–8.
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074.
Bussmann RW, Tellez C, Vega C, Monigatti M. Uso de plantas medicinales en los andes norte del
Perú. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2018;15(3):1–110. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.15.3.001-110.
García López V, roldán Palacio F, Correa Silva A, Vasco Correa C. Medicina Tradicional en los
Alcaldía de Medellín; 2012. 305 pp.
Martínez Correa CA, Montes Martínez PA. Determinación de la etnobotánica de las plantas
medicinales comercializadas en las plazas de mercados de los municipios de Turbo, Apartadó,
Carepa, Chigorodó y Mutatá, Antioquia, Colombia. Tesis de Grado, Universidad Nacional
Abierta y a Distancia UNAD. Escuela de Ciencias Agrícolas, Pecuarias y del Medio Ambiente,
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
Monigatti M, Vega C, Tellez C, Bussmann RW. Uso de plantas medicinales en los andes norte del
Perú. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2013. ISBN 978-0-9848415-8-5.
Acmella oppositifolia (Lam.) R.K. Jansen
ASTERACEAE
Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, Rainer W. Bussmann,

Javier Echeverría, and Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Acmella oppositifolia (Lam.) R.K. Jansen: Acmella mutisii Cass.; Acmella

occidentalis Rich.; Anthemis occidentalis Willd.; Anthemis oppositifolia Lam.;
Ceratocephalus americanus Kuntze; Spilanthes americana Hieron.; Spilanthes
diffusa Poepp.; Spilanthes mutisii Kunth; Spilanthes oppositifolia (Lam.) D’Arcy
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero

Local Names
Colombia: Chisacá, Yuyo quemado, Yuyo, Botón de oro, Quemadera, Botoncillo,

Guaca, Guaquilla, Risacá, Yuyoquemao, Yuya; Ecuador: Botoncillo (Spanish),
Sesa (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008)
Botany and Ecology
Perennial herb, stoloniferous, glabrous to densely hairy, between 20 and 30(120) cm

tall. Stem creeping or erect, rooting at the nodes. Petiole up to 4.5 cm long, winged,
leaf blade ovate to linear-lanceolate or elliptical, 1–6 cm long, 0.7–2 cm wide, obtuse
to acute or sometimes acuminate at the apex, cuneate to truncate at the base, entire
margin to denticulate or irregularly serrated, ciliate, trinervate (with three veins) or
triplinervate, membranous, glabrous or densely hairy on both sides. Flower heads
solitary or grouped by few at the ends of the branches, peduncles up to 25 cm long,
involucre cylindrical to subhemispheric, the bracts arranged in two series, ovate to
lanceolate, 2.5–7 mm long, blunt to acuminate at the apex, ciliated, receptacle
conical at maturity, until 10 mm long, paleae oblong, 2.5–4.5 mm long. Flowers
ligulate usually 11, but varying from 5–19, tube 1–2 mm long, hairy, the elliptic-
oblong sheet, 2–4(–7) mm long, yellow-orange, glabrous; tubular flowers 70–300,
1.5–3 mm long, ligules up to 10 mm long, yellow-orange, glabrous, anthers about
1 mm long, dark brown to blackish. Achenae oblong, compressed, 1–2 mm long,
black or blackish, callous margins and often ciliated, glabrous on the faces (Mac-
bride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Colombia: The decoction of the plant is used in the treatment of liver and bile
diseases, against canker sores and to reduce the concentration of sugar in the blood.
Additionally, the decoction or infusion of the whole plant is usually taken to prevent
goiter or coto and also as a purgative. Externally it is used in cases of cutaneous
affections: the decoction of the plant is used to eliminate the dark spots of the skin of
the face. Inflorescences and flowers are used for oral affections: they reduce tooth-
ache and cure canker sores or small mouth ulcers (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-
Londoño 2011; Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de
Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: Bathing with the infusion
of the crushed leaves serves to treat chicken pox in children. The infusion of the
crushed plant, mixed with “chuko” and plum, is used as a kidney freshener (ethnicity
unspecified – Azuay). The plant, in infusion, is used for colds and pains (unspecified
ethnic group – Cañar). The flowers are used to treat indeterminate conditions
(Mestiza-Morona Santiago). The flowers, crushed together with “pichana,” are
used to calm the toothache (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja; Unspecified ethnic group –
Carchi, Pichincha, Cañar). The leaves, flowers, and the stem cure infections in the
Acmella oppositifolia (Lam.) R.K. Jansen 125
mouth (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). It serves as medicine for scurvy (Kichwa

de la Sierra-Loja). Treats indeterminate conditions (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi;
Shuar-Zamora Chinchipe) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: The plant is used to treat internal bleeding, renal bleeding, and colds with high
mucus (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b, 2018a, b), as well as respiratory
disorders (Bussmann and Glenn 2010), and is normally used in mixture with other
herbs (Bussmann et al. 2010).
Acmella calva has been introduced to the Himalayas and is being used in Nepal
against snakebite (Kunwar et al. 2012, 2013, 2015).
Ecuador: Used as pig fodder (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay).
References
Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional Peruvian medicine for the treatment of respiratory disorders.
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
medicinal flora of Northern Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2018a;15(2):1–295. https://doi.org/
10.32859/era.15.1.001-293.
medicinal del Norte de Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2018b;15(1):1–293. https://doi.org/10.32859/
era.15.2.001-295.
medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:10.
Fonnegra-Gómez R, Alzate Guarín F, Orozco Castañeda C, Vásquez Londoño C, Suárez Quirós J,
Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Sharma LN, Shrestha KP, Kominee H, Bussmann RW. Underutilized plant
species in far-west Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:589–600.
Kunwar RM, Mahat L, Acharya RP, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants, traditional medicine, markets
and management in far-west Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:24.
Kunwar RM, Acharya RP, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous
medicines in farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9.
Adesmia atacamensis Phil.
Adesmia erinacea Phil.
Adesmia minor (Hook. & Arn.) Burkart var.
caespitosa (Phil.) Ulibarri & Burkart
Adesmia rahmeri Phil.
Adesmia spinosissima Meyen
Adesmia subterranea Clos
FABACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Adesmia atacamensis Phil.: Adesmia glandulosa Phil., Patagonium atacamense

(Phil.) Kuntze, Patagonium glandulosum (Phil.) Kuntze
Adesmia erinacea Phil.: Adesmia senticula Phil., Patagonium erinaceum (Phil.)
Kuntze, Patagonium erinaceum (Phil.) Reiche, comb. superfl., Patagonium
senticulum (Phil.) Reiche
Adesmia minor (Hook. & Arn.) Burkart var. caespitosa (Phil.) Ulibarri &
Burkart: Adesmia caespitosa Phil., Patagonium caespitosum (Phil.) Reiche
Adesmia rahmeri Phil.: Patagonium rahmeri (Phil.) Reiche
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Adesmia spinosissima Meyen: Adesmia rupicola Wedd., Patagonium alcicornutum

Rusby, Patagonium spinosissimum (Meyen) Kuntze, Adesmia alcicornutum Rusby
Adesmia subterranea Clos: Patagonium subterraneum (Clos) Kuntze
Local Names
Adesmia atacamensis: Chile: Allaval, Jarilla, Pasto de huanaco, Iloka, Iloka macho,
Ilúkar, Iluka, Iluka macho, Atalte, Tamor, Tamborcillo, T’amur, Tamur, Tamorcillo,
Tamurquillo, Ediondilla, Ilink’illink’i
Adesmia erinacea: Chile: Añawa blanca, Espina blanca, Añawa, Añawaya blanca,
Añawiya del burro, Añawiya blanca, Espina de burro, Añawiya, Espina
Adesmia minor: Chile: Cuerno de cabra, Añawa, Añawa blanca, Añawa negra,
Varilla, Kallya
Adesmia rahmeri: Chile: Lluka hembra, iIoka, Iloka hembra, Tamor, T’amur,
Tamur, Tamorcillo, Tamurquillo
Adesmia spinosissima: Chile: Añawa, Añawanegra, Añawa grande, Añawa verde,
Añawacolorada, Añawa roja, Añawa de cordillera, Añawaya, Añawiya, Espina,
Espina negra, Kaylla, Patakabalia colorado, Gallokishka
Adesmia subterranea: Chile: Cuerno de cabra, Pampa añawaya, Qoña añawaya,
Chukikaylla, Añawaya hembra, Añawaya macho
Botany and Ecology
Adesmia atacamensis: Pseudo in hemispherical cushion, densely branched, and

very compact. Resinous leaves in rosette with 1–5 greenish-yellow flowers, by
rosette. Dry fruit that breaks in two at maturity (Peñaloza et al. 2013). Endemic to
Chile, from 2000 to 4000 m above sea level (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Adesmia erinacea: Shrub 15–60 cm high, forming more or less loose hemispherical
cushions, greenish-hairy young branches, chestnut-yellowish adults. Thorns abun-
dant, intricate, greenish to whitish-chestnut when aging, with 3–6 bifurcations,
predominantly long lateral axes, from which branches emerge. Leaves sericeous-
hairy; petiole-rachis 5–10 mm, villous to glabrescent, with 2–4 pairs of leaflets,
obovate, conduplicate, seriaceous-villous to glabrescent, margin with glandular
hairs, 5–6 1.5–3 mm; deltoid stipules, 2–3 1 mm. Yellow flowers, 7–10 mm,
on the spines and in lateral brachiblats. Calyx tubular, villous-glandular, 4–5 mm,
deltoid-acute lobes, 2–3 0.9–1 mm. Pubescent standards on the back, 10 6 mm;
wings 9 1.5 mm; obtuse keel, 9 3 mm. Lomentum 3–5 articulated, chestnut-
bronze, 3.5–4.5 mm in diameter, hairy-glandular pericarp, with bristles. Seed
chestnut-copper, lenticular, 1.5 mm in diameter, from 2500 to 4400 m above sea
level.
Adesmia minor: Woody cushion, dense, very low, contracted branches of brown
bark, with very short ramifications, with sericeous pubescence, numerous but brief
thorns, 1–2(–3) bifurcated, yellow or reddish. Leaves smaller than 1 cm, arranged in
Adesmia atacamensis Phil. . . . 129
Fig. 1 Adesmia atacamensis (Fabaceae), Torocne, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)
Fig. 2 Adesmia atacamensis

(Fabaceae), Torocne, Chile.
Señoret)
fascicles on sericeous-pubescent, pinnate, recurved brachyblasts; leaflets 2–4 pairs,

oval, 1.5–4 mm long, dense, and stout pubescence; triangular stipules, sericeous-
pubescent, persistent. Flowers 1–3 per apex, subsessile, separated from the thorns,
7–8 mm, bell campanulate, greenish, pubescent, with five teeth, equal, orange
corolla, with reddish streaks, erect banner, narrow wings and keel, obtuse.
Feathery-setose. 3800–4400 m above sea level (Peñaloza et al. 2013).
Adesmia rahmeri: Annual herbs (5–)10–30 cm tall. Divaricated, pubescent, and
glutinous. Leaves mainly basal, 7–15 mm long; obovate leaflets, 1.5–3 mm
long 0.5–1.5 mm lat., pubescent, glandular, dentate, conduplicate, gathered

Señoret)

Señoret)
towards the apex of the rachis. Loose clusters, up to 10 cm long.; pedicels of

5–20 mm long, divergent; flowers of 8–10 mm long Lomento recta, 4–6 articulated,
porjos cerdosos and pilosos. 2800–4400 m above sea level (Peñaloza et al. 2013).
Adesmia spinosissima: Shrub 30–100 cm tall, in more or less lax cushions, branches
grayish to chestnut-reddish, young parts pubescent or pubescent-glandular; with
whitish or chestnut-yellowish thorns, with 2–4 branches in a fan or pseudo-
pyramidal. Sericeous-whitish indument, more or less appressed hairs, sometimes
Fig. 5 Adesmia spinosissima

(Fabaceae), Caspana, Chile.
Señoret)
with glandular hairs. Leaves with deltoid stipules, reddish, ciliated margin,
1–1.5 mm, petiole-rachis of 4–10(–12) mm, leaflets (3–)4–5(–6) pairs, elliptical-
ovate to orbicular, more or less conduplicate or extended, of 1.5–2 1 mm. Flowers
of 6(–7) mm, usually in brachyblasts, rare on the spines, pedicels of 1–2(–3) mm.
Calyx campanulate-tubular, 3–3.5 mm; deltoid lobes, subacute or acute, 1–1.5
(–2) mm. Pubescent banner on the back, usually reflected, broadly obovate,
6–7 5.5–6 mm; wings 6–7 1 mm, hairy; obtuse keel, 6 2 mm. Lomento
(1–)2–3 articulated with chestnut-copper arthrodes, hairy pericarp, hairy bristles,
3–4 3 mm. Lenticular seed, chestnut, 2 mm in diameter. 2700–4300 m above sea
level (Peñaloza et al. 2013) (Figs. 5 and 6).
Adesmia subterranea: Flattened cushions, more or less hemispherical, dense,
1–3 cm high, 0.10–0.30 cm (–1) m diam.; single root, axonomorphic; generally
simple thorns. Leaves of 3–13 mm long; obovate-lanceolate leaflets, 2.5–5.5 mm
long 1 mm lat., conduplicate, subseríceos, somewhat setulosos. Flowers 8–10 mm
long; pedicels of 1–2.8 mm long. 1200–4300 m above sea level (Peñaloza et al.
2013).
Adesmia atacamensis: The aerial parts are used as a remedy for ulcers and bone
breaks. The infusion is used against cough (Philippi 1860; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Adesmia erinacea: The root is a remedy against cold and cough, and it is also used
for bad blood, bladder, and urinary problems. Formerly, it was used as a remedy for
Puna disease (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
Adesmia minor: The aerial parts are used for the treatment of urinary problems
(Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Adesmia spinosissima: The infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment
of colds and coughs. In addition, the infusion of the aerial parts mixed with rue
Fig. 6 Adesmia spinosissima

Señoret)
(Ruta chalepensis var. chalepensis) is used for the treatment and healing of internal
wounds (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Adesmia subterranea: The infusion of the aerial parts is used to fight cough
(Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003; Ulibarri and Burkart 2000).
Local Food Uses
Adesmia rahmeri: The root is edible and has a sweet flavor (Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Villagrán and Castro 2003; Ulibarri and Burkart 2000).
Adesmia spinosissima: In times of great need, the flowers and sweet leaves are used
as food (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Adesmia atacamensis: Used as forage and firewood (Philippi 1860; Rodriguez et al.
2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Adesmia erinacea: Used as forage and firewood (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez
et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Adesmia minor: Used as forage and firewood (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al.
Adesmia miraflorenses: Used to treat witchcraft in Bolivia (Bussmann et al. 2016;
Macía et al. 2005).
Adesmia rahmeri: Used as forage and firewood (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán
and Castro 2003; Ulibarri and Burkart 2000).
Adesmia spinosissima: Used as forage and firewood (Peñaloza et al. 2013;
Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Adesmia subterranea: Used as forage and firewood (Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Villagrán and Castro 2003; Ulibarri and Burkart 2000).
References
Macía MJ, García E, Vidaurre PJ. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants comercialized in
the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;97:337–50.
Llullaillaco. Región de Antofagasta: Peñazola-García; 2013.
Philippi RA. Florula Atacamensis seu enumeratio plantarum, quas in itinere per desertum
Atacamense. Sumptibus E. Halle: Anton; 1860.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Ulibarri EA, Burkart A. Sinopsis de las especies de Adesmia (Leguminosae, Adesmieae) de la
Argentina. Darwiniana. 2000;38(1–2):59–126.
Adiantum concinnum Humb. & Bonpl. ex
Willd.
Adiantum raddianum C. Presl.
ADIANTACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Adiantum concinnum Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.: Adiantum concinnum var.

subvolubile Mett.; Adiantum lutescens Moug. ex Fée
Adiantum raddianum C. Presl.: Adiantum amabile Liebm.; Adiantum amabile
T. Moore; Adiantum boliviense Christ & Rosenst.; Adiantum colpodes T. Moore;
Adiantum cuneatum G. Forst.; Adiantum cuneatum Langsd. & Fisch.; Adiantum
decorum T. Moore; Adiantum decorum var. quadripinnatum Rosenst.; Adiantum
mexicanum C. Presl; Adiantum moorei Baker; Adiantum remyanum Espinosa;
Adiantum rubellum T. Moore
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Adiantum capillus-

veneris (Adiantaceae),
Cajamarca, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Local Names
Colombia: Cilantrillo, Culantrillo; Ecuador: Cucharillo; Peru: Culantrillo del

pozo, Culantrillo; English: Venus hair fern
Botany and Ecology
Adiantum concinnum/Adiantum raddianum: Perennials; rhizome creeping,

clothed with narrow blackish scales; leaves broadly oblong, bi- or tripinnatifid,
thin; stipes blackish-brown, thin, shining; ultimate segments borne on capillary
stalks, cuneiform-ovate, asymmetric, entire on the sides, palmately dissected at
apex; fertile lobes terminating in transverse linear-oblong sori; sterile lobes crenate
or crenate-dentate. Rock fissures, near oozing water, near waterfalls, on the banks of
mountain streams, in caves, spreading most readily over calcareous formations,
often on tuffs (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Adiantum concinnum/Adiantum raddianum: Used in Colombia as baths to treat

colds, cough, vomiting and stomach pain, gynecological problems (irregular men-
struation), headaches, nausea, fever, nasal hemorrhage, diarrhea, and cancer, and is
also used as female contraceptive. The decoction of fronds (leaves) is used to treat
cough and is considered a good anti-spasmodic (García Barriga 1974; Pérez
Arbeláez 1996).
Ecuador: The fresh plant is boiled with sugar and drunk to treat diabetes, to purify
the blood, for menstrual regulation, and externally to treat hair loss (Béjar et al. 2002;
Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, b, 2007a, 2015a, b).
Adiantum concinnum Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. . . . 137
Fig. 2 Adiantum
henslovianum (Adiantaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 3 Adiantum
henslovianum (Adiantaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Adiantum raddianum

(Adiantaceae), Cajamarca,
Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann
Fig. 5 Adiantum raddianum

(Adiantaceae), Cajamarca,
Peru: Fresh or dried leaves and stems are used for blood purification, hair loss, and
menstrual regulation (Bussmann and Sharon 2007a, b, 2014, 2015a, b, 2018a, b;
Bussmann and Glenn 2010) and has shown antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al.
2009a, b, 2011a). The species is very widely used (Bussmann et al. 2007a, 2009c),
normally as mixture with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010), and often sold in
markets (Bussmann et al. 2007b) but not cultivated (Bussmann et al. 2008). The
plant extracts have shown low toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b).
References
Bejar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal herbs of southern Ecuador – Hierbas
Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Medicinal plants used in northern Peru for reproductive problems and
female health. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:30.
longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. ISBN 978-0-
9789962-2-2.
Adiantum concinnum Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. . . . 139
de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. ISBN
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
medicinal flora of northern Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2018a;15(2):1–295. https://doi.org/
10.32859/era.15.1.001-293.
era.15.2.001-295.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Lopez A. Blending traditional and Western medicine: medicinal plant use
amongst patients at Clinica Anticona in El Porvenir, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007a;5:185–99.
Appl. 2008;6:351–61.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Cardenas R, Chait G, Castro M, Regalado S, Del Toro-C. R,
Malca-G. G, Perez-A. F, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in northern
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Castro M, Cardenas R, Chait G, Regalado S, Del Toro-C. R, Malca-G. G,
Perez-A. F, Glenn A. Phyto-chemical analysis of Peruvian medicinal plants. Arnaldoa.
2009b;16(1):105–10.
Agave americana L.
AGAVACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Agave americana L.: Agave complicata Trel. ex Ochot.; Agave felina Trel.; Agave
gracilispina Engelm. ex Trel.; Agave melliflua Trel.; Agave rasconensis Trel.; Agave
subzonata Trel.; Agave zonata Trel. ex Bailey; Aloe americana (L.) Crantz
Local Names
Colombia: Penca de Cabuya, Fique, Maguey, Cabuya, Penco, Chauar, Yana chauar,
Cocuy, Henequen, Motua, Penca (Spanish); Ecuador: Cabuyo, Penca de caballo,
Cabuya, Cabuya azul, Cabuya negra, Cabuyo negro, Cabuyo verde, Chahuar,
Caguey, Penca, Penco, Penco negro, Sábila dulce (Spanish), Mishki, Pita, Tsawar
mishki, Yana chawar, Yana tsawar (Kichwa); Chaguarquero (corruption of Kichwa);
(de la Torre et al. 2008); English: Agave
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Agave americana

(Agavaceae), Pusac, Peru.
Botany and Ecology
Perennial, rossetes1–2 m tall and 2–4 m across. Older individuals may sometimes
develop a short woody stem at the base. Inflorescence 6–12 m tall. Leaves large,
1–2 m long and 15–25 cm wide, succulent, bluish-gray-greyish-green. The leaf
margins coarsely serrate with prickly teeth up to 1 cm long and an acute apex. The
massive flower clusters 1–8 m long, much-branched, with the branches being further
divided towards their tips. Individual flowers erect, pedicels 2–4 cm long. Flowers
7–10.5 cm long, yellow or greenish-yellow. Fruit a large oblong capsule, 3.5–8 cm
long, with a pointed tip and seeds 6–8 mm long, black (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
In Colombia, decoction of the roots in water and with lemon juice is taken to treat
syphilis, rheumatism, and to purify the blood. The leaves prepared in cooking in
water are used to treat liver diseases. The leaves are also used as a diuretic and for
those who suffer from hydrops or fluid retention, and they also purify the kidneys.
The infusion of leaves is used in stomach diseases, chronic diarrhea, vomiting and
indigestion, and also cleanses the intestines. This infusion with a little honey is used
to treat the flu. The liquid squeezed out of the leaves is used to treat chronic
conjunctivitis and mixed with olive oil or other vegetable oil has been used success-
fully to relieve rheumatic pain. It is also customary to wash the head with the juice or
foam squeezed from the leaves to strengthen the hair, making it lustrous, abundant,
and soft. The leaves, fruits, and flowers of the Agave, prepared in infusion, are used
as depurative of the blood and in the flu and bronchitis, and to treat liver disorders;
they are also used to remove skin blemishes. Nuts and powdered form are used to
help expectoration in tuberculous patients (Arias Alzate 1962; García Barriga 1974;
Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: Fresh leaves are used to treat depression (Béjar
Agave americana L. 143



et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007). The juice of the plant is called
“mishki” and is used to treat kidney conditions (unspecified ethnicity – Loja).
“Mishki” is effective in treating arthritis, rheumatism, flu, cough, stomach, and
heart aches (Kichwa of the Sierra-Cotopaxi; Unspecified ethnicity – Cotopaxi).
The stem is used to treat acute colds (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura). The membrane
of the leaves is used to treat the headache (unspecified ethnic group – Bolívar). The
root is used to treat syphilis (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar). The sap is used
to treat liver and lung conditions and bacterial infections at the intestinal level
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbaura, Chimborazo, Cañar). The sap, mixed with olive oil,
and the infused leaves or plasters are used to treat rheumatism (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar). Plasters made with the leaves are applied to treat
fractures. It is used as an antiseptic (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo,
Cañar). Cures arthritis and bronchitis (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The
infusion is purgative, laxative, and diuretic (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chim-
borazo, Cañar; unspecified ethnic group – Bolívar); the root is used to purify the
blood (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: From the trunk of the leaves, when it is perforated, an exudation called
pulque, “chawar mishki” or “cabuyo candy,” is obtained, which is a drink that is left
to ferment (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). The flower is edible prepared
as a pickle, with onion, lemon, and salt (unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha,
Cotopaxi, Bolívar, Azuay, Cañar, Loja). The mature root and the stem are used to
extract the “mishki” that is edible, cooked with wheat or prepared in intoxicating
beverages (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura,
Pichincha, Cotopaxi, Bolívar, Loja). The leaves are used to ripen jora (local beer)
Agave americana L. 145
and as a sweetener (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified

ethnic group – Costa and Sierra Region) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Ecuador: Fresh leaves are used to curse someone and to defend against sorcerers
during sessions (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007). The juice of
the plant, called “mishki,” is used to fatten pigs (unspecified ethnic group – Coto-
paxi, Loja). The leaves are used as animal fodder, especially for pigs (Kichwa de la
Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura,
Pichincha, Cotopaxi). Beekeeping: It has beekeeping use (unspecified ethnicity –
Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves and flowers are used as fuel (unspecified
ethnic group – Cotopaxi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The fibers are soaked in water and
used as a disinfectant of the scalp and to counteract hair loss (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar). The floral scape is used to make pig pens and to
make benches, stairs, soccer arches, street doors, poles, quagmires, and roofs
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified ethnic group –
Cotopaxi, Azuay, Cañar). Sometimes, the pencos are used to replace girdles on the
roofs that merit repair and are used as shingles (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura,
Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). Ropes are made with
the fibers of the leaves for different purposes (they replace the nails in the frame of
the roofs of the houses); they are also used to make handicrafts or everyday items
such as bags, sacks, rugs, hammocks, and hats (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura,
Chimborazo, Cañar; Mestiza-Tungurahua; unspecified ethnic group – Others
(Costa Region), Cotopaxi, Azuay, Cañar, Others (Andean Region)). The leaves
served formerly as blackboards for children (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay,
Cañar). The leaves are used to make laundry soap (helps to bleach stains) and hair
shampoo (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified ethnic
group – Azuay, Cañar, Cotopaxi). The leaves have fibers that substitute thread, and
this fiber is obtained when the terminal barb of the leaf is torn off, with the fibers
adhering to the spike; in this way, thread and needle are obtained at the same time
(unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves are used
to treat “fright.” The leaf juice induces abortion (unspecified ethnicity – Cotopaxi).
Toxic to vertebrates: The raw “mishki” is used as a poison for cows and pigs
(unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi). The “mishki” is also used as a poison for
flies (unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). This plant is part
of live fences that mark boundaries between properties, separate grazing areas or
specific crops (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified
ethnic group – Cotopaxi, Azuay, Cañar). It is used as fertilizer (Kichwa de la
Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Arias Alzate E. Plantas Medicinales. Séptima Ed. Medellín: Editorial Bedout; 1962. 304 pp.
Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal herbs of southern Ecuador – Hierbas
9789962-2-2.
de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas
Ageratum conyzioides L.
ASTERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Ageratum conyzioides L.: Ageratum album Willd. ex Steud.; Ageratum arsenei

B.L. Rob.; Ageratum ciliare L.; Ageratum conyzioides var. inaequipaleaceum
Hieron.; Ageratum cordifolium Poir.; Ageratum hirtum Lam.; Ageratum humile
Salisb.; Ageratum latifolium Cav., Ageratum latifolium var. galapageium
B.L. Rob.; Ageratum microcarpum (Benth.) Hemsl.; Ageratum pinetorum
(L.O. Williams) R.M. King & H. Rob.; Ageratum suffruticosum Regel; Alomia
microcarpa (Benth.) B.L. Rob.; Alomia pinetorum L.O. Williams; Carelia
conyzioides (L.) Kuntze; Coelestina microcarpa Benth.; Eupatorium conyzioides
(L.) E.H.L. Krause
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Colombia: Marrubio blanco, Chiva, Marrubio, Marubio, Mastranto, Yerba de chino,

Mentastro, Hierba de Santa Lucía, Retentina, Mariposa panka, Mariposa karacha
(Spanish-Kichwa), Hoja de mariposa, Pedorrera, Pedorrera blanca, Rosa loca del
cerro, Santa Lucía (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Ecuador: Pedromera blanca,
Pedrorera blanca
Botany and Ecology
Annual herb, 25–90 cm tall. Stem simple or branched, especially above, erect or
above ground, reddish to green in color, with white or yellowish hairs, long, smooth
and crisscrossed, and glandular hairs towards the apex; if the stem is decumbent,
roots are produced in the lower nodes. Leaves opposite, the superiors sometimes
alternate; petioles 0.6–3.5 mm long, densely white, hairy; ovate to triangular lami-
nae, 2.4–8.6 cm long and 1.7–6.5 cm wide, rounded or acute apex, cordate to
truncated base, margin crenate or slightly dentate, more or less ciliate, make dark
green, with scattered or dense hairs on the veins, underside pale green, pinnate
venation, densely hairy especially on veins almost glabrous. Inflorescence terminal,
5–15 heads arranged in compact or loose aggregates, corymbiform, on bracteate
peduncles and with abundant hairs, sometimes glandular. Flowers in heads formed
by around 75 small sessile flowers arranged on a conical receptacle; involucre
formed by bracts arranged in two series, campanulate, narrowly lanceolate bracts,
4–5 mm long, the outer ones from 0.5 to 0.75 mm wide, green or brown, densely
hairy almost glabrous, apex acuminate and glandular-ciliate, entire margin. Flowers
all bisexual; tubular corolla 2.5–3.5 mm long, funnel-shaped, white tube that may or
may not have glandular hairs, throat blue, lilac, lavender or rarely white, the five
lobes erect or reclined in an open angle; alternate stamens with the lobes of the
corolla, free filaments, anthers welded together forming a tube around the style; the
inferior ovary, style protruding from the corolla, split in the upper portion in two
branches Achenes 1.5–1.75 mm long, with five ribs, rough at the angles, black,
oblong, membranous, dry and translucent, 2–3 mm long (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
The plant is used for healing of wounds, as stimulant, favors the disappearance of
lesions or inflammations, and is also used as antihemorrhagic. The decoction of the
whole plant (except the roots) is used to treat fevers and flu; it is also used against
dysentery and as a depurative of blood (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011;
García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used
to treat gastrointestinal problems. The decoction of the root and leaves, mixed with
calaguala (Polypodiaceae), “chinchi manilla” (Hypericum sp.), and “celery”
Ageratum conyzioides L. 149
Fig. 1 Ageratum conyzioides

(Asteraceae), Uchumarca,

(Psoralea sp.), is drunk as a medicine for menstruation (Kichwa de la Sierra,

ethnicity unspecified – Loja). The plant is taken with “little pichana” (Cuphea sp.),
“Chincha manilla” (Hypericum sp.), Lime (Citrus sp.), Carob, and brandy to treat
“cold inflammation” (abrupt cooling of the body). The root, in cooking, is used to
treat nausea and stomach pain, along with “tunga tunga,” and relieves kidney
conditions (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The plant is diuretic (Unspecified ethnicity
– Loja). The dried plant is pulverized to apply it in infections of the mouth (Kichwa
of the East-Orellana). Flowers and leaves, in decoction, are used to treat the cold and


reduce fever (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Los Ríos) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Ageratum conyzioides is also used for gastrointestinal problems, often together with
Chamomile (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007).
In Northern India, the whole plant, together with root of Thalictrum foliolosum,
is made into paste and applied on sores, cuts, and various skin ailments (Kumar et al.
2011). In Nepal, the stem extract serves to stop bleeding (Kunwar et al. 2010), while
the species is used in Madagascar to relieve stomach pain (Razafindraibe et al.
2013). In Indian Bengal, the species serves to treat anthelmintic for stone, antisep-
tic, boils, burns, cuts, diarrhea, head ache, leprosy, muscular pain, piles, prolapsed
Ageratum conyzioides L. 151


anus, ringworm, scabies, skin diseases, snake bite, sores, body swelling, tumor,
uterine disorder, and lice in hairs (Verma et al. 2007).
Ecuador: It is used as fodder for cattle (Etnia not specified-Imbabura) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). It has beekeeping use (Unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al.
2008).
References
9789962-2-2.
Kumar M, Bussmann RW, Mukesh J, Kumar P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants close to rural
habitation in Garhwal Himalayan, India. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(11):2252–60.
Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-west Nepal: a
pharmacological appraisal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:35.
Razafindraibe HM, Razafiarison ZL, Raharimalala F, Rakotoarivony F, Randrianarivony T,
Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianasolo A, Kuhlman A, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants used by
women from Agnalazaha littoral forest (southeastern Madagascar). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed.
2013;9:73.
Verma A, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in an urban environment: the medicinal flora
of Banares Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:35.
Airampoa ayrampo (Azara) Doweld
CACTACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Airampoa ayrampo (Azara) Doweld: Tunilla soehrensii (Britton & Rose)

D.R. Hunt & Iliff, Opuntia ianthinantha (F. Ritter) Iliff, Opuntia multiareolata
Backeb., Opuntia obliqua Backeb., Opuntia tilcarensis Backeb. var. rubellispina,
Opuntia cedegreniana Backeb., Platyopuntia ianthinantha F. Ritter, nom. illeg.,
Platyopuntia soehrensii (Britton & Rose) F. Ritter, comb. illeg., Opuntia soehrensii
Britton & Rose, Cactus ayrampo Azara, Tunilla ianthinantha (F. Ritter) D.R. Hunt
& Iliff
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Airampoa airampo

(Cactaceae), Arequipa, Peru.
N.Y. Paniagiua-Zambrana)
Local Names
Chile: Ayrampo, Ayrampu, Piskayo ayrampo, Piskayo
Botany and Ecology
Avery plastic species with multiple populations with different forms. It grows mainly
as a low subshrub, cespitose, from 30 to 60 cm in diameter and about 10–20 cm in
height, branched laterally. Stems oval to round, from 4 to 8 cm in length, flattened,
narrow down, with well-defined tummies. Areoles with brown indumentum, old
leaves yellow to brown, with 4–12 acicular straight spines, of variable length and
color. Diurnal yellow flowers; outer tepals with reddish middle line; satiny, without
smell; floral tube covered with narrow scales and areoles with glochids and/or
thorns. Edible fruit from 1.5 to 2.5 cm long, purplish red, with little meat but
sweet; opening on apex and side, with yellowish seeds. 2000–4000 m above sea
level (Hoffmann and Walter 2004) (Fig. 1).
A wine with refreshing characteristics is made from the fruit and used to treat colds
and fever. Its use is also reported for the treatment of eye diseases. The infusion of
the fruit has vermifuge properties and is used to treat diseases of the kidneys and
liver, as well as to combat heartburn and herpes (Hoffmann and Walter 2004;
Airampoa ayrampo (Azara) Doweld 155
Local Food Uses
The fruits are edible and sweet tasting and are used for ice creams and juice
(Hoffmann and Walter 2004; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
The fruits are used to dye fabrics of purple-garnet color and as a dye in pastry
(Hoffmann and Walter 2004; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
References
Hoffmann A, Walter H. Cactáceas en la flora de Chile. Segunda Edición. Santiago: Fundación
Claudio Gay; 2004. 307 pp.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago: Editorial
Allionia incarnata L.
NYCTAGINACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Allionia incarnata L.: Allionia mendocina Phil., Allionia puberula Phil., Wedeliela
incarnata (L.) Cockerell, Wedelia incarnata (L.) Kuntze, Allionia bandurriae Phil.,
Allionia jarae Phil.
Local Names
Chile: Enredadera
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Allionia incarnata

(Nyctaginaceae), Atacama,
Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard
Señoret)
Botany and Ecology
This short-lived perennial has trailing, slender, glandular steams with forked
branches. The opposite, unequal leaves are darker green on the upper surface and
lighter below. The rose-colored, funnel-shaped, 1 cm long flowers are produced
singly on 1–1.5 cm stalks, and each has three partly fused, hairy bracts beneath. The
oblong, compressed fruit has lengthwise glands and incurved margins, and less than
1 cm long. Sea level to 3000 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).
The aerial parts are used to combat fever (MacKay 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Used as fodder (MacKay 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
References
MacKay P. Mojave Desert wildflowers: a field guide to wildflowers, trees, and shrubs of the Mojave
Desert, including the Mojave National Preserve, Death Valley National Park, and Joshua Tree
National Park. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield; 2013.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Allium cepa L.
Allium fistulosum L.
Allium ramosum L.
Allium sativum L.
AMARYLLIDACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Allium cepa L.: Allium angolense Baker; Allium aobanum Araki; Allium
ascalonicum var. condensum Millán; Allium ascalonicum var. fertile Millán; Allium
ascalonicum var. sterile Millán; Allium cepaeum St.-Lag.; Allium esculentum
Salisb.; Allium napus Pall. ex Kunth; Allium pauciflorum Willd. ex Ledeb.; Allium
salota Dostál; Ascalonicum sativum P. Renault; Cepa alba P. Renault; Cepa
esculenta Gray; Cepa pallens P. Renault; Cepa rubra P. Renault; Kepa esculenta
Raf.; Porrum cepa (L.) Rchb.
Allium ramosum L.: Aglitheis tatarica (L. f.) Raf.; Allium beckerianum Regel;
Allium diaphanum Janka; Allium lancipetalum Y.P. Hsu; Allium odorum L.; Allium
potaninii Regel; Allium tataricum L. f.; Allium weichanicum Palib.; Allium
umbellatum Haller f. ex Steud.; Moly odorum (L.) Moench
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Allium sativum L.: Allium controversum Schrad. ex Willd.; Allium longicuspis

Regel; Allium pekinense Prokhanov; Allium sativum fo. sagittatum Kazakova;
Allium sativum fo. vulgare Kazakova; Allium scorodoprasum var. multibulbillosum
Y.N. Lee; Porrum ophioscorodon (Link) Rchb.
Local Names
Allium cepa: Bolivia: Ajo macho (Spanish), Aju hork’o (Aymara); Colombia:
Cebolla cabezona, Cebolla de huevo; Ecuador: Cebolla blanca (Spanish); English:
Onion
Allium fistulosum: English: Welsh onion
Allium sativum: Bolivia, Peru: Ajo (Spanish); Colombia: Ajo, Lay, Garlic, Ail,
Ajo Criollo (Spanish); English: Garlic
Botany and Ecology
Allium cepa: Biennial glabrous herb, usually grown as an annual from seed or bulbs,
up to 100 cm tall; real stem very short, formed at the base of the plant in the form of a
disk, with adventitious roots at base; bulbs formed by the thickening of leaf-bases a
short distance above the true stem, solitary or in clusters, depressed globose to ovoid
or oblate, up to 20 cm in diameter, variously colored. Leaves 3–8, distichously
alternate, glaucous, with tubular sheath; blade D-shaped in cross section, hollow, up
to 50 cm long, acute at apex. Inflorescence a spherical umbel up to 8 cm in diameter,
on a long, erect, terete, hollow scape up to 100 cm long, usually inflated below the
middle; umbel initially surrounded by a membranous spathe splitting into 2–4 papery
bracts. Flowers bisexual, stellate; pedicel slender, up to 4 cm long; tepals six, in two
whorls, free, ovate to oblong, 3–5 mm long, greenish white to purple; stamens six;
ovary superior, three-celled, style shorter than stamens at anthesis, later elongating.
Fruit a globular capsule 4–6 mm in diameter, splitting loculicidally, up to six-seeded.
Seeds 6 mm 4 mm, black. Allium cepa probably originates from Central Asia where
some of its relatives still grow in the wild. The closest among them are Allium vavilovii
Popov & Vved. from southern Turkmenistan and northern Iran, and Allium asarense
R.M. Fritsch & Matin from Iran (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).
Allium fistulosum: Perennial glabrous herb, growing in tufts, usually grown as an
annual or biennial plant, up to 50(–100) cm tall, with indistinct, ovoid to oblongoid
bulb up to 10 cm long, lateral bulbs few to several or virtually absent; tunic white to
pale reddish brown. Leaves 4–12, distichously alternate, glaucous, with tubular
sheath; blade cylindrical, hollow, 10–50(–100) cm 0.5–2.5 cm, acute at apex.
Inflorescence a spherical umbel 3–7 cm in diameter, on a long, erect, terete, hollow
scape up to 50(–100) cm long and up to 2.5 cm in diameter; umbel composed either
of flowers or of bulbils only; spathe one, hyaline, persistent, up to 1 cm long,
splitting into (1–)2–3 parts. Flowers bisexual, narrowly campanulate to urceolate;
pedicel slender, up to 3 cm long; tepals six, in two whorls, free, ovate-oblong to
Allium cepa L. . . . 161
Fig. 1 Allium cepa

(Amaryllidaceae), garden,
Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
oblong-lanceolate, 6–10 mm long, white with greenish midvein; stamens six,

exceeding tepals, connate at base and adnate to tepals; ovary superior, three-celled,
style slender, exceeding tepals. Fruit a globular capsule c. 5 mm in diameter, splitting
loculicidally, few-seeded. Seeds 3–4 mm 2–2.5 mm, black. Allium fistulosum is
only known in cultivation and probably originated in north-western China. It was
probably derived from the wild Allium altaicum Pall., which occurs in Siberia and
Mongolia (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Allium sativum: Bulbous herb growing to about 60 cm tall. Bulb rounded, com-
posed of up to 15 smaller cloves. Leaves 4–12, sword-shaped attached to an
underground stem. Flowers borne in a dense, spherical cluster on a spike up to
25 cm long. The young flower head is enclosed in a long-beaked pair of enclosing
bracts, which become papery and split to reveal the flowers. Individual flower stalks
arise from a common point. Flowers greenish-white or pinkish about 3 mm long.
Bulbils are often interspersed among the flowers. Garlic was domesticated long ago
and is mentioned in ancient Egyptian, Greek, Indian, and Chinese writings. Garlic
bulbs from about 1,500 BC were found in the tomb of Tutankhamen, and garlic is
mentioned in the Bible and Qur’an. Garlic is believed to originate from Central Asia
(Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and western China) (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 9).
Fig. 2 Allium fistulosum

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and
Allium cepa: In popular Colombian medicine, it is considered as a great disinfec-

tant, and in this way, it is used in the form of plasters on the affected part and in cases
of bites and insect bites. The onion is also considered effective to reduce inflamma-
tion and disinfect the respiratory tract: it is used especially to treat hoarseness, sore
throats, and inflammation of the nasal mucosa. Consuming it as juice or broth mixed

(Amaryllidaceae), drying,
Pankisi gorge, Georgia.

(Amaryllidaceae), Pankisi
gorge, Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
with a little sugar and drunk in glasses, combined with the application of plasters, is
used successfully to treat inflammations, wounds, boils, abscesses, and fistulas (Díaz
2003; García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bolivia: Fresh bulbs are used to
treat high blood pressure, varicose veins, for blood cleansing, diabetes, rheumatism,
asthma, and cough (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo and Moraes 2015; Macía et al.
2005). Ecuador: Fresh bulbs are used to treat cough (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann
and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). In Peru, it is used for cough and bronchial problems
(Monigatti et al. 2013).
Allium odorum is used in Peru for bronchitis, asthma, and bruises (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006b).
Allium sativum: Commonly used in Colombia against intestinal worms, to reduce
blood pressure, reduce blood sugar, as an antispasmodic, to lower levels of choles-
terol in the blood, and for intestinal diseases. It is usually used raw, as a disinfectant
and as a tonic for the pituitary gland; it is a plant that also relieves diabetes and
rheumatism in general. Garlic is also used to regulate liver function, cure hemor-
rhoids, varicose veins, gastrointestinal infections, and dysentery (Díaz 2003;
Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García
Fig. 6 Allium sativum

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 8 Allium
schoenoprasum
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 9 Allium
schoenoprasum
R.W. Bussmann and
Barriga 1974; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The
whole plant is used for witchcraft and good luck; fresh bulbs are used to treat
arthritis, rheumatism, for blood cleansing, high blood pressure, diabetes, high
cholesterol, hemorrhage, bronchitis, cough, gastritis, intestinal infections, liver
problems, cancer and as analgesic, circulatory stimulant, tonic, and vermifuge
(Bussmann et al. 2018). Bolivia: Fresh bulbs are use to treat high blood pressure,
cough, tonsillitis, hemorrhage, and for cultural illnesses (e.g., that the kari kari
(a spirit) stays away and to stay young) (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2018). Peru:
Fresh bulbs are used to treat cough, bronchitis, and colds, and other respiratory
disorders (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn
2010, 2011; Monigatti et al. 2013). Its antibacterial activity has been confirmed
(Bussmann et al. 2011) (Figs. 10 and 11).

(Amaryllidaceae), harvesting,
garden, Chicani, Bolivia.

(Amaryllidaceae), harvesting,
Local Food Uses
Allium cepa and A. sativum are used as a seasoning and as a food (Béjar et al. 2002;
Díaz 2003; García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996) (Figs. 12 and 13).
Allium odorum and Allium sativum are used in Peru for bad air/mal aire and to
cleanse the house of spirits (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al.
2010b), always in mixture with other species (Bussmann et al. 2010a).
Fig. 12 Allium cepa

(Amaryllidaceae), onion pie,
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 13 Allium cepa

(Amaryllidaceae), onion pie,
R.W. Bussmann and
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010b;4(9):580–629.
northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011;9:67–96.
Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. No consensus in “traditional”
medicine – medicinal plants and their uses in the markets of Bogotá (Colombia), La Paz/El
Alto (Bolivia) and Trujillo/Chiclayo (Perú). Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(3):494–8.
Justo Chipana M, Moraes RM. Plantas medicinales comercializadas por las chifleras de La Paz y
ElAlto (Bolivia) – medicinal plants marketed by chifleras of La Paz and El Alto cities (Bolivia).
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Macía MJ, García E, Vidaurre PJ. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants commercialized in
Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities
located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145
(2):450–64.
Alnus acuminata Kunth
BETULACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Alnus acuminata Kunth: Alnus acuminata var. ferruginea (Kunth) Regel; Alnus
acuminata var. genuina Regel; Alnus acuminata var. mirbelii (Spach) Regel; Alnus
acuminata var. spachii Regel; Alnus acutissima (H.J.P. Winkl.) Callier; Alnus arguta
(Schltdl.) Spach; Alnus arguta var. punctata Regel; Alnus castaneifolia Mirb.; Alnus
ferruginea Kunth; Alnus ferruginea var. aliso Griseb.; Alnus ferruginea var. aliso
Lorentz & Hieron.; Alnus ferruginea var. obtusifolia Callier; Alnus jorullensis var.
acuminata (Kunth) Kuntze; Alnus jorullensis var. castaneifolia (Mirb.) Regel; Alnus
jorullensis var. ferruginea (Kunth) Kuntze; Alnus jorullensis var. mirbelii (Spach)
H.J.P. Winkl.; Alnus jorullensis var. spachii Regel; Alnus lanceolata Phil.; Alnus
lindenii Regel; Alnus mirbelii Spach; Alnus mirbelii var. acutissima (H.J.P. Winkl.)
Callier; Alnus rufescens Liebm. ex Hemsl.; Alnus spachii (Regel) Callier; Betula
arguta Schltdl.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Alnus acuminata

(Betulaceae), Olan, Peru.
Local Names
Colombia: Aliso, Cerezo, Chaquiro, Lambrán; Bolivia: Lampara (Spanish),

Lamrama (Aymara); Ecuador: Aliso (Spanish), Ranbrán, Ranrán (unspecified lan-
guage) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Aliso blanco (Liso), Aliso colorado
(Arrugado); English: Andean alder
Botany and Ecology
Large tree, 10–20 m tall, leaves elliptic-oblong, 5–10 cm long and 2.5–5 cm wide,
pale rusty-pubescent beneath (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3,
and 4).
Alder leaves ground and mixed with fat are used to heal wounds, and heated in
vinegar they are applied to relieve inflammations. Applied on the wounds help to
contain the hemorrhages. In infusion, they are taken against rheumatism and colds,
while tender and hot leaves are used to relieve headaches by holding them on the
forehead (Ospina Penagos et al. 2005; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Bolivia: Leaves are used to treat insolation and fever (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo
and Moraes 2015).
Ecuador: With the heated leaves, plasters are prepared that are applied on pimples
and furuncles and on the areas affected by rheumatism (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Cañar, Loja). The inner bark, boiled in vinegar, is used
against lice and to treat skin scales. The leaves, in infusion, are used to treat flu and
throat ailments (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Cañar). The infusion of
the cortex is astringent, so it is used as a hemostatic; it is also used to relieve throat
ailments, like rinses or gargles (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Cañar;
Alnus acuminata Kunth 173
Fig. 2 Alnus acuminata (Betulaceae), Olan, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)

unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi). The plant, in a drink, is taken to treat fever and
chills (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja; Mestiza-Pichincha). The leaves are applied as
plaster to relieve knee and leg pain (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The leaves are
used to treat injuries, sprains, and headache (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura;

unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Chimborazo). The leaves, heated with cocoa
butter, are used to treat trauma and blows (unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi,
Cañar, Napo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves are used to treat “fright”
(unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: The fresh bark used to treat rashes, skin irritations, arthritic pain and to sealing
wounds (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2007), for
respiratory disorders (Bussmann and Glenn 2010), asthma (Bussmann and Glenn
2011), and has proven antibacterial activities (Bussmann et al. 2010, 2011a), and low
toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b). The species is widely sold in local markets
(Bussmann et al. 2016).
Ecuador: The trunk and thick branches are used to make coal (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The wood is used in
formwork and joinery, and is used to make crafts, musical instruments, saddles,
spoons, pots, plows, yokes, rudders, and capes; It is also used in construction as
poles, beams, scissors, and screeds for homes (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura,
Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha, Cotopaxi,
Chimborazo, Cañar, Azuay, Loja, Napo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is
used in agroforestry systems. The leaves are used to prepare fertilizer (Kichwa de
Alnus acuminata Kunth 175
la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Cañar). The root is a nitrogen fixative (unspecified

ethnic group – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of northern Peru – can
traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010;9
(4):742–53.
Justo Chipana M, Moraes RM. Plantas medicinales comercializadas por las chifleras de La Paz y El
Alto (Bolivia) – medicinal plants marketed by chifleras of La Paz and El Alto cities (Bolivia).
Ecología en Bolivia; 2015;50(2):66–90.
Ospina Penagos CM, Hernández Restrepo RJ, Gómez Delgado DE, Godoy Bautista JA, Aristizábal
Valencia FA, Patiño Castaño JN, Medina Ortega JÁ. El Aliso o Cerezo. Guías silviculturales
para el manejo de especies forestales con miras a la producción de madera en la zona andina
colombiana. Serie Cartillas Divulgativas. Cenicafé. Federación Nacional de Cafeteros de
Colombia, Corporación Autónoma Regional de Cundinamarca – Centro de Documentación
Ambiental, Cundinamarca; 2005. 37 pp.
Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.
ASPHODELACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.: Aloe barbadensis Mill.; Aloe barbadensis var. chinensis
Haw.; Aloe chinensis (Haw.) Baker; Aloe elongata Murray; Aloe flava Pers.; Aloe
indica Royle; Aloe lanzae Tod.; Aloe perfoliata var. barbadensis (Mill.) Aiton; Aloe
perfoliata var. vera L.; Aloe vera var. chinensis (Haw.) A. Berger; Aloe vera var.
littoralis J. Koenig ex Baker; Aloe vulgaris Lam.; Aloe rubescens DC.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Colombia: Acíbar, Alcíbar, Aloe, Aloes, Jugo de loe, Gomorresina aloe, Penca
sábila, Rul pu, Sábila, Sawila, Tuna, Zábila, Zábila común; Ecuador: Sávila Penca;
English: Aloe
Botany and Ecology
Herbaceous, perennial plant, often forming large colonies, up to 1.5 m tall. Stem
acaule or caulescent, leaves succulent, arranged in basal rosettes, linear-lanceolate to
deltoid, up to 50 cm long, ascending or extended, apex long attenuated, fleshy, light
green, usually glaucous, with almost flat upper face and convex the lower, margins
with deltoid teeth 2–3 mm long, whitish, often with the reddish-brown upper end.
Inflorescence racemous, on a simple or branched peduncle, glabrous, with ovate and
scarious bracts at the base. Flowers, tubular, yellow, hanging, are articulated to
pedicels 4–5 mm in length that sprout in the armpits of ovate-lanceolate bracts,
0.8–1 cm. Perianth segments six, almost equal, the three external ones more succu-
lent, up to 3.2 cm long, joined to almost half of their length, with a sharp apex, three-
nerved; stamens six, with filaments 2.3–2.5 mm long, linear anthers, 3–4 mm long,
attached to the filament on the back but near its base; ovary superior, sessile, three-
angled (trine), with three locules and in each locule numerous ovules arranged in two
series, thin style, short stigma. The fruit a coriaceous capsule, which opens by
longitudinal lines towards the cavity of the locules; three-angled seeds flattened or
more or less winged, black. Aloe vera is cultivated around the world. It has escaped
from cultivation and become naturalized in the Mediterranean, north Africa, the
Indian subcontinent, South America, and the Caribbean (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
The root is used in Colombia to relieve colic. Aloe leaves are frequently used for the
treatment of hypertension, rheumatism, and ulcers; Externally they are used in the
treatment of acne, dermatitis, skin irritations, and as healers; they have also been used
as a purgative. The mucilage of the leaves applied as a poultice is useful to treat various
types of inflammation. The infusion of the leaves is used in the treatment of liver
diseases. The juice of the leaves is used in cases of constipation to promote defecation.
With the leaves of the Agave, a syrup is prepared that is used to treat pneumonia. In
addition, the leaves crushed and placed in the form of poultice are widely used in skin
infections and leprosy. The crystals of the leaves macerated in cold water are used as
anti-sudorific. Aloe is attributed insecticidal properties and consequently people in the
field hang the bushes on the doorsteps (Bussmann et al. 2018a, b; Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-
Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1974;
Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. 179
Fig. 1 Aloe vera

(Asphodelaceae), Huanchaco,
Fig. 2 Aloe vera

(Asphodelaceae), Huanchaco,
Fig. 3 Aloe vera

(Asphodelaceae), ready to
use, Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008;
Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
In Ecuador, the sap is used for liver problems and internal infections, kidney problems,
and to lose weight (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). In Peru,
fresh leaves are used against inflammations (external), vaginal inflammations, vaginal
ulcers, vaginal cancer, to stimulate hair growth, for skin embellishment, cataracts, eyes,
wounds, burns, for weight loss, gastritis, internal inflammation, diabetes, cough, bron-
chitis, kidneys, ulcers, cholesterol, cancer, asthma, and bile (Bussmann and Sharon
2006b, 2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013), gynecological problems (Bussmann and Glenn
2010a, 2011), and general respiratory system disorders (Bussmann and Glenn 2010b),
as well as diabetes (Bussmann et al. 2010). Similar uses have been observed in Bolivia
(Bussmann et al. 2016). Aloe sap is often used in emolientes – beverages mostly taken
for breakfast (Bussmann et al. 2015). It is a great example of syncretism in Peruvian
“traditional” medicine (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008, 2009; Bussmann and Sharon
2007b). The plant shows low toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011) (Fig. 3).
In Ecuador, Aloe plants are often hung from the door to fend of evil spirits and to
protect the house (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
In Peru, the species is used for good luck and happiness (Bussmann and Sharon
2006b; Bussmann et al. 2010).
References
female health. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010a;6:30.
Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. 181
Rev Peru Biol. 2010b;17(2):331–46.
of diabetes and cancer in northern Peru. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(31):6916–30.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008;6:351–61.
clients at Laboratorios Beal in Trujillo, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:399–407.
Pharmacol. 2010;4(9):580–629.
in northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;137:121–40.
Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Castañeda Sifuentes RY, Prado Velazco YA, Mandujano
J. Health in a pot – the ethnobotany of emolientes and emolienteros in Peru. Econ Bot.
2015;69:83–8.
Alto (Bolivia) and Trujillo/Chiclayo (Perú). Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018a;17(3):494–8.
plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018b;14(1):43. https://doi.org/
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.

Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
(2):450–64.
Aloysia deserticola (Phil.) Lu-Irving & O’Leary
Aloysia triphylla Royle
VERBENACEAE

Synonyms
Aloysia deserticola (Phil.) Lu-Irving & O’Leary: Acantholippia deserticola (Phil.)

Moldenke, Acantholippia punensis Botta, nom. illeg., Lippia deserticola Phil.,
Lippia microphylla Phil., nom. illeg.
Aloysia triphylla Royle: Aloysia citriodora Paláu; Aloysia sleumeri Moldenke;
Aloysia triphylla (L’Hér.) Britton; Aloysia triphylla fo. serrulata Moldenke; Lippia
citriodora Kunth; Verbena citrodora (Palau) Cav.; Zappania citrodora (Palau) Lam.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero

Local Names
Chile: Kore, Kori, Qore, Qori, Rikarika; Colombia: Cedrón, Cidrón, Saca ojo,
Yerba luisa, Zorillo; Peru: Cedrón
Botany and Ecology
Aloysia deserticola: Very aromatic, branching shrub, 0.4–1 m tall, with divaricated
branches, spinescent, hispid, glabrescent. Leaves opposite, sessile, peltate, squamiform,
rough, yellowish-green, about 1.5 1.5–2 mm, trilobate, sub-thromboidal. Clusters
terminal, contracted, sessile, globose or cylindrical, 12–15 mm. Bracts obovate to ovate,
smaller than the chalice. Calyx 3–4.5 mm, densely hispid at base, subequal, brief,
conspicuous, triangular teeth. White corolla, 4–6 mm, obovate lobes. Compressed
obovoid fruit. 2300–3500 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 1 and 2).
Aloysia triphylla: Shrubs 1–3 m tall, aromatic, stems glabrous at maturity, sub-
pendulous. Leaves ternate, briefly petiolate, petioles 1–5 mm; blades elliptic,
2–8 1–2.5 cm, apex acute, base acute, margins entire or slightly serrate, blade
adaxially scabrous, abaxially glabrate with subsessile glandular trichomes, midvein
and pinnate venation conspicuous. Inflorescences terminal and axillary, lax, 1–5 cm,
Fig. 1 Aloysia deserticola (Verbenaceae), Caspana, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)
Aloysia deserticola (Phil.) Lu-Irving & O’Leary . . . 185
Fig. 2 Aloysia deserticola

(Verbenaceae), Caspana,
Señoret)
Fig. 3 Aloysia triphylla

(Verbenaceae), garden,
R.W. Bussmann and
the terminal ones grouped as paniculiform inflorescences; flowers white, small; floral
bracts reduced, ovate, 1–1.5 mm, scabrous. Flower with the calyx 2.5–3 mm,
puberulous, with four brief teeth, unequal, triangular; corolla tube 5–6 mm, exter-
nally puberulous. Fruits 2 1 mm, glabrous or pubescent at apex (Macbride and

R.W. Bussmann and
Aloysia triphylla: Used in Colombia as infusion as digestive, antispasmodic, car-

minative, for heart palpitations, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, fainting, nervous sys-
tem problems, as antidepressant, for headache, diuretic, antimalarial, expectorant,
antibacterial, and analgesic. Some communities use the species to treat varicose
veins, toothache, and hemorrhoids. In Andean culture, Aloysia is used to treat susto
and similar conditions (Bussmann et al. 2018). The leaves prepared in infusion or
decoction are used in traditional medicine to promote good digestion, as an invig-
orating, against intestinal gases, and for the treatment of indigestion, nausea, and
vomiting. The infusion or decoction of the leaves is also used as an antispasmodic,
tranquilizer, nervous calming, sedative, expectorant, and for stomach disorders (Díaz
2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012;
García Barriga 1975; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Martínez Correa and Montes
Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In
Peru, the plant has been used to remedy depression, nervous system problems,
insomnia, stomach aches, and sharp body pain (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007,
2015a, b). The species has antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2008a, 2011a),
and no toxicity has been reported (Bussmann et al. 2011b). Mostly applied in
mixture with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010a). Very often sold in markets and

R.W. Bussmann and
also planted in gardens (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008b, 2009). Sometimes Aloysia is
part of healthy beverages (emolientes) often used for breakfast (Bussmann et al.
2015). In Bolivia, similar uses have been reported (Bussmann et al. 2016; Paniagua
Zambrana et al. 2017; Paniagua-Zambrana and Bussmann 2018; Quiroga et al.
2012).
Local Food Uses
Aloysia deserticola: Often used as tea in Chile (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez
Aloysia deserticola: In Chile, it is planted as ornamental and sometimes used as

insect repellent (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
Aloysia triphylla: In Peru, it is also used in spiritual healing for bad air/mal aire
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
activity. Arnaldoa. 2008a;15(1):127–48.
Appl. 2008b;6:351–61.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Garcia M. From Chamomile to Aspirin? Medicinal plant use among
Pharmacol. 2010b;4(9):580–629.
2015;69:83–8.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1975. 538 pp.
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Hart RE, Moya Huanca AL, Ortiz Soria G, Ortiz Vaca M,
Ortiz Álvarez D, Soria Morán J, Soria Morán M, Chávez S, Chávez Moreno B, Chávez
Moreno G, Roca O, Siripi E. Traditional knowledge hiding in plain sight – 21st century
ethnobotany of the Chácobo in Beni, Bolivia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2017;13:57. https://doi.
org/10.1186/s13002-017-0179-2.
Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. La Etnobotánica de los Chácobo en el Siglo XXI.
Ethnobot Res Appl. 2018;16(2):1–149. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.16.2.001-149.
Llullaillaco. Chile: Región de Antofagasta; 2013.
Quiroga R, Meneses L, Bussmann RW. Medicinal ethnobotany in Huacareta (Chiquisaca, Bolivia).
J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2012;8:29.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze
Alternanthera halimifolia (Lam.) Standl. ex
Pittier
Alternanthera porrigens (Jacq.) Kuntze
Alternanthera villosa Kunth
AMARANTHACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze: Achyranthes bettzickiana (Regel) Standl.;

Achyranthes brasiliana (L.) Standl.; Achyranthes capituliflora Bertero; Achyranthes
geniculata Pav. ex Moq.; Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) Standl.; Alternanthera
brasiliana var. sericea Kuntze; Alternanthera dentata (Moench) Stuchlik ex
R.E. Fr.; Alternanthera jacquinii (Schrad.) Alain; Alternanthera moquinii (Webb
ex Moq.) Dusén; Alternanthera ramosissima (Mart.) Chodat; Alternanthera
ramosissima var. missionum Pedersen; Alternanthera rampsissima var. reptans
Pedersen; Gomphrena brasiliana L.; Gomphrena brasiliensis Jacq.; Gomphrena
brasiliensis L.; Gomphrena dentata Moench; Mogiphanes ramosissima Mart.;
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Mogiphanes straminea Mart.; Philoxerus brasiliana (L.) Sm.; Telanthera

bettzickiana Regel; Telanthera brasiliana (L.) Moq.; Telanthera brasiliana var.
villosa Moq.; Telanthera capituliflora (Bertero) Moq.; Telanthera dentata Moq.;
Telanthera moquinii Webb ex Moq.; Telanthera ramosissima (Mart.) Moq.
Alternanthera halimifolia (Lam.) Standl. ex Pittier: Achyranthes halimifolia
Lam.; Achyranthes incana Moq.; Alternanthera asterotricha Uline; Alternanthera
crucis Bold.; Alternanthera flavogrisea (Urb.) Urb.; Alternanthera ficoidea var.
flavogrisea Fawc. & Rendle; Alternanthera ficoidea var. halimifolia Kuntze;
Alternanthera flavogrisea (Urb.) Urb.; Alternanthera halimifolia subsp. macro-
phylla J.T. Howell; Alternanthera polygonoides var. elongata Kunth; Celosia
peruviana Van Spand. ex Moquin; Illecebrum alsinaefolium Scop.; Illecebrum
frutescens L’Hér.; Illecebrum limense Dumort.; Telanthera crucis Moq.; Telanthera
densiflora Moq.; Telanthera flavogrisea Urb.; Telanthera frutescens Moq.;
Telanthera frutescens var. acutifolia Moq.; Telanthera var. manillensis Moq.;
Telanthera halimifolia (Lam.) Steward; Telanthera truxillensis (Kunth) Moq.
Alternanthera porrigens (Jacq.) Kuntze: Achyranthes bangii (Rusby) Standl.;
Achyranthes porrigens Jacq.; Achyranthes purpurea Pav. ex Moq.; Alternanthera
gomphrenoides Kunth; Alternanthera juncifolia I.M. Johnst.; Alternanthera
paniculata Kunth; Alternanthera sericea Kunth; Brandesia porrigens (Jacq.)
Mart.; Celosia elongata Spreng.; Celosia peruviana Zucc.; Gomphrena sericea
Spreng.; Illecebrum gomphrenoides Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.; Illecebrum sericeum
Spreng.; Mogiphanes paniculata Rusby; Telanthera bangii Rusby; Telanthera
gomphrenoides Moq.; Telanthera luzuloides Moq.; Telanthera porrigens (Jacq.)
Moq.; Telanthera riveti Danguy & Chermezon
Alternanthera villosa Kunth: Alternanthera tomentosa (Moq.) Schinz; Illecebrum
villosum (Kunth) Willd.; Telanthera tomentosum Moq.; Telanthera villosa (Kunth)
Moq.
Local Names
Alternanthera brasiliana: Colombia: Escancé gigante, Iscancel chiquito; Peru:

Hierba del Oso, Veronica (Hembra), Moradilla de Cerro
Alternanthera halimifolia: Paja Morada, Colores, Lenguetilla, Sanguinario, Lengua
de Pajaro, Sanguinaria, Moradia, Moradilla, Hierba Morada
Alternanthera porrigens: Ecuador: Moradilla (Spanish); Peru: Sanguinaria,
Moradilla, Lancetilla (Spanish)
Alternanthera villosa: Peru: Hierba del oso
Botany and Ecology
Alternanthera brasiliana: Plants usually large, 50–120 cm tall and much branched,
herbaceous or suffrutescent, often scandent, the branches slender or stout, pilose
with rather long and appressed or sometimes short and somewhat spreading hairs,
Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze 193
often glabrate or almost glabrous from the first; leaves slender-petiolate, the blades
oblong or lanceolate to ovate, 4–10 cm long or even larger, acute or acuminate,
rounded to acute at the base, appressed-pilose or sericeous, often nearly glabrous;
flower spikes globose or short-oblong, 1–2.5 cm long, 8–12 mm thick, stramineous
or whitish; peduncles simple or trifid; bracts and bractlets half as long as the sepals or
shorter, glabrous or nearly so, sometimes narrowly and obscurely cristate near the
apex, the crest denticulate; sepals ovate-lanceolate or lance-oblong, 3–5 mm long,
rigid, acute, short-pilose; staminodia longer than the filaments, ligulate, laciniate at
the apex (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Alternanthera halimifolia: A much branched perennial, prostrate or procumbent,
the stems stellate-puberulent and with spreading, hispidulous hairs, in age sometimes
glabrate; leaves rather thin, short-petiolate, the blades oblong to oval or obovate-
oblong, 1.5–6 cm long or larger, rounded to acutish at the apex, when young densely
stellate-pubescent and often pilose with spreading, hispidulous hairs, in age some-
times glabrate; heads chiefly axillary, whitish, sessile, globose, solitary, or
glomerate; the flowers stramineous or whitish; bracts and bractlets half as long as
the sepals, ovate, acuminate, mucronate, appressed-pilose, the tips not appressed;
sepals 3–4 mm long, ovate-oblong, acute, 3–5-nerved, densely pubescent with short,
hispidulous hairs; staminodia ligulate, longer than the filaments, ligulate at the apex
(Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Fig. 1 Alternanthera
sp. (Amaranthaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
mexicana (Amaranthaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
mexicana (Amaranthaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
paniculata (Amaranthaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
R.W. Bussmann and
Alternanthera porrigens: Plants suffrutescent, large, much branched, rather stout,

erect or often scandent, the stems densely pilose with appressed, white hairs, rarely
glabrate in age; leaves short-petiolate, the blades ovate to elliptic or lance-oblong,
acute or acuminate, commonly densely appressed-pilose on both surfaces, more
conspicuously so beneath; flower heads small, numerous, forming a large panicle,
purple or pink, or rarely almost white, mostly sessile in clusters of three at the tips of
the branches, sometimes solitary on long, axillary peduncles, the clusters not
bracted; bracts half as long as the calyx, ovate, mucronate, usually pubescent over
the whole surface; sepals densely pilose, or sometimes glabrate above, usually long-
pilose at the base, 2.5–3 mm long, lance-oblong, acute, single-nerved or obscurely
three-nerved; staminodia equaling the filaments, laciniate at the apex (Macbride and
Alternanthera villosa: Plants herbaceous or suffrutescent, more or less scandent,
densely tawny-hirsute throughout with long, spreading hairs; leaves short petio-
late, the blades ovate or broadly ovate, 2.5–6.5 cm long, short acuminate, rounded
to acutish at the base; peduncles simple, terminal and axillary, elongate; heads
globose, stramineous, 1.5 cm broad; bracts unequal, somewhat shorter than the
sepals, more or less pilose, obscurely cristulate and dentate near the apex; sepals
6–7 mm long, attenuate to an acute apex, thinly pilose; staminodia ligulate, slightly
longer than the filaments, laciniate at the apex (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 5, 6, and 7).
R.W. Bussmann and
R.W. Bussmann and
Alternanthera brasiliana: In Colombia, the cooked leaves are applied as a plaster to

cure scabies and wounds. In traditional medicine, its use as a bactericide, anti-
inflammatory, and analgesic is very popular (Bernal et al. 2011). In Peru, whole
plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat bronchitis, asthma, bruises, fractures, twisted
bones, and bumps (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b).
Alternanthera halimifolia: In Peru, the whole fresh plant is used to treat inflam-
mations (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2008a).
Alternanthera porrigens: Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat kidneys
and lungs (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: The whole
plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat blood circulation, warts, blood coldness, and
allergies (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2008a;
Monigatti et al. 2013a, b). The plants are used for nervous system disorders and
respiratory problems (Bussmann et al. 2010a; Bussmann and Glenn 2010). They are
also used for pain, arthritis (Bussmann and Glenn 2011a), fungal infections (Bussmann
and Glenn 2011b), and have antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2008a, b, 2009,
2010b, c, 2011a). All species are found in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008a;
Revene et al. 2008) and are normally used in mixture with other plants (Bussmann et al.
2010d). No toxicity has been observed (Bussmann et al. 2011b).
Alternanthera villosa: Peru: Flowers, leaves, and stems, fresh or dried, are used to
treat bad air/mal aire and for sorcery (protection from) (Bussmann and Sharon
2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b).
References
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
Rev Peruana Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
rheumatism, arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011a;10(3):397–412.
fungal infections and inflammation symptoms. J Med Plant Res. 2011b;5(8):1297–304.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Barocio Y, Díaz P D, Sharon D. Peruvian Plants Canchalagua (Schkuhria pinnata
(Lam.) Kuntze), Hercampuri (Gentianella alborosea (Gilg.) Fabris), and Corpus Way
(Gentianella bicolor (Wedd.) J. Pringle) prove to be effective in the treatment of acne. Arnaldoa.
2008a;15(1):149–52.
Appl. 2008c;6:351–61.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010b;9
(4):742–53.
medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010c;6:10.
Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A, Effio-Carbajal J, Frías-
Fernandez F, Benito M. Minimum inhibitory concentration of medicinal plants used in northern
Peru as antibacterial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010d;132:101–8.
Monigatti, et al. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the
Bolivar Province Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013a;145(2):450–464.
Perú. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2013b. ISBN 978-0-9848415-8-5.
Revene Z, Bussmann RW, Sharon D. From Sierra to Coast: tracing the supply of medicinal plants in
Amaranthus caudatus L.
Amaranthus deflexus L.
Amaranthus hybridus L.
Amaranthus retroflexus L.
Amaranthus spinosus L.
AMARANTHACEAE

Synonyms
Amaranthus caudatus L.: Amaranthus caudatus var. alopecurus Moq.;

Amaranthus cruentus L.; Amaranthus edulis Speg.; Amaranthus hybridus var.
paniculatus (L.) Uline & W.L. Bray; Amaranthus leucocarpus S. Watson;
Amaranthus leucospermus S. Watson; Amaranthus mantegazzianus Pass.;
Amaranthus sanguineus L.
Amaranthus deflexus L.: Amarantellus argentinus Speg., Euxolus deflexus (L.) Raf.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero

Amaranthus hybridus L.: Amaranthus chlorostachys var. hybridus S. Watson;

Amaranthus chlorostachys Willd.; Amaranthus cruentus L.; Amaranthus hecticus
Willd; Amaranthus hybridus var. chlorostachys Beck; Amaranthus hybridus var.
quitensis (Kunth) Covas; Amaranthus hypochondriacus L.; Amaranthus laetus
Willd.; Amaranthus paniculatus L.; Amaranthus quitensis Kunth; Amaranthus
retroflexus subsp. quitensis (Kunth) Bolós & Vigo; Amaranthus retroflexus var.
chlorostachys A. Gray; Amaranthus retroflexus var. hybridus A. Gray; Amaranthus
strictus Willd.; Galliaria hybrida (L.) Nieuwl.
Amaranthus retroflexus L.: Amaranthus retroflexus var. salicifolius I.M. Johnst.;
Amaranthus tricolor L.; Galliaria retroflexa (L.) Nieuwl.
Amaranthus spinosus L.: Amaranthus caracasanus Kunth; Amaranthus diacanthus
Raf.; Amaranthus spinosus fo. inermis Lauterb. & K. Schum.; Amaranthus spinosus
var. basiscissus Thell; Amaranthus spinosus var. circumscissus Thell.; Amaranthus
spinosus var. indehiscens Thell.; Amaranthus spinosis var. purpurascens Moq.;
Amaranthus spinosus var. pygmaeus Hassk.; Amaranthus spinosus var. rubicaulis
Hassk.; Amaranthus spinosus var. viridicaulis Hassk.; Galliaria spinosa (L.)
Nieuwl.
Local Names
Amaranthus caudatus: Colombia: Chita, Ataco Morado, Coime, Kiwicha; Peru:

Quihuicha, Kiwicha (Quechua)
Amaranthus deflexus: Chile: Romaza, Yuyo arka (compañera), Arka.
Amaranthus hybridus:Colombia: Chita Bledo, Felpa; Ecuador: Bledo (Spanish);
Peru: Yuyo
Amaranthus retroflexus: Ecuador: Bledo Serrano, Cancel Serrano
Amaranthus spinosus: Colombia: Chita Bledo, Bledo Espinoso, Bledo Macho;
English: Amaranth
Botany and Ecology
Amaranthus caudatus: Annual herbs; stem fleshy, commonly reddish, 30–100 cm

long, mostly puberulent, simple or slightly branched, sulcate; leaves long-petioled,
rhombic-ovate or oval or broadly oblong-lanceolate, cuneate at base, acute; inflo-
rescences spiciform; terminal spike very long, branched in lower part, pendulous;
glomerules compact, rounded in outline, subglobose, in lower part of inflorescence
distant, in upper part approximate; bracts apiculate, longer than perianth; tepals
5, ovate-lanceolate, shorter than the fruit; capsule broadly ellipsoid, circumscissile;
seed 1 mm long, dark brown to black; stamens 5. Amaranthus caudatus is not known
from the wild. It originated in the Andes, possibly as a hybrid between Amaranthus
hybridus L. subsp. quitensis (Kunth) Costea & Carretero and the cultivated
Amaranthus cruentus L. (originating from Central America). Amaranthus caudatus
has long been grown as a food crop in the Andes, e.g., by the Incas, and the greatest
Amaranthus caudatus L. . . . 201
genetic variation occurs in this area (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina). The
earliest archaeological evidence of its cultivation dates from 2000-year-old tombs in
north-western Argentina (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Amaranthus cruentus: Annual herb, erect or less commonly ascending, up to 2 m
tall, often reddish tinted throughout; stems stout, branched, angular, glabrous or
thinly to moderately furnished with multicellular hairs. Leaves arranged spirally,
simple, without stipules, long-petiolate; lamina broadly lanceolate to rhombic-ovate,
2–18 cm 2–15 cm, attenuate or shortly cuneate at base, obtuse to subacute at apex,
mucronate, entire, glabrous to sparsely pilose, pinnately veined. Inflorescence large
and complex, consisting of numerous agglomerated cymes arranged in axillary and
terminal racemes and spikes, the terminal one up to 45 cm long, usually with many
lateral, perpendicular, thin branches; bracts 2–3 mm long, with a long awn. Flowers
unisexual, subsessile, with 5 tepals 1–2 mm long; male flowers with 5 stamens 1 mm
long; female flowers with superior, single-celled ovary crowned by 3 stigmas. Fruit
an obovoid to rhombic capsule 2–2.5 mm long, circumscissile, almost smooth, with
a short beak, single-seeded. Seed obovoid to ellipsoid, compressed, 1 mm long,
whitish to yellowish or blackish. Seedling with epigeal germination; hypocotyl
10–12 mm long; cotyledons c. 1.5 cm long, fleshy, petiolate. As early as
6000 years ago, Amaranthus cruentus was domesticated as a pseudo-cereal (grain
amaranth) in Central America from the weed Amaranthus hybridus L. (Macbride
and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Amaranthus deflexus: Annual or very rarely perennial herb, creeping. Stems very
branched from the base, somewhat erect in flowering, from 15 to 40 cm high, with
moniliform pluricellular hairs. Leaves alternate, ovate or rhombic-lanceolate,
20–80 mm long by 5–25 mm wide, with obtuse apex until slightly emarginated,
with petiole 8–25 mm in length, frequently with a purple and white spots. Flowers in
simple or branched terminal spikes and axillary glomeruli. Bracts shorter than tepals.
Flowers with 2 linear tepals – lanceolate 2 mm in length, the male with two
stamens, the female with oval ovary and 2–3 stigmas. Fruit utricle, taller than
wide, pear-shaped, 3 mm long, with smooth pericarp. Black or brown seed,
shiny, oval, 1.5 mm in length. From sea level up to 1000 m (Macbride and
Amaranthus hybridus: Annual, mostly pale green, sometimes reddish-tinged,
20–80 cm high; stem erect, simple or branched, grayish by dense short hairs, slightly
angled; leaves rather large, ovate-rhombic, obtuse or slightly notched at apex,
smooth above, shortly hairy beneath, on the margin, and on the petiole, this as
long as or somewhat longer than the blade; flowers in glomerules crowded in a green
dense and very compact paniculate inflorescence, disposed mainly at the summit of
the stem, branched in lower part, oblong-cylindric or ovoid-pyramidal; bracts
lanceolate, slenderly long-pointed, nearly twice as long as the perianth; tepals
5, surpassing the fruit, in staminate flowers lanceolate, in pistillate oblong-linear,
spatulately enlarged toward apex, obtuse or retuse, mucronulate, whitish-
membranous, the slender pale gray midrib mostly failing to reach the apex; stamens
5; capsule single-seeded, circumscissile, shorter than perianth; seed 1 mm long,
black or blackish-brown, very shining, sharp-margined. In kitchen gardens, fallow
Fig. 1 Amaranthus hybridus

(Amaranthaceae) in a garden
in Khevsureti, Georgia.

areas, along roads and rivers, often in settlements in irrigated fields, from the lowland
to the mid-mountain belt, from sea level up to 2200 m (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Amaranthus retroflexus: Herb, 50–120 cm tall, flowers in glomerules crowded in a
green dense and very compact paniculate inflorescence, disposed mainly at the tip of
the stem, branched in lower part, oblong-cylindric or ovoid-pyramidal; bracts
lanceolate, slenderly long-pointed, nearly twice as long as the perianth; tepals
5, surpassing the fruit, in staminate flowers lanceolate, in pistillate oblong-linear,


spatulately enlarged toward apex, obtuse or retuse, mucronulate, whitish-

membranous, the slender pale gray midrib mostly failing to reach the apex; stamens
5; capsule single-seeded, circumscissile, shorter than perianth; seed 1 mm long,
black or blackish-brown, very shining, sharp-margined. Vegetable and ornamental
gardens, weed-infested places, and field borders (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
Amaranthus spinosus: Annual herb, erect or slightly decumbent, up to 1.5 m tall.
Stem stout, sometimes reddish, usually branched, angular, glabrous or increasingly
Fig. 5 Amaranthus
sp. (Amaranthaceae) in a
garden in Kartli, Georgia.

var. paniculatus
in Kakheti, Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
furnished above (especially in the inflorescence) with short or longer, multicellular,

flocculent hairs. Leaves glabrous, or thinly pilose on the lower surface of the primary
venation, long-petiolate, petioles up to 9 cm long, sometimes longer than the lamina,
lamina lanceolate-ovate to rhomboid-ovate, elliptic, lanceolate-oblong or lanceolate,
1.5–12 0.8–6 cm, subacute or more commonly blunt or retuse at the apex with a
distinct, fine colorless mucro, cuneate or attenuate at the base; each leaf-axil bearing
a pair of fine and slender to stout and compressed spines up to 2.5 cm long. Flowers
green, in the lower parts of the plant in axillary clusters 6–15 mm diameter, towards
the ends of the stem and branches the clusters leafless and approximated to form
simple or the terminal at least, branched spikes up to 15 cm long and 1 cm wide.
Lower flower clusters entirely female, as are the lower flowers of the spikes; upper
flowers of spikes male, mostly for the apical 1/4–2/3 of each spike. Bracts and
bracteoles deltoid-ovate, pale-membranous, with an erect, commonly reddish awn
formed by the excurrent green midrib: bracteoles shorter than to a little exceeding the
perianth, commonly smaller than the bracts. Perianth segments 5, those of the female
flowers 1.5–2.5 mm long, narrowly oblong or spathulate-oblong, obtuse or acute,
mucronulate, frequently with a greenish dorsal fin; those of the male flowers broadly
lanceolate or lanceolate-oblong, acute or acuminate, only the midrib green. Stigmas
(2)3, flexuose or reflexed, 1–1.5 mm long. Capsule ovoid-urceolate with a short,
inflated beak below the style-base, 1.5 mm long, regularly or irregularly circumscis-
sile or more rarely indehiscent, the lid rugulose below the beak. Seed 0.75–1 mm
across, black, compressed, shining, very faintly reticulate. Amaranthus spinosus
originates probably from lowland tropical South and Central America and was
introduced into other warmer parts of the world from about 1700 AD onwards. At
present, it occurs in all tropical and subtropical regions (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
Amaranthus caudatus: Used in Colombia as astringent, diuretic, and vermifuge

(Bernal et al. 2011; García Barriga 1974; Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Peru:
Seeds, dried, are used as nutrition supplement (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2015a, b).
Amaranthus hybridus: Felpa has digestive and stimulant properties and for these
purposes is used in Colombia in the treatment of stomach pains by means of an
infusion and decoction of the leaves and stems) (Galvis Rueda and Torres Torres
2017; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat general
pain and heat in the breast (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Peru: Fresh leaves and stems are used to treat inflammations (general) (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b) and have antibacterial properties (Bussmann
et al. 2009, 2010, 2011).
Amaranthus spinosus: Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat flu, head-
ache, and fever (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Amaranthus retroflexus: Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat flu,
headache, and fever (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Amaranthus spinosus: In Colombia, the decoction of the whole plant (except the
roots) is used as a healing agent, anti-inflammatory and anti-hemorrhagic, and to
relieve abdominal pain and cramping. The same decoction is also used as a disin-
fectant and to heal wounds or sores (García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to cook a soup (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann
and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Amaranthus viridis is used as astringent and emollient in Pakistan (Ur-Rahman et al.
2018).
Local Food Uses
Amaranthus deflexus: It is used in Chile as tea as substitute for yerba mate. Also
consumed as pudding (Baldwin et al. 2012; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and
Castro 2003).
Amaranthus hybridus and other spices are widely used as food in Eurasia
(Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014; Bussmann 2017).
Amaranthus deflexus: Used in Colombia as fodder (Baldwin et al. 2012; Rodriguez

References
Baldwin BG, Goldman D, Keil DJ, Patterson R, Rosatti TJ, editors. The digital Jepson manual:
vascular plants of California. Berkeley: University of California Press; 2012.
Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S,
Tchelidze D, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Amaranthus retroflexus
L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International
Publishing; 2017.
Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal Herbs of Southern Ecuador – Hierbas
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing;
2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Cardenas R, Chait G, Castro M, Regalado S, Del Toro CR,
Malca G G, Perez AF, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in northern
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010;
9(4):742–53.
Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Jinjikhadze T,
Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, beer, snuff, medicine and
loss of diversity – ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl.
2014;12:237–313.
Sogamoso, Boyacá, Colombia. Rev Invest Agraria Ambiental. 2017;8(2):187–206.
alimenticias. Cali: Imprenta Departamental; 1964. 220 pp.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Ur-Rahman I, Afsal A, Iqbal Z, Ijas F, Ali N, Asif M, Alam J, Majid A, Bussmann RW. Traditional
and ethnomedicinal dermatology practices in Pakistan. Clin Dermatol. 2018;36(3):310–9.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clindermatol.2018.03.018.
Ambrosia arborescens Mill.
Ambrosia artemisioides Meyen & Walp. ex
Meyen
Ambrosia cumanensis Kunth
ASTERACEAE

Synonyms
Ambrosia arborescens Mill.: Ambrosia artemisioides Willd.; Ambrosia frutescens

Lam.; Ambrosia fruticosa Medik.; Franseria artemisioides Willd.; Franseria
conwayi Rusby; Gaertneria artemisioides (Willd.) Kuntze; Xanthium artemisioides
(Willd.) Delpino; Xanthium fruticosum L. f.
Ambrosia artemisioides Meyen & Walp. ex Meyen: Franseria fruticosa Phil.,
Franseria meyeniana Sch. Bip.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero

Ambrosia cumanensis Kunth: Ambrosia artemisiifolia var. trinitensis Grieseb.;

Ambrosia orobanchifera Meyen.; Ambrosia paniculata var. cumanensis (Kunth)
O.E. Schulz; Artemisia panuculata var. peruviana (Willd.) O.E. Schulz; Ambrosia
peruviana All.; Ambrosia pilostachya DC.
Local Names
Ambrosia arborescens: Bolivia: Altamisa, Marco (Spanish), Markju (Aymara);

Ecuador: Marku, Marku yura (Kichwa), Alltamira, Altamisa, Altomiso, Artemisia,
mano de marco, Marco (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Ambrosia
(Spanish).
Ambrosia artemisioides: Chile: Tikara, Tikara Macho, Pikara, Cadillo, Chaspaksa,
Mulumulu, Monte verde, Montenegro, Tola negra, Pegapega, Lipelipe, Chilisaya,
Misiko.
Ambrosia peruviana: Colombia: Altamisa/Artemisa (Spanish) (Bussmann et al.
2018); Ecuador: Altamis, Marco (Spanish), Huaotu pitzanga (unspecified language)
(de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Altamisa, Marco, Artamisa, Manzanilla del muerto,
Marcos, Alta misa, Ajenjo, Altamis, Llatama negra malera, Llatama roja malera
Botany and Ecology
Ambrosia arborescens: Annual. Stem 20–200 cm high, paniculately branched above,

angular, weakly or quite strongly appressed-setose. Upper leaves alternate, sessile,
pinnately divided; lower ones opposite, short-petiolate, bipinnately divided, dark
green and more or less glabrous beneath, grayish-green above due to dense short
bristles. Staminate capitula hemispherical or ovoid, 4–5 mm wide, on 2–3 mm long
peduncles, glabrous, drooping. Involucre of entirely connate bracts, somewhat
toothed, with occasional small bristles. Receptacle bristly scaly. Florets obconical,
10–15, glabrous, light yellow, 2 mm long; corolla tube 1 mm wide; anthers ovoid,
1 mm long, filiform; involucre enclosing achene, 4–5 mm long and 2–2.5 mm wide,
obovoid or ovoid-oblong, on surface sharply and coarsely reticulate, black or brown,
with short conical cusp, and 4–6 short, sharp, spine-like appendages, glabrous or with
occasional bristles in lower part. Weed in crops, roadsides, irrigation channels, and
weedy places (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Ambrosia artemisioides: Low perennial shrub 0.4–1.4 m tall, very resinous, aromatic,
multibranched with numerous stems. Leaves, pectinate-pinnatifid from 1 to 5 cm long,
resinous, alternate or opposite. Terminal and lateral inflorescences, spike type,
between 6 and 8.6 cm long. Dicline flowers; male on the top of the spike, numerous,
pedunculated with welded bracts; female chapters in the lower part of the spike and
between the armpits of the leaves, less numerous, with bracts with numerous spines.
Fruit a capsule formed by the bracts, which contains the achenes inside. 1700–4600 m
above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Ambrosia arborescens Mill. . . . 211
Fig. 1 Ambrosia
artemisioides (Asteraceae),
Ayquina, Chile. (Photo Lucas
Burchard Señoret)
Fig. 2 Ambrosia
artemisioides (Asteraceae),
Burchard Señoret)
Ambrosia cumanensis: Erect or rarely decumbent herb, often reclined on the ground,
perennial, monoecious, up to 1 m tall. Stem simple or branched, with white hairs mostly
long, scattered. Leaves opposite at the base and alternate on the upper parts, petioles long
or short, the outline of the triangular-ovate-egg-shaped sheets, mostly 3–10 cm long,
deeply pinnatifid, the segments long and rounded, obtuse to acute at the apex, variously
lobed to dentate, but not divided up to the central nerve, with short and dense hairs, pale
on the underside, with longer hairs on the veins. Male heads arranged in large and dense
spiky clusters; female heads in the axils of the upper leaves. Involucrum of the female
flowers in the shape of a plate of 3–4 mm wide, two series of bracts, the outer ones free,
the interiors fused to the ovaries, superficially crenate lobate, with few hairs, commonly
from 15 to 30 individual flowers, styles bifid. Numerous male flowers, sessile or
pedicelled 2 mm long, inverted cup-shaped, fused bracts. Corollas greenish-yellow,
with very short simple hairs. Fruits obovoid, angulated, with small hairs, glandular,
short beak 0.5 mm long, with 4–7 short, black, and conical spines, the individual achenes
3–4 mm long. Strongly aromatic when squeezed (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 3, 4, and 5).
Fig. 3 Ambrosia peruviana


Ambrosia arborescens: The whole plant is used in Colombia against cough, as

antidiarrheal and antiflatulent, and to cure bronchitis and asthma. In addition,
insecticides, fumigations, and incense are prepared with it. The juice extracted
from the branches is used in the treatment of hemorrhoids, for stomach aches, to
reduce inflammation of the feet, and also used as an antiseptic. The leaves of the

Altamisa cooked in water or fat ointment are used as anti-inflammatory and anti-
rheumatic and for the treatment of cramps; dried and ground are allowed to macerate
in water to use as an insecticide. The leaves are also used in infusions, plasters, and
baths, to increase menstrual flow and to treat skin rashes, rashes, liver pain, hemor-
rhoids, arthritis, rheumatism, caries and colic, to treat bumps and rubs, and to treat
the cold legs and body. Ground leaves are used to treat wounds, ulcerative sores, and
warts and prepared in juice to treat diabetes (Bussmann et al. 2018; Fonnegra-Gómez
and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bolivia: Fresh
stems and leaves are used to treat varicose veins, stomach ache, bone pain, muscular
pain, rheumatism, effects of old air, kidney infection, menstrual regulation (abor-
tive), and prolapse of uterus (Bussmann et al. 2016). Ecuador: It contains essential
oils of hypotensive properties. The plant, in infusion, is used to stimulate menstrual
flow (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The juice of the tender leaves, mixed with
drops of lemon, expels the intestinal worms. The leaves are used to promote labor
and relieve pain in childbirth and postpartum. The leaves are used in infusions,
plasters, and baths, to increase menstrual flow and to treat grains, rashes, liver pain,
hemorrhoids or piles, rheumatism, cavities, and cramps. The seeds are used to treat
liver and bile conditions. The juice of the fresh leaves prevents the formation of
internal injuries caused by blows. Used to treat pimples on the skin and to remove the
cold (Mestiza-Pichincha). The juice is used to heal the split nipples of nursing
mothers. Ground leaves are used to treat wounds, ulcerative sores, and warts
(mitzas). Treat hemorrhoids, delays in menstruation, rheumatism, dysentery, muscle
aches, and bloody colds (unspecified ethnicity – Carchi). Infusion or leaf juice is
used to treat scabies (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura; Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified
ethnicity – Azuay). It is used to stimulate menstrual flow and to treat hemorrhoids
and ulcerative sores (unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). Infusion in bathrooms,
serves to treat bumps and bruises. The plant is used to remove the cold from the
body. The flowers relieve hemorrhoids and pains. The leaves treat ulcers and sores;
macerated and mixed with water, they are used to treat toothache; he ties them on his
forehead to relieve the headache; in infusion, they are used to wash and treat the
grains, and roasted on charcoal, relieve rheumatism. Fights the formation of
abscesses (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). The boiled plant is used to
regulate high blood pressure (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The macerated plant is used
as an antifungal (unspecified ethnicity – Tungurahua). Fresh leaves are used to treat
hemorrhoids and pains (Mestiza, unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The leaves
serve as anesthetics. Branches and leaves, in infusion, are used to treat cold,
especially in children (unspecified ethnicity – Cotopaxi). The leaves are used to
relieve colic; roasted or cooked, they are used to cure rheumatism; in juice, they are
used to treat diabetes (unspecified ethnic group – Cañar). The leaves are used to
treat bumps and, in rubs, to treat cold legs and body (Kichwa de la Sierra,
unspecified ethnic group – Tungurahua). The leaves are used to treat hemorrhoids
or piles, and the juice of the leaves, which is very bitter, is used to prevent
abscesses (interior apostemes) and treat falls, bumps, etc. (unspecified ethnicity –
Azuay, Cañar). The leaves, infused or ground, are used to regulate blood pressure
and treat menstrual cramps, measles, wounds, colds, and cramps (Kichwa de la
Sierra, unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura). The leaves, in infusion, are used to
treat rheumatism, menstrual cramps, and pimples (unspecified ethnicity –
Azuay). Environmental: The plant is used, in agroforestry systems, such as live
fence (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar) (de la
Torre et al. 2008). The entire plant, planted near the house, prevents witchcraft.
Branches are used to attract good luck (unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). The
leaves and branches are used to cleanse, and as baths to treat “bad air,” “bad
wind,” and “fright,” as well as to counteract witchcraft and curses and protect
from evil spirits (Kichwa of the Sierra-Imbabura, Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chim-
borazo, Cañar; Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura,
Pichincha, Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Bolívar, Cañar, Others (Ecua-
dor)). It serves as abortive (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). It is used, together
with female nettle, Santa Maria, eucalyptus, and alder, to cure “bad air” (Kichwa
de la Sierra-Tungurahua) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves and branches are used
as insecticide, mainly to eliminate fleas, lice, flies, and bed bugs (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar; Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic
group – Manabí, Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar,
Azuay) (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a; de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The
whole fresh plant is used for spiritual flowering.
Ambrosia artemisioides: The plant is used against stomach pain, ulcers, and colds in
Colombia (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
Ambrosia peruviana: It is commonly used in Colombia to normalize menstruation

and to relieve menstrual pain. It is also used as a disinfectant, anti-inflammatory, and
to promote menstruation (Bussmann et al. 2018; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García
Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The whole plant is used as analgesic, emmen-
agogue, as tonic, and to treat menstrual colic, udder inflammation, and witchcraft;
the leaves used to treat hemorrhage, rheumatism, spasms, and as vermifuge; stems
and leaves are used to treat gallbladder, liver problems, and tumors (Bussmann et al.
2018). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat headache. The plant is used to
treat undetermined conditions (unspecified ethnicity – Loja). Used to treat snake
bites (Tsa’chi-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Fresh leaves and stems are
used to treat heart, nerves, epilepsy, liver, bronchitis, colds, bad air/mal aire, and
burns, and the plant has antibacterial activity (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b,
2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008, 2009a, b, 2010a, b, c, 2011a, b; Bussmann
and Glenn 2011).
Local Food Uses
Ambrosia arborescens: Ecuador: Used to ripen fruits (unspecified ethnicity –

Tungurahua) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Ambrosia artemisioides: The root is edible (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez
Ambrosia arborescens: Ecuador: The leaves are used as fodder for donkeys
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified ethnic
group – Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The flower is a source of pollen for
bees (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Wood is a raw
material for the production of stakes, brooms, and handicrafts. The leaves are used to
make handicrafts (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar).
With the infused leaves, feet and armpits are washed to combat the bad smell
(unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo, Cañar). The branches serve as a broom,
especially preferred for sweeping bread ovens (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi;
unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha, Cañar, Azuay). It is used for hot baths
(unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves and
fruits are used as medicine for animals (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Tungurahua,
Chimborazo, Cañar).
Ambrosia artemisioides: In Colombia, the plant is used as occasional forage for
animals but very bitter. It serves to dye yellow and light green colors. It also serves as
firewood (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
Ambrosia peruviana: Ecuador: It is used as a broom (unspecified ethnicity – Loja).

It serves as an insect repellent (unspecified ethnic group – Loja) (de la Torre et al.
2008).
References
Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Mending the heart. Plants used in Peruvian ethnomedicine for heart
disease, blood pressure irregularities and cholesterol control. Arnaldoa. 2011;18(2):167–78.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
activity. Arnaldoa. 2008;15(1):127–48.
Malca G G, Perez A F, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in northern
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103.
clients at Laboratorios Beal in Trujillo, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009b;7:399–407.
traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010a;
9(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010b;4(9):580–629.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
González JS, Molina JJ. Flora nativa de la región de Arica y Parinacota. Arica: Ediciones
Universidad de Tarapacá; 2017. 233 pp.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Anacardium occidentale L.
ANACARDIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Anacardium occidentale L.: Acajuba occidentale (L.) Gaertn.; Anacardium

amilcarianum E. Machado; Anacardium curatellaefolium A. St. Hil.; Anacardium
kuhlmannianum E. Machado; Anacardium mediterraneum Vell.; Anacardium micro-
carpum Ducke; Anacardium occidentale var. americanum DC.; Anacardium
occidentale var. gardneri Engl. Anacardium occidentale var. indicum DC.;
Anacardium occidentale var. longifolium Presl.; Anacardium othonianum Rizzini;
Anacardium rondonianum E. Machado; Anacardium subcordatum Presl.;
Cassuvium pomiferum Lam; Cassuvium reniforme Blanco.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Colombia: Caujil, Churá, Marañón, Merey; Peru: Marañón (Spanish); English: Cashew
Botany and Ecology
Evergreen tree that can go from small to medium, from 1.5 to 10 m (up to 15 m) in
height, in its natural habitat and between 12 and 20 m in commercial plantations, with a
diameter at breast height of up to 40 cm. Leaves broad, dense, irregularly shaped or
globose, extended foliage, more than 10 m in diameter in trees old. Leaves simple and
alternate, obovate or elliptical; blade 7–20 cm long by 4–12 cm wide, color matte blue
green. Trunk thick, contorted trunk may be relatively straight where there are no winds.
It usually branches almost from the base. Very twisted and abundant branches. Outer
bark soft, brown or gray with scattered lenticels and rough longitudinal cracks (cracked).
Internal bark whitish to brown, thick, bitter, and astringent and contains a milky sap.
Flowers small, aromatic greenish or gray flowers with a little pink to reddish tint. The
flowers form tops, which together form terminal panicles 11–29 cm long by 4.5–24.5 cm
wide. Fruit a drupe 2–4 cm long by 1–2.5 cm wide, gray or brown, suspended at the end
of a pedicel elongated and fleshy pear-shaped. Dicotyledonous and reniform seeds; the
cotyledons are white and contain a small embryo, surrounded by a hard pericarp. There
is a single seed that usually reaches a third of the weight of the fruit. Thick central root
and somewhat superficial secondary roots. The species is native to the tropical zone of
Brazil. The genus has a primary center of diversity in the Amazon and one secondary
school in Plan Alto, Brazil. It extends through all the tropics of the New and the Old
World. From the south of Mexico to Peru and Brazil, from Cuba to Trinidad. It is
grown in India and Malaysia (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 1 Anacardium
occidentale (Anacardiaceae)
fruits, Beni, Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and N.Y
Paniagua-Zambrana)
Anacardium occidentale L. 221
Fig. 2 Anacardium
occidentale (Anacardiaceae)
fruits, Beni, Bolivia. (Photo
Paniagua-Zambrana)
The seeds are used in Bolivia to treat toothache, and the leaves and bark are used for
diarrhea and stomachache. The bark is also applied for diabetes and kidney infec-
tions, and the leaves to remedy liver pain and for skin infections. (Paniagua
Zambrana et al. 2017).
In Colombia, the bark of the cashew tree is used against diabetes, usually in
infusion. This preparation is also used externally in skin diseases, inflammations,
thrush, and throat infections. The leaves in decoction, in very minimal doses, are
effective in the treatment of scurvy, aphthae, and oral ulcerations. In infusion, the
flowers are used as healing, anti-inflammatory and anti-hemorrhagic, as a tonic and
revitalizing general, and also as exciting and aphrodisiac. The “fruits” (which are
edible) are used as laxatives, expectorants, and anti-flu. The tincture prepared with
the cashew nut is used against sexual impotence and against weakness in general,
and it has also been used with good results in the treatment of the flu (García
Barriga 1975; Patiño 1963; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The bark is used to treat anemia,
calluses, diabetes, and for wound healing; bark and sap are used to treat warts;
leaves serve to treat mouth infections, prostate, and scurvy; flowers are used to
increase sexual potency, as stimulant and tonic; fruits and seeds are used to enhance
memory; fruits serve to treat constipation, flu, and as expectorant; the sap is used to
treat acne and skin diseases; seeds are used for general malaise, infertility, and to
strengthen the body (Bussmann et al. 2018). Peru: Fresh seeds are used for scars,
moles, cysts (ingrowing), and skin stains (Bussmann and Sharon 2007, 2015a, b,
2018a, b).
In Madagascar, the leaves are used to treat diabetes, hemorrhoids, stomach ulcers,
allergies, hepatitis, wounds, incontinence, and anorexia (Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015).
Local Food Uses
The seeds are widely eaten.
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
medicinal flora of northern Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2018a;15(2):1–295. https://doi.org/
10.32859/era.15.1.001-293.
era.15.2.001-295.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
org/10.1186/s13002-017-0179-2.
Randriamiharisoa MN, Kuhlman A, Jeannoda V, Rabarison H, Rakotoarivelo N,
Randrianarivony T, Raktoarivony F, Randrianasolo A, Bussmann RW. Economic importance
of medicinal plants sold in the markets of Antananarivo, Madagascar. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed.
2015;11:60.
Anethum graveolens L.
APIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Anethum graveolens L.: Anethum graveolens subsp. sowa (Roxb. ex Fleming)

N.F. Koren; Anethum sowa Roxb. ex Fleming; Ferula marathrophylla Walp.;
Peucedanum anethum Baill.; Peucedanum graveolens (L.) Hiern.; Peucedanum
sowa (Roxb. ex Fleming) Kurz
Local Names
Spanish: Eneldo; English: Dill
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Annual; entire plant glabrous, dark green, with distally indistinct blue striae with
pungent spicy odor; root thin, fusiform; stem 40–12 cm high, single, erect, branching
or nearly simple, thinly furrowed, with alternate narrow whitish and green striae,
branching above, curved between branches; leaves tri- or quadripinnate, ovate,
lobules of last order linear-filiform or nearly setaceous; lower leaves with petioles
expanding to oblong, 1.5–2 cm long sheath with broad scarious margin; upper leaves
with smaller and less dissected blade, sessile on sheath. Umbels to 15 cm across, of
30–50 smooth, nearly equal rays; involucre and involucels lacking; calyx-teeth very
short; petals yellow, tapering to flat, hardly notched involute lobule; stylopodium
pale yellow, pulviniform; styles very short, nearly erect at flowering, becoming
recurved in fruit, stigma claviform-capitate; fruit ovoid or broadly ellipsoid, dorsally
compressed, 3–5 mm long, 1.5–3.5 mm wide; mericarps with 3 prominent, carinate,
dorsal ribs, lateral ribs extended into thin, straw-colored margin; canals solitary in
valleculae, 2 toward commissure; albumen semi-elliptic in cross section, nearly flat
toward commissure. Cultivated and escaped near dwellings, kitchen gardens, fields,
and roads (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Fig. 1 Anethum graveolens

(Apiaceae) in garden in Ajara,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Anethum graveolens L. 225

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Phytochemistry
Essential oils (Carvone).
Colombia: Stems and leaves are used to treat flatulence, indigestion, and used as
stimulant (Bussmann et al. 2018).
In India, dill is used to control blood pressure (Raj et al. 2018).
Local Food Uses
The leaves are used as spice. Colombia: The fruits are used as condiment
(Bussmann et al. 2018) (Figs. 5 and 6).
Anethum graveolens L. 227

(Apiaceae) in market in
Telavi, Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

(Apiaceae) leaves ready to eat,
Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
In Colombia, the plant is traditionally prepared in infusion to stimulate the produc-

tion of breast milk and as a stimulant. It is also used as an antiflatulent, against
excessive sweating, as a soothing, antiseptic, and as a stimulant of liver function. Its
use includes the treatment of gastrointestinal spasms and skin ulcers. The decoction
or infusion of stems and leaves are used as digestives and to reduce intestinal gas and
colic (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio
de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Dill is widely used as spice, especially in the Caucasus and wider Eurasia
(Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016).
References
Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, Beer, Snuff, Medicine and
2014;12:237–313.
Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. A comparative ethnobotany of Khevsureti, Samtskhe-
Javakheti, Tusheti, Svaneti, and Racha-Lechkhumi, Republic of Georgia (Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J
Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Raj AJ, Biswakarma B, Pala NA, Shukla G, Vineeta V, Kumar M, Chakravarty S, Bussmann
RW. Indigenous uses of ethnomedicinal plants among forest-dependent communities of north-
ern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-
0208-9.
Anthemis arvensis L.
ASTERACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Anthemis arvensis L.: Anthemis arvensis var. agrestis (Wallr.) DC; Chamaemelum
arvense (L.) Hoffm. & Link.
Local Names
Chile: Manzanilla
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Anthemis
sp. (Asteraceae), Svaneti,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
N.Y. paniagua-Zambrana)
Botany and Ecology
Stems 1–5+, decumbent to erect, branched. Leaves most cauline, alternate, petiolated or
sessile, +/ obovate to spoon-shaped, 1–3-pinnately divide. Inflorescence heads radiate
discoid, 1 or in rounded to flat-topped clusters; involucre oblong to hemispheric or
wider, phyllaries persistent, 21–35 or more, +/ graduated in 3–5 series, free, gen
lanceolate, oblong, or elliptic, margin and tip scarious, receptacle hemispheric to
narrowly conic, paleate throughout or distally; palaeae awl-shaped or elliptic to obovate.
Ray flowers (0)5–20+, pistillate or sterile (style present); corolla white, yellow, or pink.
Disk flowers 100–300+; corolla yellow, tube funnel-shaped throat, swollen, lobes +/
triangular; anther tip +/ ovate; style tips truncate. Fruitsobovoid to obconic or
top-shaped, round or 4-angled, gen 10-ribbed, smooth or tuberculed, glabrous; pappus
0 or crown-like. Sea level to 500 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).
The infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment of stomach pain due to its
soothing properties (Baldwin et al. 2012; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Apium graveolens L.
APIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Apium graveolens L.: Apium integrilobum Hayata; Apium vulgare Bubani; Carum
graveolens Koso-Pol.; Celeri graveolens (L.) Britton; Selinum graveolens Krause;
Seseli graveolens Ledeb.; Seseli graveolens Scop.; Sium apium Roth.; Sium
graveolens Vest
Local Names
Bolivia: Apio (Spanish); Colombia: Apio, Apio de bebida (Spanish); Ecuador:

Apio negro (Spanish); Peru: Apio Cimarron, Apio (Spanish); English: Celery
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Annual or biennial; root fusiform, branching, lignifying in second year, cultivated

forms with fleshy, cylindrical-turnip-shaped root; stem erect, 30–100 cm high,
furrowed, often hollow, strongly branching, with spreading branches; leaves long-
petioled (petioles sometimes fleshy), the lowermost leaves trifid, becoming pinnate,
resembling cauline leaves; upper cauline leaves sometimes opposite, subsessile, on
short sheaths with white-scarious margins; in lower leaves first-order lobes rounded,
obtuse at base, 3-lobate or tripartite, incised-dentate with acute teeth, these of cauline
leaves cuneate at base, with acute whitish-cartilaginous teeth. Umbels numerous,
small, on short peduncles or subsessile, of 6–12 glabrous rays; involucre and
involucels none; petals white, ca. 0.5 mm long; fruit 1.5–2 mm long, nearly as
wide. Flowering July–September. Ural, Caucasus, along creeks, often as a weed in
wet places, widely cultivated. Apium is originally endemic to the Mediterranean
region and was already cultivated in ancient times. In Europe, it was known in the
Middle Ages, but its widespread cultivation began only in the eighteenth century.
Celery occurs wild in Europe, the Mediterranean region, and in Asia west of the
Himalayas. The ancient Greeks and Egyptians already cultivated celery. It was
probably first grown as a medicinal plant, later for the leaves as flavoring. Celery
has a long history in China, dating back to at least the sixth century AD. In Central
Europe, cultivated celery was recorded in 1623 in France (Figs. 1 and 2).
The fresh or dry plant is commonly used as an appetite promoter, as a digestive,

against intestinal gas and colic, and as a relaxant in cases of insomnia. Its use is also
recommended as an anti-inflammatory. In popular medicine, the leaves, stems, and
roots are used to promote good digestion and as a stimulant. The decoction of the
root is used to treat colic and against intestinal gas, and it is also used as a diuretic
and stimulant. The extract and tincture of celery are used as antiscorbutic, anti-
flatulent, exciting, fever reducing, and diuretic, and are also advised in cases of fluid
retention, weakness, and yellowing of the skin (jaundice). The fruits, both dry and
mature, are used as a nervous sedative (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011;
Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015;
Bolivia: The whole fresh plant used to treat anemia and liver problems, for digestion,
to lose weight, and as a relaxant (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo and Moraes 2015).
Colombia: Stems and leaves are used to treat aphonia, for blood cleansing, colic,
diarrhea, fever, flatulence, gallbladder, indigestion, menstrual colics, stomachache,
and as stimulant; stems, leaves, and seeds are used as diuretic, for wound healing,
inflammation, liver problems, nerves, rheumatism, and sunstroke (Bussmann et al.
2018). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to reduce swellings (Béjar et al.
Apium graveolens L. 233
Fig. 1 Apium graveolens

(Apiaceae), garden, Chicani,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Apium graveolens

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: The whole fresh plant is used to
treat bronchitis, heart problems, nerves, insomnia, anxiety, gases, gastritis, and colic
of the stomach (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al.
2007a, b, 2009, 2010a, b, 2011a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b; Monigatti et al.
2013; Revene et al. 2008). It is very frequently sold in local markets, and an excellent
example for syncretism in medicinal plant use in Latin America.
Local Food Uses
The stems and bulbs are often eaten, especially in Eurasia (Bussmann et al. 2014;
Bussmann 2017).
References
2017. XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1.
Rev Peruana Biol. 2010a;17(2):331–46.
Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Plants used for the treatment of gastro-intestinal ailments in Northern
Peruvian ethnomedicine. Arnaldoa. 2010b;17(2):255–70.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Lopez A. Blending Traditional and Western Medicine: medicinal plant
use amongst patients at Clinica Anticona in El Porvenir, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl.
2007a;5:185–99.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6:10.
Northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96.
Shanshiashvili T, Chelidze D, Batsatsashvili K, Bakanidze N. Wine, Beer, Snuff, medicine and
Apium graveolens L. 235
2014;12:237–313.
Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. Astonishing diversity - the medicinal
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Ecología en Bolivia 2015;50(2):66–90.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Imprenta
Nacional de Colombia. Colombia: Bogotá; 2008. 311 pp.
(2):450–64.
Argemone mexicana L.
PAPAVERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Argemone mexicana L.: Argemone leiocarpa Greene; Argemone mexicana

fo. leiocarpa (Greene) G.B. Ownbey; Argemone mexicana var. lutea Krause;
Argemone mexicana var. ochroleuca (Sweet) Lindl.; Argemone mexicana var.
parviflora Kuntze; Argemone mexicana var. typica Prain; Argemone mucronata
Dum. Cours. ex Steud.; Argemone ochroleuca Sweet; Argemone sexvalis Stokes;
Argemone spinosa Moench; Argemone subfusiformis G.B. Owenby; Argemone
versicolor Salisb.; Argemone vulgaris Spach.; Echtrus mexicanus (L.) Nieuwl.;
Echtrus mexicanus Nieuwl.; Echtrus trivialis Lour.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Ecuador: Cardo santo, Anís, Huevo de perro (Spanish) (de La Torre et al. 2008);
Peru: Cardo santo (Spanish); English: Mexican poppy, Prickly poppy
Botany and Ecology
Erect, branched, annual herb up to 50(–100) cm tall, glabrous, containing yellow

latex; taproot firm; stem with scattered prickles. Lower leaves in a rosette and with
short petiole, stem leaves alternate, sessile, auricled, obovate in outline,
5–22 cm 3–7 cm, margin wavy to more or less deeply lobed, sharply toothed,
lobes curled upwards, white variegated along the main veins, bluish green else-
where, prickles scattered along the margin and on the veins below. Flowers solitary,
regular, trimerous; bracts 3, leafy; sepals vaulted, terete, with few prickles, horn just
below apex, caducous; petals 6, obovate, 1.5–3 cm long, pale to bright yellow;
stamens many, 7–12 mm long, free; ovary superior, ovoid, 8–10 mm long, with long
soft bristles, style very short, stigma 3–6-lobed, dark red. Fruit an ellipsoid, 3–6-
lobed capsule 2.5–4 cm long, valves 3–6, dehiscing from the apex to about 1/3,
covered with sharp prickles, many-seeded. Seeds globular, 1.5–2 mm in diameter,
finely net-veined, black-brown, hilum prominent, pale. Seedling with epigeal ger-
mination; cotyledons linear, up to 2 cm long. Argemone mexicana is native to
Mexico and the West Indies but has become pantropical after introduction as an
ornamental (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Bolivia: The plant is used for skin diseases and respiratory problems (Quiroga et al.
2012). Colombia. The milky-yellowish exudate of the stems has calming, sedative,
and hypnotic properties similar to those of opium. The poultices made with this plant
are applied to skin ulcers and syphilitic ulcers to dissolve and relieve them. The
extract of the plant is used to treat melancholy and hypochondria. The leaves have
soothing and desinflamatory effects in small doses and in high doses, they are
narcotic. The dried leaves smoked as it is made with tobacco are used to treat
asthma. The tisanes made with flowers are used for discomfort of the chest, as a
promoter of sweating, and as painkillers. The green fruits are used in diseases of the
nervous system, cough, and to calm the night pains suffered by patients with
syphilis. Roasted and pulverized seeds in small quantities are considered a good
purgative. In general, the cardosanto is calming of the bronchial inflammations, and
therefore, it is advised for the treatment of the cough, the convulsions, and the
spasmodic affections (García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The
whole fresh plant is used to treat sore eyes, lungs, fright/susto, stomach pain, and
stomach inflammation (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Argemone mexicana L. 239
Fig. 1 Argemone mexicana

(Papaveraceae), Cusco, Peru.
N.U. Paniagua-Zambrana)

The fruit, in decoction, is used to treat conditions of the nerves (Mestizo-

Pichincha). The infusion of the flower and fruit is drunk to treat the flu and cough
(Mestizo-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Chimborazo). The infu-
sion of the plant is used to treat liver, kidney, and prostate problems (Mestizo-
Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Chimborazo, Loja). The plant treats
postpartum conditions (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura). The sap is effective in

removing warts, skin blemishes, and heated it is applied to treat acne (Kichwa de la
Sierra-Tungurahua; Mestizo-Pichincha) (de La Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Fresh
flowers, leaves, and stems are used to treat stomachache and inflammation (general)
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). It shows antibacterial activity and
low toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011a, b). The plant can be found in local markets
(Bussmann et al. 2007) and mostly used in mixture with other species (Bussmann
et al. 2010).
The species has been introduced widely, and in India, the plant has a large
number of medicinal uses, e.g., to treat boils, ulcers, arthritis, asthma, caries,
cough, dog bite, dropsy, eye complaints, gum trouble, headache, indigestion, inflam-
mation, jaundice, leprosy, as mouthwash, piles, ringworm, scabies, skin diseases,
syphilis, toothache, and whooping cough (Verma et al. 2007).
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: The infusion of the entire plant is taken as fresh water (unspecified ethnic
group – Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). In Peru, the plant is used spiritually
for “seguro de casa,” “seguro de chacra,” and for protecting the house.
Ecuador: The seeds are bird food (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo) (from
La Torre et al. 2008). The leaves and flowers are used to prevent hair from being
bracketed (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay) (de La Torre et al. 2008). The plant is
sown as live fence in crops. It is used as fertilizer for the land (unspecified ethnic
group – Chimborazo) (de La Torre et al. 2008).
Argemone mexicana L. 241
References
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Loja province, Southern Ecuador. J Ethnobiol
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand years of
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
medicinal flora of Northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:37.
medicine in Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:10.
in Northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011b;137:121–40.
Argyrochosma nivea (Poir.) Windham
PTERIDACEAE

Javier Echeverría
Synonyms
Argyrochosma nivea (Poir.) Windham.: Notholaena nivea (Poir.) Desv., Pellaea

nivea (Poir.) Prantl, Pteris nivea Poir., Acrostichum albidulum Sw., Cincinalis nivea
(Poir.) Desv., Gymnogramma nivea (Poir.) Mett., Cincinalis tarapacana Phil.,
Notholaena nivea (Poir.) Desv. var. oblongata.
Local Names
Chile: Qusupi, Qusupe blanco, Chujchu hembra, Chujchu blanco, Chujllo hembra,
Doradilla, Rodadilla, Culantrillo; Peru: Doradilla.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría

Fig. 1 Argyrochosma nivea

(Pteridaceae), mercado
Aviacion, Lima, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Botany and Ecology
Evergreen shrub. Rhizome short, thick, erect or sometimes oblique, covered with
linear-subulate scales, often coiled, with margins more or less complete. Agglomer-
ated leaves, 10–30 cm long; petiole equal or shorter than the lamina, delicate, dark
brown, cylindrical, glabrous; bi- or tripinnate, lanceolate or deltoid-lanceolate or
ovate lamina, coriaceous, with up to 12 pairs of sub-posited pinnae, petiole-shaped,
ovate to lanceolate. The last segments are suborbicular to broadly oblong, integer or
lobed, with the upper surface glabrous and the lower surface densely covered with a
white substance. Sporangia protected by the flat or reflex margin, not modified,
200–4000 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).
In Chile, the aerial parts are used as an abortive, emetic, and menstruation remedy. The
infusion relieves cough and stomach pains. The infusion of the parts areas mixed with
vulture meat (Coragyps atratus) is used to relieve stomach stitches. Inhaled milled
powder from the aerial parts causes sneezing that relieves the headache (Rodríguez
1995; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). In Peru, the species is used to
Argyrochosma nivea (Poir.) Windham 245
treat diabetes and shows limited antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2011a, b, 2013;
Bussmann and Sharon 2014). The plant is often interchangeably sold as “Cuti cuti”
originally referring to Cheilanthes spp. (Bussmann et al. 2013).
In Peru, the plant is used for spiritual flowering (Bussmann and Sharon 2018a, b).
References
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Two decades of ethnobotanical research in Southern Ecuador and
Northern Peru. Ethnobiol Conserv. 2014;3:3. https://doi.org/10.1545/ec2014-6-3.2-1-50.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – the magic and medicinal
flora of Northern Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2018a;15(2):1–295. https://doi.org/10.32859/era.15.1.
001-293.
era.15.2.001-295.
Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Chamorro M, Molina Moreira N, Cuadros Negri ML,
Rodríguez R. Pteridophyta. In: Marticorena C, Rodríguez R, editors. Flora de Chile, vol.
1. Concepción: Ediciones Universidad de Concepción; 1995. p. 119–309.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Artemisia absinthium L.
Artemisia annua L.
Artemisia copa Phil.
ASTERACEAE

Synonyms
Artemisia annua L.: Artemisia annua fo. macrocephala Pamp.; Artemisia

chamomilla C. Winkl.; Artemisia stewartii C.B. Clarke; Artemisia wadei Edgew.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero

Local Names
Artemisia absinthium: Bolivia: Ajenjo, Ajenko, Ajinjo, Castillo ruda (Spanish),

Ajinju (Aymara); Colombia: Ajenjo (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Ajenjo,
Ajenco, Polén (Spanish); Peru: Ajenco (Spanish); English: Wormwood
Artemisia abrotanum: Chile: Éter
Artemisia annua: Chile: Éter
Artemisia copa: Chile: Kopa, Kopakopa, Kopatola, Qopaqopa, Qopa
Botany and Ecology
Artemisia absinthium: Perennial. Whole plant grayish from short approximate

hairs, sericeous-tomentose. Root vertical, thick, perennial. Stem 60–100 cm high,
herbaceous, erect, with short branches, leafy, sometimes basally with short nonflow-
ering branches bearing long-petiolate leaves. Leaves with 6–9 cm long and 3–7 cm
wide lamina broadly ovate, almost thrice pinnately dissected, terminal lobe lanceo-
late, short-acuminate; middle cauline leaves short petiolate, lacking lobes at base of
petiole, twice pinnately dissected; upper leaves subsessile, simple pinnate or twice
ternate; bracteal leaves ternate or simple, undivided, narrowly lanceolate; lobes of all
leaves linear-oblong, scarcely acuminate, undivided or with few teeth, usually
3–20 mm long and 1–4 mm wide. Capitula globose, 2.5–3.5 mm in diameter,
drooping or spreading into narrowly paniculate inflorescence. Involucral bracts
oblong-ovate, outer almost as long as inner bracts, hairy on spine, with wide scarious
margin. Receptacle convex, hairy. Peripheral florets pistillate, usually 25, their
corollas filiform-tubular; stigma lobes exserted from tube, linear, arcuate; disk florets
numerous (usually 60), their corollas conical, glabrous, sometimes weakly hairy;
anthers linear, apical appendages of anthers obtusely angular, with round apex, basal
appendages short, obtuse; stigma lobes broadly linear, after flowering somewhat
curved. Achenes about 1 mm long, oblong-cuneate, rather flat, finely sulcate, with a
round, slightly convex at apex. In meadows, steppes, on river banks, forest margins,
fields, rocky areas, in crops and fields, in gardens, along irrigation ditches, around
settlements as weed, on recent fallow lands, near roads, dwellings, in kitchen
gardens and gardens, less often in crop fields, meadows, pastures and forest edge;
in forest, forest-steppe and steppe zones, as well as in mountains (Macbride and
Artemisia abrotanum: Perennials or subshrubs, 50–130(–170) cm (not cespitose),
aromatic (roots thick, woody). Stems relatively numerous, erect, brown, branched,
(woody, brittle), glabrous or sparsely hairy. Leaves cauline, dark green; blades
broadly ovate, (2–)3–6 0.02–0.15 cm, 2–3-pinnatifid (lobes linear or filiform),
faces sparsely hairy (abaxial) or glabrous (adaxial). Heads (nodding at maturity) in
open, widely branched arrays 10–30 2–10 cm. Involucres ovoid, (1–)2–3.5 (1–)
2–2.5 mm. Phyllaries oblong-elliptic, sparsely hairy. Florets: pistillate 4–8(–15);
bisexual 14–16(–20); corollas yellow, 0.5–1 mm, glandular. Cypselae (light brown)
Artemisia absinthium L. . . . 249
Fig. 1 Artemisia absinthium

(Asteraceae), Cappadocia,
Turkey. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

(Asteraceae), Kartli, Georgia.
ellipsoid (2–5-angled, flattened, furrowed), 0.5–1 mm, glabrous, 2500–1000 m

above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Artemisia annua: Annual weed reaching about 2 m in height with alternate
branches. Leaves are deeply dissected, with an aromatic odor, 2.5–5 cm in length,
1–3 cm in width. Flowers are tiny and yellow, in lose panicles with capitula 2–3 mm
across. There are central and marginal florets. The seed vessels consist of one

(Asteraceae), Svaneti,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Artemisia
dracunculus (Asteraceae),
Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
achene, faintly nerved and 1 mm long. Naturally the plant is pollinated by insects and
by the wind. Sea level to 1000 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Artemisia copa: Perennial, aromatic plant, woody at the base, somewhat tortuous,
ramosa, almost glabrous, up to 50 cm high. Leaves linear, mostly 6–13 1–2.5 mm,
Fig. 5 Artemisia
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 6 Artemisia
R.W. Bussmann and
apex obtuse, crass, glabrous, arranged in groups somewhat spaced along the stems.
Solitary, pedunculated, pendulous, disposed towards the ends of the twigs, 6–7 mm
in diameter and 5–5.5 high. Hexpherical involvement of 2 7 mm; with about
14 involucre bracts, lanceolate, 3–4.5 mm, wide membranous margin, transparent,
eroso. Tapered receptacle, with linear palea. White marginal flowers, yellow discs.
Achenes obovoid, tuberculated, devoid of pappus, 3000–4700 m above sea level
Fig. 7 Artemisia
R.W. Bussmann and
Artemisia absinthium: This plant is used as a promoter of digestion, antispasmodic,

antacid, against intestinal worms, against fever, as an appetite stimulant, and also in
the treatment of gallbladder affections and intestinal obstructions. Externally it is
used as an antiseptic, for the treatment of blows and insect bites, and for ulcers or
skin sores. In popular medicine, it is used as a general tonic and particularly to treat
liver diseases and bilious states (Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño
2011; García Barriga 1975; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Martínez Correa and
Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez
1996). Bolivia: Fresh stems and leaves are used to treat diarrhea, gallbladder,
stomachache, gastritis/ulcers, diabetes, thrush, cold, air (cultural illnesses), and as
anthelmintic (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b; Justo and Moraes 2015; Macía et al. 2005).
Colombia: The whole plant used to treat gallbladder, liver problems, and as
vermifuge and tonic; stems, leaves, and flowers are used as analgesic, diuretic, and
to treat lack of appetite; leaves are used to treat fright/susto, blood cleansing, for
breast care, cough, deafness, diarrhea, flatulence, gallstones, halitosis, headache,
indigestion, lung diseases, otitis, insect stings, stomach ache, stomach problems,
sunstroke, throat inflammation, toothache, and as tranquilizer and vomitive
(Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The fresh leaves are used to treat body pain,
stomach pain, and also for critical illnesses (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon
2006a, 2007a). The infusion of the plant is used to treat liver and kidney problems
(stones), indigestion, and stomach pain (excess cause dizziness) (unspecified eth-
nicity – Imbabura). The infusion of the plant is used to treat bile and nerve problems
(unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). It is used to treat liver conditions, inflam-
mation of the kidneys, diabetes, and to level cholesterol. It is used as an antiparasitic
(Mestiza-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). (In Peru, the introduced Artemisia is
used to treat menstrual colic and is used to regulate the menstrual cycle and for
nervous system issues (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann
et al. 2010a; Bussmann and Glenn 2010; Monigatti et al. 2013). It is a good example
of syncretic medicinal plant uses in the Americas (Bussmann and Sharon 2007b;
Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008, 2009). Normally Artemisia species are used in mixtures
with other plants, because they show clear toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2010b, 2011a).
Some antibacterial activity has been reported (Bussmann et al. 2011b).
In the Caucasus, Artemisia absinthium is used to treat bedwetting in children,
colds, flu, and sore throat (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b).
Artemisia annua: The infusion is used as relaxant (Ferreira et al. 1996; Rodriguez
Artemisia copa: The infusion is used for pain, for gall bladder problems, as
digestive, often combined with sodium bicarbonate. The infusion mixed with milk
is used for stomach pain, cold, and colic. In the form of baths or incense, it serves to
combat “mal de aire” and toothache. As a bath, it serves for bone pain. People
attribute to the species the ability to cause vivid dreams (Peñaloza et al. 2013;
Local Food Uses
Artemisia absinthium: Ecuador: The plant is used to prepare wormwood liquor

(unspecified ethnicity-Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Artemisia cola: The leaves of the plant are used as tea, and it produces edible roots
(Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003) (Figs. 8, 9,
and 10).
In Bolivia and Peru, it is also used to treat freight/susto in children and fend off
sorcery (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a, 2016a).
Similar uses have been reported from Ethiopia, where the species is used to fend off
evil from cattle (Bussmann et al. 2011c) and against evil eye (Luizza et al. 2013). In
the Caucasus, Artemisia absinthium is used to treat wounds in animals (Bussmann
et al. 2014, 2016b).

(Asteraceae), drying for
winter, Tusheti, Georgia.
Fig. 9 Artemisia
leaves ready to eat,
R.W. Bussmann and
Artemisia copa: People attribute to the species the ability to cause vivid dreams. The
plant is also used as dye for green to yellow and as forage (Peñaloza et al. 2013;
Fig. 10 Artemisia
leaves ready to eat, Tusheti,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
References
Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal herbs of Southern Ecuador – Hierbas
Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Medicinal plants used in Northern Peru for reproductive problems and
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – The medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Lopez A. Blending traditional and western medicine: medicinal plant
2007;5:185–99.
Appl. 2008;6:351–61.
“magical” ailments, nervous system and psychosomatic disorders in Northern Peru. Afr J Pharm
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
medicine in Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6:10.
in Northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011a;137:121–40.
Northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011b;9:67–96.
Bussmann RW, Swartzinsky P, Worede A, Evangelista P. Plant use in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale
region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011c;7:28.
2014;12:237–313.
inal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016a;193:76–95.
(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016b;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-
016-0110-2.
Ferreira JFS, Jannick J in Jannik J editors. Progress in new crops ASHS Press Arlington 579-8.
(1996).
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Ecol Bolivia 2015;50(2):66–90.
Luizza MW, Young H, Kuroiwa C, Evangelista P, Worede A, Bussmann RW, Weimer A. Local
knowledge of plants and their uses among women in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. Ethnobot
Res Appl. 2013;11:315–39.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol.
2013;145(2):450–64.
Llullaillaco. Santiago: Región de Antofagasta; 2013.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Astragalus arequipensis Vogel
FABACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Astragalus arequipensis Vogel: Astragalus orbignyanus Wedd., Astragalus

drepanophrorus Griseb., Astragalus bolivianus Phil., Astragalus sinocarpus Rusby.
Local Names
Spanish: Chile: Garbanzo, garbanzaillo, kontekonte, algarrobillo.
Botany and Ecology
Perennial herb, no more than 10 cm in diameter, low, at ground level; creeping stems,
with short, pubescent internodes. Greenish-gray leaves, large and thick between
5 and 12 cm long, odd-pinnate; leaflets between 8.5 and 12 mm long, flat, elliptical
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Astragalus pusillus

(Photo: Lucas Burchard
Señoret)
cuneate, apex obtuse to truncated retuse, villous-pubescent, usually only on the

abaxial surface. Inflorescences shortly pedunculated. Flowers between 7.5 and
10 mm long; blue-violaceous corolla 6–9 mm long, exceptionally white. Fruit:
legume, glabrous approximately 1.5 cm long with approximately 9 seeds,
3000–4500 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017) (Fig. 1).
The aerial parts mixed with urine, guano of waycho (Agriornis sp.), and lizard meat
are elaborated a patch for the treatment of bone breaks (González and Molina 2017;
The plant is used as forage when still green it is toxic. The children use the pods to
print marks on the ground in the form of flame footsteps (González and Molina
2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Atriplex glaucescens Phil.
Atriplex imbricata (Moq.) D. Dietr. var.
imbricata
Atriplex madariagae Phil.
AMARANTHACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Atriplex glaucescens Phil.: Atriblex imbricata (Moq.) D. Dietr.; Atriplex

polyphylla Phil.
Atriplex imbricata (Moq.) D. Dietr. var. imbricata: Atriplex axillaris Phil., Atriplex
microphylla Phil., Obione imbricata Moq., Atriplex salaris Phil., Obione axillaris
(Phil.) Ulbr.
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Local Names
Atriplex glaucescens: Chile: Juirajuira

Atriplex imbricata: Chile: Cachiyuyo, Chókel, Chókil, Kachiyuyo, Kopakopa
macho, Ojalar, Ojala, Ojalata, Pilaya, Piyaya, Piyawa
Atriplex madariagae: Chile: Chókel, Chókil, Cachial, Kachiyuyo, Kacheyuyo,
Kachuyo, Kachuyo macho, Kórial, Chókel, Juirajuira, Ojala, Piyaya, Piyaya
macho, Yuyo
Botany and Ecology
Atriplex glaucescens: Perennial shrub, between 30 and 110 cm tall, erect or sometimes
decumbent; cylindrical branches between 10 and 50 cm long, covered with vesicular
hairs. Alternate leaves; the basal ones between 6 and 26 mm long and between 5 and
14 mm wide, oval-triangular, coriaceous or papyraceous, whole or sometimes with a
pair of basal lobes, acute apex, base from slightly attenuated to truncate, petioles
between 1 and 5 mm long or sometimes sessile; upper leaves sessile, narrow,
triangular-oval, sharp apex, rounded base. Male inflorescence spiciform, formed by
continuous or interrupted glomeruli, axillary or terminal. Female axillary flowers, in
pauciform glomeruli, in the basal wall of the branches. Lenticular seeds, brown,
1300–3700 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017) (Fig. 1).
Atriplex imbricata: Monoecious shrub, erect, sometimes somewhat prostrate,
towards the thick and woody base, 30–50 cm. Cylindrical branches, 10–40 cm,
with vesicular hairs, and the longitudinally split bark. Leaves imbricated at least in
apices, sessile and subamplexicaul, cordiform, 2–5 2–6 mm, thick, coriaceous,
grayish-yellowish or sometimes glaucous green, with vesicular hairs; sharp apex,
cordate base. Axillary or terminal male inflorescences, spiciform, of dense or
interrupted glomeruli. Female flowers axillary, solitary or in glomeruli, pauciflorous
in the basal part of the branches, rhombic, 1–2 mm. Bractéolas fruitful of
2–6 2–6 mm, sessile, welded in the basal third, rhombic-orbicular to ovate-
transverse, coriaceous, yellowish grays, entire upper edge, rounded or sometimes
subtrepid, with the middle tooth wider; truncated base, smooth or tubercular back.
Lenticular seed, brown, 1.5 mm in diameter, super radicle, 3500–3800 m above sea
level (González and Molina 2017) (Fig. 2).
Atriplex madariagae: Shrub, erect, up to 3 m high, with cylindrical branches,
wicker; internodes 15–35 mm long. Alternate leaves; from 15 to 30 ( 36) mm
long and 8–15 mm wide; ovate or angulated ovate; leathery; generally light green
and glossy, or yellowish gray; whole or irregularly eroded teeth; obtuse apex; base
obtuse, abruptly contracted until attenuated in the petiole that varies between 2 and
5 mm in length. Numerous male inflorescences, specific, in interrupted multiflorous
giomerérulos. Terminal female inflorescences, in multiflorous glomeruli that cover
the twigs. Bracts 4–6 mm long and 4–7 mm wide; broadly suborbicular to transverse
ovate; fused at the base; thin, almost lustrous and crustose; yellowish to yellowish
Atriplex glaucescens Phil. . . . 263
Fig. 1 Atriplex atacamensis (Amaranthaceae), Chiu, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)
Fig. 2 Atriplex
R.W. Bussmann and
gray; whole or with 2 superior or lateral angles; obtuse apex, sometimes with a
denticle of variable size; truncated base, sometimes with a thin pedicel, usually
recurved basal edges; back smooth or with two basal crests, evident rib. Lenticular
seed, 2 mm in diameter, dark brown. Spheroidal pollen, from 23 to 25 microns in
diameter, polyporate, with 16–32 pores. Individuals mostly unisexual, 200–2700 m
above sea level (González and Molina 2017) (Figs. 3, 4, and 5).
Fig. 3 Atriplex hortensis

(Amaranthaceae), Khevsureti,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Georgia. (Photo J
R.W. Bussmann and
Atriplex glaucescens: The aerial parts are used to treat blood diseases (González and
Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Atriplex imbricata: The aerial parts mixed with other plants not described are used
for the treatment of diabetes (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán
and Castro 2003).
Atriplex glaucescens Phil. . . . 265

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Atriplex madariagae: The juice of the leaves is fresh and relieves fever (Rosas 1989;
Local Food Uses
Atriplex imbricata: The aerial parts have nutritional properties due to their salty taste
and are consumed in salads and as a stew (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al.
Atriplex madariagae: The tender leaves are consumed with lemon, as a salad, and
they are also prepared in stews like the charkikan (Rosas 1989; Rodriguez et al.
Atriplex glaucescens: The plant is used as fodder (González and Molina 2017;
Atriplex imbricata: The plant is used as forage and firewood. The root is used for
peeling grains of wheat and maize (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Atriplex madariagae: The plant is used as forage and firewood. The root is used for
peeling grains of wheat and maize and pataska (Rosas 1989; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Rosas MR. El genero Atriplex (Chenopodiaceae) en Chile. Gayana Bot. 1989;46(1–2):3–81.
Avena sativa L.
POACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Avena sativa L.: Avena algeriensis Trab.; Avena anglica hort. ex Roem. & Schult.;
Avena byzantina K. Koch.; Avena byzantina var. thellungiana (Malzev) E. Morren;
Avena chinensis Fisch. ex Roem. & Schult.; Avena chinensis Link; Avena cinerea
hort. ex Roem. & Schult.; Avena distans Schur; Avena fatua fo. glaberrima Thell.;
Avena fatua subsp. cultiformis Malzev; Avena fatua subsp. macrantha (Hack.)
Malzev; Avena fatua subsp. praegravis (Krause) Maltzev; Avena fatua subsp.
sativa (L.) Thell.; Avena fatua subvar. contracta (Neilr.) Maltzev; Avena fatua
var. glaberrima (Thell.) Maltzev; Avena fatua var. sativa (L.) Kausskn.; Avena
flava hort. ex Roem. & Schult.; Avena fusca Schur; Avena fusciflora Schur; Avena
georgiana Roem. ex Schult.; Avena georgica Zuccagni; Avena grandis Nevski;
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Avena heteromalla Haller; Avena hungarica Lucé; Avena macrantha (Hack.)

Malzev; Avena macrantha (Hack.) Nevski; Avena nigra Wallr.; Avena nodipilosa
(Malzev) Malzev; Avena orientalis Gilib.; Avena persarum Nevski; Avena
podolica Bocki; Avena podolica Pascal. ex Zuccagni; Avena ponderosa L. ex
B.D. Jacks.; Avena pseudosativa (Tell.) Herter; Avena pseudosativa Thell. ex
Malzev; Avena racemosa Thuill.; Avena rubra Zuccnagi; Avena sativa convar.
nodipilosa (Maltzev) Tzvelev; Avena sativa fo. contracta Neilr.; Avena sativa
subsp. contracta (Neilr.) Celak.; Avena sativa subsp. macrantha (Hack.) Rocha
Alfonso; Avena sativa subsp. nodipilosa (Malzev) Vasc.; Avena sativa var.
chinensis Döll; Avena sativa var. chinensis Vilm.; Avena sativa var. contracta
Neilr.; Avena sativa var. glaberrima (Thell.) Maire & Weiller; Avena sativa var.
nigra Prov.; Avena sativa var. orientalis (Schreb.) Alef.; Avena sativa var. secunda
Alph. Wood; Avena shatilowiana Litv.; Avena sterilis fo. pseudosativa Thell.;
Avena sterilis var. thellungiana Malzev; Avena tartarica Ard.; Avena thellungii
Nevski; Avena triseta Thunb.; Avena unilateralis Brouss. ex Roem & Schult.;
Avena verna Heuze; Avena volgensis (Vavilov) Nevski
Local Names
Spanish: Colombia: Avena (Spanish); Ecuador: Avena, Avena forrajera, Avena

silvestre (Spanish), Oat (English) (de la Torre et al. 2008); English: Oats
Botany and Ecology
Annual. Culms 60–100 cm tall, always with glabrous nodes; leaves and sheaths
glabrous. Panicle open, rarely 1-sided (var. contracta Neilr.), to 25 cm long; spikelets
of medium size, 2–3-flowered, only the lower floret awned, more rarely all florets
awnless; glumes to 25 mm long, slightly longer than the floret; all florets of the
spikelet without joints; rachilla glabrous; lemma lanceolate, ca. 20 mm long,
2-toothed at the tip, glabrescent, with few hairs at base, or entirely glabrous; rachilla
slightly bent, or straight, or wanting. Flowering June–August. Widely cultivated and
fairly often escaped (Bussmann et al. 2014).
Avena sativa is only known in cultivation and its exact origin is unclear. Oat was
not cultivated as early as wheat and barley and probably it persisted as a weed in
fields of these cereals for centuries before it was taken into cultivation. Oat seeds
have been found in 4000-year-old remains in Egypt, but these were probably from
weeds and not from cultivated oat. The oldest known cultivated oat remains were
found in caves in Switzerland that date back to around 1000 BC. Avena sativa
probably evolved in central or northern Europe from wild Avena sterilis
L. (Bussmann et al. 2014) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Avena sativa L. 269
Fig. 1 Avena sativa (Poaceae), Maras, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
Fig. 2 Avena sativa

(Poaceae), Akhaltsikhe,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 3 Avena sativa

(Poaceae), Akhaltsikhe,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Avena fatua

(Poaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia.
Avena sativa L. 271
Colombia: Oatmeal is considered as a food rich in bran and fiber, whose consump-
tion reduces cholesterol levels. For external use, it is used in the treatment of minor
skin irritations such as psoriasis, burns, and eczema (Ministerio de Protección Social
2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: The seed is an edible cereal. It is an important crop in the world

(unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo, Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
The crop is widely eaten and used as fodder for livestock, and also widely grown,
more so in the old world, especially in the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016).
Ecuador: The leaves are used as fodder for cattle and other quadrupeds (Kichwa de
la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Others (Central Interandina Region); Mestiza-Others (Central
Interandina Region); unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha, Bolívar) (from de la Torre
et al. 2008). In Peru, oats are used as stomach protective in purgative mixtures and
are used to treat spiritual illnesses and alcoholism (Bussmann and Sharon 2006;
Bussmann and Sharon 2007, 2015a, b).
References
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional plant use in Northern Peru: Tracking two thousand years of
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
2014;12:237–313.
Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D,
016-0110-2.
Azorella atacamensis G.M. Plunkett &
A.N. Nicolas
Azorella compacta Phil.
APIACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Azorella atacamensis G.M. Plunkett & A.N. Nicolas: Mulinum crassifolium Phil.
non Azorella Pers.
Azorella compacta Phil.: Azorella columnaris H. Wolff, Azorella prismatoclada
Domin, Azorella yareta Hauman, Laretia compacta (Phil.) Reiche.
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Local Names
Azorella atacamensis: Chile: Chukikandia, Chuchikan, Chukikan, Chukikandia,

Chukikaña, Chukikandi, Chukukaylla, Chuchikaylla, Chukikaylla, Sulútur
Azorella compacta: Chile: Llareta, Yareta
Botany and Ecology
Azorella atacamensis: Caespitose shrub, 5–10 cm high, 8–30 cm in diameter, resinous.

Stems dense to scattered, covered with traces of dried leaves. Thick, fleshy, sessile
leaves, 5–15 1–5 mm, rhombic, glabrous, 4 2–5 mm, 3-ribbed, obtuse, lobes
3, incurvous, 0.5–4 1–2.5 mm, the longest central, mucronate apex, petiole
1–4 1.2–1.8 mm; open, membranous sheath, 4–5 3–6 mm, entire margin or
serrated. Umbel of 2–5 mm in diameter, with 2–11 flowers, sessile, not exceeding the
leaves. Bracts involucres 2–5, linear-lanceolate, 2–3 0.5–1 mm, glabrous, membra-
nous, acute apex, base forming a cylinder, entire margin. Flowers 2–3 mm in diameter.
Fig. 1 Azorella atacamensis

(Apiaceae), Paso de Jama,
Señoret)
Fig. 2 Azorella atacamensis

(Apiaceae), Paso de Jama,
Señoret)
Azorella atacamensis G.M. Plunkett & A.N. Nicolas . . . 275
Sepals green, acute apex, forming a stellate disk, of 0.5–0.6 0.5–1 mm. Petals yellow,
1–2 1 mm, elliptical to obovate, apex round to acute. Fruit yellow, elliptical, with
4 wings, crushed, 3–4 3–4 mm, wings moon, 4 1 mm, lateral wings longer and
wider than the body of the fruit. Mericarps lunate in cross section, concave abaxial face,
with 5 ribs, 3700–4500 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Azorella compacta: Caespitose herb, perennial, cushions up to 1,15 m tall and up to
4 m wide, very compact, with a woody root, sometimes with roots in the periphery of the
cushion; woody branches, the lowest and peripheral largest. Leaves between 2 and
6 mm long, basal, sessile, glabrous and rosette. Umbels cut shortly stalked or sessile
with between 1 and 5 flowers. Flowers with 1–5 bracts, yellow petals, ovate 1 mm long.
Fruit: slightly violet oblique, between 4 and 5 mm long, consisting of two merfoli,
slightly dorsal, compressed and facially joined, ribs with whole teeth, persistent calyx,
3500–5200 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017) (Figs. 3 and 4).
Fig. 3 Azorella compacta

(Apiaceae), Quebrada Chita,
Señoret)
Fig. 4 Azorella compacta (Apiaceae), Arequipa, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Azorella atacamensis: This species is considered a powerful medicine. The white

interior of the peeled root, roasted and put in water and is taken as an infusion or as
relaxing tea by adding lemon, milk, a few drops of wine, an aspirin, and toasted
sugar or honey, as it is a bitter plant. It is used for the treatment of cold, cough, lung
diseases, and headache. For pulmonary diseases, the infusion is left over night and is
drunk the next day. Combined with marazel (Perezia atacamensis or P. purpurata), it
is used for lung diseases. For cough, it is mixed with baylahuen (Haplopappus rigidus)
and consumed. It is also used for Puna disease and stomach diseases. It is also used
to calm the nerves and to treat diabetes (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Azorella compacta: The root, flower, seed, and resin have medicinal properties for
the treatment of kidneys, gallbladder, cough, diabetes, cholesterol, pain in general
(molars), and to purify the blood. The root is used to treat menstrual disorders and
mixed with chukikan (A. atacamensis) and chachakoma (S. nutans), is used to relieve
cough, and also serves to treat lung diseases and diabetes. The infusion of the root is
used for the treatment of asthma. The resin combined with orqokipa (Fabiana
squamata) or with honey and mixed with copal is used as a patch for the treatment
of bone pain, wounds, inflammations or back pain, lower cholesterol levels, treatment
of ulcers, diabetes, rheumatism, and internal diseases. The infusion of the flower, the
resin, and the whole plant is used for the treatment of diabetes, to dissolve kidney
stones, to lower cholesterol, and for rheumatism. The root is used to treat ovarian
pain, improve bad breath, and gastrointestinal diseases (González and Molina 2017;
Azorella compacta: The resin is used as incense in ceremonial or ritual contexts. It

also has an ethnoveterinary use for the treatment of fractures of animal bones. It is an
excellent fuel. The ashes are used to peel the quinoa grains. The plant is also used as
forage (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Baccharis alnifolia Meyen & Walp.
Baccharis boliviensis (Wedd.) Cabrera
Baccharis caespitosa (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.
Baccharis ciliata Gardner
Baccharis indica L.
Baccharis juncea (Cass.) Desf.
Baccharis pentlandii DC.
Baccharis salicifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.
Baccharis santelicis Phil.
Baccharis tola Phil.
Baccharis vaccinioides Kunth
ASTERACEAE

R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero

Synonyms
Baccharis boliviensis (Wedd.) Cabrera: Baccharis boliviensis (Wedd.) Cuatrec.,

comb. superfl., Baccharis boliviensis (Wedd.) Cabrera var. latifolia, Baccharis
boliviensis (Wedd.) Cabrera var. latifolia, Heterothalamus boliviensis Wedd.,
Heterothalamus boliviensis Wedd. var. latifolius, Pseudobaccharis boliviensis
(Wedd.) Cabrera, Pseudobaccharis boliviensis (Wedd.) Cabrera var. latifolia, Psila
boliviensis (Wedd.) Cabrera, Psila boliviensis (Wedd.) Cabrera var. atifolia,
Baccharis boliviensis (Wedd.) Malag.
Baccharis caespitosa (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.: Baccharis alpina Cerv.; Baccharis
alpina fo. microcephala Hieron.; Baccharis alpina Kunth; Baccharis caespitosa
var. alpicola Cuatrec. ex Luteyn; Baccharis caespitosa var. alpina (Kunth) Cuatrec.;
Baccharis caespitosa (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers. var. caespitosa; Baccharis humifusa
Kunth; Baccharis incarum fo. prostrata Cuatrec.; Baccharis microphylla subvar.
prostrata Wedd.; Baccharis odorata f. spathulata Wedd.; Baccharis procumbens
Hieron.; Baccharis tricuneata var. minifolia Cuatrec.; Molina caespitosa Ruiz & Pav.
Baccharis indica L.: Pluchea indica (L.) Less.
Baccharis juncea (Cass.) Desf.: Arrhenachne juncea Cass., Baccharis juncea ssp.
clavata Joch. Müll., Baccharis subulata D. Don ex Hook. & Arn., Stephananthus
junceus Lehm.
Baccharis pentlandii DC.: Baccharis fallax Kuntze; Baccharis rubricaulis Rusby;
Baccharis sculpta Grieseb.; Baccharis vernicoso-splendida Herzog
Baccharis salicifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.: Baccharis alamanii DC.; Baccharis
buddlejoides Kunth; Baccharis calliprinos Grieseb.; Baccharis chiquilla DC.;
Baccharis coerulescens DC.; Baccharis farinosa Spreng.; Baccharis fevillei
DC.; Baccharis glutinosa Pers.; Baccharis huydobriana J. Rémy; Baccharis
iresinoides Kunth; Baccharis kraussei Heering ex Reiche; Baccharis lanceolata
Kunth; Baccharis linifolia DC.; Baccharis linifolia Meyen; Baccharis longifolia
DC.; Baccharis longipes Kunze ex. DC.; Baccharis marginalis DC.; Baccharis
marginalis var. coerulescens (DC.) Heering; Baccharis marginalis var. longipes
(Kunze ex DC.) Heering; Baccharis marginalis var. viminea (DC.) Heering ex
Reiche; Baccharis mirabilis Heering; Baccharis mocoafluminis Cuatrec.;
Baccharis monoica G.L. Nesom; Baccharis pallida Heering ex Reiche; Baccharis
parviflora (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.; Baccharis parviflora Less.; Baccharis pingraea
var. longipes (Kunth ex DC.) Heering; Baccharis purpurascens Heering;
Baccharis salicifolia var. longifolia (DC.) Cuatrec.; Baccharis salicifolia var.
mocoafluminis (Cuatrec.) Cuatrec.; Baccharis viminea DC.; Baccharis viminea
var. atwoodii S.L. Welsh; Baccharis viscosa/Ruiz & Pav.) Kuntze; Baccharis
viscosa var. nigricans Kuntze; Molina glutinosa Pers.; Molina parviflora Ruiz.
& Pav.; Molina salicifolia Ruiz. & Pav.; Molina striata Ruiz & Pav.; Molina
viscosa Ruiz & Pav.; Pingraea marginalis (DC.) F.H. Hellw.; Pingraea salicifolia
(Rioz & Pav.) F.H. Hellw.; Pingraea viscosa (Ruiz & Pav.) F.H. Hellw.
Baccharis santelicis Phil.: Baccharis magellanica (Lam.) Pers. var. subviscosa,
Baccharis microphylla Kunth var. incarum, Baccharis incarum (Wedd.) Cuatrec.,
comb. superfl., Baccharis incarum (Wedd.) Heering, comb. superfl., Baccharis
incarum (Wedd.) Perkins
Baccharis alnifolia Meyen & Walp. . . . 279
Baccharis tola Phil.: Baccharis incarum (Wedd.) Cuatrec.; Baccharis incarum

(Wedd.) Perkins; Baccharis Wedd.; Baccharis magellanica var. subviscosa Kuntze;
Baccharis var. viscosissima Kuntze; Baccharis microphylla var. incarum Wedd.;
Baccharis santelicis Phil.; Baccharis santelicis subsp. chrysophylla F.H. Hellw.;
Baccharis santelicis Phil. subsp. santelicis; Baccharis tafiensis Haering; Baccharis
tola subsp. altiplanicola F.H. Hellw.
Baccharis vaccinioides Kunth: Baccharis lancifolia Less.
Local Names
Baccharis alnifolia: Chile: Chilka blanca, Pichana, Monte, Monte rio, Chilka,
Chirka, Sajasa
Baccharis boliviensis: Chile: Tolilla, Tolita, Tolita del campo, Tola chica, Tola, Tola
amarilla, Tola de salud, Tola hembra, Tola limón, Chakatola, Tola tara, Qhorat’ola,
Peskotola, Tola del pájaro, Monte de paloma, Chijlla, Chíjua, Chíjuachíjua, Anqo
pajariñi, Kulkuma, Kulkut’ula, Monte, Manzanilla.
Baccharis caespitosa: Peru: Paja qmargoza (Spanish)
Baccharis indica: Peru: Pata de gallina (Spanish)
Baccharis juncea: Chile: Suncho, Pasto loco, Totora, Chukchuka, Chuschuka,
Chuchuka, Chutchuka, Mutumutu, Motomoto, Unquillo.
Baccharis odorata: Ecuador: Pentse (Kichwa) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Pasto
miel (Spanish)
Baccharis pentlandii: Bolivia: Chillca, Chillca hembra (Spanish), Chilk’a k’achu
(Aymara)
Baccharis salicifolia: Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador: Chilca, Chilco;, Hierba de la plata,
Chilco hembra (Spanish); Chile: Chillka, Chilka, Chilka negra, Suncho, Pichana,
Monte, Monte de río, Sangayo, Hoja koka, Qevalla, Qavalla.
Baccharis santelicis: Chile: Ñaka, Ñakat’ula, Ñakat’ola, Suput’ula, Yaivilja, Lejía,
Léjia, Tola lejía, Léjia hembra, Tola chijua.
Baccharis tola: Bolivia: Thula (Aymara) (Bussmann et al. 2016)
Baccharis vaccinioides: Peru: Sigueme sigueme (Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Baccharis alnifolia: Perennial shrub, between 1 and 1.5 m tall, very branched.
Resinous leaves between 2.5 and 5 cm long, alternate, petiolate, elliptical, to medium
elliptic, very rarely oval; upper edge serrated in 3/4 parts of the blade; cuneate base,
inflorescences composed, bunches, arranged in corymbiform tops. Male flowers
between 1 and 3 mm long; female flowers between 2 and 4 mm long. Fruit: achene
about 1 mm long, oblong, villous with numerous fine hairs white to slightly
yellowish, 3000–3800 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Fig. 1).
Baccharis boliviensis: Perennial shrub, between 0.1 and 1 m high; branches usually
end in inflorescences. Resinous leaves between 0.5 and 4 cm long, sessile, linear to
narrowly elliptical, very rarely broadly elliptical, apex generally sharp and entire
margin. Inflorescences in pedunculated chapters arranged in corymbiform clusters or
panicles; male chapters between 3 and 5.5 mm long; female chapters between 3.5
and 6 mm long. Between 30 and 43 flowers per male chapter and between 30 and
60 flowers per female chapter. Fruit: achene between 1.3 and 2 mm long, between
light to dark brown; villous with numerous whitish hairs, 1500–4700 m above sea
level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 2).
Baccharis caespitosa: Prostrate shrub with spreading crown to 1 m in diameter but
only a few cm high with many rooting branches that are resinous. The larger leaves
are 2 0.7 mm, spatula shaped, and rough-textured with one midrib. The flower
heads are borne from the stem tips or leaf bases 2 cm. The male flower heads are up
to 10 mm long with 23–65 florets. Each floret has a whorl of bracts up to 9 mm high
and bell-shaped. The bracts are arranged in 5–7 series and light yellowish brown or
light green. The petals of the male flower form a tube with coiled lobes, long anthers,
and an exposed style with a cap on top surrounded by a series of bristles. The female
Fig. 1 Baccharis sp. (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Fig. 2 Baccharis boliviensis

(Asteraceae), Ayquina, Chile.
Señoret)
flower head is up to 18 mm long, similar in size and shape with a series of 6–8 bracts
forming the whorl. The petals form a tube with a toothed tip and a branched style.
The achene is small with straw or brown-colored bristles in several series that
elongate when mature. Occurs in the Andes of Central Peru and south into southern
Bolivia, widespread in low grasslands and humid regions between elevations
3700–5200 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Baccharis ciliata: A decumbent shrub, young stem devoid hairs, leaves sessile,
leathery, slightly glutinous, full margin or 1–10 teeth, tomentose-ciliated; 3 ribs,
panicles, corymbiform, terminal and/or pseudoaxillary, missing double capitules,
female flowers with apex of the 5-layered corolla and 5–6 ribs.
Baccharis indica: Erect, much-branched shrub growing 1–2 m in height. Branches
shortly hairy when young, later glabrous. Leaves bright pale green, papery and
almost glabrous, obovate, up to 8 cm long, 2–4 cm wide, the margins toothed, and
the leaves aromatic when crushed. The base is cuneate and almost sessile. The
inflorescence comprises an almost corymbose, compact cluster of heads, each
having many ray florets, only a few disc florets, subtended by an involucre of 3–7
series of deltoid bracts. Each head about 6–7 mm long, 5 mm broad on a peduncle
0–10 mm long. Individual ray florets with corolla 3–5 mm long; disc florets, 2–7,
have a 5-lobed purple corolla. In fruit the reddish-brown achene, 1 mm long, 0.3 mm
wide, has 5–7 ribs, and a white pappus of up to 20 bristles, about 5 mm long.
Baccharis juncea: Perennial herbs, rhizomatous, with erect stems, glabrous or
puberulous, laxly leafy, 0.2–1.5 m tall. Leaves sessile, linear, 1–6 cm 1–2.5 mm,
acute at the apex, whole or serrated at the margin, apparently single-ribbed. Solitary
chapters at the end of the branches or grouped in a short number forming a
corymbiform synflorescence. Pistillated chapters with hemispherical involvement
of 6–7 (8–)10–15 mm; filarios in 6–7 series, the elliptical and obtuse exteriors, the
intermediate ovate and acute, the linear and acute interiors. Flowers around 500;
corollas 3.5–4.7 mm long, denticulate at the apex. Akenia 1.5–2 mm long, 5–10-
side, glabrous. Pappus 2-or pluriseriate, very accented. Chapters stamped with
hemispherical involvement, 5–6 (6–)8–10 mm; filarios in 4–5 series, the elliptical
and obtuse exteriors, the intermediate ovate and acute or subacute, the interiors
narrowly ovate and acute. Flowers 48–98; corollas 4–5 mm long; style with long and
separate branches. Pappus with bristles with rounded or sharp apex and flattened.
Sea level to 3500 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 3 and 4).
Baccharis odorata: Low or prostrate, glabrous small shrublet with sticky fragrant
foliage. Leaves 4–15 by 4–10 mm, obovate-oblong to rhomboid-elliptic and spath-
ulate tapering to a petiole of l–3 mm. Male flower heads in terminal false spikes or
solitary from leaf axils. Female heads 4–6 mm across, in lax racemes (rarely solitary)
in the axils near the branch tips. Colombia to Bolivia in humid moorland pasture at
the limit of woody vegetation at 2700–4000 m above sea level.
Baccharis salicifolia: Erect shrub, sometimes prostrate, forming dense bushes,
0.8–2 m tall, sometimes taller. Stem cylindrical, woody, glabrous to glandular-
grainy. Leaves sometimes accumulated in the axils of leaves, forming fascicles;
similar to those of the willow, petioles 1–8 mm long; linear-lanceolate, oblong or
narrowly elliptical blades, 5.5–12 cm long by 0.1–1.5 cm wide; apex acuminate,
Fig. 3 Baccharis juncea

(Asteraceae), Chiu Chiu,
Señoret)
Fig. 4 Baccharis juncea

(Asteraceae), Chiu Chiu,
Señoret)
margin slightly dentate-sawed, with no more than 5 teeth per centimeter or some-
times whole, narrowly cuneate to attenuated base and sometimes slightly asymmet-
rical, trinervate, without hairs. Inflorescence with pedunculated heads, arranged in
terminal panicles dense to lax, almost globular or even wider than tall. Flowers: male
heads with semi-cannon involvement, 5–7 mm long by 3.5–6 mm wide, bracts
arranged in 3 series, oblong-lanceolate, sometimes narrowly lanceolate to oblanceo-
late, acute or acuminate, with just one nerve, slightly ciliated and purple, with 24–41
whitish flowers, rarely with 1–6 female marginal flowers, corollas 4.5–7 mm long,
with little visible venation, bristles 20–33, 4–5 mm long; female heads with flared or
almost cylindrical involucre, 5.5–7 mm long and 6 mm wide, bracts arranged in
4 series, lanceolate to oblanceolate, acute to acuminate, slightly uninerved, ciliated,
green-purple, flowers 124–210, corollas 2.5–3.5 mm long, whitish, without visible
nervation, with very short simple hairs, bristles 20–38, 3–5 mm long. Achaenae
1.5–5 mm long, olive brown, with 5–10 ribs, inconspicuous to conspicuous, semi-
mature (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 5, 6, and 7).
Baccharis santelicis: Shrub, between 0.2 and 1( 2) m tall, erect branches or curves
of green to reddish color. Large leaves between 6 and 19 mm long, sessile, oblong,
Fig. 5 Baccharis scandens

(Asteraceae), Calama, Chile.
Señoret)
Fig. 6 Baccharis
sp. (Asteraceae), Uchumarca,
Fig. 7 Baccharis
sp. (Asteraceae), Rio Grande,
Señoret)
linear or ovate, usually have a smooth border with 1–2 teeth on each side of the apex.
Terminal inflorescences, solitary or sometimes grouped chapters; male, 6–7 mm
long; female, between 6.5 and 9 mm long; both similar, with flared involvement.
Flowers between 8 and 19 per male chapter and between 18 and 25 per female
chapter. Achenes between 2.0 and 2.7 mm long, with vilano between 6 and 7 mm
long, 1900–4800 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Baccharis tola: Perennial shrub up to 50 cm tall, semispherical, ramose, and with
rigid, resinous, sticky leaves, tridentate at the apex. White flowers arranged in
capitules, which grow grouped at the ends of the branches. Fruit is very small
achene. Flowers in January–February and fruits in March. On stony soils and
hillsides with strong sun exposure, in high mountain Puna shrub (above 4000 m)
(Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12).
Fig. 8 Baccharis tola

(Asteraceae), Quebrada Chita,
Señoret)
Fig. 9 Baccharis
sp. (Asteraceae), La Paz,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 10 Baccharis
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 11 Baccharis
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 12 Baccharis latifolia

(Asteraceae), La Paz, Bolivia.
Baccharis alnifolia: In Chile, the plant is used to make poultices against blows and
bruises. An extract is used against tonsillitis (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez
Baccharis articulata is used in Bolivia for stomach, gallbladder, and liver problems,
and has bitter taste in the mouth (Quiroga et al. 2012).
Baccharis boliviensis: In Chile, the plant is used as a remedy for stomach problems
(González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Baccharis caespitosa is used in Peru to reduce swellings (Bussmann and Sharon
2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b).
Baccharis ciliata: The species shows antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008,
2010a, b, 2011a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011a, b).
Baccharis dracunculifolia is used in Bolivia as a remedy for bone pain (Quiroga
et al. 2012).
Baccharis glutinosa is used in Peru for diabetes (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b).
Baccharis indica is used in Peru to reduce bone pain, rheumatism, and arthritis
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b).
Baccharis juncea is used in Chile as a remedy for stomach problems (Rodriguez
Baccharis obtusifolia is used in Ecuador to remedy vomiting, stomach pain, and
bone pain (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Baccharis odorata: Ecuador: The leaves are used in Ecuador to treat blows
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The plant is used
to treat cysts, wounds, and abscesses (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b).
Baccharis salicifolia is used in Peru to reduce allergies and treat rashes and pimples
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). It is also used for fractures, bone
pain, and sprains (Busmann and Glenn 2011a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013).
Baccharis pentlandii: Bolivia: Fresh stems and leaves are used to treat arthritis,
blows, bone pain, fractures, sprains, strong blows, fever, acne, wound healing,
wound swelling (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo and Moraes 2015).
Baccharis salicifolia: In traditional medicine in Colombia, the plant is used mainly
against infections and stomach pain, the latter is treated by scrubbing the plant on the
belly or taking the decoction on an empty stomach. Its use is also recommended in
bilious attacks and in headaches. For the treatment of blows or falls, the leaves
macerated in alcohol are applied to the affected part. Applying it in baths prepared
with the cooking of the stem and flowers is recommended in the treatment of rash
and chicken pox (Bernal et al. 2011).
In Chile, it is used for bone pain, bumps, cramps, vomiting, headache, rheumatism,
stomach, and indigestion. In water, it is used to wash the body. Mate is anti-
inflammatory. Used also for bone fractures (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez
Baccharis santelicis: In Chile, the plant is used to “take out the cold,” for empacho,
against rheumatism, and to draw out kidney stones. The infusion of leaves is used for
colds, coughs, and stomachaches (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al.
Generally, Baccharis species are used in herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010c) to
reduce their toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b).
All species are used as firewood.

Baccharis alnifolia: In Chile, the plant is used as occasional forage when animals
are very hungry. It also serves to build roofs (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez
Baccharis boliviensis: In Chile, the plant is used as occasional forage. It is also used
as splint for animals with broken bones and to treat blindness in sheep (González and
Baccharis ciliaris is used in Peru in spiritual healing to protect one’s job and the
house, and for general protection (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b;
Bussmann et al. 2010d).
Baccharis indica: Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used for protection of job
and house and protection (general) (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b;
Bussmann et al. 2010d).
Baccharis obtusifolia is used in Ecuador against bad air/mal aire (Béjar et al. 2002;
Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Baccharis pentlandii: Bolivia: used to treart Bad air and lightning stroke (cultural
illnesses) (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo and Moraes 2015).
Baccharis salicifolia: In Chile, the plant is used as a broom and to heat the oven, and
also used for loom instruments, to make incense, and, when dry, used as firewood.
The leaves are used as dye. It is used to make charcoal and also serves as forage, as
hedge, and shade shrub (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Villagrán and Castro 2003). Peru: The whole fresh plant is used to promote good
business, for protection, good fortune and good health, and to remedy bad air (mail
aire) (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010d;
Monigatti et al. 2013).
Baccharis santelicis: The ash is used in Chile to peel quinoa and maize. It is also
used as occasional forage (but hard and bitter) (González and Molina 2017;
Baccharis tola: Bolivia: Stems and leaves are used to treat molar pain and blemishes
Baccharis vaccinioides is used in Peru for good luck and spiritual flowering
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010d). It is
often sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007).
References
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Arogya: Plantas
de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba; 2007a. ISBN 978-0-9789962-2-2.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Arogya:
Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú; 2007b. ISBN 978-0-
9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010a;9
(4):742–53.
Peru as antibacterial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010b;132:101–8.
Pharmacol. 2010d;4(9):580–629.
(2):450–64.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Baccharis genistelloides (Lam.) Pers.
ASTERACEAE

Carolina Romero, and Javier Echeverría
Synonyms
Baccharis genistelloides (Lam.) Pers.: Baccharis crispa Spreng.; Baccharis

cylindrica (Less.) DC.; Baccharis genistelloides var. crispa (Spreng.) Baker;
Baccharis genistelloides var. trimera (Less.) Baker; Baccharis myriocephala DC.;
Baccharis trimera (Less.) DC.; Baccharis venosa (Ruiz. & Pav.) Pers.; Conyza
genistelloides Lam.; Molina crispa (Spreng.) Less.; Molina cylindrica Less.; Molina
trimera Less.; Molina venosa Ruiz- & Pav.; Pingraeca crispa (Spreng.) F.H. Hellw.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero
J. Echeverría

Local Names
Bolivia: Carkeja, Charara (Spanish); Kimsa k’uchu (Aymara), Charara (Quechua)

(Bussmann et al. 2016); Ecuador: Tikna (Kichwa), Maywa hembra (Spanish-
Kichwa), Mano de dios (Spanish), Cuchunllulli (unspecified language) (de la Torre
et al. 2008); Peru: Simba simba, Carceja, Karqueja, Cadillo (Spanish).
Botany and Ecology
Perennial herb with a woody base, up to 1.5 m tall. Stem 3-winged, green, very
resinous. The leaves reduced to triangular scales 0.5 cm long with having tufts of
hairs. The flower heads without stalks and borne from the stem in dense spikes up to
13 cm long. Male flower heads up to 10 mm long with 15–55 florets surrounded by a
whorl of bracts that is cup-shaped with 3–9 series of bracts. The inner bracts elliptic
to linear and 2–7 times longer than the egg-shaped outer bracts, straw-colored and
often purple tinged at the tips. Petals form a tube 6 mm long with coiled lobes.
Anthers long, the style branched and exposed, the sterile ovary may or may not be
surrounded by bristles. The female flower head is 16 mm long with 17–200 florets
surrounded by a whorl of cylindrical bracts up to 12 mm long. Bracts arranged in
5–11 series. The petals form a tube up to 6.8 mm long with a toothed tip. Style is up
to 9.5 mm long and branched. Achenes small, dark brown and ribbed with a series of
bristles. Andean Cordillera from Colombia south into northern Chile and Argentina
and east into Brazil. Found in rocky, open, scrub forests, and grasslands at elevations
between 2000 and 4200 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Baccharis genistelloides is an excellent example for the fact that even important
and widely used medicinal plant species are hardly studied phytochemically, and
new compounds are constantly described (Hennig et al. 2010). Even the taxonomy
of this species is rather unclear, and much of what is mentioned in ethnobotanical
literature as Baccharis genistelloides might in fact belong to a variety of species
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Bolivia: The whole fresh plant is used to treat high blood pressure, stomachache,
kidney infection, diabetes, and sprains of bones (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo and
Moraes 2015; Macía et al. 2005; Quiroga et al. 2012). Colombia: This plant is used
as an astringent and to soothe chest pains (García Barriga 1975). Ecuador: The
infusion of the stem and leaves is used to treat biliary conditions (unspecified ethnic
group – Imbabura). The infusion of the stem and leaves, mixed with brandy, is used
as a vermifuge (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura). It is used as an anesthetic
(unspecified ethnicity – Tungurahua) and also treats undetermined conditions
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi). It is used, in cooking, to treat rheumatism in the
elderly (Kichwa de la Sierra, unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Baccharis genistelloides (Lam.) Pers. 293
Fig. 1 Baccharis
genistelloides (Asteraceae),
Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Baccharis
R.W. Bussmann and
The plant, in cooking, is used for scared children (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja) (de la
Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The whole fresh plant is used to treat diabetes, blood, burn
fat, cholesterol, kidneys, internal inflammation, liver, gallbladder, bad blood, and
baldness (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011a,
b; Bussmann et al. 2010d; Monigatti et al. 2013). The species shows low anti-
bacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010a, b, 2011a, b). It is often sold in local
Fig. 3 Baccharis
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Baccharis
R.W. Bussmann and
Baccharis genistelloides (Lam.) Pers. 295
Fig. 5 Baccharis
R.W. Bussmann and
markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). Generally, Baccharis species are used internally
only in herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010c) to reduce their toxicity (Bussmann
et al. 2011b).
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: The plant is used to prepare cheese. Together with the cow’s third
stomach, salt, and lime, it makes the milk more acidic (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja)
(de la Torre et al. 2008). It serves as fodder for cattle and other quadrupeds
(unspecified ethnic group – Carchi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Bees visit the flowers
of this species (unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010d;4(9):580–629.
Hennig L, Malca-García G, Giannis A, Bussmann RW. New constituents of Baccharis
genistelliodes (Lam.) Pers. Arch Org Chem. 2010;vi:74–82.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
(2):450–64.
Baccharis latifolia (Ruiz. & Pav.) Pers.
ASTERACEAE

Carolina Romero, and Javier Echeverría
Synonyms
Baccharis latifolia (Ruiz. & Pav.) Pers.: Baccharis floribunda Kunth; Baccharis
polyantha fo. genuina Hieron.; Baccharis polyantha Kunth.; Baccharis polyantha
var. macrophylla Hieron.; Baccharis riparia Kunth; Molina latifolia Ruiz. & Pav.;
Pingraea latifolia (Ruiz. & Pav.) F.H. Hellw.; Pluchea glabra Griseb.; Vernonia
otavalensis Gilli
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero
J. Echeverría

Local Names
Chile: Chilca; Bolivia: Chillca, Chillca macho (Spanish), Chilk’a ork’o (Aymara);
Colombia: Chilco, Barsalito, Chilquita, Lengua de gato, Chilca, Algodoncillo,
Buéntsamo, Chilca blanca, Chilca rucia, Chilco blanco, Chilco negro, Chirca,
Chirco, Gurrubo; Ecuador: Azul chilca, Chilca, Chilca azul, Chilca blanca, Chilca
larga, Chilca negra, Chilco, Trementina (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru:
Chilca chica, Chilca grande (Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Shrub up to 4 m tall. Many of the stems strongly resinous, greenish or reddish with
mature stems turning brown, the bark being deeply furrowed. Leaves 5–20 cm long,
elliptic or lance-shaped with a triangular tip and narrow or rounded base, and with
3 major veins. The surface of leaf with small tufts of hairs. The cream flower heads
borne from a branched inflorescence at the tips of branches. All whorls yellowish
green-light brown. Male flower heads are up to 7.5 mm long, with 15–45 florets
surrounded by a whorl of bracts up to 6 mm long, cup-shaped, with bracts arranged
in 3–4 series. The inner bracts linear and up to 3.5 times longer than the egg-shaped
outer bracts. The petal tube short, cup-shaped with coiled petals. The female flower
head with 100–280 florets, surrounded by a whorl of bracts up to 7 mm long
arranged in 3–6 series. Petals form a tube 2.8 mm long surrounded by a branched
style. Achenes very small, straw-colored and attached to a series of bristles. Andean
Cordillera from Colombia south into Argentina, in disturbed sites, both dry valleys
and humid regions of the eastern slopes at elevations between 1200 and 3300 m
(Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Colombia: The decoction of the plant is used against rheumatism, liver disorders,
cough, bronchitis, ulcers, and intestinal parasites. In the form of poultice, it is used
externally to treat dislocations, wounds, rheumatic pains, and bruises. This plant is
also used to treat bronchial and pulmonary conditions. The leaves prepared in
infusion are used against diarrhea, to treat sores or wounds, against inflammation,
intestinal gas, against diabetes, liver diseases, stomach pain, and insomnia. The
infusion or decoction of the leaves, stems, and inflorescences is suggested as a
good tonic to treat diabetes and as a digestive aid (Anton et al. 2012; García Barriga
1975; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and
Castro 2003). Bolivia: Stems and leaves are used to treat bruises, muscle pain,
sprains, fractures, bone sprains, kidney infection, fever, high blood pressure, pros-
tate, and sajra (curse) (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo and Moraes 2015; Macía et al.
2005; Quiroga et al. 2012). The phytoremedy “Chilkaflam,” sold in many pharma-
cies in Bolivie, is based on an extract of Baccharis latifolia. Ecuador: The plant
Baccharis latifolia (Ruiz. & Pav.) Pers. 299


bath, together with “elderberry” (Cestrum megalophyllum), is used in convalescent

patients. Roasted leaves are applied to relieve toothache and headache; in infusion,
they are used to treat diarrhea in children and hemorrhoids. The leaves are used to
treat sprains or dislocations of the bones and blows, and relieves inflammations
(Mestiza-Pichincha). The plant extract is used to treat inflamed wounds. The buds
are boiled, along with onion, Chinese root (Zingiber sp.), urine and soap, for colic
and inflammation of the internal female sexual organs (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja).
The bark is used to deflate swelling. The leaves heal wounds and skin infections. The
leaves, with menthol, tallow or cocoa butter, are used to treat the crippled, to loosen
the bone when it is already hard and to take out the cold when the heel bone is
diverted in children (sic) (ethnicity not specified – Imbabura). The cooked leaves
serve as a disinfectant (unspecified ethnic group – Napo). The leaves are applied,
smeared with mentholated ointment and beef tallow, to treat the cripples (Mestizo,
unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The leaves are used to treat indeterminate

conditions (Mestiza-Morona Santiago). With the leaves, the toothache, sprains,

bumps, or cripples are treated (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chim-
borazo; unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). The leaves are used, with sheep
and chicken fat, to treat spina bifida “sucks tulu or rabadilla.” The leaves, in infusion,
relieve stomach pain in animals (unspecified ethnic group – Cañar). The buds,
previously heated, are applied to the affected part in order to treat rheumatism and
to remove the cold from the body (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo) (de la
Torre et al. 2008). The herb is used by sorcerers in cleansing rituals (unspecified
ethnic group – Others (Ecuador)). The decoction of the yolks, mixed with “paico
bug,” is used as a medicine to treat “colic air” (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The leaves
are applied in children so that they do not urinate (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay).
The leaves and branches are used to treat “bad air,” “bad wind,” and “fright,” and to
ward off evil spirits (Kichwa from the Sierra-Pichincha, Tungurahua, Cotopaxi;
Mestiza Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura, Pichincha, Chimborazo)
(de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Leaves and stems, fresh or dried, are used to treat
hot bones, bone pain, rheumatism, asthma, and arthritis (Bussmann and Sharon
2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010d; Monigatti et al. 2013; Bussmann
and Glenn 2011a, b). The species shows antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008,
2010a, b, 2011a, b). The plant is often sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007).
Generally, Baccharis species are used internally only in herbal mixtures (Bussmann
et al. 2010c) to reduce their toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b).
Ecuador: The leaves are used as fodder for cows, horses, donkeys, guinea pigs, and
rabbits; it is said to be better than alfalfa (Mestiza-Manabí; unspecified ethnic group
– Chimborazo, Cañar, Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It has beekeeping use
(unspecified ethnic group – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It serves as fuel
Baccharis latifolia (Ruiz. & Pav.) Pers. 301
(unspecified ethnicity – Azuay) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The stem is timber and is
used as a kitchen utensil (Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity – Azuay). The
leaves are used to wash the pork guts and eliminate their bitter taste (Kichwa de la
Sierra, unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha). The leaves and bark contain a resin
acid of repulsive properties, which is a great emulsifier of rubber (unspecified ethnic
group – Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Anton AMR, Zuloaga FO, Al-Shehbaz IA, Barboza GE, Belgrano MJ, Freire SE, . . ., Múlgura
ME. Flora Argentina: flora vascular de la República Argentina. Instituto de Botánica
Darwinion:. Volume: 7/2 Dicotyledoneae: Asteraceae II: Cichorieae, Helenieae a Mutisieae.
Buenos Aires: Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (CONICET-UNC); 2012
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010a;9(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010d;4(9):580–629.
Ecol Bolivia; 2015;50(2):66–90.
located at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145(2):
450–64.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Bactris gasipaes Kunth
ARECACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Bactris gasipaes Kunth: Bactris caribaea H. Karst.; Bactris ciliata (Ruiz & Pav.)
Mart.; Bactris coccinea Barb. Rodr.; Bactris dahlgreniana Glassman; Bactris
insignis (Mart.) Baill.; Bactris insignis Drude; Bactris macana (Mart.) Pittier;
Bactris speciosa (Mart.) H. Karst.; Bactris speciosa var. chichagui H. Karst.; Bactris
utilis (Oerst.) Benth. & Hook. f. ex Hemsl.; Guilelma caribaea (H. Karst.)
H. Wendlk.; Guilelma chontaduro H. Karst. & Triana; Guilelma ciliata (Ruiz &
Pav.) H. Wendl. ex Kerch.; Guilelma gasipaes (Kunth) L.H. Bailey; Guilelma
gasipaes var. chichagui (H. Karst) Dahlgren; Guilelma gasipaes var. chontaduro
(H. Karst. & Triana) Dugand; Guilelma gasipaes var. coccinea (Barb. Rodr.)
L.H. Bailey; Guilelma gasipaes var. flava (Barb. Rodr.) L.H. Bailey; Guilelma
gasipaes var. ochracea (Barb. Rodr.) LK.H. Bailey; Guilelma insignis Mart.;
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Guilelma macana Mart.; Guilelma mattogrossensis Barb. Rodr.; Guilelma micro-

carpa Huber; Guilelma speciosa Mart.; Guilelma speciosa var. coccinea Barb.
Rodr.; Guilelma speciosa var. flava Barb. Rodr.; Guilelma speciosa var. mitis
Drude; Guilelma speciosa var. ochracea Barb. Rodr.; Guilelma utilis Oerst.;
Martinezia ciliata Ruiz & Pav.
Local Names
Bolivia: Chima, tembé, pupuña (Spanish) Huanima (Chácobo), Anua (Quechua),

Tëmbi (Yuracare), Mue (Tacana) (Cárdenas 1989; Moraes 2014; Moraes et al. 2014;
Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2011,
2012a, b, c, d, e, f, 2014). Colombia: Cachipay (Boyacá y Cundinamarca),
Chontaduro (en todo el país), pejibá (Costa del Pacífico Norte), pijiguao (Guainía),
pipire (Llanos Orientales, Vaupés), pupuña (Amazonia) (Galeano and Bernal 2010;
Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014). Ecuador:
Kanu chi (chafi’ki), tsa awe (tsafi’ki), chunta, chunta ruru, chunta yura, killu chunta,
pawa chunta, pifayu, puka chunta, shalin chunta, uchu manka (kichwa), o’ma
(a’ingae), ëne, huiyape ëne, ma’ëne, ma’ñoco ëne, miu’ëne (pai coca), dagenka,
dagenkawe, tewe, tewenka (wao tededo), amarija (zápara), mayá uwí, uwí (shuar
chicham), uwí (achuar chicham), chonta, chonta dura, chontaduro, palma chonta,
palmito (Spanish), peach palm (English), zhoras (unspecified language) (de la Torre
et al. 2008; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014).
Peru: Chonta, Chontaduro, Pijuayo (Spanish), Joó (Arazaeri), Uyai (Awajún), Mee
(Ese Eja) (Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía
et al. 2014; Moraes 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2012a, b, c, d, e)
Botany and Ecology
Frequently with several trunks coming out of the same point (with up to 15 spiny
stems), less frequent with a single trunk, 4–15 m high, 8–25 cm in diameter, smooth
logs, with obvious internodes and with black spines that give the whole trunk a spiny
appearance (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7).
Leaves 7–20 arched, 50–100 cm long, with 90–140 pinnae per side, irregularly
arranged in several planes giving it a feathery appearance to the leaves; spine and
sheath covered with small white or brown spines. Flowers with both male and female
flowers on the same stem (monoecious); both types of flowers in clusters that leave
between the leaves (interfoliars), with the peduncle and the floral bract rarely
covered with white or brown spines. Fruits variable in shape and size, from ovoid
or ovoid to almost spherical, 1.2 (var. chichagui)–10 cm (var. gasipaes) long and 1–
6 cm in diameter, orange-yellow-red, with the thin shell and the thick, mealy and oily
pulp (mesocarp); very variable endocarp, spherical to ellipsoid, acute at the base.
Seeds one per fruit, similar to an almond (Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13).
Bactris gasipaes Kunth 305
Fig. 1 Bactris gasipaes var.

gasipaes (Arecaceae), mature
plant Rio Tahuayo, Peru.
(Photo R.W. Bussmann &
The variety chichagui is regarded as the wild form of the species. Generally, the
specimens are smaller, and in particular the fruits are much smaller (Figs. 14, 15, 16,
17, and 18).
Bolivia: The fruit is used to treat body pain, cough, colds, fever, gallbladder disease,
headache, psoriasis, swellings, and tuberculosis and as a galactagogue; the palm
heart is used to treat anemia and stomach pain and as a galactagogue; the root is used
to treat colds, stomach pain, postpartum depression, urinary problems, inguinal
hernia, and uterus infections and as a galactagogue; seeds are used to treat stomach
pain; spines are used to treat freight; larvae that develop on the trunk are used to treat
pneumonia and cough (Cárdenas 1989; Moraes 2014; Moraes et al. 2014; Paniagua-
Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2011, 2012,
2012f, 2014).
Colombia: The fruit is used to treat infertility; leaves are used in bath rituals that
avoid getting born; the palm heart is used to treat stomach pain and chickenpox; the
root is used to treat stomach pain, muscular pain, menstrual problems, yellow fever,
malaria, hepatitis, childbirth problems, infertility, earache, and eye inflammation and
Fig. 2 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), mature plants in plantation, Rio Tahuayo, Peru.
(Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
to prevent hair loss and as an abortive; the seed is used to treat stomach pain and
cancer; spines are used for extraction of spines and used by jaibaná to rub the body
during healing ceremonies (Galeano and Bernal 2010; Paniagua-Zambrana et al.
2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014).
Ecuador: The juice from young palms is used to treat inflammations; young leaves
are used for energy cleaning; the fruit is used to treat body pain, earache, eye
inflammation, and muscular pain and as a galactagogue; the leaf entirely is used to
treat earache and epilepsy; the palm heart is used to treat stomach pain and earache
and as a galactagogue and sedative; the hot palm heart is used to rub the children and
cure them of “fright”; the root is used to treat epilepsy, stomach pain, body pain,
muscular pain, fertility, earache, eye inflammation, and diarrhea, to prevent baldness,
and as a galactagogue, contraceptive, and vitamin; the seed is used to treat stomach
pain; spines are used to treat epilepsy; for witchcraft, with other ingredients in
spiritual drink; and for extraction of spines; larvae growing on the trunk are used
to treat asthma, hemorrhoids, tuberculosis, and heart problems (Bussmann and
Sharon 2015a, b, Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes 2014;
Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2012a, b, c, d, e).
Peru: The palm heart is used as an anti-ophidicum; the root is used to treat hepatitis,
hernia, malaria, mastitis, pneumonia, colds, cold of the tubes, and kidney infection,

gasipaes (Arecaceae), spiny
stem, Rio Tahuayo, Peru.

gasipaes (Arecaceae), clonal
stems, Rio Tahuayo, Peru.

gasipaes (Arecaceae), clonal
stems, Rio Tahuayo, Peru.
to prevent abortion, to prevent childbirth hemorrhages, and as an aphrodisiac and a

galactagogue; thorns are used in the bathroom to cure sorcery; larvae that grow on
the trunk are used to treat pneumonia/bronchitis and cough (Bussmann and Sharon
2015a, b; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes 2014).
Local Food Uses
Bolivia: The palm heart is consumed raw or cooked, and it is marketed in brine both
nationally and for export; the mature fruit is consumed cooked, used to make soft
drinks or chicha (alcoholic beverage), and used to extract oil used for cooking; dried
seeds are ground and roasted to prepare a coffee-like drink; larvae that develop on
the trunk are edible (Cárdenas 1989; Moraes 2014; Moraes et al. 2014; Paniagua-
Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2011, 2012,
2012f, 2014). Even the fruits of var. chichagui can be eaten cooked. However, the
red fruits contain oxalate crystals that lead to sore throat, and thus only the yellow
fruits are normally eaten (Fig. 19).
Colombia: The fruits are edible cooked and also prepared in many different ways,
from flour to juices, and sweets. The juice or “guarapo” made with the fruit is used in

gasipaes (Arecaceae), clones
in plantation, Rio Tahuayo,
& N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
ceremonial dances. The palm is edible and the palm is grown in commercial
plantations for extraction. Larvae growing on the trunk are edible cooked (Galeano
and Bernal 2010, Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al.
2014).
Ecuador: The fruit mixed with cooked banana is used to make a refreshing drink
called chucula. The fruit’s mesocarp is edible, and it is consumed roasted, roasted, or
cooked with salt, cheese, and meat. In addition, it is used to prepare chicha (alcoholic
beverage), juices, and canned milk and to extract used oil in the kitchen. Raw and
cooked palm heart is edible. The seeds are used to extract edible oil. The larvae that
develop on the trunk are cooked edibles (de la Torre et al. 2008; Paniagua-Zambrana
et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014).
Peru: Raw and cooked palm is edible. The fruit’s mesocarp is edible, consumed
cooked, and used to prepare chicha (alcoholic beverage), juices, and canned milk
and to extract oil used in cooking. Roasted seeds are edible. The larvae that develop
on the trunk are cooked edibles (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014;
Moraes 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2012a, b, c, d, e).

gasipaes (Arecaceae), clone in
homestead, Apolo, pueblo
Lecos, Bolivia. (Photo
Bolivia: The fruit mesocarp used to obtain hair care oil and used as fodder for cattle
(Cárdenas 1989; Moraes 2014; Moraes et al. 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015;
Macía et al. 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2011, 2012, 2012f, 2014). The trunk is
used to make the “maceta” (maso) used to wash clothes and handle food; is also used
to make bows and arrowheads, ax handles, and hand spinning wheels; and is also
used to make rafts/canoes, canoeras, animal pen walls, house walls, house/ranch/
kitchen poles, housing gutters, and window frames (Cárdenas 1989; Moraes 2014;
Moraes et al. 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Paniagua-
Zambrana et al. 2011, 2012, 2012f, 2014) (Figs. 20 and 21).
Colombia: The bract is used as a toy by children; the thorn is used for personal
adornment; the fruit is used to obtain oil used for hair and skin care; new leaves are
used for making dyes and dance costumes. Fruits are used as a fertilizer and used as a
bait in hunting and fishing traps and as fodder; the stem is used to make fences. The

gasipaes (Arecaceae),
juvenile infructescence,
Apolo, pueblo Lecos, Bolivia.
(Photo N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)

fruits, Villa Santiago, Rio
Tahuayo, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
palm heart is used as bait for fishing and seed used as bait for fishing. The fruit is
used to obtain oil that is in the light lamps; dry leaves are used as firewood (Galeano
and Bernal 2010; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al.
2014). Leaves are used as wrapping; young leaves are used to obtain fibers and make
ropes and to dye the tissues green; the larvae that develop on the trunk are used as
bait for fishing; the log wood is used to make bows, arrows, and spears for hunting
and fishing, and among the Emberás is used to carve the cane of the “jaibanás,”

R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 11 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), mature fruits, Villa Santiago, Rio Tahuayo,
Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
macanas, pylons, poles for pressing powder from the shotgun, looms, and fishing
traps; the mesocarp of the fruit is used to extract used oil for shotguns. Leaves are
used in roof construction; the log wood is used to make canoeras, animal pens, walls,

R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 13 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), fruits for sale, Villa Santiago, Rio Tahuayo,
Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
floors, house/ranch/kitchen poles, and “ripas” (thin beams) where the leaves are
woven (Galeano and Bernal 2010; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al.
2014; Moraes et al. 2014).
Ecuador: The fruit is used as fodder for pigs and as fishing bait. The crushed fruit is
mixed with the crushed leaves of Clibadium surinamense as fish venom. The
endocarp and spine are used to make personal ornaments; the fruit is used to obtain
oil used for hair care; the stem is used to make marimbas (musical instrument); with

chichagui (Arecaceae),
mature trees, Motacuzal, Beni,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &

chichagui (Arecaceae), young
infructescence, Motacuzal,
Beni, Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
the stem war spears are made that are used in traditional celebrations of the new year
Wao “dagenca tede” that is marked by the end of the fruiting of this palm. The
fruiting season of this palm is the reason for an important party among the Shuar. The
stem is used as a good energy amulet during rituals, for firewood (de la Torre et al.
2008; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014), to trap
fish, and to make spears, knives, blowguns, arrows, and marimbas keys. The leaves

chichagui (Arecaceae), ripe
R.W. Bussmann &

R.W. Bussmann &
serve as body ornament. The spines are used to remove other spines. The fruit serves
as an ornament. Larvae that develop inside the logs are used as fishing bait. The stem
is useful in the construction of houses; in walls, planks, roof supports, and floor
platforms; and as pillars; the wood is used to make parquet; the leaves are used in the
construction of roofs of houses (de la Torre et al. 2008; Paniagua-Zambrana et al.
2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014).
Peru: The endocarp is used to make personal ornaments and used by children to
play (wave, marbles); the fruit is used to obtain oil used for hair care and to
remove facial blemishes; new sheets are used to dye fibers; the log wood is used
in ceremonial tables (“despachos”) and used as fodder and as a fishing railing;

R.W. Bussmann &

fruits, Motacuzal, Beni,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &

gasipaes (Arecaceae), needle
made from trunk, Alto Ivon,
pueblo Chácobo, Beni,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 21 Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes (Arecaceae), arrowheads made from trunk, Alto Ivon,
pueblo Chácobo. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

gasipaes (Arecaceae), part of
loom made from trunk, Rio
R.W. Bussmann &
new leaves are used to burn the pig and peel it; the log is used for firewood
(Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al.
2014; Moraes 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2012a, b, c, d, e). In Northern
Peruvian shamanism, this species is used to carve many of the staffs used on
healing altars (Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b). Fruits are used to extract oil for
tools; new sheets are used to weave fans and mats; the trunk is used to make bows,
blowguns, hunting and fishing spears, arrowheads, hand spinning wheels, and
beds and to build tumbadillos (second-level floors); the log wood is used to make
the “punch” used to sow and to make ax handles. Leaves are used to build the ridge
and roofs and the trunks used in the frames of the houses; to build canoeras, animal
pens, walls, floors, and house/ranch/kitchen poles; and to obtain wood and make
the ripas where the roof sheets are woven (Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b;
Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2015; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes 2014; Paniagua-
Zambrana et al. 2012a, b, c, d, e) (Figs. 22, 23, and 24).

gasipaes (Arecaceae), beater
made from trunk, Lamas
Waycu, pueblo Lamas, Peru.

gasipaes (Arecaceae),
blowgun made from trunk,
Lamas Waycu, pueblo Lamas,
References
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Cárdenas M. Manual de plantas económicas de Bolivia. La Paz: Edit. Los Amigos del Libro; 1989.
de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel-M P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas
Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus; 2008. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12229-015-9155-5.
Galeano G, Bernal R. Palmas de Colombia. Guía de Campo. Bogotá: Editorial Universidad
Nacional de Colombia, Instituto de Ciencias Naturales-Universidad Nacional de Colombia;
2010. 688 pp.
Macía MJ, Cámara Leret R, Paniagua-Zambrana N. Uso de palmas por poblaciones locales. In:
Balslev H, Macía MJ, Navarrete H, editors. Cosecha de palmas en el noroeste de Sudamérica –
las bases científicas para su manejo y conservación. Quito: Pontificia Universidad Católica del
Ecuador; 2014.
Moraes RM, editor. Palmeras Útiles de Bolivia – Las Especies Mayormente Aprovechadas Para
Diferentes Fines y Aplicaciones. La Paz: Herbario Nacional de Bolivia – Universidad Mayor de
San Andrés, Plural Editores; 2014.
Moraes M, Paniagua-Zambrana N, Cámara Leret R, Balslev H, Macía MJ. Palmas útiles de Bolivia,
Colombia, Ecuador y Perú. In: Balslev H, Macía MJ, Navarrete H, editors. Cosecha de palmas
en el noroeste de Sudamérica – las bases científicas para su manejo y conservación. Quito:
Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador; 2014.
Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Blacutt E, Macia MJ, editors. Los Chacobo y las Palmeras.
Trujillo: Graficart; 2011.
Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Vega C, Téllez C, Macía MJ. Nuestro conocimiento y uso
de las palmeras – una herencia para nuestros hijos. Comunidades Llaquash, San Martín, Peru.
St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2012a. ISBN-13: 978-9848415-3-0.
Trujillo: Graficart; 2012b.
Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Macía MJ. El bosque SI tiene valor – el uso de palmeras en
las comunidades campesinas e indígenas de la región de Inambari, Madre de Dios, Perú.
Trujillo: Graficart; 2012c.
Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Vega C, Téllez C, Macía MJ. Kampanak se usa para el
techo pero ya no hay – Uso y conservación de palmeras entre los Awajun, Amazonas, Peru.
Trujillo: Graficart; 2012d.
Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Macía MJ. El conocimiento de nuestros ancestros - los Ese
Eja y su uso de palmeras, Madre de Dios, Peru. Trujillo: Graficart; 2012e.
Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Blacutt E, Macía MJ. Conservando nuestros bosques:
conocimiento y uso de las palmeras en las comunidades campesinas del norte de Bolivia. La
Paz: Plural Editores; 2012f.
Paniagua-Zambrana N, Bussmann RW, Vega C, Tellez C. Los Chacobo y su historia en el siglo
XX. Trujillo: Herbario Nacional de Bolivia/William L. Brown Center/Missouri Botanical
Garden/Graficart; 2014.
Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Cámara-Leret R, Macía MJ. Patterns of medicinal use of palms across
northwestern South America. Bot Rev. 2015;81(4):317–415.
Bauhinia variegata L.
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Bauhinia variegata L.: Bauhinia candida Aiton; Bauhinia chinensis Vogel; Bau-
hinia cucullata Desv.; Bauhinia decora L. Uribe; Bauhinia variegata var. candida
Buch.-Ham.; Bauhinia variegata var. chinensis DC.; Phanera variegata (L.) Benth
Local Names
Colombia: Casco de vaca, Pata de buey, Patebuey, Patevaca, Pata de vaca; English:
Butterfly tree, Geranium tree, Orchid tree
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Bauhinia variegata

(Fabaceae), Nairobi, Kenya.
Botany and Ecology
A medium-sized tree with dark brown nearly smooth bark; young shoots pubescent.
Leaves petiolate, petiole 2–3.8 cm long, lamina 4.5–15 cm long, as broad as or rather
broader than the length, with a medium cleft reaching from 1/4 to 1/3 the way down,
lobes obtuse, the base is deeply heart shaped, 9–15 nerved, pubescent beneath when
young. Inflorescence few flowered pubescent raceme. Pedicel short or absent,
bracteole minute, hypanthium slender, 1.2–2.5 cm long. Calyx 2.0–2.7 cm long,
tomentose, five toothed at the apex. Petals 5–6.3 cm long, obovate, with long rather
broad claw, all white or four petals pale purple, and fifth petal darker with purple
veins. Stamens five, fertile, no staminodes. Ovary hairy, stipe 10–17 mm long; style
long; stigma capitate. Pods 15–30 cm long, c. 1–2.5 cm broad, hard, flat, dehiscent
10–15 seeded; stipe glabrous (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).
The leaves and stem-bark are used in Colombia for the treatment of diabetes, kidney
problems, obesity, diarrhea, and as poultice for skin problems. The plant (particu-
larly the leaves) is used to lower cholesterol, against intestinal worms, in the
treatment of stomach pains, as a diuretic, as a reducer of blood pressure, and to
lower the levels of lipids in the blood. The bark is used as a healing, anti-
inflammatory and antihemorrhagic, and also as a general tonic and in the treatment
of skin diseases, relief of ulcers, diarrhea, and to treat dysentery. Infusion of the
leaves of different species of Bauhinia is traditionally used in the treatment of
diabetes and hypertension and as a diuretic and anthelmintic agent (Bernal et al.
2011; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social
Bauhinia variegata L. 323
In Northern India, the species is used to treat diarrhea, dysentery, indigestion,

laxative, leprosy, malaria, piles (bleeding), skin diseases, snake bite, syphilis,
tumors, ulcers, and worms (Verma et al. 2007), as astringent, and for skin problems
(Joshi et al. 2010). In Nepal, the flower juice is taken for dysentery and diarrhea,
while dried flowers are given for diarrhea, dysentery, and piles, and fresh flowers are
used as laxative (Kunwar et al. 2010).
References
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
Joshi M, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed
in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(Special issue 1):43–6.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
Bellardia trixago (L.) All.
ASTERACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Bellardia trixago (L.) All.: Bartsia trixago L., Euphrasia trixago (L.) Vis.,
Rhinanthus trixago L., Trixago apula Steven
Local Names
Chile: Toronjil de la pena, Toronjil dulce, Cedrón
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Erect viscid herb 10–70 cm high, simple or with a few ascending branches arising
from the middle nodes, densely covered by soft glandular and often stiff non-
glandular hairs.
Leaves narrow-lanceolate to linear, 1.5–9 cm long, 1–15 mm wide, margins
coarsely toothed, and upper leaves with 4–6 pairs of teeth. Racemes dense, with
many subsessile flowers, bracts becoming shorter, and entire towards apex. Calyx
8–10 mm long. Corolla 17–20 mm long, purple to pink with a spreading whitish or
yellowish lower lip, rarely entirely white. Capsule broad-ovoid to globose,
10–12 mm long, densely nonglandular-strigose. Sea level to 500 m (Macbride and
Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
The aerial parts are used in Chile for the treatment of heart disease, tranquilizer, and
for different ailments (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Fig. 1 Bellardia
sp. (Orobanchaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Bellardia trixago (L.) All. 327
Fig. 2 Bellardia
sp. (Orobanchaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Berberis rigidifolia Kunth ex DC.
BERBERIDACEAE

Carolina Romero
Local Names
Colombia: Espino, Espino de oro, Espuelo, Quilache, Tachuelo, Uña de gato,

Arrasquillo, Chinia, Espuela, Casha; Ecuador: Espuelas kasha (Spanish-Kichwa)
(de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Palo amarillo; English: Barberry
Botany and Ecology
A spiny shrub with flexuous, terete, glabrous branchlets and 2–3-fid spines. These are
1.5 mm thick at the base, 7 mm long, strongly curved; petioles slender, 1–2.5 cm long,
minutely puberulent, about five fasciculate; leaves subrotund, usually deeply cordate at
the base, 3–4 cm long and broad, chartaceous, slightly lustrous above but scarcely
veiny, dull, papillose, prominently reticulate-veined beneath, and undulate-spinulose-
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

dentate; flowers in peduncled corymbs or subpaniculate, granular-pulverulent, 5 mm

long; pedicels 10 mm long; stamens 3.5 mm long; connective obtuse; stigma capitate
(Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7).
The roots are used in Colombia to treat fevers, as a purgative, as a tonic, against
excessive sweating, and especially the root is used to stop bleeding (García Barriga
1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Other species like Berberis glauca and Berberis
goudotii are used for constipation, fevers, hemorrhages, as sudorific, to treat malaria,
and as skin tonic (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: The fruit is used in refrigerating
syrups (unspecified ethnic group-Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Berberis
buceronis is used in Peru for liver problems and hepatitis (Bussmann and Sharon
2006, 2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013), respiratory and nervous system disorders, and
gynecological problems (Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a,
2011a). The plants show antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2010b), and
Fig. 1 Berberis barbeyana

(Berberidaceae), Uchumarca,
Fig. 2 Berberis barbeyana

Berberis rigidifolia Kunth ex DC. 331
Fig. 3 Berberis
beauverdiana
Fig. 4 Berberis jelskiana

Fig. 5 Berberis jelskiana

Fig. 6 Berberis
sp. (Berberidaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 7 Berberis rigidifolia

essentially no toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b). Most material is used in mixtures

with other species (Bussmann et al. 2010c). Packages labeled as “Berberis vulgaris”
are distributed to patients in the Peruvian social security health system, and Berberis
species are widely sold in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008, 2009).
Berberis species are used as medicinal plants worldwide, e.g., in India and
Pakistan, where Berberis asiatica fruits are used as mild laxative for children, the
roots and bark as astringent, stomatic, diaphoretic, and to remedy piles (Bhat et al.
2015; Joshi et al. 2010), with similar uses reported by Singh et al. (2017); and
Berberis lyceum for eye problems and piles (Joshi et al. 2010); in Nepal, B. asiatica
is used for eye problems (Kunwar et al. 2013, 2015).
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: The tender fruit is used in pickles (unspecified ethnic group-Azuay,

Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Berberis fruits are widely used in the Caucasus
especially for sauces (Bussmann et al. 2016a).
Berberis rigidifolia Kunth ex DC. 333
Ecuador: The root is used as a dye because it contains yellow berberine (unspecified
ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is used as a living fence
(Mestiza-Tungurahua) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used
in health care practices by inhabitants of western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol.
2015;172:133–44.
Rev Peru Biol. 2010a;17(2):331–46.
female health. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6:30.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007a;3:37.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Lopez A. Blending traditional and Western Medicine: medicinal plant
2007b;5:185–99.
Appl. 2008;6:351–61.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016a;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-

016-0110-2.
inal plants in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016b;193:76–95.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
medicines in farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;163:210–9.
(2):450–64.
Singh A, Nautiyal MC, Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal plants used by local inhab-
itants of Jakholi block, Rudraprayag district, western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed.
2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3.
Bidens laevis (L.) Britton, Stern & Poggenb.
Bidens pilosa L.
Bidens pseudocosmos Sherff
Bidens sp.
ASTERACEAE

Synonyms
Bidens laevis (L.) Britton, Stern & Poggenb.: Bidens chrysanthemoides Michx.,
Bidens elegans Greene, Bidens expansa Greene, Bidens formosa Greene, Bidens
helianthoides Kunth, Bidens lugens Greene, Bidens nashii Small, Bidens parryi
Greene, Bidens persicifolia Greene, Bidens quadriaristata DC., Bidens speciosa
Parish, Coreopsis perfoliata Walter, Coreopsis radiata Mill., Helianthus laevis L.,
Heliopsis laevis (L.) Pers., Kerneria helianthoides (Kunth) Cass.
Bidens pilosa L.: Bidens alausensis Kunth; Bidens alba (L.) DC.; Bidens alba var.
radiata (Sch. Bip.) R.E. Ballard ex Melchert; Bidens chilensis DC.; Bidens hirsuta
Nutt.; Bidens hispida Kunth; Bidens leucantha (L.) Willd. ex Walp.; Bidens
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero

leucantha fo. discoidea Sch. Bip.; Bidens leucantha var. pilosa (L.) Grieseb.; Bidens
leucanthema (L.) Willd.; Bidens leucanthema fo. discoidea Sch. Bip.;
Bidens leucanthema var. pilosa (L.) Grieseb; Bidens montaubani Phil.; Bidens
odorata Cav.; Bidens pilosa fo. discoides Sch. Bip.; Bidens pilosa fo. indivisa
Sherf.; Bidens pilosa fo. radiata Sch. Bip.; Bidens pilosa fo. rubiflora S.S. Ying;
Bidens pilosa var. alausesis (Kunth) Sherf; Bidens pilosa var. discoidea (Sch. Bip.)
J.A. Schmidt; Bidens pilosa var. minor (Blume) Sherf; Bidens pilosa L. var. pilosa;
Bidens pilosa var. radiata (Sch. Bip.) Schmidt; Bidens pilosa var. radiata Sch. Bip.;
Bidens pilosa var. subinternata Kuntze; Bidens reflexa Link; Bidens scandicina
Kunth; Bidens sundaica var. minor Blume; Centipeda minuta (G. Forst.) Benth. ex
C.B. Clarke; Centipeda orbicularis Lour.; Coreopsis leucantha L.; Coreopsis
leucanthema L.; Cotula minuta G. Forst.; Kerneria pilosa (L.) Lowe; Kerneria
pilosa var. discoides (Sch. Bip.) Lowe; Kerneria tertagona Moench; Myriogyne
minuta (G. Forst.) Less.
Local Names
Bidens laevis: Chile: Té de burro, Té, Té silvestre, Té verde, Hoja de te, Chilile,
Chirichiri, Payko
Bidens pilosa: Colombia: Amor seco/Chipaca/Masiquia (Bussmann et al. 2018),
Chipaca, Masequia, Cadillo de huerta, Papunga, Pacunga, Mandigüiche, Amargón,
Corro, Tabera, Amapola Silvestre, Cadillo, Cadillo de perro, Masiquia, Taimquala,
Mazequía; Ecuador: Huichinge; Pakunka, Putsu, Shiñan, Shiñan yana (Kichwa),
Shiñan blanco (Spanish-Kichwa), Amor seco, Crespa morada, Morisco (Spanish),
Moriseco (Corrupted spanish), Guichingue (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al.
2008); Peru: Amor seco, Cadillo, Morseco, Tres esquinas, Karqueja; English:
Black jack
Bidens pseudocosmos: Chile: Amor Seco
Botany and Ecology
Bidens laevis: Evergreen herb, 0–700. Leaves entire, elliptic, sessile ranging
5–10 cm long and 1.5–2 cm wide. Flower heads average 2–5 cm wide, with yellow
ray and disk flowers (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Bidens pilosa: Annual, erect herb up to 100 cm tall, with slender, stiff, and four-
angled stems and spreading branches. Leaves decussately opposite, pinnately 3–5-
foliolate, up to 15(–20) cm long, sometimes lower leaves simple, without stipules;
leaflets with short petiolules, blade ovate to ovate-lanceolate, margins usually serrate
or crenate-serrate, terminal leaflet larger than lateral leaflets. Inflorescence an axil-
lary or terminal head 6–12 mm in diameter, solitary, or arranged in lax cymes; outer
involucral bracts 7–10, spatulate, 3–4 mm long, reflexed at anthesis, inner ones
ovate-lanceolate. Ray flowers absent or 4–8, ligulate, sterile, corolla 7–15 mm long,
white to yellow or pinkish; disk flowers tubular, bisexual, with 3.5–5 mm long,
yellow corolla; stamens with fused anthers; ovary inferior, one-celled, style bifid.
Bidens laevis (L.) Britton, Stern & Poggenb. . . . 337
Fruit a linear achene 4–13 mm long, 4–6-ribbed, with 2–3(–5) retrorsely barbed
bristles of 2–4 mm long. Seedling with epigeal germination; hypocotyl elongated;
cotyledons strap-shaped to spatulate (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Bidens pseudocosmos: Graceful, annual herb, with basally simple stems, superiorly
branched, up to 40 cm alt. leaves with dense pubescence, hirsute, flattened petiole;
deep bipinnatisect blade with oval outline with linear segments of acute apex,
20–80 mm long. 20–35 mm lat. Terminal and solitary capitules in each branch,
long pedunculated. Involucre flared, hirsute-pubescent, 7 mm long and lat., uneven
filaries, the external ones somewhat narrower than the internal ones, all 6–7 mm
long. Marginal flowers up to 10, yellow corolla with tubular proximal half and
ligulate distal, five-nerved, with 2–3-lobed apex, ligule up to 5 mm long. Tubular
central flowers, yellow, numerous, with ovary of 4 mm long, and 5 mm corolla.
Aquileia longitudinally striated, black, narrowly turbinated, and up to 10 mm long.
Pappus short, divergent, sagittate edges, up to 1 mm long, 2900–3400 m above sea
level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Bidens laevis: The infusion is used for lung, gallbladder, and bladder diseases
(Hammer 2016; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Fig. 1 Bidens pilosa



Bidens pilosa: The main medicinal use of this plant is to reduce blood sugar levels,
that is, to cure diabetes. The decoction of the whole plant is used to treat diseases of
the liver, rebound of bile, indigestion, and diarrhea. The leaves prepared in infusion
are used for the treatment of dysentery, diarrhea, flu, stomach pain, canker sores,
angina pectoris, cough, fevers, diabetes, edema, hepatitis, hypertension, and gastro-
duodenal ulcers. It has also been used against inflammation and as a diuretic. Exter-
nally, the infusion of the leaves is used against fungi of the skin, to heal wounds and
sores, as an antiseptic, and to relieve pain in the bones and joints (Fonnegra-Gómez

(Asteraceae), fruits,
R.W. Bussmann and
and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Mini-
sterio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Colombia: The whole plant
used to treat diarrhea, indigestion, urinary infection, as diuretic, and to remedy
witchcraft; whole plant, stems, leaves, and flowers are used to treat diabetes, gallblad-
der, and liver problems; stems, leaves, and flowers are used as emenagogue
(Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat liver,
infections, and diarrhea. The bath with the infusion of the flowers is used to treat
skin allergies (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The leaves, in
infusion, are used to heal wounds (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura). The juice of the
flower is used to treat nerve conditions. The flower, macerated with escancel
(Amaranthaceae), geranium (Geranium sp.), “Cana yuyu” (Sonchus sp.), and “sacha
gola” (Rumex sp.) is used to treat gangrene. Root and buds are used to treat “cold
inflammation” (sudden cooling of the body). It serves as a medicine to treat “heat
inflammation” (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The root is taken in an infusion to calm
vaginal bleeding (Mestiza-Pichincha). The flowers, in infusion, are used to treat
postpartum conditions and for those affected by the bladder (unspecified ethnicity –
Loja). The leaves are used to treat angina (unspecified ethnic group –Esmeraldas,
Guayas). The infusion of the petals is drunk to treat liver and heart conditions
(Unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). It serves as a diuretic, to treat rheumatism,
osteoarticular and back pain, throat conditions, and canker sores (unspecified ethnic
group-Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is
used to treat gallbladder, kidney inflammation, inflammation (general), kidneys,
prostate, hair loss, diabetes, liver, blood, and heart (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013). The plants are often found in local markets
(Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008). Also more recently used to treat diabetes and cancer
(Bussmann and Glenn 2011a), and bacterial and fungal infections (Bussmann and
Glenn 2011b) due to its antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2011a) and low
toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b). The species is normally used in mixtures (Bussmann
et al. 2010).
In India, Bidens pilosa is used for cough and bronchitis, while Bidens bipinnata
and Bidens biternata are used to treat leprosy and cuts (Bhat et al. 2013). In Kenya,
the B. pilosa is used for respiratory disorders (Njoroge et al. 2004) and to improve
fertility (Njoroge and Bussmann 2009).
Bidens pseudocosmos: The seeds are used as remedy for fever (Novara and Freire
Local Food Uses
Bidens laevis: Used as infusion/tea mixed with cinnamon (Hammer 2016;

Bidens laevis: Used for forage (Hammer 2016; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and
Castro 2003).
Bidens pilosa: Ecuador: The chopped plant is food of chicken and turkeys. It is
used as animal fodder (Unspecified ethnicity – Loja). It has beekeeping use
(unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants
in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9:1.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008;6:351–61.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8
Hammer RL. Central Florida wildflowers: a field guide to wildflowers of the Lake Wales Ridge,
Ocala National Forest, Disney Wilderness Preserve, and more than 60 state parks and preserves.
Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield; 2016.
(2):450–64.
Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Ethnotherapeutic management of Sexually Transmitted Diseases
(STDs) and reproductive health conditions in Central Province, Kenya. Indian J Tradit
Knowl. 2009;8(2):262–9.
Njoroge GN, Barbara G, Bussmann RW, Newton LE, Ngumi VW. Utilization of weed species as
source of traditional medicines in central Kenya: optimizing resource efficiency (R.U.E.) in
agro-ecosystems. Lyonia. 2004;7(2):71–87.
Novara LJ, Freire SE. Flora del Valle de Lerma: Asteraceae Bercht & J. Presl. Tr. IV. Inuleae Cass,
Universidad Nacional de Salta, Salta. 2011.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Bixa orellana L.
BIXACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Bixa orellana L.: Bixa acuminata Bojer; Bixa americana Poir.; Bixa odorata Ruiz & Pav.
ex. G. Don.; Bixa orellana fo. leiocarpa (Kuntze) J.F. Macbr.; Bixa orellana var.
leiocarpa (Kuntze) Standl. & L.O. Williams; Bixa platycarpa Ruiz & Pav. ex. G. Don.;
Bixa tinctoria Salisb.; Bixa upatensis Ram. Goyena; Bixa urucurana Willd.; Orellana
americana Kuntze; Orellana americana var. leiocarpa Kuntze; Orellana orellana (L.)
Kuntze
Local Names
Colombia: Bija, Achiote, Onoto, Urucú, Eroyá, Uñañé, Achote de monte, Achote,
Bija, Unucú, Azafrán de la tierra, Achoote, Woukou, Achote, Bija Anatto, Anatta,
Achiote de cholo; Ecuador: Bandenu tape, Duchichiimu puka, Kutu chuinu puka,
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Lala’ fintsumu mu (Chafi’ki), Mu, Muja (Tsafi’ki), Achiwiti, Aya manturu, Manturu,
Puka manturu (Kichwa), Cu’a cuña, Inszia cuña, Tsanda cuña (A’ingae), Huihue
posa, Muju posa, Payo posa, Posa, Sëño posa (Pai coca), Kaka, Kakamo, Kakawe
(Wao tededo), Ipiák (Shuar chicham), Ipiak (Achuar chicham), Achiote, Achiote
colorado, Achiote de monte, Achiote de racimo, Color, Mora (Spanish), Annatto
(English), Pulumoco (Lengua no especificada) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru:
Achote, Hoja de Achote; English: Annatto, Lipstick tree
Botany and Ecology
Shrub-like or low-spreading tree with broadly ovate, acuminate leaves truncate or more
or less cordate at base, usually somewhat pitted beneath; inflorescence scurfy pubescent;
pods characteristically ovoid-pointed, longer than broad, densely long-echinate; seeds
red (yellow), papillose, the endocarp detaching, 200–2200 m above sea level. Bixa
orellana is native to tropical America, where since antiquity, the red dye is extracted
from its seeds. Due to its solubility in lipids, it is widely used in the food industry for
giving red to orange-yellow colors for cheese, butter, oils, margarine, ice-cream, candy,
bakery products, and rice (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).
Colombia: Annatto is used as an aphrodisiac and as a digestive (particularly seeds).

In decoction, leaves are used to treat gonorrhea, throat conditions, nausea and
vomiting, and liver diseases. The decoction in milk of the inner part of the fruit
(pulp, seeds) is used in gargles to reduce inflammation and tonsils. The seeds are
used as a gastrointestinal tonic, to relieve diarrhea, as a purgative, to promote
digestion, against cutaneous itching, against inflammation, to treat diabetes, against
fevers, in oral tumors, and to relieve the flu. The seeds are also used to paint the
eczemas of the skin with them and thus relieve them. The dough prepared with the
Fig. 1 Bixa orellana

(Bixaceae), Palma Real,
Madre de Dios, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrama)
Bixa orellana L. 345
seeds is used externally to relieve burns and other skin conditions, particularly to
prevent the formation of blisters (Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975;
Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Leaves used to treat liver problems; leaves and
seeds used to treat diarrhea and wound healing; seeds used to treat eczema, mosquito
bites, skin diseases, burns, tonsillitis, bronchitis, indigestion, sexual potency, cancer,
and as expectorant (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: From the leaves and tender
flowers a liquid is extracted for the treatment of cataracts. The leaves are used to treat
kidney and bladder pain and the bath with decoction of the leaves is applied to
relieve rheumatism. The fruit treats indeterminate conditions (Kichwa of the East-
Napo). The fruit is used to treat epilepsy (unspecified ethnic group-Azuay, Cañar).
The fruit and leaves are used as an ointment to treat rheumatism. The flower is used
to treat heart problems. The seeds serve to relieve the headache (Shuar-Orellana).
The stem, macerated in water or the stem sap, is used to treat conjunctivitis (evil eye)
(East Kichwa-Orellana, Other (Amazon)). The dye that is extracted from the seeds
(aryl) is used to remove pimples, spots, and cure skin infections (bad skin) (Shuar-
Napo, Morona Santiago, Others (Amazon)). The infusion of the root is given to
pregnant women for 2–3 months to drink to get rid of the cold. The leaves are used to
treat cold and cough, bone pain, and rheumatism (Tsa’chi-Pichincha). The root is
used to aid in digestion. The seeds are expectorant (unspecified ethnicity – no
locality). The root is used to treat indeterminate conditions (Shuar-Napo). The hot
leaves are applied to treat wounds and as an ointment to relieve rheumatism
(Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group-Bolívar). The leaves are used to
relieve muscle pain and skin inflammation (Shuar-Napo, Orellana, Morona Santi-
ago). The leaves, in infusion and together with Heliocarpus americanus, are used to
accelerate labor; In addition, the decoction is used by Kichwa women, in drinks and
for baths, to regain their strength after childbirth and to cleanse the organs (Kichwa
of the East-Sucumbíos, Napo, Orellana, Others (Amazon)). The seeds serve to
eliminate fungi from the skin (Shuar-Morona Santiago). It is used to treat conditions
of the prostate (Mestiza-Pichincha). Used to treat indeterminate conditions
(Wao-Pastaza) (de la Torre et al. 2008). With the leaves they bathe and rub the
mothers after childbirth, because they give strength and purify. The seeds were used
to paint the cassava stakes (Manihot esculenta), because it was believed that in this
way, the root would grow more (Kichwa of the East-Napo). The seed pigment is used
to make symbols on the leaves that are used to treat “chutún” (Awa-Carchi). The
leaves and seeds are used to treat “bad wind” or “bad air” (Kichwa of the East-
Orellana). The leaves, in infusion, and the seeds are used only by shamans as part of
an act of exorcism, when the patient is possessed by a bad spirit. The seeds are mixed
with water in the mouth and then this mixture is blown on the patient (Chachi-
Esmeraldas). With the seeds, the face and body are painted for festivals or important
ceremonies such as the yaje (hallucinogenic drink prepared based on Banisteriopsis
caapi) (Redwood, Cofan-Succumbios; Kichwa of the East, Wao-Napo). The seeds
are used by the Tsa’chi to color the hair and parts of the skin, with the belief that they
will not be recognized by evil spirits (Tsa’chi-Pichincha). Shamans use it to paint
their faces, as a mask that protects them from other spirits or as an aid in hunting
(Kichwa del Oriente-Otros (Ecuador)) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Seeds and
leaves, fresh or dried, are used to treat inflammation of the kidneys, prostate,
bronchitis, hemorrhages, pulmonary systems, and urinary infections (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013). The species is widely
used and sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2009a, 2010a). Some
antibacterial properties have been observed (Bussmann et al. 2009b, c, 2011a, b).
Like many other species, Bixa is generally used in herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al.
2010b).
Local Food Uses
Colombia: Seeds used as Condiment (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The red
pigment extracted from the perisperm is an excellent stomach appetizer (Unspecified
ethnicity – no locality). The leaves, fruit, and seeds are edible (Mestiza-Loja;
Unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha, Loja; Kichwa del Oriente- Napo, Orellana)
(de la Torre et al. 2008). The aryl of the seeds is used as a condiment and to color
foods, for it is dried and fried in oil (Chachi-Esmeraldas; Awa-Carchi, Esmeraldas;
Tsa’chi-Pichincha; Cofán, Secoya, Siona-Sucumbíos, Others (Amazonia); Kichwa
of the East-Sucumbíos, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Others (Amazonia); Wao-Napo,
Others (Amazonia); Shuar-Sucumbíos, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Others (Amazonia);
Mestiza-Manabi, Guayas, El Oro, Pichincha, Sucumbíos; Unspecified ethnic group
– Esmeraldas, El Oro, Pichincha, Bolívar, Cañar, Azuay, Loja, Napo, Others (Costa
Region, Andean Region)). The leaves are used as a condiment (Kichwa del Oriente-
Orellana) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Seeds used as food coloring.
In Colombia the indigenous people of Putumayo and Caquetá use achiote to paint
their legs, arms, or face, not only as a body ornament but because it protects them
against insect bites (Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Martínez
Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Patiño
1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The fruit is bird food (Wao-Orellana) (de la Torre et al.
2008). The stem is used to make torches (Wao-Orellana) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
The aryl of the seed is used by certain indigenous groups as a varnish for the body
(unspecified ethnic group-Azuay, Cañar). The aryl of the seed is used as a dye to
paint or dye fibers, clothing, blowguns, spears, arrows, and ceramics (Cofán,
Secoya-Sucumbíos; Kichwa of the Oriente-Napo; Wao-Napo, Orellana, Pastaza;
Shuar-Sucumbíos, Orellana, Pastaza). The pigment of the seeds is used to paint on
wood (Awa-Carchi). The red pigment extracted from the perisperm is used in the
staining of objects and of the body (Mestiza-Sucumbíos; Unspecified ethnic group –
Esmeraldas, Pichincha, Napo). The stem serves as a coloring dye (Wao-Orellana).
The decoction of the leaves is used in hot baths. With the seeds a paste is prepared to
dye hair (Tsa’chi-Pichincha, Others (Ecuador)). The leaves, fruit, and roots are used
Bixa orellana L. 347
as personal adornment (Shuar-Napo). The seeds (aryl) are used to paint the body,
mainly the face (Mestiza-El Oro; Cofán, Secoya, Siona-Sucumbíos; Kichwa del
Oriente-Napo, Orellana, Pastaza; Wao-Napo, Orellana; Shuar-Sucumbíos, Napo,
Pastaza). Boiled seeds, along with other plants, are used to extract a yellow dye to
paint the head (Siona-Sucumbíos) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is used to shade
crops (Mestiza-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
clients at Laboratorios Beal in Trujillo, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009a;7:399–407.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009b;16(1):93–103.
Perez-A. F, Glenn A. Phyto-chemical analysis of Peruvian medicinal plants. Arnaldoa. 2009c;16
(1):105–10.
(4):742–53.
Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. Astonishing diversity - the
medicinal plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):43. https://
doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
(2):450–64.
Bomarea angustifolia Benth.
Bomarea dulcis (Hook.) Beauverd
ALSTROEMERIACEAE
Synonyms
Bomarea angustifolia Benth.: Bomarea angulata Benth.; Bomarea multiflora (L.f.)

Mirb.; Bomarea torta (Kunth) Herb.
Bomarea dulcis (Hook.) Beauverd: Alstroemeria dulcis Hook; Alstroemeria
uniflora Mathews ex Herb.; Bomarea biflora Vargas; Bomarea calcensis Vargas;
Bomarea campanuliflora Killip; Bomarea cuzcoensis Vargas; Bomarea engleriana
Kraenzl.; Bomarea glaucescens var. dulcis (Hook.) Baker; Bomarea petraea
Kraenzl.; Bomarea puberula (Herb.) Kraenzl.; Bomarea puberula var. acicularis
(Herb.) Beauverd; Bomarea tacnaense Vargas; Bomarea uniflora (M. Roem.) Killip;
Bomarea uniflora (Mathews ex Herb.) Killip; Bomarea zosterifolia Killip; Collania
dulcis (Hook.) Herb.; Collania dulcis var. parviflora Herb.; Collania guadelupensis
Kraenzl.; Collania herzogiana Kraenzl.; Collania petraea Kraenzl.; Collania
puberula var. acicularis Kraenzl.; Wichuraea acicularis M. Roem.; Wichuraea
dulcis M. Roem.; Wichuraea dulcis var. cruikshanksii M. Roem.; Wichuraea sulcis
var. uniflora M. Roem.; Wichuraea parviflora M. Roem.
R. W. Bussmann (*)

350 N. Y. Paniagua-Zambrana and R. W. Bussmann
Local Name
Bomarea angustifolia: Peru: Cachuljillo (Spanish)

Bomarea dulcis: Peru: Espuela de Gallo (Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Bomarea angustifolia: A vine, glabrous throughout; leaves linear-lanceolate, up to

4 cm long and 5 mm wide, acuminate, revolute, rigid, crowded toward the end of the
stem; bracts numerous, similar to the leaves; umbel about 6-rayed, the rays about
1 cm long, 1-flowered; sepals narrowly oblong-lanceolate, as long as the sepals, very
slightly broader at the apex than the sepals, green, black-spotted, yellowish toward
the base.
Bomarea dulcis: An erect, rigid herb 10–30 cm high, the stem glabrous or short
tomentose, strongly recurved at the tip; leaves narrowly linear, up to 6 cm long but
usually much shorter, strongly revolute, appearing acicular, finely cano-puberulent
beneath; primary rays 1–4, usually forked near the base, bearing at the fork a
conspicuous, lanceolate bractlet; flowers 2–2.5 cm long, the segments subequal,
the sepals oblong, about 5 mm wide, subacute, red, the petals spatulate, yellow,
green-tipped or sometimes purple at the tip.
Local Medicinal Use
Bomarea angustifolia: Peru: The dry whole plant is used to treat infertility in
women (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b).
Bomarea dulcis: Peru: The whole plant is used fresh for protection, success, and
advising (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Bomarea angustifolia Benth. . . . 351
Fig. 1 Bomarea cornuta

(Alstroemeriaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Bomarea crassifolia

(Alstroemeriaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 3 Bomarea dissitifolia

(Alstroemeriaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Bomarea dulcis

(Alstroemeriaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Bomarea angustifolia Benth. . . . 353
Fig. 5 Bomarea dulcis

(Alstroemeriaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 6 Bomarea goniocaulon

(Alstroemeriaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Borago officinalis L.
BORAGINACEAE

Carolina Romero
Local Names
Bolivia: Morraja (Spanish); Colombia: Borraja (Spanish); Ecuador: Borraja de

Jardín (Spanish); Borrago, Borraja azul, Borraja blanca, Borraja morada (Spanish)
(de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Borraja (Spanish); English: Borage
Botany and Ecology
Biennial herb; stem erect or ascending, thick, robust, long-hairy, and spreading
bristly, usually branching above; leaves finely undulant, dentate at margin, lower
leaves with petioles and oval blades, bristly-hairy, 3–7 cm long, 2–5 cm wide,
obtuse, upper leaves sessile, oblong. Inflorescence usually corymbiform-paniculate,
with few lanceolate, small leaves at base; scorpioid cymes leafless, short, loose, with
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

flowers drooping on long, spreading, bristly pedicels; calyx long white bristly at
margins of lobes, 1–12 mm long, up to 15 mm in fruit, lobes lanceolate, obtuse;
corolla pale blue, 15–20 mm across, lobes of limb oblong-lanceolate, acute,
stellately spreading, incisions between them extending nearly to stamens; anthers
dark violet, 5–6 mm long, filaments much dilated at base and much shorter than
anthers, with appendages ca. 2.5 mm long; nutlets 5 mm long, erect, oblong,
ventrally keeled, dorsally very unequal-sided, with vertical, raised lines of small
tubercles along the inflated sides, the apex short, obtuse, compressed; attachment-
ring dark, thickened, transversely ribbed; caruncle very large, protruding. Weedy
places near residential areas or kitchen gardens (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Bolivia: Whole fresh plant used to treat cough (Bussmann et al. 2016; Macía
et al. 2005).
Colombia: The decoction of the leaves is used mainly to help in the perspiration and
to facilitate the perspiration, and especially to relieve the cough and like expectorant.
The poultices made with the leaves are used to relieve and reduce inflammation of
the blows or contusions. The leaves in decoction are also used in bronchitis, cough,
and affections caused by flu and colds. Infused flowers are used to promote sweating
(Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García
Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Stems, leaves, and flowers used to treat “fríos
encajados,” blood cleansing, cough, expectorant, inflammation, to promote sweat-
ing, and as tranquilizer; leaves and flowers used to treat bronchitis, fever, and
bruises; flowers used to treat dysmenorrhea, flu, measles, and as emenagogue
(Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: Whole fresh plant used to treat asthma, cough,
and bronchitis (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The flower, infused, is drunk
to treat pertussis (unspecified ethnic group Cañar). The infusion of the inflorescence
together with royal sage, rue de flor, chamomile, and sugar is taken against the
pasmo. It is used to treat nerve conditions (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The
Fig. 1 Borago officinalis

(Boraginaceae), garden,
Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W:
Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Borago officinalis L. 357

Zambrana)

Zambrana)
infusion of the plant is drunk to treat “relapses” of childbirth, blood disorders,

measles, and body aches (unspecified ethnicity-Chimborazo). Infusion in water or
milk of the plant, in particular, of the flower and leaves, is used to recover vitality and
treat fever, colds, flu, cough, and bronchitis (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura,
Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Loja; Shuar-Napo; Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic
group-Imbabura, Pichincha, Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar, Azuay,
Loja). The flowers are used to treat “heat inflammation” (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Loja). The leaves are used as emenagogue, diuretics, sweat, and refreshing (Kichwa
de la Sierra-Chimborazo; unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). The leaves are
used to treat skin irritations. The leaves and seeds stimulate the secretion of milk in
women who breastfeed (unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi). The leaves, in
infusion, are used to relieve menstrual problems (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo).
It is stimulant of skin functions and is useful for treating menstrual disorders, lung
conditions, measles, nephritis, abscesses, swelling, and diarrhea (Mestiza-Pichincha;
unspecified ethnicity – Tungurahua). It is used to treat throat conditions. The
infusion regulates menstruation (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat bronchitis, cough,
cold, lungs, blood problems, burn fat, lose weight, anxiety, depression, heart
and nerve problems, insomnia, and bruises (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b,
2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2009; Revene et al. 2008) and shows antibacterial activity
(Bussmann et al. 2010, 2011). Borage is often used in mixture with other herbs
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: It is used in food because it has vitamins (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja) (de la

Torre et al. 2008).
Ecuador: The flower is very pleasing to bees (unspecified ethnic group-Azuay,

Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
9789962-2-2.
Borago officinalis L. 359
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze D, Tchelidze D,
(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. Journal of Ehnobiol and Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/
10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2.
Brassica oleracea L.
BRASSICACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Brassica oleracea L.: Brassica alboglabra L.H. Bailey; Brassica maritima Tardent;
Crucifera brassica E.H.L. Krause; Napus oleracea (L.) K.F. Schimp. & Spenn.
Local Names
Spanish: Col, Coliflor, Repollo; English: Cabbage
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Biennial; stem tall, leafy; lower leaves very large, fleshy, lyrate, pinnatisect, adja-
cent, short-petioled, with prominent nerves; middle cauline leaves more or less
amplexicaul; whole plant grayish green, glabrous. Raceme with many large flowers;
petals yellow; siliques very large, up to 10 cm long, reclinate; beak stout, subobtuse,
short, 4–6 mm long, rarely 15 mm; seeds large, dark brown, ca. 2 mm long,
spherical, slightly alveolate. Grown widely in vegetable gardens. Cultivation is
possible in the subtropics, during the cold season or in the mountains. Its origin
and distribution as a wild plant is the Mediterranean area along the coasts.
Brassica oleracea was domesticated about 5000 years ago and is now cultivated
throughout the world, although in the tropics it is mostly restricted to higher
elevations. Leaf cabbage comprises diverse cultigens developed from wild Brassica
oleracea, which has a northern Mediterranean and western European origin. It is
probably the first cabbage crop cultivated (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).
Cabbage is used in Colombia internally as a diuretic, antidiarrheal, and in the

treatment of gastric or duodenal ulcers, hyperthyroidism, scurvy, and diseases of
the small intestine. Externally, it is used as a healing, antiulcer, to soothe skin
irritations, and to treat rheumatic pain, bruises, and wounds. Cabbage, also used
Fig. 1 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), garden, Tusheti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Brassica oleracea L. 363
Fig. 2 Brassica oleracea

(Brassicaceae), garden,
R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and
against intoxication, in the treatment of duodenal ulcers and to prevent “coto o

bocio” (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012;
García Barriga 1974; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In
Peru cabbage is used to relieve gallbladder problems and gallstones. Brassica rapa
(radish) is used to remedy throat infections, kidney, and ovary inflammations
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010).
B. oleracea has shown mild antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2009a, b,
2011). Cabbage is often mixed with other species (Bussmann et al. 2010).

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 6 Brassica oleracea var.

sabellica (Brassicaceae),

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and

(Brassicaceae), cabbage
leaves filled with meat,
R.W. Bussmann and

(Brassicaceae), cabbage salad,
Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Local Food Uses
Widely used as food (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016) (Figs. 9 and 10).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103.
2009b;16(1):105–10.
2014;12:237–313.
016-0110-2.
Brosimum rubescens Taub.
MORACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Brosimum rubescens Taub.: Alicastrum rubescens (Taub.) Taub.; Brosimum

angustifolium Ducke; Brosimum brevipedunculatum Ducke; Brosimum caloxylon
Standl.; Brosimum lanciferum Ducke; Brosimum longistipulatum Ducke; Brosimum
paraense Huber; Brosimum playneurum Ducke; Ferolia guianensis Aubl.; Parinari
guyanensis Fritsch; Piratinera lancifera (Ducke) Benoist; Piratinera paraensis
(Huber) Benoist; Piratinera rubescens (Taub.) Pittier
Local Names
Colombia: Granadillo, Palo sangre; Ecuador: Angoe (Wao tededo) (de la Torre
et al. 2008); Peru: Palo Sangre, Palo de la Sangre, Ablita (Spanish)
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
A large tree, glabrous throughout; stipules very narrow, elongate, as much as 1.5 cm
long, brown; petioles short, the blades mostly oblong-elliptic and 4.5–10 cm long,
coriaceous, usually lustrous, the numerous lateral nerves diverging at a wide angle;
fruiting heads about 12 mm in diameter, short-stalked (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
The alcoholic extract of the wood, bark, and leaves of Palo Sangre are used in
Colombia as contraceptives, antihemorrhages, tonics, and to treat fevers caused by
malaria. The indigenous Tikuna of the Amazon take the decoction of the scrape of
the bark to relieve both menstrual pain and postpartum pain (Acero 2000).
Peru: Wood and Bark, fresh or dried, are used to treat fertility and sexual potency,
blood irrigation, blood coagulation, hemorrhages (prevention and healing), diabetes,
arthritis, bronchitis, and muscle pain (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008, 2010; Bussmann
and Glenn 2010a, b, 2011; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2015a, b).
Ecuador: The fruit is food for animals, particularly birds (Wao-Orellana;

unspecified ethnic group – Napo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The stem is timber; it is
used as a stringer (Wao-Orellana) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Acero LE. Árboles, gentes y costumbres. Bogotá: Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas,
Plaza & Janés Editores; 2000. 387 pp.
Rev Peru Biol. 2010b;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Brosimum rubescens Taub. 371
Bussmann RW, Barocio Y, Díaz PD, Sharon D. Peruvian plants canchalagua (Schkuhria pinnata
(Lam.) Kuntze), hercampuri (Gentianella alborosea (Gilg.) Fabris), and corpus way
2008;15(1):149–52.
Peru as antibacterial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;132:101–8.
Browningia candelaris (Meyen)
Britton & Rose
CACTACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Browningia candelaris (Meyen) Britton & Rose: Browningia icaensis F. Ritter,

Cereus candelaris Meyen, Cactus candelaris (Meyen) Meyen
Local Names
Chile: Candelabro, Cardón, Chastudo, Sabaya, Maksa, Tunilla
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Succulent cactus, arborescent, between 3 and 5 m high; trunk very spiny, erect,
which branches to a certain height, with up to 50 branches that grow in all directions.
Ribs, about 30, narrow and flattened; Oval and large areolas. Thorns of the main
stem up to 15 cm long, brown new and gray or black after. Large flowers, between
8 and 12 cm long; ovary and floral tube covered with broad and fleshy scales;
narrow, external petals of pink coffee color, white or slightly pink internal. Fruit:
fleshy, yellowish berry, approximately 7 cm in diameter, slightly ovate with dark
scales, with a whitish pulp with numerous black seeds, 2000–3000 m above sea level
(González and Molina 2017).
The fruit is used to treat gallbladder disease (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez
Local Food Uses
The fresh fruit is eaten with sugar (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al.
Provides wood for the construction of houses (roof beams) and for handicrafts
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Brugmansia candida Pers.
Brugmanisa sanguinea (Ruiz & Pav.) D. Don.
SOLANACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Brugmansia candida Pers.: Brugmansia arborea (L.) Lagerh.; Brugmanisa aurea

Lagerh.; Datura affinis Saff.; Datura arborea L.; Datura arborea Ruiz & Pav.;
Datura candida (Pers.) Pasq.; Datura candida (Pers.) Saff.; Datura candida (Pers.)
Voigt.; Datura pittieri Saff.
Brugmanisa sanguinea (Ruiz & Pav.) D. Don.: Brugmanisa bicolor Pers.; Datura
rosei Saff.; Datura rubella Saff.; Datura sanguinea Ruiz & Pav.; Datura sanguinea
var. flava Dunal
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Brugmansia candida

(Solanaceae), Hunachaco,
Local Names
Brugmansia candida: Colombia: Amarón borrachero, Biangan borrachero,

Borrachero, Borrachero blanco, Buiesh-borrachero, Cacao sabanero, Culebra borrachera,
Floripondio, Gumsian borrachero, Kinde borrachero, Munchira, Muscay borrachero,
Muscuai borrachera, Ngntian-borrachero, Quinde borrachera, Salamán borrachero,
Salvaje borrachera
Brugmansia sanguinea: Colombia: Borrachero colorado, Campanilla encarnada,
Floripondio, Floripondio encarnado, Guamuca, Huamuca, Tonga
Botany and Ecology
Brugmansia candida: A shrub or small tree; leaves softly pubescent; calyx spathe-
like, deciduous in fruit; corolla white, 15–18 cm long, with distinct sinuses or
notches between the lobes; peduncle velvety-pubescent; calyx caducous, often
6–25 cm long; fruit ovoid. Often cultivated (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Fig. 1).
Brugmansia sanguinea: The only known species with dark red flowers shading into
a yellow tube; leaves entire or repand, puberulent; peduncle slender; calyx about half
the length of the corolla or less, with two (later more) acuminate teeth; corolla 2 dm.
long, lightly pubescent, the limb about 7 cm wide; filaments pubescent below;
anthers 1.5 cm long; fruit often in persisting calyx, smooth, seeds verruculose. A
small tree growing at 3000–4000 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Brugmansia candida Pers. . . . 377
Fig. 2 Brugmansia sanguinea (Solanaceae), ceremonial planting around large Podocarpus tree
and altar, Cajas, Ecuador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
Fig. 3 Brugmansia
sanguinea (Solanaceae),
Cajas, Ecuador. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Brugmansia
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 5 Brugmansia
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 6 Brugmansia
R.W. Bussmann and
Brugmansia candida: It is a plant with toxic and hallucinogenic properties. The

juice is a strong hallucinogen, and is highly toxic. In poultices they are used to
relieve rheumatic pain. To relieve fatigue and as a stimulant, in Colombia the leaves
are used in decoction. Externally, it is used in the treatment of rheumatism and in
arthritic conditions (García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In Madagascar, the
species is used to treat epilepsy and paraplegia (Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015).
Brugmansia sanguinea: The whole plant, but especially the fruits, are very poison-
ous and narcotic and have hallucinogenic and narcotic properties. In Colombia a
decoction of the leaves is used in the form of baths to relieve the inflammations
produced by the retention of liquids in the body (García Barriga 1975; Pérez
Arbeláez 1996).
Some antibacterial properties have been reported (Bussmann et al. 2011a), but the
high toxicity of the species (Bussmann et al. 2011b) prevents application for
medicinal use.
All species of the genus are widely used for ceremonial purposes (Bussmann 2016).
In Ecuador both species are used in curing ceremonies for enhancing visions and
topically to treat wounds and cysts caused by sorcery (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a,
2007a).
In Peru, it is used to treat bad air (mal aire), as protection from sorcery, to remedy
nervous system tensions, fright caused by spirits (susto por espiritos), and as
hallucinogen (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Monigatti et al.
2013). The plants are sold in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2010; Bussmann and
Sharon 2010), although they have mostly disappeared in Bolivia (Bussmann et al.
2016).
Brugmansia candida: Colombia: The Indians of Sibundoy in the Putumayo use it
as hallucinogen and consume it by mixing it with brandy (García Barriga 1975;
Brugmansia sanguinea: Colombia: The indigenous Sionas and the Inganos con-
sume a drink made with the juice of the leaves or seeds in order to establish
communication with the spirits of ancestors and in traditional spiritual and magical
rituals (Bussmann et al. 2018; García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
References
Bussmann RW. Magic plants. In: Albuquerque U, Alves R, editors. Introduction to ethnobiology.
Heidelberg: Springer; 2016. p. 163–9.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. From collection to market and cure – an interdisciplinary study of
traditional plant use in northern Peru. In: Albuquerque UP, Hanazaki N, editors. Recent
developments and case studies in ethnobotany. Recife: Brazilian Society of Ethnobiology and
Ethnoecology (SBEE)/Publication Group of Ecology and Applied Ethnobotany (NUPEEA);
2010. p. 184–207. 288 p.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010;4(9):580–629.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
(2):450–64.
2015;11:60.
Bryantiella glutinosa (Phil.) J.M. Porter
POLEMONIACEEA

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Bryantiella glutinosa (Phil.) J.M. Porter: Gilia glutinosa Phil.
Local Names
Chile: Lipelipe, Pachareke, Alhucema del campo, Pasto de lluvia, Pasto del campo
Botany and Ecology
Perennial plants, small, 5–60 cm high, glabrescent, glandular, pubescent, or viscous

throughout. Leaves narrowly linear, whole or pinnatifid, the lobes narrowly linear,
axils sometimes with white hairs; small leaves cauline, sometimes only bracts.
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Cymose flowers; pedicels between 0.5 and 3 cm long; campanulate calyx, 3–5 lobed
or 3–5 slit; white, blue, or violet corolla; tube shorter than the chalice. Fruit: ovate
capsule; brown seeds, becoming mucilaginous when wet. Sea level to 3700 m
(González and Molina 2017).
The aerial parts are used for the treatment of stomach ache and colic (Aldunate et al.
1983; González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
Used as forage (Aldunate et al. 1983; González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al.
References
Aldunate C, Villagrán C, Armesto JJ, Castro V. Ethnobotany of pre-altiplanic community in the
Andes of northern Chile. Econ Bot. 1983;37(1):120–35.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Buddleja americana L.
Buddleja coriacea J. Rémy
SCROPHULARIACEAE
Synonyms
Buddleja americana L.: Buddleja americana var. albiflora M. Gómez; Buddleja

americana var. rothschuhii Loes.; Buddleja callicarpoides Kunth; Buddleja cana
Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.; Buddleja dentata Kunth; Buddleja floribunda Kunth;
Buddleja occidentalis Kunth; Buddleja occidentails L.; Buddleja rufescens Willd. ex
Roem. & Schult.; Buddleja spicata Ruiz & Pav.; Buddleja verbascifolia Kunth
Buddleja coriacea J. Rémy: Buddleja buxifolia Kraenzl.; Buddleja oblongifolia
Rusby; Buddleja rhododendroides Kraenzl.; Buddleja ususch Kraenzl.; Buddleja
utilis Kraenzl.
Local Names
Buddleja americana: Ecuador: Salvia (Spanish); Kishwar (Kichwa), Salvia real

(Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008)
Buddleja coriacea: Bolivia: Kiswara (Aymara) (Bussmann et al. 2016)
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Buddleja americana: Tomentose-lanuginose shrub, except for the veiny leaves,

these glabrous above, revolute, broadly ovate-lanceolate, the stipules subreniform,
interfoliate; racemes in terminal panicles composed of many very short spikes, bracts
linear, the verticillate sessile flowers with two subulate bractlets beneath each
tomentose calyx and corolla. Fragrant flowers cream-colored (Macbride and
Buddleja coriacea: Trunk sometimes several dm. across, often irregular, crown
dense, the branches terete or early subtetragonous; petioles 3–5 mm long; leaves
about oblong or sublanceolate, often 3–6–10 cm long, about 6–14 mm wide, entire,
coriaceous, glabrous above, canescent beneath with a dense velvety tomentum;
glomerules 1–1.5 cm. wide, compact, shortly peduncled in an oblong-pyramidal
inflorescence 5–8 or 15–20 cm long, corymbose in fruit; bracts linear, exceeding
short pedicels; calyx angled, 4–5-denticulate; corolla golden-orange, fragrant; cap-
sules tomentose, exserted. Flowers orange-yellow changing to orange-red, planted
near fields (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Buddleja americana: Ecuador: The fresh leaves are used to treat headache and eye
sight (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The infusion of the
leaves is used as a diuretic and to treat swellings due to falls etc. (unspecified ethnic
group – Guayas, Manabi). Treats undetermined conditions (unspecified ethnicity –
Loja). Relieves rheumatic diseases (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). It is
used to treat colds (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It
is used to make tobacco (unspecified ethnic group-Imbabura) (de la Torre et al.
2008).
Buddleja coriacea: Bolivia: Stems and leaves are used to treat rheumatism, childbed
infections, uterine cysts, kidney infection, and prostate (Bussmann et al. 2016).
Buddleja utilis: Peru: Used for menstruation problems, inflammation of womb and
ovaries, ovarian cysts, and uterus inflammation (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010; Monigatti et al. 2013). The species
is often used as part of herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010a), and shows mild
antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2009, 2010b, 2011a, b) and can be found in
local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008; Bussman and Sharon 2010).
Buddleja asiatica is used as abortificant in India (Bhat et al. 2015).
Buddleja americana L. . . . 387
Fig. 1 Buddleja coriacea

(Scrophulariaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and

(Scrophulariaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and

(Scrophulariaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Buddleja incana

(Scrophulariaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Buddleja americana L. . . . 389

(Scrophulariaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and

(Scrophulariaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Buddleja americana: Ecuador: It has unspecified fuel use (unspecified ethnicity –

Azuay) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Bees visit the flowers of this species (unspecified
ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The species is used to treat mal aire/bad air
(Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
References
in health care practices by inhabitants of western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol.
2015;172:133–44.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
2010. p. 184–207. 288 p.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
(4):742–53.
(2):450–64.
Bursera graveolens (Kunth.) Triana &
Planch.
BURSERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Bursera graveolens (Kunth.) Triana & Planch.: Amyris caranifera Willd. ex Engl.;
Bursera graveolens fo. malacophylla (B.L. Rob.) J.F. Macbr.; Bursera malacophylla
B.L. Rob.; Bursera penicellata (DC.) Engl.; Bursera tacamaco Triana & Planch.;
Elaphrium graveolens Kunth; Elaphrium pubescens Schltdl.; Elaphrium tatamaco
Tul.; Spondias edmonstonei Hook. f.; Terebinthus graveolens (Kunth) Rose
Local Names
Colombia: Bijá, Caraño, Tamagaco, Tatamaco, Palo santo, Sasafrás, Tatamaco

(Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Incienso, Palo santo (Spanish) (de la Torre
et al. 2008); Peru: Palo santo, Palo de santo (Spanish)
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Tree or sometimes shrub, up to 12(15) m tall, usually very resinous and aromatic
when squeezed in almost all its parts, with persistent odor for many months in the
specimens of herbarium; trunk up to 40 cm diameter, its gray bark, smooth, not
exfoliating, reddish, glabrous or almost glabrous branches; fasciculate leaves on the
ends of short twigs, or, scattered on tender vigorous twigs, preceded in their
appearance by a rosette of cataphylls oblong to ovate, 4–8(12) mm long, acute or
obtuse at the apex, densely puberulous on both faces, precociously deciduous,
imparipinnate leaves or partially bipinnate, oblong to obovate in general outline,
up to 30 cm long and 18 cm wide, petiole up to 9 cm long, rachis narrowly winged,
except for the proximal internode that usually lacks wings, folioles commonly 7–9
(11), although in the first leaves can be only 3 or 5 and in some cases the proximal
leaflets are replaced by trifoliolate pinnae, sessile or almost sessile, lanceolate to
ovate, varying to elliptical, oblong, or rhomboids, 3–7(9) cm long, 1–2.5(4) cm
wide, acuminate to long acuminate at the apex, cuneate to obtuse and often unequal
at the base, margin coarsely and sometimes doubly crenate-serrated, ribs usually
conspicuous in mature leaves, secondary ones the common 8–12 pairs, of membra-
nous texture, initially puberulous, glabrescent with age; inflorescence in the form of
a lame panicle, usually pilose, sometimes also with tiny glandular hairs, other times
almost fully glabrous, often as long as the leaves, filiform pedicelles, up to 5 mm
(20 mm in fruit) long; male tetramer flowers, chalice turbinado, its triangular lobes,
tiny, less than 0.5 mm long, petals whitish, yellowish, or greenish, oblong to
elliptical, 3–4 mm long, bent at the apex, pilose or glabrous on the outside, stamens
eight, filaments 1–1.5 mm long, oblong anthers, ca. 0.8 mm long, vestigial gynoe-
cium usually present; feminine flowers similar to the masculine ones, estaminodes
with anthers less than 0.6 mm long, ovarian bilocular, very short style, stigmas two;
bivalved fruit, subspherical to obovoid, 6–10 mm long, conspicuously apiculate,
glabrous, reddish in maturity, longitudinally striated dry, sublenticular bone, 4–6 mm
long and wide, covered in its 2/3 lower by an orange or reddish pseudoarilum
(Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Colombia: The resin exuded from the plant is used from this species. This resin is
used in the preparation of plasters to treat hernias and the crushing of the feet. It is
also used to extract foreign bodies from the skin: for this purpose, the hot resin is
placed on the affected area and after 2 days, it is removed together with the foreign
body (García Barriga 1975). Trunk and fruits used to treat arthritis, asthma, flu,
cough, dizziness, headache, muscular pain, skin allergies, stress, as circulatory
stimulant, and for good luck; bark used for blood cleansing, as diuretic, to promote
sweating; resin used to treat hernia, sprains, and to remove thorns (Bussmann et al.
2018). Ecuador: Dried bark used to treat anemia and as fragrance (Béjar et al. 2002;
Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The scraped stem is used to calm stomach
Bursera graveolens (Kunth.) Triana & Planch. 393
Fig. 1 Bursera graveolens

(Burseraceae), Pusac, Peru.
Fig. 2 Bursera graveolens

(Burseraceae), Pusac, Peru.
aches (Unspecified ethnicity-Imbabura). The resin is applied to the navel of new-

borns so that it falls easily (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Manabi). It is used to
treat acne or pimples, rheumatism, styes, swelling, bone pain, cough, and ringworm
(unspecified ethnicity – Guayas) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The species is
sometimes used for respiratory problems (Bussmann and Glenn 2010). Some anti-
bacterial activity of the species has been observed (Bussmann et al. 2009a, b, 2010a,
b, 2011a, b).
Ecuador: The plant is used as a living fence (Mestiza-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
The burned stem is used as a space deodorizer, as incense (Mestiza-Manabí;
Unspecified ethnic group-Imbabura). The stem is used to make poles and statues
of saints (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas; Mestiza-Loja). The stem and branches
are burnt and the smoke produced is used as an insect repellent (mosquitoes and
flies) (Unspecified ethnicity – Loja). It serves as a bat repellent (unspecified ethnic
group – Guayas) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Burning the wood refreshes the
environment and drives away evil spirits (unspecified ethnicity – Manabi) (de la
Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Dried bark and wood are used for daño, fright/susto, and
sorcery (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010c;
Monigatti et al. 2013). Widely sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2016).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Vandebroek I, Jones A. Health for sale: the medicinal plant markets in
Trujillo and Chiclayo, northern Peru. Society for Economic Botany, Durham, June 1–5, 2008.
2007. p. 26–7. Duke University.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103.
2009b;16(1):105–10.
(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629.
Bursera graveolens (Kunth.) Triana & Planch. 395
(2):450–64.
Caesalpinia paipai Ruiz & Pav.
Caesalpinia spinosa (Molina) Kuntze
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Caesalpinia paipai Ruiz & Pav.: Caesalpinia corymbosa Benth.; Caesalpinia

glabrata Kunth.; Libidibia corymbosa (Benth.) Britton & Killip
Caesalpinia spinosa (Molina) Kuntze: Caesalpinia pectinata Cav.; Caesalpinia
tara Ruiz & Pav.; Caesalpinia tinctoria (Kunth) Benth. ex Reiche; Caesalpinia
tinctoria Dombey ex DC.; Coulteria tinctoria Kunth; Poinciana spinosa Molina;
Tara spinosa (Molina) Britton & Rose
Local Names
Caesalpinia paipai: Ecuador: Cascol (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Pay
pay (Spanish)
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Caesalpinia spinosa: Colombia: Dividivi, Dividivi de tierra fría; Ecuador:

Waranku (Kichwa), Algarrobo, Arrayán, Campeche, Espino, Guaranga, Guarango,
Tallo, Vainilla, Vainillo (Spanish), Compeche, Lompeche, Tailin (unspecified lan-
guage) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Tara, Talla, Chanchalagua
Botany and Ecology
Caesalpinia paipai: Shrubs or trees, 3–10 m tall, unarmed, leaves imparipinnate-

bipinnate; leaflets 4–7 pairs, oval, some oblong-rounded short petioles, entire, slightly
emarginate, a small amount, for the most part linear. Petioles slightly channeled,
reddish. Flowers subcorymbose, small. Petals oblong-rounded yellow; seeds oval,
chestnut color (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Caesalpinia spinosa: Spiny shrub or tree 4–15 m with gray bark. Leaves with 2–3 pairs
of pinnae and each pinna with 5–8 leaflets. Leaflets are elliptic and hairless, up to 4 cm
long, dark green and shiny above, the bottom paler. Inflorescence a spike disposed at the
top of the branch with many flowers. Each flower is 1.5 cm long, the lower sepal yellow-
green, enlarged, and fringed. Petals are nearly twice as long, yellow, upper with internal
red stripes at anthesis, all becoming salmon-red with age. The stamens all are of similar
length. The legumes are crowded on the inflorescence, up to 10 cm long, flattened.
When mature café and pink tinged, wavy or curled with 5–6 egg-shaped, shiny brown
seeds. Occurs in disturbed or secondary Andean dry forest and scrub on rocky slopes
from Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia at elevations up to 2000 m
Caesalpinia paipai: Ecuador: With the bark, vaporizations are performed to treat
the inflammation of the gum vessels (Mestiza-Manabí) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Fruits, fresh or dried, are used for killing lice and healing wounds (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b).
Fig. 1 Caesalpinia spinosa

(Fabaceae), Cajamarca, Peru.
Caesalpinia paipai Ruiz & Pav. . . . 399


Caesalpinia spinosa: Colombia: The fruit of the Dividivi prepared in infusion or in

decoction is used in gargles to cure chronic tonsillitis, as a disinfectant, and to reduce
inflamed tonsils. This same preparation absorbed by the nose is used successfully to
treat sinusitis (García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Ecuador: The fruit, in poultice or drinks, is used to treat rashes and wounds as a
healing (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura,
Pichincha). With the infusion or the juice of the leaves, boiled and crushed, and the

seeds are made mouthwashes to relieve the toothache (Kichwa de la Sierra,

unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). Flowers are used to treat nervous conditions.
It is used to wash the body of women after giving birth (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja).
Chewed leaves are used to fortify and prevent tooth decay (unspecified ethnic group-
Chimborazo). The leaves, in infusion, are used to soothe stomach and chest pains
(unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura). It is used to treat undetermined conditions
(unspecified ethnic group – Carchi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Seed pods, fresh or
dried, are used to treat pharyngitis, throat and skin infection (Bussmann and Sharon
2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013), inflammation of uterus and vagina, and
fungal infections of the ovaries (Bussmann and Glenn 2010).
Calceolaria species are often mentioned as important medicine by both patients
at allopathic and herbal clinics (Bussmann et al. 2007a), and common in medicinal
plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2007b, 2009). Both species show antibacterial
activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010a, b, 2011a). Uses in mixture with other species
are common (Bussmann 2010b). Both species show toxicity, less so C. spinosa,
explaining why it is used internally, versus the topical applications of C. paipai
Local Food Uses
Caesalpinia spinosa: Ecuador: The aryl and the seed testa are edible (unspecified
ethnicity – Loja). Food additive: It is used as a condiment for meals (unspecified
ethnic group – Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Caesalpinia paipai: Ecuador: The leaves and branches are used as animal fodder,
such as goats, deer, and cattle (Mestiza-Manabí; Unspecified ethnic group – Guayas)
(de la Torre et al. 2008). The stem is timber, is used in cabinetmaking, to make tools,
Caesalpinia paipai Ruiz & Pav. . . . 401
drawers, and to build boats, canoes, rafts, and houses (Mestizo-Manabí, Guayas;
unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Manabí, El Oro). The bark is used in tannery
(Mestizo, unspecified Ethnicity – Manabi) (de La Torre et al. 2008). Wood is used to
make coal (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Manabí, El Oro) (de la Torre
et al. 2008).
Caesalpinia spinosa: Ecuador: The stem is used as fuel (unspecified ethnic group –
Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua). Materials: The cooked fruit is used to waterproof
clay pots (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura). The fruit, cooked and mixed with
iron sulfate, serves as a writing ink (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). The
stem is timber, serves as a pole and to make spoons and furniture (Kichwa de la
Sierra-Tungurahua, Chimborazo; Mestiza-Loja). The leaves, fruit, and seeds are
used to obtain dyes, used by tanners and dyers (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo,
Loja; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Azuay, Cañar). The ground
seeds serve to harden the gums (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura). Seeds, fruit,
pods, and bark are used in tanneries (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo; Mestiza-
Tungurahua; Unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua, Chim-
borazo) (de La Torre et al. 2008). The plant is used to shade livestock (Mestiza-Loja)
(de La Torre et al. 2008).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Lopez A. Blending traditional and western medicine: medicinal plant use
Peru as antibacterial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010a;132:101–8.

traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med.
2010c;9(4):742–53.
de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, MacÍa MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas
Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located
at different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145(2):450–64.
Caiophora chuquitensis (Meyen) Urb. & Gilg
Caiophora rosulata (Wedd.) Urb. & Gilg
LOASACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Caiophora chuquitensis (Meyen) Urb. & Gilg: Loasa chuquitensis Meyen,

Caiophora heptamera (Wedd.) Urb. & Gilg, Caiophora angustisecta Urb. & Gilg,
Caiophora albiflora (Griseb.) Urb. & Gilg, Caiophora heptamera (Wedd.) Urb. &
Gilg var. albiflora, Caiophora macrocarpa Urb. & Gilg, Loasa chuquitensis Griseb.,
hom. illeg., Caiophora lorentziana Urb. & Gilg, Caiophora fiebrigii Urb. & Gilg,
Blumenbachia chuquitensis (Meyen) Hook. f., Loasa heptamera Wedd., Caiophora
superba Phil., Caiophora horrida Urb. & Gilg, Caiophora orbignyana Urb. & Gilg,
Caiophora sphaerocarpa Urb. & Gilg, Loasa heptamera Wedd. var. albiflora
Caiophora rosulata (Wedd.) Urb. & Gilg: Caiophora acanthoides Urb. & Gilg.,
Caiophora anemonoides Urb. & Gilg, Caiophora rahmeri Phil., Loasa
rosulata Wedd.
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Local Names
Caiophora chuquitensis: Chile: Itapalla, Itapilla, Atapilla, Irqoatapilla, Irtiga

macho, Ortiga, Ortega
Caiophora rosulata: Chile: Ortega, Ortega blanca, Ortiga hembra, Ortiga macho,
Ojman, Osman, Iapilla, Atapilla, Orqotapilla
Botany and Ecology
Caiophora chuquitensis: Perennial herb, up to 1 m tall; stems covered with urticate

hairs. Basal leaves 10–15 cm long, narrowly ovate blades, pinnatisect with free
lobes, closely ovate, with rudely serrated margins to pinnatifid; distal lobes recurved.
Terminal inflorescences, leafy, mono or asymmetrical dichasium, with 3–7 flowers.
Chalice with extended lobes, ovate-oblong to ovate-triangular; corolla with erect
petals, cymbiform, bright orange, red, pinkish, rarely yellow or white. Fruit an
ovoidal capsule. 3000–4600 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017)
(Figs. 1 and 2).
Caiophora rosulata: Small plant, perennial, without stems, leaves in basal rosette.
Leaves petiolated with ovate sheets, pinnate to pinnatifid. Erect flowers to pendu-
lums. Petals five, inflated, salmon or yellow. White nectariferous scales with three
filiform, white dorsal filaments. 3500–4300 m above sea level (González and Molina
2017) (Figs. 3, 4, and 5).
Caiophora chuquitensis: The aerial parts are used for the treatment of allergies,
cold, diseases of the bladder, and to eliminate stomach worms. Women use it to
“cleanse the body” after childbirth. The infusion is used as a contraceptive and to
prevent hair loss (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and
Castro 2003).
Caiophora rosulata: This plant has multiple medicinal uses. The infusion of the
flower is used for the treatment of fever, against excessive sleep, and for varicose
veins. Women use it during menstruation because of its cleansing effect, and it is also
used as a contraceptive. It also serves to cleanse the blood and for the treatment of
cancer (inner bruises and tumors). The infusion of the aerial parts is given to children
for cough and fever ratification; it also alleviates bronchitis, diarrhea, convulsive
cough, colic, and pulmonary diseases and is used as a tranquilizer. It is also used as a
purgative (Philippi 1891; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Very rarely, Caiophora species are sold in Bolivian markets (Bussmann et al.
2016).
Caiophora chuquitensis (Meyen) Urb. & Gilg. . . 405
Fig. 1 Cajophora
chuquitensis (Loasaceae),
Quebrada Chita, Chile. (Photo
Lucas Burchard Señoret)
Fig. 2 Cajophora coronata

(Loasaceae), Caspana, Chile.
Señoret)
Fig. 3 Huidobria fruticosa

(Loasaceae), Chuquicamata,
Señoret)
Fig. 4 Cajophora
sp. (Loasaceae), Uchumarca,
Fig. 5 Nasa sp. (Loasaceae),

R.W. Bussmann &
Caiophora chuquitensis: The “bandereras” use the branches to whip the legs of the
participants, so that they keep the rhythm of the raids and the bale during the
ceremony of the carnival that takes place in the yard of the church. Used as forage
Caiophora rosulata: Used as forage (Philippi 1891; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán
and Castro 2003).
References
Caiophora chuquitensis (Meyen) Urb. & Gilg. . . 407
Philippi RA. Catalogus praevius plantarum in itinere ad Tarapaca a Friderico Philippi lectarum.
Anales, Museo Nacional de Chile, Seco N 2 (Bot.). 1891.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Calceolaria bartsiifolia Wedd.
Calceolaria buchtieniana Kraenzl.
Calceolaria engleriana Kraenzl.
Calceolaria inamoena Kraenzl.
Calceolaria stellariifolia Phil.
Calceolaria rugulosa Edwin
CALCEOLARIACEAE

Javier Echeverría
Synonyms
Calceolaria bartsiifolia Wedd.: Calceolaria pflanzii Perkins; Fegelia bangii Rusby;

Fagelia bartsiifolia (Wedd.) Rusby; Fagelia scabra var. bartsiifolia (Wedd.) Kuntze
Calceolaria buchtieniana Kraenzl.: Calceolaria gossypiana subsp. jaroslaviana
Lópex Guillén; Calceolaria poikilantha Kraenzl.; Calceolaria tenuifolia Pennell
Calceolaria engleriana Kraenzl.: Calceolaria endotrachys Kraenzl.; Calceolaria
engleriana subsp. acuminata Pennell; Calceolaria epilobioides Kraenzl.;
Calceolaria incachacensis Lraenzl.; Calceolaria urubambae Kraenzl.; Calceolaria
viminalis Kraenzl.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría

Calceolaria inamoena Kraenzl.: Calceolaria aberrans Kraenzl., Calceolaria

pulchella Phil.
Calceolaria stellariifolia Phil.: Calceolaria rupicola F. Meigen
Calceolaria rugulosa Edwin: Calceolaria corymbosa var. perennis Edwin
Local Names
Calceolaria bartsiifolia: Bolivia: Termentina (Spanish)

Calceolaria buchtieniana: Bolivia: Zapato zapato (Spanish); Sapat sapatu, Amay
sapato (Aymara)
Calceolaria engleriana: Bolivia: Zapato zapato (Spanish)
Calceolaria inamoena: Chile: Zapatilla, Zapatito, Kukumelo
Calceolaria rugulosa: Peru: Potito (Spanish)
Calceolaria stellariifolia: Chile: Zapatilla, Sapatillat’ula, Sapatilla café, Zapatito,
Willjaya
Botany and Ecology
Calceolaria is a very interesting genus that was recently shifted from

Scrophulariaceae to its own family, Calceolariaceae, and lots of news species have
been described only recently (Romero et al. 2017).
Calceolaria bartsiifolia: Herb, differing from C. aurea Pennell in having densely
tomentose stems with the vesture black, cinereous near the apex; leaf blade margins
grossly and sharply few-dentate, the teeth lightly recurved, glabrous above,
canescent-pilose beneath, ovate and oblong, 5–10 mm long and 3–4 mm wide;
flowers in few-flowered corymbs (usually three-flowered); pedicels glandular-
pilose; calyx segments ovate, acute, 4 mm long, basally 3 mm wide (Macbride and
Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).
Calceolaria buchtieniana: Erect shrub, 0.6–2 m tall; inflorescence and distal parts of
stems minutely glandular-puberulous and strongly glutinous. Leaves with blades linear
Fig. 1 Calceolaria
sp. (Calceolariaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Calceolaria bartsiifolia Wedd. . . . 411
to narrowly elliptic, 2.5–6.4 0.3–0.8 cm, acute or subacute, attenuate at base; upper
surface deep bright green, glandular or glandular-puberulous, the midrib sunken,
otherwise smooth; lower surface pale green, subglabrous or shortly glandular-
puberulous, hyphodromous; petioles 1–4 mm, glandular. Inflorescence composed of
2–4 pairs of 1- or 2-flowered cymes, the peduncles 1–2.3 cm, the pedicels 0.7–1.8
( 2.3) cm; cyme bracts present. Sepals light yellow–green, ovate, deflexed,
4.5–7.4 4.5–5.8 mm, acute or subacute, externally glandular-puberulous and
strongly glutinous, internally glandular-puberulous to almost glabrous. Corolla bright
yellow with crossbands of red spots in sides of throat and on lower side of lower lip;
upper lip 2–4 3–6 mm, subglobose; lower lip 12–21 7–13 mm, saccate in 40–50%
of length, the sac projecting; elaiophore present, green. Stamens type 11; anthers buff
or light brown, 3.0–3.9 mm, the thecae slightly ascending; filaments 0.6–1.1 mm. Style
1.7–2.3 mm, somewhat decurved at apex. Capsule ovoid, 4–6 mm long, brown or
purplish-brown, glandular-puberulous. Calceolaria buchtieniana ranges in the eastern
Andes from SE Peru (Cuzco) to central Bolivia (Santa Cruz) but appears abundantly
only in the north Bolivian puna vegetation. It occurs in moist puna between 2500 and
4200 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Calceolaria engleriana: Erect branched shrub, wood usually tomentulose above
becoming glabrous below. Leaves short-petiolate or the upper blades sessile, narrowly
ovate-lanceolate to lanceolate, occasionally ovate, up to about 6 cm long and 2.6 cm
wide, usually narrower, infrequently 5–9 mm wide, entire to serrulate, apex usually
acute, less often short-acuminate, variously pubescent to occasionally glabrous; petioles
thickened and laterally connate, sometimes woody; inflorescences few-flowered cor-
ymbs; flower-stalks puberulent; calyx lobes green to yellow-green, ovate or narrowly
ovate, acute, 5–7( 8) mm long, externally sparsely puberulent and often red-gland-
dotted, sometimes reflexed at anthesis, internally more densely hairy, some of the hairs
arranged in a row along the margins; corolla yellow, upper lip ca. 4–6 mm long, shorter,
or occasionally little longer, than the calyx lobes, lower lip 18–28 mm long, saccate
more than half its length, distally upturned; anther cells more than twice as long as wide,
filaments shorter than the 2 mm long, apically curved style; ovary glandular; capsule a
little shorter to equaling the calyx, ovate, gradually narrowed to apex but lacking an
abruptly constricted neck, densely glandular (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Calceolaria inamoena: Small subshrub 0.1–1 m high, very ramoso and covered of
hair; reddish brown branches with leaves distributed regularly. Leaves sessile, ovate,
small, 3–15 mm long, with the edge bent downwards and deeply serrated, sharp
apex, rounded base. Cymose inflorescence with between 4–8 flowers. Hermaphro-
dite flowers, medium, segments of ovate calyx, glandular hair, peduncles between
0.5–2.6 mm long; yellow-gold corolla with very small upper lip 2–3 mm long and
the lower one 50–70% of its length, very inflated and bent upwards, forming a kind
of capsule; stamens with yellow or pale anthers; style 1.4–2.2 mm long. Fruit: ovoid
capsule 4–8 mm long, which opens at maturity and contains multiple seeds.
3500–3800 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Calceolaria stellariifolia: Perennial herb, low, with short branches, slightly hairy.
Leaves in rosette at the base, lanceolate, with entire margin. Inflorescence with few
yellow flowers, hermaphrodite. Dry fruit that opens at maturity. This species is endemic
to Chile. 2700–4300 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 Calceolaria
stellariifolia
(Calceolariaceae), Machuca,
Señoret)
Calceolaria rugulosa: Erect, branched, pilose-tomentose shrub, stems appressed-

pilose below, tomentose above, and with the leaves drying light brown, the leaves
also sometimes drying brown-green, tomentum densest on young growth. Leaves
opposite or ternate, ovate or elliptic-ovate, occasionally elliptical (1.5–)3–5 cm. long
and (1)2–3.5 cm wide, margins plane, serrate to doubly serrate, sometimes grossly
so, narrowed to an acute apex, obtuse to broadly obtuse at base, rugose or rugulose,
pilose above, tomentose beneath, sometimes, especially when young, the vesture
obscuring the leaf tissue, often with golden-yellow glands intermixed beneath;
petioles 1–4( 6) mm long, thickened, woody, densely tomentose, usually narrowly
connate; inflorescences in upper leaf-axils and also terminal, many-flowered, com-
pound dichasia or corymbose; flower stalks densely long-soft-pubescent; bracts
merely reduced leaves; calyx tube and lobes densely pilose externally, glabrous
internally, lobes ovate or broadly ovate, acute, 6–8 mm long; corolla yellow, up to
1 cm long, externally very short-puberulent, internally glabrous; upper lip 1–2 mm
long; lower lip ca. 6–8 mm long, saccate only 1–2 mm; anther cells equal, each pair
ca. 2.0–2.2 mm long, almost twice as long as wide; style thin, glabrous, 1.0–1.5 mm
long, ovary glandular; capsule ovoid-conic, a little shorter and loosely invested by
the calyx, apically long-acute, sparsely golden glandular (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).
Calceolaria bartsiifolia: Bolivia: Fresh leaves are used to treat fractures and strong
blows (Bussmann et al. 2016).
Calceolaria buchtieniana: Bolivia: Fresh stems, leaves, and flowers are used to
treat heartache, kidney infection, cystitis, prostate, muscle pain, blows, postpartum
pain, liver, gallbladder, and “larpha” (cultural illness) (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo
Chipana and Moraes 2015; Macía et al. 2005).
Fig. 3 Calceolaria gossypina

(Calceolariaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Calceolaria gossypina

(Calceolariaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Calceolaria engleriana: Bolivia: Fresh stems, leaves, and flowers are used to treat
liver problems, cystitis, and kidney infection (Bussmann et al. 2016).
Calceolaria inamoena: Taken as tea, a remedy when babies wet the bed (González
and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Calceolaria rugulosa: Peru: The whole fresh plant used for inflammations
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b). Zapatillos are always used in
mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010). Limited antibacterial activity has been confirmed
(Bussmann et al. 2011a), and the species can be regarded as not toxic (Bussmann
et al. 2011b).
Calceolaria stellariifolia: The infusion of flowers or leaves is used for diseases of
the kidneys, bladder, for the uterus, for childbirth, cold and cough, and also as
abortive. The hot infusion is taken when children wet the bed. It is also used to fight
muscle aches and pains (e.g., waist). (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
Fig. 5 Calceolaria
rhododendroides
(Calceolariaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 6 Calceolaria
rhododendroides
(Calceolariaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 7 Calceolaria
rhododendroides.
(Calceolariaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 8 Calceolaria virgata

(Calceolariaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 9 Calceolaria virgata

(Calceolariaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
References
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – The magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Justo Chipana M, Moraes R M. Plantas medicinales comercializadas por las chifleras de La Paz y
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Romero C, Bussmann RW, Puppo P. New species of Calceolaria (Calceolariaceae) from northern
Peru. Novon. 2017;25(3):316–21. https://doi.org/10.3417/D-16-00013.
Calendula officinalis L.
ASTERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Local Names
Colombia: Caléndula, Canéndula
Botany and Ecology
Annual. Plant 20–50(75) cm high; stem often branched from base, green, more or
less floccose-glandular. Basal leaves oblong-obovate, with remote teeth or entire,
large, petiolate; cauline leaves oblong-lanceolate or oblong-obovate, sessile, more or
less amplexicaul, indistinctly undulate and with small, occasional teeth. Capitula
large (up to 4–5 cm in diameter); involucre in 1–2 whorls of oblong-lanceolate,
acuminate, involucral bracts. Florets yellow or orange, sometimes dull, twice as long
as involucre; ligules broad, up to 4.5 mm wide. All achenes curved, yellowish or
brownish to gray, trimorphic: outer achenes semiannular, large (up to 15 mm long),
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Calendula officinalis

(Asteraceae), Bakuriani,
Georgia. (Photo R.W:
Zambrana)
on outside usually with longitudinal rows of spines, with long, hollow, inwardly bent
beak, seemingly truncate at apex; middle achenes carinate, smaller and broader
(up to 10–12 mm long, 8–10 mm wide), with a longitudinal rib and spines on
back (sometimes without), with wing-like involute lateral processes and a similar
middle process; inner achenes grayish, small, annular, spinose, or tuberculate.
Transients between these forms of achenes observed. Flowering June–September.
It is cultivated everywhere as one of the most popular ornamental plants; sometimes,
it is found growing as a weed in gardens, kitchen gardens (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
In Colombia, Calendula is used to treat acne, bruises, bumps, sprains, eczema, burns,
insect bites, skin irritations, amenorrhea, menstrual cramps, and for inflammation of
the female reproductive system. The decoction of the whole fresh plant is used as an
anti-inflammatory, disinfectant, healing, for the treatment of pustules and in general for
skin conditions. The leaves are used in the form of poultices, and the juice extracted
from them acts as a good antihemorrhagic and disinfectant; this same juice taken on an
empty stomach heals the duodenal ulcer. The flowers are used for their anti-
inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antihemorrhagic, and antibacterial effect.
They are used also for healing, against excessive sweating, to promote menstruation,
and for good health of the immune system. Flowers are also used in diseases of the
chest and their decoction is used for cleansing of the blood (Bussmann et al. 2018; Díaz
2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García
Barriga 1975; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez
2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Local Food Uses
Used as food dye, especially in Eurasia (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016)

Calendula officinalis L. 419

Zambrana)

Zambrana)

(Asteraceae), seeding,
Batumi, Georgia. (Photo R.W:
Zambrana)
Used especially in the poultry industry as food additive to make eggs more yellow.
References
loss of diversity – Ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobotany Research and
Application. 2014;12:237–313.
016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8
Correa CA, Montes Martínez PA. Determinación de la etnobotánica de las plantas medicinales
comercializadas en las plazas de mercados de los municipios de Turbo, Apartadó, Carepa,
Chigorodó y Mutatá, Antioquia, Colombia. Tesis de Grado, Universidad Nacional Abierta y a
Distancia UNAD. Escuela de Ciencias Agrícolas, Pecuarias y del Medio Ambiente, Turbo.
2017. 136 pp.
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Cantua buxifolia Juss. ex Lam.
Cantua flexuosa (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.
Cantua quercifolia Juss.
POLEMONIACEAE
Synonyms
Cantua buxifolia Juss. ex Lam.: Cantua alutacea Infantes; Cantua buxifolia var.
lanceolata Brand; Cantua buxifolia var. ovata Brand; Cantua dependens Pers.;
Cantua lanceolata Peter in Engler & Prantl.; Cantua ovata Cav.; Cantua theifolia
D. Don.; Cantua tomentosa Cav.; Cantua unif lora Pers.; Periphragmos dependens
Ruiz & Pav.; Periphragmos unif lorus Ruiz & Pav.
Cantua f lexuosa (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.: Periphragmos f lexuosus Ruiz & Pav.;
Tunaria albida Kuntze
Local Names
Cantua buxifolia: Bolivia: Cantuta (Spanish), Kantuta, Rosar k’antuta (Aymara)

(Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015); Peru: Candu (Spanish).
Cantua flexuosa: Bolivia: Cantuta amarilla (Spanish), Qu’ellu k’antuta (Aymara)
(Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016).
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Cantua quercifolia: Ecuador: Pepiso (Spanish), Cholala (Kichwa), Pepiso (Span-

ish) (de La Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Dormidera, Hierba adormecedora, Tutapure
Morado (Chico) (Spanish).
Botany and Ecology
Cantua buxifolia: An erect, woody shrub between 2 and 6 m tall. The leaves are
alternate and between 0.5 and 4 cm long, each borne on very short stalks. Each leaf is
elliptic to egg-shaped with a narrow in base and rarely having teeth at the tip. The
flowers tend to be crowded at the top of the stem. Each flower is up to 8 cm long,
tubular with flaring petals. The sepals are tubular, up to 3 cm long and green. The
petals are unequal, triangular and ca. 1.5 cm long each, yellow, pink or red and often
have wavy margins. The stamens are exposed or not. The style is up to 9 cm long and
borne from a pear-shaped ovary. The fruit is 2.5 cm long and contains many winged
seeds ca. 1 cm long. Occurs on dry scrub forests or in paramos and along roads or
forest margins of Peru and northern Bolivia at elevations up to 3600 m (Macbride
and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Cantua flexuosa: Erect, branching shrub or small tree, 2–5 m tall, variably hairy.
Leaves alternate and occasionally appearing fascicled on short axillary shoots prior
to elongation, stiff and sub-coriaceous to pliable and herbaceous, variable in size,
2–7(–9) cm long, 1–3.6(–4) cm broad, elliptic, oblong or lanceolate, tapering to the
base, cuneate, short petioled to sessile, the petiole (0–)2–20 mm long, usually entire,
occasionally dentate toward the acute to obtuse apex, generally pubescent at least
along the mid-vein and in particular on the abaxial surface. Inf lorescences composed
a many f lowered, dense, cymose, corymb, mostly terminating lateral shoots. Pedun-
cles variable in length, 5–25 mm long, erect, often hairy. Calyx herbaceous or thick
and coriaceous, tubular-campanulate, 0.8–1.5 cm long, somewhat bilaterally sym-
metric, tube 5–11 mm long, 4–5 mm in diameter, lobes 5, triangular-acute to
acuminate, 1–5 mm long, 2–4 mm broad at base of lobe, internal lobe apex with a
tuft of lanate hairs, external calyx glabrous or hairy with eglandular trichomes.
Fig. 1 Cantua buxifolia

(Polemoniaceae), garden,
R.W. Bussmann and
Cantua buxifolia Juss. ex Lam. . . . 423
Fig. 2 Cantua buxifolia

(Polemoniaceae), garden,
R.W. Bussmann and
Corolla funnelform, 1.5–2.3 cm long, the tube 1.1–1.8 cm long, 4–6 mm in diameter,
cream to white, glabrous externally, slightly incurved, corolla lobes irregularly retuse
to deeply cleft, 4–5 mm long and 6–11 mm wide, cream white, margin ciliate hairy;
more or less radially symmetrical. Stamens exserted, adnate to both the corolla tube
and the base of the glandular region of the ovary, at the insertion of the corolla,
filaments 2.5–4.3 cm long, glabrous, white to cream in color, subequal to unequal in
length; anthers inverted, versatile, cordate to sagittate, 2–4.5 mm long, yellow,
pollen pantoporate, reticulate exine, with insulae (verrucae). Nectary fused to the
proximal region of the ovary and receptacle, lacking a disk-like morphology, giving
the ovary a pyriform shape, slightly 5-lobed at the base, due to fusion of the
filaments. Ovary glabrous, pyriform, 4–8 mm long, 2–5 mm wide at base, with
about 10–12 ovules per locule; style simple, exserted, stigma lobes 0.5–2 mm long.
Fruit an oblong, loculicidally dehiscing capsule, 1.5–2.5 cm long, with three valves.
Seeds small, flattened, oblong to ovate, 7–9 mm long and 2–4 mm wide, with a more
or less broad wing on one end (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Cantua quercifolia: Erect, branching shrub or small tree, 1.4–4 m tall, glandular
villous throughout. Leaves alternate, the axillary shoots appearing fascicled prior to
elongation, blades sub-coriaceous to soft and herbaceous, variable in size, 3–9.2 cm
long, 1–4 cm broad, elliptic, lanceolate obovate, sinuate crenate, with an acute apex,
cuneate at base, sessile (rarely clasping) to short petioled, the petiole 2–10 mm long,
glandular villous. Inf lorescences composed of few- to many-flowered, erect,
cymose, corymbs, terminating lateral shoots. Peduncles variable in length,
1–8 mm long, erect, villous glandular. Calyx hyaline and herbaceous only along
primary vasculature, tubular-campanulate, 1.8–2.6 cm long, more or less radially
symmetric, tube 10–16 mm long, 4–8 mm in diameter, lobes 5, triangular-acute to
attenuate, 8–12 mm long, 2–3 mm broad at base of lobe, external calyx glandular
villous. Corolla salverform, 3.2–4.2 cm long, the tube 2.3–3.0 cm long, 4–8 mm in
diameter, white, cream or yellow, glabrous, corolla lobes suborbicular to ovate,
10–11 mm long and 7.5–8.5 mm wide, white, margin not ciliate hairy; more or
less radially symmetrical. Stamens exserted, adnate to and inserted well below the
mid-tube, filaments 2.5–4.8 cm long, glabrous, white to cream in color, subequal in
length; anthers versatile, cordate to sagittate, 3.5–7 mm long, yellow, pollen
pantoporate, reticulate exine, with insulae (verrucae). Nectary disc cup-shaped,
surrounding the lower ovary but free from it, 5-f luted, the basal region smooth,
the upper region rough. Ovary glabrous, oblong to pyriform, 5–9 mm long, 1–4 mm
wide at base, with about 10–12 ovules per locule; style simple, exserted, stigma
lobes 1–5 mm long. Fruit an oblong, loculicidally dehiscing capsule, 1–2 cm long,
with three valves. Seeds small, flattened, orbicular to ovate, 3–5 mm long and
2–4 mm wide, with a more or less broad, encircling wing (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).
Fig. 3 Cantua quercifolia

(Polemoniaceae), Uchumarca,


Cantua buxifolia: Bolivia: The f lowers are used to treat nerves, cough, for good
luck, j’aira mile, and offerings (mesa) (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and Moraes
2015); Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat fright (susto) and speech
impediment.

Fig. 7 Cantua pyrifolia

Cantua flexuosa: Bolivia: The flowers are used to treat arthritis, epilepsy, j’aira
milla, and for lightning strikes (Bussmann et al. 2016).
Cantua quercifolia: Ecuador: Fresh leaves are used to treat rheumatism (Béjar et al.
2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a, b). The decoction of flowers is used to
treat the flu (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The hot leaves, tied to the affected parts,
relieve knee pain (Kichwa de la Sierra, unspecified Ethnicity-Loja) (de la Torre et al.
2008). It is used in baths to heat the body (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja) (de la Torre et al.


2008). Peru: Fresh leaves and stems are used to treat insomnia, as sedative, and for
nerves (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007a, 2015a, b). The plants are sometimes
found in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). The species has antibacterial properties
(Bussmann et al. 2009) and mild toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011a, b), which is why it is
mostly used in mixture with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010a).
Cantua buxifolia: Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat fright
(susto) and speech impediment (Bussmann et al. 2010b; Bussmann and Sharon
2015a, b).
Cantua quercifolia: In Peru, the plant is used for good luck (Bussmann et al. 2010b;
Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b).
References
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal f lora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de
longevidad – La f lora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. ISBN 978-0-
9789962-2-2.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal f lora of Peru. Plantas
de los cuatro vientos – La f lora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. ISBN
978-0-9789962-3-9.
medicinal f lora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN
978-0-9960231-2-2.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La f lora mágica y
9960231-3-9.
Malca GG, Perez AF, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in northern
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
Pharmacol. 2010b;4(9):580–629.
Justo Chipana M, Moraes R M. Plantas medicinales comercializadas por las chif leras de La Paz y
ElAlto (Bolivia) – Medicinal plants marketed by chif leras of La Paz and El Alto cities (Bolivia).
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Capparis crotonoides (Kunth) Iltis & Cornejo
Capparis scabrida Kunth
CAPPARACEAE
Synonyms
Capparis crotonoides (Kunth) Iltis & Cornejo: Capparis crotonoides Kunth;

Capparis cordata Ruiz & Pav. ex DC.; Capparis cordata Ruiz & Pav. ex
E.A. López; Capparis sidaefolia Ruiz & Pav. ex DC.; Colicodendron crotonoides
(Kunth) Hutch.; Quadrella crotonoides (Kunth) J. Presl.; Quadrella sidaefolia (Ruiz
& Pav. ex DC.) Presl
Capparis scabrida Kunth: Capparis angulata Ruiz & Pav. ex DC.; Capparis
angulata Ruiz & Pav. ex E.A. López; Capparis gaudichauiana Eichler
Local Names
Ecuador: Zapote, Zapote de campo, Zapote de perro (Spanish) (de la Torre et al.
2008); Peru: Zapote (Spanish)
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Capparis crotonoides: Leaves ovate to suborbicular-cordate, 3–4(–6) cm long,

nearly as wide, net-veined and densely stellate-pubescent, especially beneath;
flowers few, the densely stellate-pubescent sepals 5–6 mm long, the sparsely
stellate-pubescent petals twice as long; fruit globose, stellate-pubescent, 7 mm
thick. Flowers cream-colored, the sepals in one series, valvate (Macbride and
Capparis scabrida: Branchlets, leaves beneath, sepals, and petals ashy-stellate-
tomentose; blades lustrous and somewhat rough above, coriaceous, subelliptic-
oblong, obtuse at both ends, cuspidate, often 11 cm long, 4–5 cm wide; petioles to
15 mm long; pedicels 2.5–5 cm long; stipe 7 cm long or longer; petals twice as long
as the deeply lobed calyx, this nearly 1 cm long; stamens elongate; fruit ovoid-
oblong (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7).
Fig. 1 Capparis scabrida

(Capparaceae), Huanchaco,

Capparis crotonoides (Kunth) Iltis & Cornejo. . . 431


Peru: Fruits used fresh for inflammation (general), heart palpitation, refresh the
liver, reduce anxiety, and also good to increase milk production in cows (Bussmann
et al. 2010a; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn


2011; Rodríguez Rodríguez et al. 2007). The species is also used for respiratory
disorders (Bussmann and Glenn 2010). Capparis has slight antibacterial activity
(Bussmann et al. 2008, 2009, 2010b, 2011a). Medicinally the species is mostly used
in mixture with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010c). Both species show toxicity
Capparis crotonoides (Kunth) Iltis & Cornejo. . . 433

Local Food Uses
Ecuador: The fruit is edible (Mestiza-Manabí; unspecified ethnicity – Loja). Verte-

brate food: The fruit is food for pigs and goats (Mestizo, unspecified ethnic group –
Manabi). It is used as fodder for cattle and as food for birds and dogs (unspecified
ethnic group – Guayas; Mestizo-Manabí) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Ecuador: The plant is used to make charcoal (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas)
(de la Torre et al. 2008). The stem is useful in housing construction and for
developing tools (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas). The gum that emanates the
trunk, mixed with lime, is used to paint houses (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas).
The resin of the bark serves as a gum (Mestizo, unspecified ethnicity – Manabi). It is
used to obtain glue or gum sapote (Kichwa de la Sierra, unspecified ethnic group –
Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The species is widely used to make utensils
(Rodríguez Rodríguez et al. 2007), sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
(4):742–53.
de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas
Rodríguez Rodríguez EF, Bussmann RW, Arroyo Alfaro SJ, López Medina SE, Briceño Rosario
J. Capparis scabrida (Capparaceae) una especie del Norte del Perú y Sur del Ecuador que
necesita conservación urgente. Arnaldoa. 2007;14(2):269–82.
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik
BRASSICACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik: Bursa bursa-pastoris (L.) Britton; Bursa

bursa-pastoris (L.) Shafer; Bursa djurdjurae Shull; Bursa fracticruris Borbás;
Birsa grandiflora Kuntze; Bursa nana Borbás; Bursa occidentalis Shull; Bursa
orientalis Shull; Bursa pastoris Weber ex F.H. Wigg.; Bursa penarthae Shull;
Bursa rubella (Reut.) Decne; Bursa tuscaloosae Shell; Bursa viguieri Shull;
Capsella agrestis Jord.; Capsella apetala Opitz; Capsella batavorum (E.B. Almq.)
E.B. Almq.; Capsella bursa-pastoris subsp. bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.; Capsella
bursa-pastoris subsp. eu-bursa Briq.; Capsella bursa-pastoris subsp. occidentalis
(Shull) Maire; Capsella bursa-pastoris var. integrifolia DC.; Capsella bursa-
pastoris var. minuta Post; Capsella campestris (E.B. Almq.) E.B. Almq.; Capsella
concava (E.A. Almq.) E.B. Almq.; Capsella heegeri Solms; Capsella hyrcana
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Grossh.; Capsella lycia Stapf; Capsella mediterranea (E.B. Almq.) E.B. Almq.);
Capsella patagonica (E.B. Almq.) E.B. Almq.; Capsella penarthae (Shull) Wilmott;
Capsella polymorpha Cav.; Capsella rideralis Jord.; Capsella stanocarpa Timb.-
Lagr.; Capsella thomsonii Hook. f.; Capsella treviorum E.B. Almq.; Capsella
turoniensis E.B. Almq.; Capsella viguieri Blaringhem; Crucifera capsella
E.H.L. Krause; Iberis bursa-pastoris (L.) Willd.; Nasturtium bursa-pastoris Roth;
Solmsiella heegeri (Solms) Borbás; Thlaspi bursa-pastoris L.
Local Names
Colombia: Calzoncitos; Bolivia: Bolsa bolsa, Bolsa de pastor (Spanish); Ecuador:

Chichira, Yurak sisa (Kichwa), Bolsa kiwa, Bolsa yuyu, Chakra berro (Spanish-
Kichwa), Bolsa del pastor, Bolsetilla, Bolsilla, Forastero, Hierba del elefante, Pan y
queso, Puro (Spanish), Paniquesillo (corrupted Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008);
Peru: Bolsita del pastor, Hierba del pastor, Bolsa de Pastor (Spanish); English:
Shepherd’s purse.
Botany and Ecology
Annual, covered with simple and branching hairs mainly below; stems (5)2030
(60) cm tall, often solitary, rarely several, simple or branching; radical leaves
petioled, rosetted, oblong-lanceolate, entire to pinnatipartite, with triangular or
oblong-triangular, acute, forward-directed lobes, cauline leaves few, sessile, oblong,
lanceolate, the upper sublinear, sagittate at base. Raceme umbelliform at first, later
elongating; pedicels 2–4 mm long (up to 2 cm in fruit); sepals oblong-ovate,
1–2.5 mmL long; petals ovate, white, 1.5–3.5 long, 1–1.3 mm broad; silicles (2.5)
5–8 mm long, 4–5(8) mm broad in upper part, obtriangular-cordate, slightly emar-
ginate at apex, notch generally up to 1 mm in depth. Persistent portion of style
0.25 mm long, rarely longer; valves triangular-boat-shaped, thin-walled, slightly
carinate; seeds oval, flattened, yellowish brown, 1–2.5 mm long, 0.5–0.75 mm
broad. Weed everywhere in villages, roadsides, fences, vegetable gardens, and fields.
This species is very appreciated to stop hemorrhages. The whole plant is used to treat
gonorrhea, to promote menstruation, for healing, and as anti-inflammatory (García
Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Bolivia: The plant is used for weight loss and to treat liver, kidney infection,
prostate, prolapse of uterus, cysts in the uterus, lung pain, and varicose veins
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik 437
(Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Macía et al. 2005).
Ecuador: The infusion of the plant is used as an antidote, to regulate excessive
menstruation, and to treat wounds, headache, urinary tract conditions, colds, and
prostate diseases (unspecified ethnic group – Carchi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo,
Bolívar, Cañar, Azuay, Loja). Machacas leaves, together with those of potato lioness,
are applied as a poultice, to treat headache (Kichwa de la Sierra-Tungurahua). It is
macerated together with “chichira” and the body is massaged to avoid “relapses”
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Cañar, Loja). It is used to treat bleeding and to regulate the
action of the heart (unspecified ethnicity – Manabi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru:
The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat kidneys, prostate, inflammation,
inflammation (internal), liver, gallbladder, and stomach infection (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a), and also for bladder
inflammation, urinary detention, menstrual cramps, and ovary inflammation
(Monigatti et al. 2013). This introduced species is often sold in herb markets
(Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008b; Revene et al. 2008). It has proven antibacterial
properties (Bussmann et al. 2008a, 2010b, 2011a; Bussmann and Glenn 2010b),
underlining its use for bacterial infections (Bussmann and Glenn 2011). Capsella is
often used mixed with other herbs (Bussmann et al. 2010a). The species is slightly
toxic (Bussmann et al. 2011b). The species is used in many regions, e.g., in Pakistan,
Capsella is used as astringent (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018).
Ecuador: It is used as cattle fodder (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi) (de la Torre et al.

2008) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Fig. 1 Capsella bursa-

pastoris (Brassicaceae)
Adjara, Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and
References
Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Medicinal plants used in Northern Peru for the treatment of bacterial and
fungal infections and inflammation symptoms. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(8):1297–304.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
northern-Peruvian Medicinal Plants – a low cost laboratory approach to assess biological
Appl. 2008b;6:351–61.
traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010b;
9(4):742–53.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
450–64.
Capsicum annuum L.
SOLANACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Capsicum annuum L.: Capsicum annuum var. conoide (Mill.) Irish; Capsicum
annuum var. fsciculatum (Sturtev.) Irish; Capsicum annuum var. grossum (L.)
Sendtn.; Capsicum baccatum L.; Capsicum conicum Lam.; Capsicum conoide
Mill.; Capsicum curvipes Dunal.; Capsicum fasciculatum Sturtev.; Capsicum
frutescens L.; Capsicum frutescens var. fasciculatum L.H. Bailey; Capsicum
frutescens var. grossum L.H. Bailey; Capsicum frutescens var. longum
L.H. Bailey; Capsicum grossum L.; Capsicum hispidum var. glabriusculum Dunal;
Capsicum indicum var. aviculare Dierb.; Capsicum longum A. DC.; Capsicum
petenense Standl.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
e-mail: rainer.bussmann@iliauni.edu.ge
C. Romero
e-mail: carolina.romero@mobot.org

Local Names
Spanish: Ají, Ají pimienta, Ají-pique, Chiplín, Kutupí, Pimentón, Pimiento; Ají
caribe, Ají huevo de araguana, Ají pique, Piman; English: Chilli pepper.
Botany and Ecology
Cultivated as annual plant. Stem 30–90(130) cm tall, erect or flexuous, glabrous or

pubescent, cylindrical, at least in lower part, branched usually from very base, rarely
simple, branches mostly 4-angled, glabrous, or pubescent. Leaves opposite or lower
ones alternate, ovate to lanceolate, tapering above, with cuneate base, 2–13.5 cm
long, dark green above, lighter underneath, glabrous or variously pubescent, denser
underneath, especially along veins; petiole long, often equaling lamina, glabrous or
diffusely pubescent. Flowers solitary, very rarely in pairs. Peduncle erect or some-
what drooping, thick or slender. Calyx campanulate to cyathiform with 5(7) mostly
short teeth, surrounding fruit base or not. Corolla 5–11 mm long, white, dull white,
or with violet spots, or violet, with 5(7) ovate, acuminate lobes. Anthers grayish
violet. Fruit stalk erect or somewhat deflexed, thickened above. Fruit 5–12(15) cm
long and up to 8 cm in diameter, extremely variable in size, shape, and color:
globose, ovoid, cylindrical, conical, narrowly conical, trunk-shaped, green or yellow
in unripe condition, mature fruit bright red, orange, yellow, yellowish brown, dark
violet, or dark olive; the fruits of different varieties vary in taste from pungent hot to
sweet, completely free of pungency. Seeds 2.5–5 mm long, light yellow, com-
pressed, mostly reniform, finely reticulate with distinctly thickened rim around
micropyle. Widely cultivated.
The genus Capsicum originated in Central and South America. Approximately
25 wild species occur in this area. The cultivated forms were domesticated in
prehistoric times; the main difference with the wild types is that the fruits are not
easily dehiscent and hence less damaged by birds. Mexico was probably the center of
origin of the chilli and sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum in the narrow sense), while
aromatic hot pepper (Capsicum chinense) originates in the Amazonian region and
bird pepper (Capsicum frutescens) in the coastal regions of the southern part of
tropical South America. In cultivation, the 3 species have been crossed intensively
and many intermediate forms occur. They are therefore treated here as one broad
group of cultivars, although characteristic examples of the 3 original species can still
be recognized. Shortly after Columbus’ discovery of America, the Spanish and
Portuguese brought capsicum pepper (hot and sweet) to Europe, from where espe-
cially the hot pepper was widely dispersed to all tropical and subtropical areas of the
world. By the end of the seventeenth century, it was grown as a popular vegetable
and spice everywhere in the tropics and many very distinct types and landraces had
been developed (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).
Capsicum annuum L. 445
Fig. 1 Capsicum annuum

(Solanaceae), garden,
Cappadokia, Turkey. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &

R.W. Bussmann &
Chili preparations are often used in Colombia to relieve pain in osteomuscular

conditions. The fruits are used externally in the form of ointment or plaster for the
treatment of lumbago and neuralgia and osteomuscular pains. The poultices made
with the fruit and placed on the neck for a short time avoid brain congestion. Aji

R.W. Bussmann &

R.W. Bussmann &
tincture is used in small doses to promote appetite and as a facilitator of digestion.

Aji preparations are used to cure deep inflammations, as well as for the treatment of
lumbago and neuralgia. For these purposes, the fruits are used, as well as they are
exciting and calm the pains of teeth. The fresh fruticose and taken as if they were
pills, are used in diseases of the liver. The juice of the fruit is consumed against
hemorrhoids. Applying the fruit externally is good treatment for gout, joint rheuma-
tism, and bronchitis. The consumption of Aji fruits stimulates salivation and gastric
juices, also activates the peristaltic movements of the intestines and combats

R.W. Bussmann &

(Solanaceae), diversity of
Capsicum, garden, Chicani,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
stomach upset. The fruits are also used to treat pneumonia and to promote appetite
and sleep (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975; Mini-
sterio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In Peru, the antibacterial
properties of various species have been documented (Bussmann et al. 2009, 2011;
Bussmann and Sharon 2014). Originally falsely believed to be the “Ulluchu” plant
used in Moche culture (Bussmann and Sharon 2009). The use of Chillies against

R.W. Bussmann &

R.W. Bussmann &

(Solanaceae), market, Tbilisi,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &

(Solanaceae), drying
Capsicum, market, Telavi,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
rheumatism is common worldwide, e.g., in Madagascar, where C. annum is also

used to relieve stomachache (Razafindraibe et al. 2013; Rakotoarivelo et al. 2015).
Local Food Uses
Widely used as spice (Bussman et al. 2014, 2016) (Figs. 9, 10, 11, and 12).

(Solanaceae), dried Capsicum,
market in Cappadokia,
Turkey. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &

(Solanaceae), Ajika
(Capisicum spice preparation)
market in Tbilisi, Georgia.
In Peru, various Capsicum species are used against bad air/mal aire and sorcery
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007; Bussmann et al. 2010, 2015a, b). The species
have also erroneously been linked to ritual sacrifice (Bussmann et al. 2009).
References
de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Arogya, Honolulu. 2007. (ISBN
978–0–9789962-3-9).
unidentified ceremonial plant of the Moche culture in Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed.
2009;5:8.

Northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011;9:67–96.
Northern Peru. Ethnobiol Conserv. 2014;3:3, https://doi.org/10.1545/ec2014-6-3.2-1-50
medicinal flora of Northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. (ISBN
978-0-9960231-2-2)
medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. (ISBN 978-0-
9960231-3-9)
Malca GG, Perez AF, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in Northern
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
Pharmacol. 2010;4(9):580–629.
2014;12:237–313.
(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-
016-0110-2.
de Ciencias Naturales/Universidad Nacional; 1975. 497 pp
Imprenta Nacional de Colombia; 2008. 311 pp
Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA, Jardín
Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis. Bogotá. Jardin Botanico. 1996. 831 pp.
Rakotoarivelo NH, Kuhlman A, Rakotoarivony F, Ramarosandratana AV, Jeannoda V,
Randrianasolo A, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants used to treat the most frequent diseases in
the Ambalabe rural commune. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:68.
women from Agnalazaha littoral forest (Southeastern Madagascar). J Ethnobiol Ethnomed.
2013;9:73.
Carica papaya L.
Vasconcellea pubescens A. DC.
CARICACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Carica papaya L.: Carica bourgeaei Solms; Carica citriformis Jacq.; Carica
cubensis Solms; Carica hermaphrodita Blanco; Carica jamaicensis Urb.; Carica
jimenezii (Bertoni) Bertoni; Carica mamaya Vell.; Carica papaya fo. mamaya
Stellfeld; Carica papaya fo. portoricensis Solms; Carica papaya var. bady Aké
Assi; Carica papaya var. jumenezii Bertoni; Carica peltata Hook & Arn.; Carica
pinnatifida Heilborn; Carica portoricensis (Solms) Urb.; Carica posoposa L.;
Carica rochefortii Solms; Carica sativa Tussac; Papaya bourgeaei (Solms) Kuntze;
Papaya carica Gaertn.; Papaya cimmarrona Sint. ex Kuntze; Papaya citriformis
(Jacq.) A. DC.; Papaya communis Noronha; Papaya cubensis (Solms) Kunzte;
Papaya cucumerina Noronha; Papaya edulis Bojer; Papaya edulis var. macrocarpa
Bojer; Papaya edulis var. pyriformis Bojer; Papaya hermaphrodita Blanco; Papaya
papaya (L.) H. Karst; Papaya peltata (Hook. & Arn.) Kuntze; Papaya rochefortii
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

(Solms) Kuntze; Papaya sativa Tuss.; Papaya vulgaris DC.; Vasconcellea peltata
(Hook. & Arn.) A. DC.
Vasconcellea pubescens A. DC.: Carica candamarcensis Hook. f.; Carica cestrifolia
(A. DC.) Solms; Carica chiriquensis Woodson; Carica pubescens (A. DC.) Solms;
Carica pubescens Lenné & K. Koch.; Papaya candamarcensis (Hook. f.) Kuntze;
Vasconcellea cestrifolia A. DC.; Vasconcellea cundinamarcensis V.M. Badillo
Local Names
Carica papaya: Colombia: Papayo, Lechosa, Papaya, Chamburo, Fruta bomba,

Mamona, Melón, Papaya Calentana, Zapote; Ecuador: Papaya fintsumi puka
(Chafi’ki), Pa’payo (Tsafi’ki), Kari papaya (Spanish-Kichwa), Huati jico, Nea
huati jico, Po huati jico, Tsoa huati jico (Pai coca), Awaka (Wao tededo), Wapaí
(Shuar chicham), Papaya, Papaya blanca, Papaya de mico, Papaya de monte, Papayo
(Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Papaya (Spanish); English: Papaya
Vasconcellea pubescens: Colombia: Papayo, Papayuela, Papayuela Maligna,
Tapaculo, Chilacuán, Chilhuacán, Cammon, Papayuelo, Tapaya de altura, Chilicuan,
Papaya de tierra fría, Papaya silvestre, Papayote, Titi-ish, Papayito de los andes, Higuillo
(Spanish); Ecuador: Chanpuru (Kichwa), Chamburo (Spanish), Toronche redondo
(Spanish-unspecified language), Chiblacán, Chihualcán, Jigacho, Rolo jimba, Siglalón,
Sigloalón, Siglolón, Toronche (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Botany and Ecology
Carica papaya: Erect, fast-growing, usually unbranched tree or shrub, 7–8 m tall,
with copious latex, trunk about 20 cm in diameter, soft, leaves clustered near top of
plant, alternate, long-petiolate, blade suborbicular, to 80 cm long, palmately 7–11-
lobed; lobes glabrous, toothed, flat; plants dioecious in nature, some monoectous
cultivars; flowers aromatic, male in drooping axillary panicles to 80 cm long, with a
5-toothed green calyx and 5-toothed cream to yellow corolla; stamens 10; female
flowers solitary or cymose in axils or below leaves, with 5 yellow nearly free petals
to 5 cm long; ovary with 5 stigmas; fruit a large yellow to greenish-orange berry,
oblong to nearly globose or pyriform, about 7.5 cm long and bitter in wild types, up
to 45 cm long, with flesh 2.5–5 cm thick, sweet, juicy and of orange color in
cultivars; seeds numerous in central cavity, rounded, blackish, about 0.6 cm in
diameter, each enclosed in a gelatinous membrane (aril) (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Vasconcellea pubescens: Small tree, up to 4 m, branches, petioles, leaves beneath
and inflorescences lightly pubescent, the pubescence persisting, especially on the
leaf nerves beneath; petioles greatly elongate, the large leaves broadly cordate,
deeply 5–7-parted, the middle lobe 3–5-lobed, the oblong lower and lateral lobes
oblong, mostly 1-lobed; the lobes not rarely have 1 or 2 broad teeth and the middle
lobe usually 3-lobed with elongate pointed lobules, the lateral lobes descending and
Carica papaya L. . . . 455
Fig. 1 Carica papaya

(Caricaceae), Pusac, Peru.
Fig. 2 Carica papaya

(Caricaceae), Pusac, Peru.
Fig. 3 Vasconcellea
weberbaueri (Caricaceae),
Pusac, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
mostly with a lobule on the outer lower side; male peduncles 2.5–6 cm. long; calyx
deeply 5-parted, the lobes less than 2 mm. long; corolla glabrous within, the tube
about 8 mm. long, the linear-lanceolate lobes as long; connective of all anthers
shortly produced, the filaments of the upper glabrous; female inflorescence very
short, few-flowered, the corolla segments 2.5 to nearly 3 cm long, the young fruit
with five 2-branched styles. Flowers greenish, mostly among the leaves but also
below on the old wood; sometimes only male sometimes only female on the same
shrub (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).
Carica papaya: Bolivia: The plant is used as antiparasitic, for stomach inflamma-
tion, as purgative, and for gallbladder ailments (Quiroga et al. 2012). Papaya is used
in Colombia for the treatment of intestinal constipation, poor digestion, inflamma-
tion of the small intestine, dysentery, psoriasis, and warts. Anthelmintic activity
against intestinal worms has been reported from this plant. The latex exuded from
the plant is used for the treatment of skin conditions by brushing the affected part
with latex; these conditions include: psoriasis, ringworm, eczema, freckles, skin
spots, and warts. The latex of the fruit and the stem of the papaya is milky in
appearance and is often used by farmers at the Colombian Atlantic Coast, to treat
calluses and corns by brushing the affected part several times with the latex. The root
Fig. 4 Vasconcellea
weberbaueri (Caricaceae),
Pusac, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 5 Vasconcellea
sp. (Caricaceae), Pusac, Peru.
ground to paste is frequently used to eliminate varicose veins and warts by applying
it on the affected area. The leaves in infusion are used in the treatment of diseases
associated with the gastrointestinal tract, against intestinal parasites, and as diuretics.
The fruits are considered as facilitators of digestion, diuretics, and laxatives. The
papaya is very effective to help in the digestion of food in people with stomach or
intestinal diseases (García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008;
Patiño 1963, 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996.)
Fig. 6 Vasconcellea
Fig. 7 Vasconcellea
Fig. 8 Vasconcellea
Ecuador: The immature fruit is applied on the skin to remove skin spots and warts
(Mestiza-Pichincha). The fruit is used to treat indeterminate conditions (Kichwa of
the East-Napo). The fruit is used to treat pneumonia (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura).
Root juice, mixed with other medicines, is used to treat diarrhea (Shuar-Napo,
Pastaza). The fruit with the seeds is eaten while fasting for its digestive properties
(Mestiza-Pichincha). The heated leaves are placed on blows or external inflamma-
tions to soothe the pain (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). The leaves are
used for wound healing. The infusion is drunk as a tonic for the heart (unspecified
ethnicity – Other (Coast Region)). The seeds are used to relieve stomachache
(Kichwa of the East-Orellana, Pastaza). Seeds and latex are used as a vermifuge to
eliminate intestinal parasites (ascaris and pinworms) (Mestiza-Pichincha;
unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Others (Costa Region), Azuay, Cañar; Siona-
Sucumbíos; Shuar-Orellana). The seeds, mixed with seeds of 6–7 fruits of different
trees and ground with water, are used as anthelmintic (Kichwa of the East-Napo). It
is used to treat dyspepsia, gastroenteritis, warts, and stomach ulcers (unspecified
ethnicity – Others (Costa Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves with lemon
are used to purify the blood (Mestiza-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Fresh seeds and fruit peels are used to treat parasites of the stomach, as
laxative, and as antivenom to revert poison effect (Bussmann and Sharon 2006,
2007, 2014, 2015a, b). It is also used as anthelmintic and for menstrual cramps
Vasconcellea pubescens: Colombia: The latex that Papaya exudes is used, in
contact with the skin, to remove warts and petty. It is also applied in brush strokes
on the throat to treat angina and tonsillitis. The fruit is used to calm the cough
(Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Latex is
used to treat acne, warts, and tonsillitis; fruits are used to treat cough (Bussmann
et al. 2018).
Ecuador: Latex is used, in combination with other herbs, for the treatment of some
type of cancer (Mestiza-Manabí) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Local Food Uses
Carica papaya: The fruits are widely eaten. Ecuador: The fruit is edible, and it
serves to prepare juices, chicha, preserves, and sweets (Chachi-Esmeraldas; Mestiza-
Guayas, Pichincha, Others (Ecuador); Tsa’chi-Pichincha; Cofán, Siona-Sucumbíos;
Secoya-Sucumbíos; Kichwa del Oriente -Sucumbíos, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza;
Wao-Napo; Shuar-Napo, Pastaza, Morona Santiago; unspecified ethnic group –
Guayas, El Oro, Others (Costa Region), Carchi, Bolívar, Azuay, Cañar, Others
(Andean Region), Zamora Chinchipe, Others (tropical and subtropical region of
Ecuador)) (de la Torre et al. 2008). In Peru, papaya is used medicinally to treat
stomach parasites, as laxative, and as antivenom to reverse effects of poison
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2014, 2015a, b). In India, papaya is used for
abortion, for heart palpitations, bone fractures, constipation, cooling, digestive,
gastric, ringworm, skin diseases, tooth and gum ache, and urinary system and
bladder complaints (Verma et al. 2007). In Madagascar, the species serves to treat
bilharzia, gonorrhea, stomach pain, dental problems, breast tumors, urine retention
(Rabearivony et al. 2015), to improve breastfeeding, headaches, wounds, menstrual
pain, ulcers, constipation, indigestion, boils, cysticercosis, toxoplasmosis, cough,
and yellow fever (Razafindraibe et al. 2013). In Kenya, the species is used to treat
sexually transmitted diseases (Njoroge and Bussmann 2009).
Vasconcellea pubescens: Ecuador: The fruit is edible, and it is used to prepare
sweets (Kichwa de la Sierra-Pichincha; Mestiza-Imbabura, Tungurahua, Azuay,
Loja; unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha, Loja, Others (Costa and Sierra Region);
Mestiza- Morona Santiago) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Carica papaya: Ecuador: The plant has beekeeping use (unspecified ethnic group –
Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves are used to wrap meat for a few days. It is
known for its bactericidal power (unspecified ethnicity – other (Coast Region)). It is
used to separate silver from photographic films and to remove silk and wool
(unspecified ethnicity – Other (Coast Region)). It serves, in cosmetology, to remove
spots and freckles (ethnic group – Other (Costa Region)). Food additive: the fruit is
used as a meat tenderizer (unspecified ethnicity – Other (Coast Region)); the latex is
used as a meat tenderizer (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al.
2008). Species of papaya, especially Carica candicans, have been erroneously
suggested as part of Moche sacrifices in Peru (Bussmann and Sharon 2009, 2014).
In Africa, papaya is used as anthelmintic for cattle (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
unidentified ceremonial plant of the Moche culture in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed.
2009;5:8.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Herbal usage and informant consensus in ethnoveterinary management
of cattle diseases among the Kikuyus (Central Kenya). J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:332–9.
Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Ethnotherapeutic management of sexually transmitted diseases
Knowl. 2009;8(2):262–9.
Rabearivony ADN, Razafiarison ZL, Raharimalala F, Rakotoarivony F, Randrianarivony T,
Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianasolo A, Kuhlman A, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotanical study of the
plants known by men at Ambalabe, Madagascar. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2015;14:123–38.
2013;9:73.
Carpobrotus chilensis (Molina) N.E. Br.
AIZOACEAE

Javier Echeverría
Synonyms
Carpobrotus chilensis (Molina) N.E. Br.: Mesembryanthemum chilense Molina,

Carpobrotus aequilaterus auct. non (Haw.) N.E. Br.
Local Names
Chile: Doca, Dedos de ángel
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría

Botany and Ecology
Succulent, evergreen, perennial plant with prostrate stem, <2 m or ore longer that
roots at the nodes and can carpet the ground. Leaves widest above middle, glaucous.
Flowers sessile, sepals 1–2 cm; petals 1–2.5 cm, fruit soft when ripe, 0–500 m above
sea level (Baldwin et al. 2012).
The juice of the leaf is considered medicinal since it is used for the treatment of ear
pain, to cure the “carachas” and the grains of the skin, for the swellings, decayed
teeth, and to relieve the fever. The plant is also used as cataplasm with white mud to
heal wounds and burns (Baldwin et al. 2012; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and
Castro 2003).
Local Food Uses
The edible fruits and leaves are sometimes harvested from the wild for local
consumption (Baldwin et al. 2012; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Cassia occidentalis L.
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Cassia occidentalis L.: Cassia caroliniana Walter; Cassia ciliate Raf.; Cassia
falcata L.; Cassia foetida Pers.; Cassia frutescens Mill.; Cassia geminiflora
Schrank; Cassia linearis Michx.; Cassia longispica L. f.; Cassia obliquifolia
Schrank; Cassia planislingua L.; Cassia sophera L.; Ditremexa occidentalis (L.)
Britton & Rose; Senna occidentalis (L.) Link; Senna occidentalis (L.) Roxb.
Local Names
Colombia (Spanish): Bicho, Bruca, Brusca, Busaca, Café de brusco, Caféfurrusco,

Cafémoucha, Cafecillo, Cafecito, Chilinchil, Cresta de gallo, Frijolillo, Martinica, Pico
de pájaro, Potra, Yerba de murciélago, Yerba potra; Ecuador: Hierba Gallinazo; English:
Senna
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Shrub, unarmed slender upright and short-lived annual or biennial, 0.5–2.5 m tall,
with fetid smell when damaged, leaves with 3.7 pairs of leaflets, 2–10 cm long and
2–3 cm wide, with pointed tips, and a gland at the base of the leaf stalk. Flowers
2–3 cm in diameter, yellow, with five petals. The fruit is somewhat flattened, straight
or slightly sickle-shaped, pod, 7.5–13 cm long and 8–10 mm wide (Macbride and
Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7).
In Colombia, this plant is generally considered purgative. The whole decoction plant
is used against stomach diseases, to treat diarrhea, fever, and asthma. The root is used
as a tonic and has diuretic properties. The leaves lower fever and are hence used as
febrifuge. The seeds of this plant are used as toasts against fever and malaria, to
promote menstruation, and to relieve stomach ailments; they are also used as a
diuretic and in the treatment of indigestion, stomach discomfort, and diseases of the
prostate. Unroasted seeds are used as a purgative and in poultices to relieve swelling
by fluid retention and skin diseases. The infusion of the seeds is administered to treat
asthma and against fevers. Externally, seeds are used in the treatment of scabies and
to relieve bumps or bruises. With the roasted seeds, a drink similar to coffee is made
(Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1974; Ministerio de
Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In India, the species is used to
treat bone fractures, diarrhea, dropsy, dysentery, eczema, fever, gastric complaints,
purgative, rheumatism, ringworm, skin diseases, snake bite, throat infection,
whooping cough, and wounds (Debbarma et al. 2017; Verma et al. 2007).
In Peru, Cassia fistula is used to treat epilepsy and nervous system disorders
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b). In India, the species serves as remedy
Fig. 1 Cassia tara

Cassia occidentalis L. 467
Fig. 2 Cassia tara

Fig. 3 Cassia tara

for abdominal pain, antifertility, antiseptic, asthma, blindness, blood purifier, burns,
chest infection, constipation, cool agent, cough, diarrhea, dog bite, snake bite,
dysentery, dysuria, epilepsy, indigestion, jaundice, leprosy complaints, pimples, rheu-
matism, ringworm, scorpion bite, skin diseases, stomachache, syphilis, toothache,
vermicide and throat swelling (Verma et al. 2007), and as laxative (Debbarma et al.
2017).
In Ecuador and Peru, the species is used to treat bad air/mal aire (Béjar et al. 2002;
Bussmann et al. 2010; Bussmann and Sharon 2014).
Fig. 4 Cassia tara

Fig. 5 Cassia occidentalis

(Fabaceae), garden, Chicani,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Cassia occidentalis L. 469

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
Northern Peru. Ethnobiol Conserv. 2014;3:–3. https://doi.org/10.1545/ec2014-6-3.2-1-50.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010;4(9):580–629.
Debbarma M, Pala NA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in
tribes of Tripura, Northeast India. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2017;14(4):156–68.
de Ciencias Naturales. Universidad Nacional; 1974. 561 pp.
Verma AK, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Medicinal plants in an urban environment: the medicinal
flora of Banares Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:35.
Cecropia andina Cuatrec.
Cecropia mutisiana Mildbr.
Cecropia peltata L.
CECROPIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Cecropia andina Cuatrec.: Cecropia rugosa Cuatrec.

Cecropia mutisiana Mildbr.: Cecropia ibaguensis Cuatrec.; Cecropia tolimense
Cuatrec.
Cecropia peltata L.: Ambaiba peltata (L.) Kuntze; Ambaiba surinamensis (Miq.)
Kuntze; Cecropia amphichlora Standl. & L.O. Williams; Cecropia arachnoidea
Pittier; Cecropia asperrima Pittier; Cecropia dielsiana Snethl.; Cecropia digitata
var. grisea Miq.; Cecropia goodspeedii Cuatrec.; Cecropia hondurensis Standl.;
Cecropia humboldtiana Klotzsch; Cecropia peltata var. candida Velazquez;
Cecropia propinqua Miq.; Cecropia scabrifolia V.A. Richt.; Cecropia schiedeana
Klotsch; Cecropia surinamensis Miq.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Cecropia mutisiana: Colombia: Agrumo, Orumo, Yarumo

Cecropia peltata: Colombia: Ambaibanegra, Duguná, Guarumo, Yagrumo, Yarumo
Botany and Ecology
Cecropia andina: Tree, up to 20 m tall. Leafy twigs 2 4 cm thick, bluish due to a

waxy layer, glabrous; pith brown and copious. Lamina subcoriaceous to chartaceous,
ca. 40 40 cm to 80 80 cm (to 130 130 cm), the segments 7 9, the free parts of
upper segments elliptic to subobovate, the incisions down to 4/10 7/10 or in the lower
part of the lamina <4/10; apices acuminate to obtuse; upper surface scabrous,
sometimes bullate, hirtellous to puberulous to hispid-hirsute; lower surface hirtellous
to subtomentose on the veins or the primary veins subglabrous, the arachnoid
indumentum in the areoles, often very short and sparse or only near the margin,
sometimes absent; lateral veins ca. 10 15 pairs, submarginally loop-connected,
most of them branched; petiole 30–85 cm long, subglabrous, bluish; trichilia absent,
or if present, then separate and usually poorly developed, the brown indumentum
intermixed with dense short and rather long white hairs; stipules ca. 15–30 cm long,
red to greenish, glabrous outside, hairy inside. Staminate inflorescences solitary or in
pairs, the peduncle erect, the spikes pendulous; peduncle 6–10 cm long, glabrous or
with sparse long white hairs, often bluish due to a waxy layer; spathe 18–30 cm long,
green to yellowish or to pink, almost glabrous outside, densely (sub)sericeous inside;
spikes 6–16, 9–27 0.3–0.6 cm, the stipes 0.6–1 cm long, glabrous; rachis with short
hairs. Staminate flowers sessile or short-pedicellate; perianth tubular, 1.2–1.6 mm
long, glabrous, the apex slightly convex to almost plane, slightly 2-lobed, smooth;
filaments flat; anthers 0.6–0.8 mm long, appendiculate, detached at anthesis,
reattached to the margins of the aperture by the appendages. Pistillate inflorescences
solitary or in pairs, pendulous or the peduncle initially erect; peduncle 6–14 cm long,
glabrous, often bluish due to wax; spathe ca. 15–22 cm long, the color and
indumentum as in the staminate inflorescences or glabrous inside; spikes (3 or)
4, 12–20 0.8–1 cm, to 35 1.2 cm in fruit, subsessile or with stipes to 1.5 cm
long and glabrous; rachis hairy or glabrous. Pistillate flowers: perianth ca. 2 mm long,
with arachnoid indumentum below the apex outside, also in the style channel inside,
the apex convex to dome-shaped, smooth; style short, hairy. Fruit ellipsoid to ovoid,
ca. 1.2–1.5 mm long, smooth (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Cecropia mutisiana: Tree, 12(–20) m tall. Leafy twigs 2.5–4 cm thick, hispid to
puberulous with straight to uncinate hairs. Lamina chartaceous to subcoriaceous,
ca. 35 35 cm to 75 75 cm, the segments (9–)10–12(–13), the free parts of the
upper segments oblanceolate to (sub)obovate to elliptic, the incisions down to
ca. 7/10–8/10; apices obtuse to rounded; upper surface scabrous to scabridulous,
hispidulous or also with arachnoid indumentum; lower surface puberulous to
hirtellous to subtomentose on the veins, with arachnoid indumentum in the areoles
or extending to the main veins; lateral veins in the free part of the midsegment
Cecropia andina Cuatrec. . . . 473
Fig. 1 Cecropia
sp. (Cecropiaceae),
Utcubamba, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Cecropia
sp. (Cecropiaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
10–21, submarginally to marginally loop-connected, the lower ones often faintly so,
unbranched or branched; petiole ca. 20–60 cm long, puberulous to subhispidulous or
also with arachnoid indumentum; trichilia fused, the upper rim often irregularly
lobate, the brown indumentum intermixed with short white hairs; stipules 6–23 cm
long, dark red to red-brown, hirtellous to puberulous or also with arachnoid
indumentum outside, white sericeous inside. Staminate inflorescences in pairs, the
peduncle erect and the spikes pendulous or spreading; peduncle 5–10 cm long,
hispidulous; spathe 8–18 cm long, (red-)brown, sparsely to rather densely hirtellous
to puberulous outside, densely yellowish subsericeous inside; spikes ca. 15–25,
4.5–14 0.2–0.3 cm, with stipes 0.4–1 cm long and sparsely hairy; rachis hairy.
Staminate flowers: perianth tubular, ca. 1 mm long, sparsely and minutely
puberulous below the apex, the apex plane; filaments flat; anthers ca. 0.4 mm
long, appendiculate, detached at anthesis, reattached to the margins of the aperture
by the appendages. Pistillate inflorescences in pairs or solitary, erect, soon deflexed
to pendulous; peduncle 3–7 cm long, hispidulous or also with arachnoid
indumentum; spathe 10–13 cm long, the color and indumentum as in the staminate
inflorescence; spikes (2–)4–5, 6–12 0.4–0.6 cm, to 31 1.3 cm in fruit, sessile;
rachis hairy. Pistillate flowers: perianth ca. 1.5–2 mm long, with arachnoid
indumentum below the apex outside, also in the style channel inside, the apex
convex, minutely puberulous to muriculate; style short; stigmas comose. Fruit
ellipsoid, ca. 1.5 mm long, smooth, dark brown (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
Cecropia peltata: Tree, 15(–25) m tall. Leafy twigs 1.5–4 cm thick, green,
hispidulous with curved to uncinate hairs. Lamina chartaceous to subcoriaceous;
(10 10 cm) 20 20 cm to 60 60 cm, the segments(7–)8–10(–11), the free parts
upper segments oblong or elliptic, the incisions down to ca. 5/10–7/10; apices short-
acuminate to rounded; upper surface scabrous, hispidulous; lower surface minutely
puberulous, intermixed with rather sparse longer hairs, with arachnoid indumentum
in the areoles, also on the reticulum or extending to the main veins; lateral veins in
the free part of the midsegment (8–)10–15(–17) pairs, marginally or submarginally
loop-connected, usually branched; petiole (10–)20–50 cm long, puberulous or also
with arachnoid indumentum; trichilia fused, the brown indumentum intermixed with
short or sometimes with rather long white hairs; stipules 3–10(–12) cm long, pinkish
or reddish, sometimes subpersistent, strigose to hirtellous and often also with
arachnoid indumentum outside, sparsely to densely (sub)sericeous inside. Staminate
inflorescences erect to deflexed; peduncle 2–12.5 cm long, sparsely to densely
puberulous to hirtellous to subhispid; spathe 2.5–7 cm long, pinkish to purplish,
greenish or whitish, puberulous to hirtellous and often also with arachnoid
indumentum outside, (sub)sericeous inside; spikes ca. (10–)15–25(–60),
0.5–6 0.2–0.25 cm, with stipes to 0.8 cm long and hairy; rachis hairy. Staminate
flowers with perianth tubular, 1–1.5 mm long, with short and stiff hairs or sometimes
short arachnoid indumentum below the apex, the apex plane, smooth; filaments flat;
anthers ca. 0.5–0.6 mm long, appendiculate, detached at anthesis, reattached to the
margin of the aperture by the appendages at anthesis. Pistillate inflorescences in
pairs, erect to pendulous; peduncle 3–10(–16) cm long, sparsely to densely
puberulous to hirtellous to hirsute or to subhispid, often also with arachnoid
Cecropia andina Cuatrec. . . . 475
Fig. 3 Cecropia
sp. (Cecropiaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Cecropia
sp. (Cecropiaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
indumentum; spathe 3.5–6 cm long, the color and indumentum as in the staminate
inflorescence; spikes 3–4(–5), 1–4 0.3–0.4 cm, to 9 1.1 cm in fruit, sessile or
with stipes to 0.5 cm long and hairy; rachis hairy. Pistillate flowers basally connate;
perianth 1–1.5 mm long, with arachnoid indumentum below and on the apex outside,
absent or in and below the style channel, the apex flat to slightly convex; style short;
stigma peltate. Fruit ovoid to ellipsoid, ca. 2 mm long, tuberculate, dark brown
Fig. 5 Cecropia sp.

(Cecropiaceae), Madre de
Diós, Peru. (Photo R.W.
Bussmann and N.Y.
Paniagua-Zambrana)
Cecropia mutisiana: The decoction of the leaves of Cecropia is used to treat

respiratory, bronchial, and pulmonary diseases and as a heart tonic and diuretic.
By preparing the leaves in the form of plasters, they are used to prevent infections
and accelerate the healing processes in cattle wounds (Ministerio de Protección
Social 2008).
Cecropia peltata: The leaves of Yarumo or Guarumo are used to prepare them in
decoction for the treatment of diseases of the bronchial system and lungs. Likewise,
some forms of asthma are treated by taking the decoction of the leaves (Bussmann
et al. 2018; García Barriga 1974) (Fig. 5).
References
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Centaurium erythraea Rafn
GENTIANACEAE
Synonyms
Centaurium erythraea Rafn: Centaurium minus Moench; Centaurium minus subsp.

austriacum (Ronninger) O. Schwarz; Centaurium umbellatum Gilib.; Centaurium
umbellatum subsp. austriacum Ronninger; Erythraea capitata Willd. ex Roem. &
Schult.; Erythraea lomae Gilg
Local Names
Ecuador: Canchalagua (Spanish), Sinchilawa (Kichwa) (de la Torre et al. 2008);

English: Feverfoullie, Gentian, Centaury
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Centaurium erythraea: Biennial, glabrous, green; stems straights, solitary or 2–5

from common base, 4-angled, 10–40 cm tall, in upper part branched, the branches
upright; rosulate leaves persistent at flowering time, oblanceolate-ovate, the cauline
distant, faintly 5-nerved, smooth-margined, elliptic-oblong, mostly obtuse, subacute;
inflorescence few-flowered, corymbose-paniculate; lateral flowers with 2 small
linear-subulate bracteoles inserted just below the calyx; calyx tubular, 4–6 mm
long, parted down to or below the middle, the linear-subulate acute teeth shorter
than or rarely equaling the corolla tube; corolla 12–15 mm long, about 10 mm in
diameter at throat, the slender yellowish tube slightly constricted below the throat;
corolla lobes bright pink, oval, obtuse; capsule narrowly oblong, ca. 10 mm long;
seeds numerous, irregularly globose, brownish (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Ecuador: The whole fresh plant used to treat cold, cough, and flu (Béjar et al. 2002;
Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007). The infusion of the plant is used to regulate the
blood (unspecified ethnic group-Chimborazo). It is boiled and used to treat influenza
(Kichwa de la Sierra, unspecified ethnicity-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). In the
Fig. 1 Centaurium erythraea

(Gentianaceae), Bragança,
Portugal. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Centaurium erythraea Rafn 479

(Gentianaceae), Bragança,
Portugal. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

(Gentianaceae), Racha,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Caucasus and other areas of Eurasia, the plant is used as bitter for digestive purposes
(Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018).
References
Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal Herbs of southern Ecuador – Hierbas
Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publishing
XXVII; 2017. 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1.
de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-2-2.
Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha,
Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018;17(1):7–33.
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.
APIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.: Centella asiatica var. floridana (J.M. Coult. & Rose)
J.M. Coult. & Rose; Centella biflora (P. Vell.) Nannf.; Centella coriacea Nannf.;
Centella dusenii Nannf.; Centella erecta (L. f.) Fernald; Centella floridana
(J.M. Coult. & Rose) Nannf.; Centella hirtella Nannf.; Centella repanda (Pers.)
Small; Centella var. floridana (J.M. Coult. & Rose) Small; Centella triflora (Ruiz &
Pav.) Nannf.; Glyceria repanda (Pers.) Nutt.; Hydrocotyle asiatica fo. luxurians
Donn. Sm.; Hydrocotyle asiatica L.; Hydrocotyle biflora P. Vell.; Hydrocotyle
brasiliensis Scheidw. ex Otto & F. Diertr.; Hydrocotyle brevipedata St. Lager &
St.-Lag.; Hydrocotyle erecta L. f.; Hydrocotyle ficariifolia Stokes; Hydrocotyle
ficarioides Lam.; Hydrocotyle ficarioides Michx.; Hydrocotyle inaequipes DC.;
Hydrocotyle lurida Hance; Hydrocotyle nummularioides A. Rich.; Hydrocotyle
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

reniformis Walter; Hydrocotyle repands Pers.; Hydrocotyle sylvicola E. Jacob

Cordemoy; Hydrocotyle triflora Ruiz & Pav.
Local Names
Colombia: Berro macho, Centella asiática, Gotu kola, Hidrocotile asiática; English:
Gotu kola
Botany and Ecology
Perennial herb; stem creeping, juvenile stem pubescent, rooting at nodes, branching;
leaves in bundles, rounded-reniform, 2–5 cm long, 7–9-nerved, regularly crenate,
with deep, more or less open basal notch; petioles 3–5 times as long as blade,
pubescent especially in upper part, nerves at base with 2 ovate scarious, wilting
scales, blade with pubescent nerves. Peduncles 2–4 in each bundle of leaves, half the
length of the petioles or more, terminating in small head of 3–4 flowers; leaflets of
involucre lanceolate, 3–4; flowers subsessile, pink; petals ca. 1.5 mm long; stamens
half the length of the petals; fruit brown, ca. 3 mm long, 3–4 mm thick, 1 mm wide,
ribbed, with anastomosing lateral ribs. Described from India.
Centella is used in Colombia to treat inflammations and gastritis. The decoction of the
young roots is administered to treat infected wounds (Ministerio de Protección Social
2008).
While the uses of the species in Latin America are very limited, Centella is a very
commonly used medicinal plant in Asia, e.g., as mouthwash (Debbarma et al. 2017);
for headache (Singh et al. 2017); diarrhea and skin infections (Raj et al. 2018; Reang
et al. 2016); leprosy, as tonic, to increase memory and for wounds (Joshi et al. 2010);
bronchitis, blood disorders, urinary problems, wounds, and as tonic (Kunwar et al.
2013); as anthelmintic, for blood disease, blood dysentery, brain tonic, cholera,
cooling, cough, diarrhea, diuretic, dysentery, eczema, eye complaints, fever, gastric
disorder, headache, leprosy, liver complaints, memory, nervous disorder, tonic,
respiratory disorder, skin diseases, stomachache, syphilis, tuberculosis, tumor, boil,
urine complaints, and wounds (Verma et al. 2007). It also has reached Madagascar,
where it serves to treat stomachache, ulcers, and boils (Rabearivony et al. 2015;
Rakotoarivelo et al. 2015; Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015).
References
tribes of Tripura, northeast India. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2017;14(4):156–68.
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. 483
RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of
northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-
018-0208-9.
the Ambalabe rural commune. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:1–16.
2015;11:60.
Reang I, Goswami S, Pala NA, Kumar K, Bussmann RW. Ethnoveterinary applications of medic-
inal plants by traditional herbal healers in Reang tribe of South district Tripura, India. Med
Aromat Plant. 2016;5:234.
itants of Jakholi Block, Rudraprayag district, western Himalaya, India. J Etnobiol Ethnomed.
2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3.
Ceroxylon parvifrons (Engl). H. Wendl.
Ceroxylon quindiuense (H. Karst). H. Wendl.
Ceroxylon vogelianum (Engl). H. Wendl.
ARECACEAE
Synonyms
Ceroxylon parvifrons (Engl). H. Wendl.: Ceroxylon latisectum Burret; Ceroxylon

mooreanum Galeano & R. Bernal; Ceroxylon sclerophyllum Dugand; Klopstockia
parvifrons Engl
Ceroxylon quindiuense (H. Karst). H. Wendl.: Ceroxylon floccosum Burret;
Klopstockia quindiuensis H. Karst.
Ceroxylon vogelianum (Engl). H. Wendl.: Ceroxylon coarctatum (Engel)
H. Wendl.; Ceroxylon crispum Burret; Ceroxylon flexuosum Galeano & R. Bernal;
Ceroxylon hexandrum Dugand; Ceroxylon verruculosum Burret; Klopstockia
coarctata Engel; Klopstockia vogeliana Engel.
Local Names
Ceroxylon parvifrons: Bolivia: Palma amarilla (Spanish) (Paniagua-Zambrana et al.

2010; Moraes et al. 2014). Colombia: Palma de ramo, ramo (Spanish) (Galeano and
Bernal 2010; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014). Ecuador: Palma de ramos,
R. W. Bussmann (*)

ramo bendito, ramos (spanish), chiquil (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al.
2008). Peru: Chonta, Pona, Ramo (spanish) (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2012; Vega
et al. 2014)
Ceroxylon quindiuense: Colombia: Chonta, palma de cera, palma de ramo (span-
ish) (Galeano and Bernal 2010; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014). Ecuador:
Palma de cera (spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Chonta, Pona (spanish)
(Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2012; Vega et al. 2014)
Ceroxylon vogelianum: Bolivia: Lime (Leco) (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2010;
Moraes et al. 2014a). Colombia: Chile, chonta, gallinazo, palma de cera, palma de
ramo, palma negra, palma ramo, palmito real (spanish) (Galeano and Bernal 2010;
Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014). Ecuador: Coco (castellano) (de la Torre et al.
2008). Peru: Chonta, Pona (spanish) (Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2012; Vega et al.
2014)
Botany and Ecology
Ceroxylon parvifrons: It has a lonely stem, which reaches 15 m high, and 15–35 cm in
diameter, gray to white with dark leaf scars. The leaves 2–3.5 m long; with 70–85 pinnae
on each side, regularly inserted in a plane, rigid and horizontal, the centrals 50 cm long
and 4–5 cm wide, with a light brown to white color and waxy clothing. Curved to
pendular inflorescences, 2 m long, branched 2–3 times. The globose to oblong fruits,
15–25 mm in diameter, smooth, orange-red (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).
Ceroxylon quindiuense: one stem, 15–60 m high, 25–40 cm in diameter, white to
light grayish by the thick wax cover; oblique leaf scars, clearly notorious. Leaves
14–20 bluish green, forming an almost circular crown; in the young plants the leaves
are erect; 2–4 m long; petiole covered with light brown scales; 7–128 pinnae on each
side, regularly arranged, inserts in the same plane, hanging, covered underneath with
a thick velvety texture layer white-yellowish to light brown. Inflorescences in
clusters that leave between the leaves (interfoliar), up to 6 clusters at the same
time, up to 4 m long; floral bract up to 2 m long, with woolly texture of light
brown color. Fruits in clusters that hang between the leaves, 1.6–2 cm in diameter,
the intense red-orange peel with black dots, smooth; seed 1.2–1.5 cm diameter. One
seed per fruit.
Ceroxylon vogelianum: single stem; 3–13 m high, 12–20 cm in diameter, some-
times thinner and twisted toward the tip; dark green, with a cover of very soft wax,
the scars of the oblique and notorious leaves. Leaves 6–18 forming an almost
spherical crown; 1–3 m long; of 70–110 pinnae on each side, arranged in dense
groups of 2–7, and inserted in strongly divergent angles, rigid at the base and with
the hanging tip, the pinnae of the tip almost regularly arranged and inserted almost in
it flat, pinnae below with a thin layer of light brown hairs. Inflorescences in clusters
that leave between the leaves (interfoliar), with several clusters on the same plant at
the same time; 2–3 m long, protruding through the leaves. Fruits spherical, 1.6–2 cm
in diameter; deep red-orange color, opaque, the reticulated shell (exocarp) with
Ceroxylon parvifrons (Engl). H. Wendl. . . . 487
Fig. 1 Ceroxylon parvifrons

(Arecaceae), mature plant,
Apolo, Bolivia. (Photo

(Arecaceae), young plant,

(Arecaceae), stem, Apolo,
Bolivia. (Photo

(Arecaceae), leaves, Apolo,
Bolivia. (Photo

(Arecaceae), infructescences,
Palma Real, pueblo Ese Eja,
R.W. Bussmann &

(Arecaceae), leaf underside,

(Arecaceae), ripening
infructescence, Apolo,
Bolivia. (Photo

(Arecaceae), large specimen,
Palma Real, pueblo Ese Eja,
R.W. Bussmann &
skin-like appearance from the back of the hand. One seed per fruit (Figs. 9, 10, 11,
12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, and 24).
Ceroxylon quindiuense: Peru: The root is used to treat malaria and diabetes
(Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2012; Vega et al. 2014).
Ceroxylon vogelianum: Peru: The root is used to treat malaria (Paniagua-Zambrana
et al. 2012; Vega et al. 2014).
Local Food Uses
Ceroxylon parvifrons: Ecuador: The palm heart is edible raw or cooked (de la Torre
et al. 2008).
Ceroxylon quindiuense: Peru: Soft drinks are made with the mesocarp of ripe fruits
(Macía et al. 2014; Moraes 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2012; Vega et al. 2014).
Ceroxylon vogelianum: Colombia: The palm heart is edible raw or cooked
(Galeano and Bernal 2010). Ecuador: The palm heart is edible raw or cooked
(de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The palm heart is edible raw or cooked (Vega et al.
2014).
Fig. 9 Ceroxylon vogelianum (Arecaceae), dense population on sandstone substrate, Ocol, Peru.
Fig. 19 Ceroxylon
vogelianum (Arecaceae),
young fruits, Ocol, Peru.
Fig. 20 Ceroxylon
immature infructescence,
Ocol, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 21 Ceroxylon
immature infructescence,
Ocol, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
Ceroxylon parvifrons: Bolivia: Leaves are occasionally used for temporary roofs
and new leaves used to weave fans and other handicrafts sold on the Palm Sunday
holiday and construction logs (railings, posts) (Moraes 2014). Colombia: Young
leaves were traditionally used for Palm Sunday (Galeano and Bernal 2010; Macía
Fig. 22 Ceroxylon vogelianum (Arecaceae), mature infructescence, Ocol, Peru. (Photo

R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
Fig. 23 Ceroxylon
mature fruits, Ocol, Peru.
Fig. 24 Ceroxylon
mature fruits, Ocol, Peru.
Fig. 25 Ceroxylon
broom made from leaf fibers,
Ocol, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014). Ecuador: The stem is used as piles (posts) of
houses. Young leaves are used as an ornament on Palm Sunday, and they are also
used in rituals and in homes to ward off evil spirits (de la Torre et al. 2008; Macía
et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014). Peru: Green and ripe fruits were harvested to feed
Fig. 26 Ceroxylon
vogelianum (Arecaceae), wall
made from split trunks, Ocol,
Fig. 27 Ceroxylon
pigs and cattle. When a palm tree was felled, the inside of the trunk was used to feed
pigs and cattle; fallen logs are also used as firewood; the young leaves were collected
for use as a “ramo” on the Palm Sunday festival and to adorn its streets at carnival
parties (Macía et al. 2014; Moraes 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2012; Vega et al.
2014).
Ceroxylon quindiuense: Colombia: The wax of the stems was used for the manu-
facture of candles and matches, and it was a significant economic activity until the
mid-nineteenth century; the logs are used as posts and cut into boards for walls and
floors in homes; the young leaves were collected for use as a “ramo bendito” on the
Palm Sunday holiday (Galeano and Bernal 2010; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al.
2014). Ecuador: Young leaves are used to weave ornaments sold on the Palm
Sunday holiday (de la Torre et al. 2008; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014).
Peru: Green and ripe fruits were harvested to feed pigs and cattle. When a palm tree
was felled, the inside of the trunk was used to feed pigs and cattle; fallen logs are
used as firewood. Formerly the wax is on the surface of the logs and at the base of the
leaves was scraped and extracted to make the candles and lamps; this wax was
Fig. 28 Ceroxylon vogelianum (Arecaceae), roof made from split trunks, Ocol, Peru. (Photo
Fig. 29 Ceroxylon
embedded in rags that were used in the torches. The entire trunk was cut into
longitudinal pieces (boards) and was used in the construction of houses; in its
structure as either posts or beams; on the walls, floors, and ceilings (second-level
ceilings); and on the roofs as tiles, like gutters. They are also used in the construction
of animal pens and fields. Formerly, with the boards of the palm tree trunk barrels
were manufactured to transport liquids (brandy, water). The young leaves were
collected for use on Palm Sunday and to adorn their streets at carnival parties
(Macía et al. 2014; Moraes 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2012; Vega et al.
2014) (Figs. 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, and 31).
Fig. 30 Ceroxylon
collection of wax, Ocol, Peru.
Fig. 31 Ceroxylon vogelianum (Arecaceae), fence made from trunks, Ocol, Peru. (Photo
Ceroxylon vogelianum: Bolivia: Children like to collect the fruits to use as marbles.
Colombia: The leaves are used to make roofs of temporary ranches; leaf petioles are
used to build animal pens; the trunk is used for the frame and piles of the houses; to
manufacture canoeras, fences, walls, floors, bridges, and doors; and as light posts;
the new leaves are used to make moorings, brooms, mats, nest for chickens, and
rugs; log wood is used to make arrows, hunting and fishing spears, knives, and bows;
the leaf sheath is used to make hats; the seeds are collected by children as marbles;
The stem is used as firewood. The young leaves are used for sahumerios and
adornment of houses and churches in Christmas festivities and Corpus Christi; as
“ramo” on the Palm Sunday holiday; and to weave baskets, bracelets, and waist belts
for the dead, hats, fans, and traditional carnival dresses. The stem is used to make
crafts and musical instruments such as guitars and bass drum (Galeano and Bernal
2010; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014). Peru: The trunk is used for house/
ranch/kitchen posts. Green and ripe fruits were harvested to feed pigs and cattle.
When a palm tree was knocked down, the inside of the trunk was used to feed pigs
and cattle. Fallen logs are used as firewood. Young leaves were collected for use on
Palm Sunday (Macía et al. 2014; Moraes 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2012,
2015; Vega et al. 2014).
References
Nacional de Colombia. Instituto de Ciencias Naturales-Universidad Nacional de Colombia;
2010. 688 pp.
Ecuador; 2014.
Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Moraes RM, Urioste C. (eds.). Los Leco usan las palmeras – Guía de usos
de palmeras de las comunidades Irimo, Munaypata, Pucasucho, Illipana Yuyo, Santo Domingo y
Correo (Apolo, La Paz, Bolivia). La Paz: Herbario Nacional de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de
San Andres; 2010.
St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2012. ISBN-13: 978-9848415-3-0.
Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Cámara-Leret R, Macía MJ. Patterns of medicinal use of palms across
northwestern South America. Bot Rev. 2015;81(4):317–415.
Vega C, Tellez C, Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana N. Yo conozco y cuido las palmeras.
Graficart/Trujillo: William L. Brown Center/Missouri Botanical Garden; 2014.
Cestrum auriculatum L’Hér.
Cestrum buxifolium Kunth
Cestrum nocturnum L.
Cestrum parqui L’Hér.
Cestrum strigilatum Ruiz & Pav.
Cestrum undulatum Ruiz & Pav.
Cestrum sp.
SOLANACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Cestrum auriculatum L’Hér.: Cestrum diurnum Dunal; Cestrum foetidum Salisb.;

Cestrum hediunda Lam.; Cestrum lasianthum Dunal; Cestrum lepanthum Dunal;
Cestrum lepanytyhum var. majus Dunal; Cestrum lepanthum var. micranthum
Dunal; Cestrum lucidum Dunal; Cestrum serratum Dunal
Cestrum buxifolium Kunth: Cestrum cuneatum Francey; Cestrum
melanochloranthum Dunal; Cestrum melanochloranthum Pittier; Cestrum
parvifolium var. venezuelense Francey; Cestrum parviflorum Willd. ex Roem. &
Schult.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Cestrum nocturnum L.: Cestrum hirtellum Schltdl.; Cestrum leucocarpum Dunal;

Cestrum nocturnum var. mexicanum O.E. Schultz; Cestrum scandens Thib. ex
Dunal; Cestrum suberosum Jasq.
Cestrum parqui L’Hér.: Cestrum campestre Grieseb.; Cestrum conglomeratum
Ruiz & Pav; Cestrum foetidissimum var. pallidisimum Dunal; Cestrum jamaicense
var. parqui Lam.; Cestrum mandonii Rusby; Cestrum parqui fo. heterophyllum
Kuntze; Cestrum var. glabriusculum Kuntze; Cestrum parqui var. longiflorum
Francey; Cestrum parqui var. oranense Scolnik; Cestrum parqui var., tomentistipes
Kuntze; Cestrum plicatum Francey; Cestrum salicifolium Hort. Monsp. ex Dunal in
syn.; Cestrum salicifolium Kunth ex Spreng.; Cestrum virgatum Ruiz & Pav.
Cestrum strigilatum Ruiz & Pav.: Cestrum aristeguietae Steyerm; Cestrum
calycinum Kunth; Cestrum calycinum var. tenuiflorum Francey; Cestrum calycinum
Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.; Cestrum cancellatum Dunal; Cestrum impressum Rusby;
Cestrum longifolium R. & P. ex Dunal; Cestrum lundianum Dunal; Cestrum
strigilatum var. calycinum (Kunth) Kuntze; Cestrum strigilatum var. laxiflorum
Kuntze; Cestrum strigilatum var. tenuiflorum Francey; Cestrum unibracteatum
Dunal; Cestrum unibracteatum var. brachystachys Dunal; Cestrum viridiflorum
Hook.; Sessea rugosa Rusby
Local Names
Cestrum auriculatum: Ecuador: Sauco común; Peru: Hierba santa, Agrasejo

Cestrum buxifolium: Colombia: Tinto
Cestrum nocturnum: Flor de Azares
Cestrum strigilatum, Cestrum undulatum: Peru: Santa Maria
Cestrum sp.: Ecuador: Sauco verde
Botany and Ecology
Cestrum auriculatum: A slender-branched shrub, several meters high, glabrous

except for the often finely puberulent inflorescence branches and flowers; petioles
1–1.5 cm long, often biauriculate at base, the auricles lunate and as long as or much
shorter than the petioles; leaves oblong-ovate or -lanceolate, to 10 cm long or longer,
often shorter, more or less acuminate, somewhat narrowed at base; flowers in terminal
and axillary corymbose panicles, sessile or scarcely pedicellate, to about 2.5 cm long,
yellowish-green with blackish or reddish-brown overtones; calyx glabrous to pubes-
cent, nearly cyathiform, scarcely 2 mm long, the teeth minute; corolla tube filiform,
enlarged above, often lightly puberulent, filaments free 1.5–3 mm, glabrous except
adnate part, edentate; fruit fleshy, black (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Cestrum parqui: Shrub, leaves 10–20 cm long, 3.5 to nearly 6.5 cm wide, elliptic-
lanceolate, acute at base, acuminate, subcoriaceous, the lateral nerves 9–11 and, as the
reticulate venation, prominent beneath; petioles 12–23 mm long, gibbous at base;
stipuliform leaves none; flowers sessile, (5–)15–30 glomerate in the leaf axils, bracts
Cestrum auriculatum L’Hér. . . . 507
(typically) elliptic-lanceolate, acute, glabrous or puberulent, 5 mm long, bractlets

linear, 2–3 mm long; calyx tubular-poculiform, 3.5–5 mm long, 2 mm across, glabrous
within as without except for the 5–7 acute teeth, these tomentose marginally and
within, 1 mm long and broad; corolla greenish-white, infundibuliform, 17 mm long,
tube contracted below the ovary, finally obconic, little ampliated to apex, not
constricted below the limb, 13.5 mm long, quite glabrous; lobes 5–7, 2–3 mm long,
acute, lightly puberulent and marginally tomentose only without; stamens 5–7,
10–12.5 mm long, 1–2 shorter, the straight smooth glabrous filaments free for 2
( 5) mm; ovary oblong or shortly ellipsoid, 8-ovulate, obconically stiped; style
12.5 mm long, filiform, obscurely puberulent toward apex; stigma capitate (Macbride
Cestrum strigillatum: Typically a virgately stemmed branched shrub, the younger
parts and the leaves beneath, especially the nerves, lightly to lanate-tomentose;
branches to 5 mm thick, strigose-pulverulent in age; stipuliform leaves none; petioles
5–10 mm long, canaliculate above; leaves spreading, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, basally
rounded or cordate, acute or acuminate, 5–20 cm long, 4–10 cm wide, membranous,
plane or nearly, glabrous and lustrous above, the 6–8 lateral nerves prominent beneath;
panicles more or less racemose, axillary, solitary or geminate, several to 10 cm long, 6-
to many-flowered, the rachis to 9 cm, strigose-pulverulent; peduncles 5–16 mm. long,
the 1-flowered 1–3 mm long, filiform, apically much incrassate; flowers sessile, basal
bractlets 3–5 mm long, linear-acuminate, densely tomentose; calyx tubular-
poculiform, angled, 10–12 m. long, 4–4.5 mm thick, early tomentose without, gla-
brous within, the 5 ovate ciliate teeth to 2 mm long, nearly as wide, slender nerves
prominent, lateral many; corolla yellowish-green, 3–3.5 cm long; tube contracted
below the ovary, cylindrical, slender, strongly ampliate at apex, above calyx
strigose-tomentose, glabrous within, not constricted below the limb, the latter with
oblong-lanceolate or elliptic lanceolate acute lobes 9–12 mm long, 4–5 mm wide,
tomentose without, glabrous within; stamens 24 mm long, the filaments only free for
1 mm, smooth, glabrate; ovary globose, with obconic stipe; style 24 mm long,
hirsutulous toward apex, the capitate stigma lobulate; fruit ellipsoid, sessile, 11 m
long, 6 mm thick, the calyx accrescent; seeds 7.5 mm long, 2 mm broad, 1 mm thick;
cotyledons elliptic (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Cestrum undulatum: A glabrous shrub developing a granulate erect trunk with
terete spreading branches 1–2 mm thick, the flowering branchlets ordinarily
10–20 cm long, flexuose, dark purple, obscurely puberulent apically; stipuliform
leaves lanceolate, long-acuminate, 2–5 mm long, scarcely 1 mm wide; petioles
6–10 mm long; leaves reflexing, ovate-lanceolate, often unequal at the somewhat
rounded decurrent base, acuminate, about 6–9 cm long, mostly 2.5–4 cm wide,
membranous, undulate slightly lustrous above, minutely glandular beneath, the 7–10
lateral nerves rather prominent; racemes axillary and terminal, solitary, lax, 5–10 cm
long, 4–8-flowered, the filiform rachis to 7 cm long, peduncles to 6 mm long,
pedicels 0.5–2 mm long, articulate, the basal bracts geminate, linear-subulate,
deciduous; calyx tubular-poculiform, 3.5–4.5 mm long, 2.5–3 mm thick, glabrous
or without scarcely puberulent, the 5 or 6 subequal teeth acute or acuminate,
marginally ciliate, 2 mm long, half as wide, nerves slender; corolla lutescent, to
26.5 mm long; tube contracted below ovary, finally 12 mm long, apically ampliate,
scarcely constricted below the limb, 19 mm long, entirely glabrous; lobes 7.5 mm
long, acuminate, only marginally pubescent; stamens 19 mm long, filaments four
fifths adnate, sub-bifidly denticulate; anthers quadrate; ovary globose-ellipsoid,
8-ovulate, the disk glandular; style 19.5 mm long, puberulent below the capitate
stigma; fruit violet, ovoid-ellipsoid, 2-celled, 8 mm long, 6 mm thick; seeds 5 or
6, angled, ovoid-truncate, brownish, 5.5 mm long, 2.5 mm broad, 1.2 mm thick;
cotyledons suborbicular (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Fig. 1 Cestrum
sp. (Solanaceae), Pusac, Peru.
Fig. 2 Cestrum parqui

(Solanaceae), Pusac, Peru.
Fig. 3 Cestrum
sp. (Solanaceae), Pusac, Peru.
Cestrum auriculatum: In Ecuador, the species is used for scurvy and diarrhea
(Bejar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). In Peru, it is used to treat
wounds (cleansing), fever, high blood pressure, typhoid fever, preventing spasms
after giving birth, warming women, cough, bronchitis, colic of the stomach, diabetes,
liver problems, and cholesterol (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b;
Bussmann and Glenn 2010). It is often used in herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al.
2010). The species shows antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2009a, b, 2011a).
All species are toxic (Bussmann et al. 2011b). Cestrum species are often traded in
local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008, 2009c).
Cestrum buxifolium: The whole plant is used in Colombia as an insecticide and
decoction for rectal washing and to treat typhus. The decoction of branches and
leaves is used as a good disinfectant to wash wounds (Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Cestrum nocturnum: In Peru, the plant is used to control the menstrual cycle (as an
abortifacient) (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn
2010).
Cestrum strigilatum: In Peru, the plant is used for the heart (Bussmann and Sharon
2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010).
Cestrum undulatum: In Peru, the species is used to control the menstrual cycle
(as an abortifacient) (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and
Glenn 2010).
Cestrum sp. is used in Ecuador against fever (Bejar et al. 2002; Bussmann and
Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Cestrum auriculatum: In Peru, the species is used in spiritual healing as relaxant,

against fright/susto, pain of the body, bad air/mal aire, colds, and for sending away bad
shadows (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010).
References
Bejar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal Herbs of Southern Ecuador – Hierbas
9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008;6:351–61.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Castro M, Cardenas R, Chait G, Regalado S, Del Toro CR, Malca GG,
Perez AF, Glenn A. Phyto-chemical analysis of Peruvian medicinal plants. Arnaldoa. 2009b;16
(1):105–10.
Cetraria islandica (L.) Ach.
PARMELIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Local Names
Colombia: Líquen de Islandia, Líquen medicinal, Musgo de Islandia; English:

Islandic moss
Botany and Ecology
Cetraria islandica is a fruticose lichen with a small to medium brown thallus

growing loosely on the soil. It is usually tufted, many lobed, and irregularly
branched. Colonies 5–20 cm broad. Apothecia are generally rare. Cetraria islandica
exhibits cushion-like growth, making it well suited to weather high winds in harsh
environments. It imbibes water slowly and can endure prolonged wet periods. Its
phycobiant member is of the genus Aspicilia which has optimum photosynthetic
rates at the low temperatures found in alpine environments (Fig. 1).
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Cetraria
sp. (Parmeliaceae), Unna
Allakas, Sweden. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann)
The species is used for diseases of the chest and lungs and as a nutritional supple-
ment in Colombia (García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
References
Chara sp.
CHAROPHYCEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Local Names
Chile: Loroma, Lima, Limatrencillo, Trencilima, Wakalima
Botany and Ecology
Chara sp. are a complex of algae with complex morphology. The plant thallus of
Chara consists of a stem with elongate single-celled multinucleate internodes
separated by multicellular nodes. Branchlets (also called branches), with a similar
modular structure to the axis, arise from the nodes. In most but not all Chara species,
the internode and branchlet cells are overlaid by a one-cell-thick layer of lateral cells
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

termed cortex. The stem cortex can be (i) haplostichous (number of cortex cell rows
corresponds to the number of branchlets), diplostichous (twice as many cortex cell
rows as the number of branchlets), or triplostichous (three times as many cortex cell
rows as the number of branchlets) and (ii) aulacanthous (secondary cortex cell rows
more prominent, spines on thinner cortex cells), tylacanthous (primary cortex cell
rows more prominent, spines on thicker cortex cells), or isostichous (primary and
secondary cortex cells equally prominent). At the axial nodes, stipulodes form a
(often double) ring subtending the branchlets. In most Chara spp., the branchlets
have a simplified cortex, and bract cells arise at the branchlet nodes (Schneider et al.
2016).
Local Food Uses
The thick, tender stem is eaten as a salad (Schneider et al. 2016; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
References
Schneider SC, Nowak P, Von Ammon U, Ballot A. Species differentiation in the genus Chara
(Charophyceae): considerable phenotypic plasticity occurs within homogenous genetic groups.
Eur J Phycol. 2016;51(3):282–93.
Cheilanthes myriophylla Desv.
Cheilanthes pruinata Kaulf.
PTERIDACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Cheilanthes myriophylla Desv.: Cheilanthes elegans Desv.; Cheilanthes fournieri

C. Chr.; Cheilanthes intermedia Baker; Cheilanthes myriophylla var. elegans (Desv.)
Sodiro; Cheilanthes paleacea M. Martens & Galeotti; Myriopteris intermedia E. Forun.
Cheilanthes pruinata Kaulf.: Cheilanthes fasciculata Goldm., Cheilanthes
mathewsii Kunze, Notholaena mathewsii (Kunze) Griseb.
Local Names
Cheilanthes pruinata: Chile: Chujchu, Qusupe café, Qusupe macho, Qusupi,

Chujchu macho, Chujchu negro, Chujillo macho, Machamacha, Unouno, Doradilla,
Culantrillo, Helecho
Cheilanthes myriophylla: Peru: Cuti cuti
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Cheilanthes myriophylla: Plants 15–30 cm high, with short crawling rhizomes.

Triangular contour sheets, 3–4 pinnate, bright green on both surfaces, very small,
contracted yellowish green, with dense hairs and scales.
Cheilanthes pruinata: Perennial fern with a short creeping rhizome, covered with scales
lanceolate, sharp, blackish, shiny. Leaves fasciculate, 13–32 cm long, coriaceous, strongly
glandular; petioles cylindrical, 3–10 cm long, with few hairs and scales; bipinnate to
tripinnatisect, linear-oblong blade, 10–25 cm long; hairy rachis; alternate pinnae, deltoids,
15–30 pairs, the inferiors notoriously smaller; last few segments modified sessile, covered
with short glandular hairs, margins reflexed, lobed. Numerous sori, somewhat confluent,
protected by the more or less modified reflex margin, 2000–4800 m above sea level
(Looser 1955) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13).
Cheilanthes pruinata: The infusion of the aerial parts is used in Chile to relieve
fever and cough. The species is considered poisonous and used as a stimulant drug
(Looser 1955; Rodríguez 1995; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Peru: Antibacterial activity has been shown (Bussmann et al. 2011a), but all
Cheilanthes species show toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b). In Peru, Cheilanthes
Fig. 1 Cheilanthes farinosa

(Pteridaceae), Uchumarca,
Cheilanthes myriophylla Desv. . . . 519
Fig. 2 Cheilanthes farinosa

Fig. 3 Cheilanthes fraseri

Fig. 4 Cheilanthes fraseri

Fig. 5 Cheilanthes
myriophylla (Pteridaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 6 Cheilanthes
myriophylla (Pteridaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 7 Cheilanthes
notholaenoides (Pteridaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 8 Cheilanthes
notholaenoides (Pteridaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 9 Cheilanthes obducata

Fig. 10 Cheilanthes
obducata (Pteridaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 11 Cheilanthes scariosa

species are often – and erroneously – sold as antidiabetics, instead of Argyrochosma

nivea (Bussmann et al. 2013), creating potentially dangerous toxic effects.
Cheilanthes myriophylla: In Peru, the species is used in curing ceremonies to dominate

a problematic person or a person out of control (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007,
2015a, b) and is always used together with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010).


Cheilanthes pruinata: The species is harmful to livestock. It is considered poison-

ous and used as a stimulant drug in Chile (Looser 1955; Rodríguez 1995; Rodriguez
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Looser G. Los Helechos (Filicales) de Chile. Moliniana. 1955;1:139–58.
Rodríguez R. Pteridophyta. In: Marticorena C, Rodríguez R, editors. Flora de Chile, vol.
1. Concepción: Univiversidad de Concepción; 1995. p. 119–309.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Chenopodium album L.
Chenopodium quinoa Willd.
Chenopodium hircinum Schrad.
Chenopodiastrum murale (L.) S. Fuentes,
Uotila & Borsch
AMARANTHACEAE

Synonyms
Chenopodium album L.: Chenopodium centrorubrum Nakai; Chenopodium

virgatum Thunb.; Chenopodium iljinii Golosk
Chenopodium quinoa Willd.: Chenopodium album subvar. leucospermum
(Schrad.) Kuntze; Chenopodium canihua Cook; Chenopodium hircinum subsl.
milleanum Aellen; Chenopodium hircinum var. quinoa. (Willd.) Aellen;
Chenopodium nuttalliae Saff.; Chenopodium purpurascens var. punctulatum
Moq.; Chenopodium quinoa fo. prupureum Aellen
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero

Chenopodium hircinum Schrad.: Chenopodium bonariense Ten.; Chenopodium

ficifolium Sm.; Chenopodium ficifolium fo. angustifolium (A. Ludw.) Aellen;
Chenopodium ficifolium fo. deminutum (A. Ludw.) Aellen; Chenopodium ficifolium
fo. multidentatum (A. Ludw.) Aellen; Chenopodium hircinum fo. angustifolium
A. Ludw.;Chenopodium hircinum Schrad. fo. deminutum A. Ludw.; Chenopodium
hircinum fo. microphyllum Thell.; Chenopodium hircinum fo. microphyllum Thell.;
Chenopodium hircinum ssp. eu-hircinum Aellen; Chenopodium hircinum var.
andinum Aellen; Chenopodium hircinum. var. typicum A.
Chenopodiastrum murale (L.) S. Fuentes, Uotila & Borsch: Chenopodium biforme
Nees; Chenopodium congestum Hook. f.; Chenopodium longidjawense Peter;
Chenopodium licidum Gilib.; Chenopodium murale L.; Chenopodium murale var.
acutidentatum Aellen; Chenopodium murale var. albescens Moq.; Chenopodium
murale var. biforme (Nees) Moq.; Chenopodium murale var. carthagenense Moq.;
Chenopodium murale var. spissidentatum Murr; Chenopodium triangulare Forssk.;
Rhagodia baccata (Labill.) Moq.; Rhagodia congesta (Hook. f.) Moq.
Local Names
Chenopodium album: Chile: Ajara, Yuyo, Yuyowacho, Yuyo Yaña colorada, Yuyo
chapi, Chape
Chenopodium hircinum: Chile: Yuyo, Quinoa, Chápi, Illinkoma, Ajara, Quinoa de
los abuelos
Chenopodium quinoa: Bolivia: Quinoa, Quinua (Spanish), Jaru jupa (Quinua
amarga), Jaru jupa, Ajahuiri, Khita (Aymara) (Bussmann et al. 2016a; Justo Chipana
and Moraes 2015; Macía et al. 2005); Ecuador: Quinua, Quinua de Castilla
(Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Quino amargo, Quinua (Spanish); English:
Quinoa
Chenopodiastrum murale: Chile: Yuyo, Yuyu, Kañawe, Juirajuira, Obleo, Kantalo,
Wirajuira
Botany and Ecology
Chenopodium album: Annual herb 10–300 cm tall. Highly variable in all charac-
teristics. Mealy textured in all parts. Usually much branched. Leaves distinctly
longer than broad and usually ovate-deltoid, sometimes rhombic or ovate-lanceolate,
entire or toothed. Larger leaves with uneven teeth and lower leaves often 1–3 lobed.
Flowers in round clusters disposed in branching spike-like inflorescences disposed
from leaf axils. Flowers yellowish-brown to yellowish-green, floral parts rounded on
the back and keeled and with pustules. Seeds free from wall of the fruit, tiny, black,
and shiny with radial furrows. An abundant species in waste areas, roadsides,
agricultural fields, or gardens. Cosmopolitan distribution. The species is one of the
more robust and competitive weeds, capable of producing considerably crop losses
in corn, soybeans, and sugar beets. As a pest control, Chenopodium album is
vulnerable to leaf miners, making it a useful trap crop as a companion plant.
Chenopodium album L. . . . 527
Growing near other plants, it attracts leaf miners, which might otherwise have
attacked the crop to be protected. It is a host plant for the beet leafhopper, an insect
that transmits curly top virus to beet crops (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Chenopodium hircinum: Annual herbs, erect, farinous, with erect stems, striated
and branched throughout its length, from 40–140 cm in height. Leaves alternate, of
ashen green color, the inferior ones longly petiolate, with blade rhombic-deltoid,
trilobulate, with base cuneate; central lobe with entire or dentate rim, acute apex,
mucronate or rounded, laterals generally divided into two others; upper leaves up,
Fig. 1 Chenopodium album

(Amaranthaceae), Bakuriani,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
with the three acute lobes. Flowers in dense panicles of glomeruli at the end of
branches. Sepals five, free in their upper half, carinate. Stamens five. Stigmas 2–3.
The fruiting chalice covers the fruit. Membranaceous pericarp, reticulate, adherent.
Seed horizontal, globose, depressed, 1.3 mm in diameter, black, and shiny.
Elevations up to 1400 m above sea level.
Chenopodium quinoa: A coarse, erect, annual herb, frequently 1 m high or more,
sparsely and finely mealy, green or somewhat purplish (f. purpureum); leaves
slender-petiolate, the blades large, broadly rhombic, sinuate-dentate, sometimes
Fig. 5 Chenopodium
foliosum (Amaranthaceae),
Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
obscurely lobate at the base; inflorescences erect, leafy, very dense, and compact;
seeds whitish, about 1.5 mm broad.
Chenopodiastrum murale: Annual herb, little branches, 25–80 cm tall, leafy stems
upwards, decumbent or erect. Leaves petiolate, rhombic-ovate or ovate, 2–10 cm
long, with serrated margins close to the base. Flowers in axillary glomeruli and small
terminals, arranged in panicles rather contracted and leafy, pentamerous, tiny. Sea
level to 2100 m (Figs. 5 and 6).
Chenopodium album: The seeds are used as a laxative and the juice of the plant as a
digestive and antiparasitic (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). The
species is used in India to treat fevers, flu, constipation, and as anthelminthic (Raj
et al. 2018).
Chenopodium quinoa: The fruits are used in Colombia for the treatment of twists,
fractures, and dislocations by making a paste mixed with alcohol or brandy. It is also
recommended to lower body temperature, as a diuretic and reliever of colic. Quinoa
is used especially against gonorrhea and tuberculosis (Bussmann et al. 2018; García
Barriga 1974; Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bolivia: Contusions, twists
(Bussmann et al. 2016a; Macía et al. 2005); Ecuador: With the seed, washed in
water, an effective bitter drink is prepared for the healing of intermittent fevers
Fig. 6 Chenopodium
foliosum (Amaranthaceae),
Kazbegi, Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
(unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). The infused plant, along with others, is
emmenagogue (unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha). The crushed leaves, together
with bean leaves and mixed with egg white, are applied to treat the headache
(Kichwa of the Sierra-Tungurahua). The infusion is drunk to treat rheumatism
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Fresh seeds used
for intestines (cleansing), stomach (cleansing), and as nutritional supplement
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013). Quinoa has slight
antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2009a, b).
Chenopodiastrum murale: In infusion used as a mild laxative (Rodriguez et al.
Local Food Uses
Chenopodium album: The leaves of white quinoa are edible, although they should
be consumed ideally cooked. They are usually used in Chile as a substitute for chard
and spinach in different preparations, including soup (Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Villagrán and Castro 2003). Food use is, however, rare in Latin America and
much more practiced in Eurasia (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b).
Chenopodium hircinum: (The leaves are edible, although they should be consumed
ideally cooked (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Chenopodiastrum murale: The large leaves are consumed as salads (Rodriguez
Chenopodium quinoa: Ecuador: The infructescence is edible (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Cotopaxi; Unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha, Azuay, Cañar, others (Andean
Region)). Dried seeds are used to prepare soups and washes. Before using them,
they are soaked for 2 days and washed well to remove the bitter taste (Kichwa de la
Sierra-Loja; unspecified ethnic group – Bolívar). Tender stems and leaves are used to
prepare salads (unspecified ethnic group – Bolívar, Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al.
2008). Infructescence is used as a condiment (unspecified ethnicity – other (Costa
and Sierra Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Chenopodium album: Used as forage (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
Chenopodium hircinum: Used as forage (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and
Castro 2003).
Chenopodiastrum murale: Forage use (pig, sheep and cattle). It is used to make
“llipta” (plant ash mixed with urine, used traditionally to chew Coca leaves)
(Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Chenopodium quinoa: Ecuador: The plant is used as animal fodder (Kichwa de la
Sierra-Cotopaxi; unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha, Bolívar) (de La Torre et al.
2008).
References
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103.
2009b;16(1):105–110.
2014;12:237–313.
(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016b;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-
016-0110-2.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
018-0208-9.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Chersodoma arequipensis (Cuatrec.) Cuatrec
Chersodoma jodopappa (Sch. Bip.) Cabrera
ASTERACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Chersodoma arequipensis (Cuatrec.) Cuatrec: Chersodoma longipedicellata

Ricardi & Martic., Senecio arequipensis Cuatrec.
Chersodoma jodopappa (Sch. Bip.) Cabrera: Senecio iodopappus Sch. Bip. ex
Wedd., Senecio jodopappus Sch. Bip.
Local Names
Chersodoma arequipensis: Chile: Poq’ot’ola, Poq’ot’ula hembra, Chachakoma

blanca, Pariente de la coquilla, Coquilla.
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Chersodoma
jodopappa (Asteraceae),
Machuca, Chile. (Photo Lucas
Burchard Señoret)
Chersodoma jodopappa: Chile: Poq’ot’ola Chachakoma blanca, Poq’ot’ula,

Poq’ot’ula macho, pq’ot’ola, Coquilla, Oqetola, Oqotola, Tola oqe, Monte plomo,
Leña algodón
Chersodoma sp. Bolivia: Wira wira
Botany and Ecology
Chersodoma arequipensis: Annual herb up to 0.75 cm tall, hairy. Leaves lanceolate,

coarsely toothed, upper leaves linear. Inflorescence a pyramidal panicle with numerous
white flowers, bract purple. 3200–3700 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017).
Chersodoma jodopappa: Shrub, perennial, 20–40 cm high; stems erect, very
branched, and lignified. Leaves 0.5–2 cm long, elliptical to elliptical-lanceolate,
tomentose, whitish, shortly petiolate, apex acute or obtuse, entire border. Inflores-
cences in solitary chapters; Involucrum flared. Central flowers numerous and
between 15 and 20 marginal flowers ligulate yellow to white. Fruit: cylindrical
achene up to 0.8 mm long with yellow to pink hairs. 3000–4500 m above sea
level (González and Molina 2017) (Fig. 1).
Chersodoma arequipensis: The infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment
of colds and for toothaches (Heim 2014; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
Chersodoma jodopappa: The infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment of
headache, toothache, stomach pain, and cold and cough (González and Molina 2017;
Heim 2014; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Chersodoma sp. is used in Bolivia to treat respiratory system problems (Bussmann
et al. 2016). Chersodoma deltoidea has shown antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al.
2011a, b; Bussmann and Sharon 2014, 2015a, b).
Chersodoma arequipensis (Cuatrec.) Cuatrec. . . 535
Local Food Uses
Chersodoma jodopappa: Used as tea, and the roots are eaten (González and Molina
2017; Heim 2014; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Chersodoma arequipensis: Used for forage and firewood (Heim 2014; Rodriguez
Chersodoma jodopappa: Used as forage (González and Molina 2017; Heim 2014;
References
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Heim E. Flora of Arequipa. Peru: A Field Guide for Nature Lovers. BoD–Books on Demand; 2014.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Chorizanthe commissuralis J. Remy
POLYGONACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Local Names
Chile: Pegadera, Kinchanlawa
Botany and Ecology
Annual grass, between 15 and 30 cm high; stems erect green-yellowish, slightly

thickened below the knots, disarticulated by these with ease. Basal leaves oblanceo-
late to narrowly oblong, pubescent; obovate cauline leaves, densely hairy; Bracts
2, opposite, triangular, unciform, with glandular and nonglandular hairs. Inflores-
cence a dichasium; sessile involucum, with 6 subequal teeth, uncinate. Flowers with
perigonium of 2–4 mm, with whole lobes, obtuse, emarginate, sometimes of
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

irregular apex; corolla with 5 petals of yellow or slightly cream. Fruit: achene
obpyriform slightly triquetrous towards the apex, 3–5 mm long, dark brown. Sea
level to 1300 m (González and Molina 2017).
Local Food Uses
Used as tea (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Chuquiraga atacamensis Kuntze
Chuquiraga jussieui J.F. Gmel.
Chuquiraga spinosa Less.
Chuquiraga weberbaueri Tovar
ASTERACEAE

Synonyms
Chuquiraga atacamensis Kuntze: Chuquiraga glabra (Spreng.) Baker,

Chuquiraga glabra Phil.
Chuquiraga jussieui J.F. Gmel.: Chuquiraga insignis (Willd.) Bonpl.; Chuquiraga
insignis var. armata Wedd.; Chuquiraga insignis var. lancifolia (Bonpl.) Wedd.;
Chuquiraga insignis var. microphylla (Bonpl.) Wedd.; Chuquiraga jussieui var.
lancifolia (Bonpl.) J. Kost.; Chuquiraga lancifolia Bonpl.; Chuquiraga microphylla
Bonpl.; Chuquiraga peruviana J. St.-Hil.; Chuquiraga pseudoruscifolia Muschl.;
Johanna insignis Willd.; Lychnophora van-isshoti Heckel
Chuquiraga spinosa Less.: Chuquiraga rotundifolia Wedd.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero

Local Names
Chuquiraga atacamensis: Chile: Tajtará, Tastará, Quebrolla, Quebraolla, Azafrán,

Chaklamba, Chajllampa, Chaklampa, Chajlampa, Chána, Lengua de gallo, Lengua
de galina, Rezongón, Killokisca, K’iri, k’eri, Keri, Candela
Chuquiraga jussieui: Colombia: Chuquiragua; Ecuador: Chuquiragua; Chukirawa
(Kichwa), Chuquiragua (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008)
Chuquiraga spinosa sp. huamanpinta: Peru: Chuquiragua, Huamanpinta
Chuquiragua weberbaueri: Peru: Amaro amaro
Botany and Ecology
Chuquiraga atacamensis: Espinose evergreen shrub, 30–60 cm tall, leaves revolute,

ovate-lanceolate, rigid, 7–15 mm, abaxially glabrous, adaxially sparsely lanate,
phyllaries long ciliate, disc pale yellow. Orange yellow and bloom in summer.
Chuquiraga jussieui: Shrubs 60–120 cm high, much-branched, the branches pubes-
cent, hairs flexuose. Leaves alternate, subsessile; blades ovate-lanceolate, 5–15 mm
long, 3–7 mm wide, glabrous, coriaceous, lustrous, mucronate, the margins
incrassate, uninerved, the midrib prominent. Capitules solitary, sessile, terminal
heads. Capitula with involucres campanulate, 34–50 mm long, 15–22 mm wide;
phyllaries 8–12-seriate, orange, the outer elliptic-lanceolate, 8–18 mm long, 3 mm
wide, the inner linear-lanceolate, 22–32 mm long, 1.5–1.8 mm wide, yellowish
acute, spinulose, pubescent; florets 21–40, the corollas yellow, 17–22 mm long,
the tube 7–9 mm long, 1.4–1.5 mm wide, pubescent, the lobes acute, pubescent;
anthers 11–12 mm long; styles 21–22 mm long, brown-orange, sericeous, glandular.
Achenes 3–5 mm long, 1.2–1.5 mm wide, dense pubescent; pappus of 20–22
bristles, yellowish, 14–15 mm long. Known from the paramos of Colombia and
Ecuador, jalca formations in northern Peru, and the drier puna formations of central
and southern Peru and Bolivia, from 3100 to 4500 m above sea level (Macbride and
Chuquiraga spinosa: Shrubs 40–150 cm high, branched, upper branches finely
pubescent, spiny, the spines axillary, yellowish, divaricate, 12–18 mm long. Leaves
opposite, sessile; blades ovate-lanceolate, 4.5–20 mm long, 2.6–5 mm wide, pubes-
cent, then glabrescent, lustrous, uninerved, midrib prominent, attenuate at base, apex
spinulose, entire, the margins incrassate. Capitules with solitary heads, terminal and
axillary. Capitula with involucres 32–45 mm high, 1 2–24 mm wide, campanulate;
phyllaries 8–10-seriate, deep red-orange, the outer lanceolate, apically rounded-
mucronate to acute-spinulose, densely pubescent, the inner linear-lanceolate,
25–30 mm long, 1.8–2.8 mm wide, pubescent; florets 9–14, the corollas
yellowish-orange, 19–22 mm long, the tube 6.5–8 mm long, 1.7–2.2 mm wide,
pubescent, the lobes 12–14 mm long, acute, pubescent; anthers 12.5–15 mm long,
obtuse, sagittate; styles 30–34 mm long, deep red-orange. Achenes 3–4 mm long,
1.9–2.2 mm wide, densely pubescent; pappus of 15–21 bristles, yellowish,
Chuquiraga atacamensis Kuntze . . . 541
Fig. 1 Chuquiragua
atacamensis (Asteraceae),
Señoret)
Fig. 2 Chuquiragua jussieui

(Asteraceae), Podocarpus
National Park, Ecuador.

13–20 mm long. Known from central Peru 3500–4800 m above sea level.
Chuquiraga spinosa is one of the most common and characteristic species in the
Central Puna of Peru. The dense spiny habit, conspicuous rigid, and glabrescent

leaves and yellowish-orange florets distinguish it from the other related species
(Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Chuquiraga weberbaueri: Shrubs 80–150 cm high, branched, the branches pubes-
cent. Leaves opposite, sessile; blades elliptic-lanceolate, 6–28 mm long, 3–8.5 mm
wide, coriaceous, apically mucronate, the adaxial surfaces lustrous, the abaxial
surfaces sericeous, uninerved, the margins entire, incrassate. Capitules with solitary,
terminal heads. Capitula with involucres campanulate, 28–45 mm high, 15–30 mm
wide; phyllaries 6–7 seriate, orange-yellowish, the outer triangular-ovate, 4–6 mm
long, 4 mm wide, the inner linear-lanceolate, 27–33 mm long, 2–2.5 mm wide,
sericeous, spinulose, abaxial surfaces pubescent; florets 20–45, the corollas yellow,
17–23 mm long, the tube 5–7 mm long, 1.6–2 mm wide, pubescent, the lobes
11.5–16 mm long, acute, abaxial surfaces pubescent; anthers 10.5–15 mm long;
styles 25–33 mm long, red-orange. Achenes 3–4 mm long, 1.8–2.2 mm wide,
densely pubescent, brunneous; pappus of 17–18 bristles, brunneous, 14–18 mm
long. Endemic to the jalca formations of northern Peru at 3200–4600 m above sea
level. Chuquiraga weberbaueri is characterized by its dense, nodose branches;
sessile, sericeous, tomentose leaves; and campanulate involucres with phyllaries
6–7 seriate (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).
Fig. 5 Chuquiragua
weberbaueri (Asteraceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 6 Chuquiragua
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 7 Chuquiragua
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 8 Chuquiragua
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 9 Chuquiragua
R.W. Bussmann and
Chuquiraga atacamensis: The infusion of the leaves is used in Chile as a remedy

for stomach pain, body aches, and cold and dry cough with sticky phlegm (mixed
with milk). It is also used as a bath against cooling, bad urine, and cystitis. Abortive
as it is also used for diseases of the ovaries and uterus, as well as menstruation and to
cleanse the body after delivery (expulse everything bad). For the cold, internal
fevers, and chills, it is consumed as thermogenic infusion combined with Para-
strephia quarangularis, Festuca chrysophylla, Fabiana denudata and citrus fruits
(orange and lemon) (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Chuquiraga sp.: The decoction of leaves and stems is used in Colombia as a
digestive, to increase the appetite, as a diuretic, and in diseases of the liver. The
entire decoction plant is very effective in dissolving gallstones (García Barriga
1975).
Chuquiraga jusieui: Ecuador: Branches and fresh leaves are used to treat cold,
cough, pain of the bones, flu, malaria, and fever (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a,
2007a). The flower, in infusion, is drunk to treat cold and headache (Unspecified
ethnicity-Cañar). The flower, in infusion, is used to treat bile conditions, rashes, liver
ailments, rheumatism, menstrual discomfort, kidney conditions, wounds, fever, flu,
colic, and cough (Kichwa de la Sierra-Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cane). The flower,
in infusion, is used to treat cold (Mestiza-Pichincha). With the infusion of the plant,
altered nerves and kidney pain are treated. The leaves and flowers, in infusion, are
used to increase bile and gastrointestinal secretions. The infusion of the leaves is
taken to treat heart pain and inflammation of the belly and liver. Treats irritation of
the kidneys and strong cough (Kichwa de la Sierra, Unspecified ethnicity-Cotopaxi).
The infusion of the plant is drunk, on an empty stomach, against swelling
(unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura). The plant was used in World War II as a
substitute for Cinchona sp. to extract the quinine that is used to treat malaria. The
decoction is diaphoretic. The leaves and flower are diuretic, febrifuge, tonic, and
restorative (Kichwa de la Sierra-Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar; Mestiza-
Cotopaxi; Unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo, Azuay, Cañar). The branches,

leaves, flowers, and the stem, in infusion, are used to treat kidney and liver
conditions (Mestiza-Pichincha; Unspecified ethnic group – Carchi, Imbabura,
Pichincha, Chimborazo, Bolívar). It is used in cooked form to treat liver conditions,
cold, and fever (Unspecified ethnicity – Loja). Useful for increasing biliary and
gastrointestinal secretion, for lowering fever, and relieving coughs and female
discomforts (Unspecified ethnicity – Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The
infusion of the plant, especially the flowers, is taken to clean the blood. In Peru, it is
used to treat liver problems and clean the blood (Monigatti et al. 2013).
Chuquiraga spinosa sp. huamanpinta: Peru: Dried leaves are used to treat inflam-
mation, kidneys, prostate inflammation, bladder, and sexual impotence (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010). The species is
common in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). The species has antibacterial activity
(Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010a, 2011a, b) and is normally used in combination with
other herbs (Bussmann et al. 2010b). Sometimes, it is added to emollients (healthy
beverages (Bussmann et al. 2015).
Chuquiragua weberbaueri: Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat
cough, bronchitis, asthma, and liver (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a,
b). The species is common in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007).
Chuquiraga atacamensis: Forage and firewood uses. It has ritual use as incense,
yellow flowers stain yellow (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Chuquiraga jussieui: Ecuador: The stems are used as raw material for the con-
struction of pens (Kichwa de la Sierra-Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar). The whole
plant, in infusion, serves to treat bad breath (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura)
(de la Torre et al. 2008). Used also for protection against spirits (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Chuquiragua weberbaueri: Peru: To treat bad air (mal aire) (Bussmann and Sharon
2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b).
References
9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
(4):742–53.
2015;69:83–8.
(2):450–64.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Cicer arietinum L.
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Cicer arietinum L.: Ononis crotalarioides Coss.; Ononis crotalarioides M.E. Jones
Local Names
Spanish: Garbanzo; English: Chickpea
Botany and Ecology
Herb; short-glandular-hairy plant; stems erect, woody in lower part, branching in

upper part, rarely from base, 12–80 cm high; leaves imparipinnate, 2.5–7 cm long,
always with terminal leaflet; stipules large, ovate or semiovate, deeply incised,
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Cicer arietinum

(Fabaceae), Cappadokia,
Turkey. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
with few large teeth; leaflets 4–8 -paired, elliptic, rarely obovate, entire at base,
acutely serrate-dentate at apex, and sides, with short glandular hairs on both sides,
(0.6)1.0–1.5(1.8) cm long. Peduncles much shorter than leaves, thin, mucronate,
one-flowered; calyx nearly regular, without gibbosity, 0.8–1 cm long, with linear-
lanceolate teeth, one and a half to two times as long as tube; corolla white, pink, or
bluish violet; 1–2.2 cm long; standard rounded, obtuse at apex, glabrous
or sparingly pubescent; wings ca. 0.9 cm long, the limb oblong-obovate;
keel rostriform, ca. 0.8 cm long; pods (1.4)2–3.5 cm long, 1–1.7 cm wide,
glandular-hairy, oblong-oval, with short beak; seeds 0.5–1.4 cm long, 0.4–1 cm
wide, black, green, white, pink, orange, brown, grayish brown, rugose, or smooth,
with short curved beak. Flowering June–July, fruiting July–August. Widely
cultivated.
The chick-pea has apparently been cultivated for a long time, as its name already
appears in Sanskrit. In many countries, it is still one of the most important field
crops. It is especially widely spread in India, Spain, Morocco, Algeria, and Mexico
(Fig. 1).
Colombia: The leaves and stems of the chickpea, when compressed, exude an acidic
juice that is used in Colombia to relieve intestinal constipation and dyspepsia. The
seeds, of great food, are also used against intestinal worms (García Barriga 1974;
Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The fruit, combined with white morocho and
piauinigua, is used to treat measles (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura) (from
de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat
inflammation (internal), inflammation (external), inflammation of the kidneys, diar-
rhea, stomachache, kidneys, inflammation of the ovaries, inflammation of the womb,
and gastritis (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b). More recently, chickpeas
have been used to treat diabetes (Bussmann and Glenn 2011).
Cicer arietinum L. 551
Local Food Uses
Chickpeas are widely eaten, however more so in Eurasia (Bussmann 2017;

Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016).
References
XXVII; 2017. 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
2014;12:237–313.
016-0110-2.
Cinchona officinalis L.
Cinchona pubescens Vahl
RUBIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Cinchona officinalis L.: Cascarilla officinalis (L.) Ruiz; Cinchona academica

Guibourt; Cinchona amygdalifolia Wedd.; Cinchona angustifolia Ruiz; Cinchona
boliviana Wedd.; Cinchona bonplandiana Klotzsch; Cinchona calisaya var.
boliviana Wedd.; Cinchona calisaya var. josephiana Wedd.; Cinchona calisaya
Wedd.; Cinchona chahuarguera Pav.; Cinchona chahuarguera Pav. ex DC.;
Cinchona coccinea Pav. ex DC.; Cinchona colorata Lam.; Cinchona condaminea
Bonpl.; Cinchona condaminea var. chahuarguera Pav. ex DC.; Cinchona
condaminea var. lanceolata (Ruiz & Pav.) Lamb.; Cinchona condaminea var.
lanceolata Wedd.; Cinchona condaminea var. vera Wedd.; Cinchona crispa
Tafalla ex Howard; Cinchona cucumifolia Pav. ex Lamb.; Cinchona elliptica
Wedd.; Cinchona euneura Miq.; Cinchona glabra Ruiz.; Cinchona josephiana
(Wedd.) Wedd.; Cinchona lanceolata Ruiz & Pav.; Cinchona lancifolia Mutis;
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Cinchona lancifolia var. lanceolata (Ruiz & Pav.) Roem. & Schult.; Cinchona
lanceolata var. nitida (Ruiz & Pav.) Roem. & Schult.; Cinchona legitima Ruiz
ex Lamb.; Cinchona lucumaefolia Pav. ex. DC.; Cinchona lucumifolia Pav. ex DC.;
Cinchona lucumifolia var- stupea (Pav. ex Lamb.) Wedd.; Cinchona macrocalyx Pav.
ex DC.; Cinchona macrocalyx var. lucumifolia Pavón ex DC.; Cinchona macrocalyx
var. obtusifolia Pavón ex DC.; Cinchona macrocalyx var. uritusinga Pav. ex. DC.;
Cinchona mutisii var. crispa (Tafalla ex Howard) Wedd.; Cinchona nitida Ruiz & Pav.;
Cinchona obtusifolia Pav. ex DC.; Cinchona officinalis var. bonplandiana-colorata
Howard; Cinchona offcinalis var. bonplandiana-lutea Howard; Cinchona officinalis
var. condaminea (Bonpl.) Howard; Cinchona officinalis var. crispa (Tafalla ex Howard)
Howard; Cinchona officinalis var. uritusinga (Pav. ex Howard) Howard; Cinchona
palton Pav.; Cinchona parabolica Pav.; Cinchona peruviana Mutis;
Cinchona pubescens var. heterophylla Pav. ex DC.; Cinchona stupea Pav. ex Lamb.;
Cinchona subcordata Pav. ex Howard; Cinchona suberosa Pav. ex Howard; Cinchona
uritusinga Pav. ex DC.; Cinchona uritusinga Pav. ex Howard; Cinchona violacea Pav.
ex Howard; Cinchona virtusino Pav. ex DC.; Cinchona weddelliana Kuntze; Hindsia
subandina Kuntze; Quinquina coccinea (Pav.) Kuntze; Quinquina lancifolia (Mutis)
Kuntze; Quinquina officinalis (L.) Kuntze; Quinquina palton (Pav.) Kuntze
Cinchona pubescens Vahl: Cinchona asperifolia Wedd.; Cinchona caloptera Miq.;
Cinchona chomeliana Wedd.; Cinchona colorata Lamb.; Cinchona colorata
Laubert ex B.D. Jacks.; Cinchona cordifolia Mutis; Cinchona cordifolia var. macro-
carpa Wedd. ex Howard; Cinchona cordifolia var. rotundifolia (Pav. ex Lamb.)
Wedd.; Cinchona cordifolia var. vera Wedd; Cinchona coronulata Miq.; Cinchona
decurrentifolia Pav.; Cinchona delondriana Wedd.; Cinchona discolor Hayne; Cin-
chona erythoderma (Wedd.) Wedd.; Cinchona eryantha Ruiz & Pav.; Cinchona
goudotiana Klotzsch ex Triana; Cinchona govana Miq.; Cinchona grandifolia
Mutis ex Humboldt; Cinchona hirsuta Ruiz & Pav.; Cinchona howardiana Kuntze;
Cinchona lechleriana Schltdl.; Cinchona lutea Pav.; Cinchona microphylla Mutis ex
Lamb.; Cinchona morada Ruiz; Cinchona obovata Pav. ex Howard.; Cinchona
ovata Ruiz & Pav.; Cinchona ovata var. erythroderma Wedd.; Cinchona ovata var.
rufinervis (Wedd.) Wedd.; Cinchona ovata var. vulgaris Wedd.; Cinchona palescens
Vell.; Cinchona pallescens Ruiz Lopez ex DC.; Cinchona pallescens var. ovata
(Ruiz & Pav.) Howerd.; Cinchona pelalba Pav. ex DC.; Cinchona pelletieriana
Wedd.; Cinchona peruviana Howard; Cinchona platyphylla Wedd.; Cinchona
pubescens var. cordata DC.; Cinchona pubescens var. ovata (Ruiz & Pav.) DC.;
Cinchona pubescens var. pelletieriana (Wedd.) Wedd.; Cinchona pubescens var.
purpurea (Ruiz & Pav.) Wedd.; Cinchona purpurascens Wedd.; Cinchona purpurea
Ruiz & Pav.; Cinchona purpurea Vell.; Cinchona rosulenta Howard ex Wedd.;
Cinchona rotundifolia Pav. ex Lamb.; Cinchona rubicunda Tafalla ex Wedd.;
Cinchona rifinervis Wedd.; Cinchona rugosa Pav. ex DC.; Cinchona scrobiculata
Bonpl.; Cinchona scrobiculata var. delondriana (Wedd.) Wedd.; Cinchona
scrobiculata var. geniculata Wedd.; Cinchona subcordata Pav. ex Howard; Cin-
chona subsessilis Miq.; Cinchona succirubra Pav. ex Klotzsch; Cinchona
succirubra var. vera Howard; Cinchona tenuis Ruiz Lopez ex DC.; Cinchona
tucuyensis H. Karst.; Cinchona viridiflora Pavon ex Howard; Quinquina obovata
Cinchona officinalis L. . . . 555
(Pav. ex Howard) Kuntze; Quinquina ovata (Ruiz & Pav.) Kuntze; Quinquina
pubescens (Vahl) Kuntze; Quinquina succirubra (Pav. ex Klotzsch) Kuntze
Local Names
Cinchona officinalis: Ecuador: Cascarilla (Spanish), Uritu sinka (Kichwa),

Aiccopi’jin, Asapa’cho quini’cco, Cujejechonajan’can (A’ingae), Calisaya, Casca-
rilla, Cascarilla negra, Cascarillo, Fina de Loja, Negra de gualaceo, Pálida, Pata de
gallo, Quina negra, Quina oficinal (Spanish), Fina costrona, Hoja de lugma,
Costrona (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Cascarilla, Quinuagiro (Spanish)
Cinchona pubescens: Colombia: Cascarilla, Funa, Quina, Quina anaranjada, Quina
blanca, Quina canchosa, Quina roja, Quina rosada, Quina túnica; Ecuador: Blanca
de Alausí, Cascarilla, Cascarilla colorada, Cascarilla roja, Cascarilla serrana, Corteza
roja, Hoja ahumada, Hoja de sambo, Pata de gallinazo, Pata de gallinazo blanco,
Plateada, Quina, Quina roja, Roja, Roja genuina, Roja roja, Rosada, Serrana (Span-
ish), Bufuda (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); English: Quinine
Botany and Ecology
Cinchona officinalis: A large- or medium-sized tree or sometimes only a shrub, the

trunk rarely as much as 1.5 m in diameter, the bark rugose, fuscous, the branchlets
strigillose-pilosulous; stipules lanceolate or oblong, acute or obtuse, glabrous; leaves
petiolate, lanceolate to elliptic or ovate, small, acute, acuminate, or obtuse, at the
base rounded to attenuate, coriaceous, glabrous above and often lustrous, glabrous
beneath or puberulent or short-pilose, especially on the veins, usually about 10 cm
long and 3.5–4 cm wide, often scrobiculate beneath; panicles terminal, leafy, rather
small and dense, many-flowered; hypanthium strigose; calyx glabrous or nearly so,
reddish, the teeth triangular, acute; corolla pink or red, sericeous, the lobes ovate,
acute, the tube 1 cm long; capsule oblong, commonly 1.5–2 cm long, glabrate.
1600–2700 m above sea level, from Bolivia to Colombia. This species was formerly
an important source of cinchona bark in the Andean region, and it was also the one
first used in medicine. It was first made known from the region of Loja, in southern
Ecuador (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Cinchona pubecens: A medium-sized tree, the trunk about 30 cm in diameter, the
branchlets pubescent; stipules large, ovate, obtuse or acute, sericeous or almost
glabrous; leaves slender-petiolate, the blades usually large, commonly broadly ovate
to orbicular, rounded to acute at the apex, cordate to acute at the base and often
decurrent, usually glabrate above, beneath densely short-pilose or tomentose to
glabrate, often scrobiculate; panicles usually large, often leafy, many-flowered, open,
the flowers subsessile; hypanthium densely sericeous; calyx appressed-pilosulous, the
teeth short and broad, acute; corolla red or pink, sericeous, 10–12 mm long, the lobes
half as long as the tube; capsule lanceolate or oblong, glabrate, commonly 1.5–2.5 cm
long (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Cinchona officinalis: The dried bark of Quina is used in Colombia as antimalarial;

also soaked in water is used to treat bile attacks and in decoction is used against hair
loss. An infusion of scrapings of the bark and leaves is drunk to relieve the pain of
the spleen and in malaria. The warm cooking of its leaves is used to wash wounds
(Bernal et al. 2011; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Pérez Arbeláez
1996). Ecuador: Dried bark used to treat fever, bone pain, malaria, weight loss, flu,
or colds (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Scraped bark is used to treat skin pimples; With boiled water, it is effective in
lowering fever (Cofán-Sucumbíos). The bark is used to extract quinine to treat
malaria; however, the concentrations are low (Cofán-Sucumbíos; unspecified ethnic
group-Bolívar, Azuay, Cañar). The bark, in infusion, is used to treat arthritis
(unspecified ethnic group-Chimborazo). The plant, in infusion, is used to treat
malaria (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). It is used to treat indeterminate conditions
(unspecified ethnicity-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Dried flowers and leaves
are used to treat cough; dried bark is used to treat fertility, sexual potency, colds,
rheumatism; fresh root is used to treat cancer (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b,
2014, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b). Cinchona can be found in many
markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). It has limited antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al.
2008, 2010a, 2011) and is often used as ingredient in herbal mixtures (Bussmann
et al. 2010b). More recently, Cinchona has been used in cancer therapy (Bussmann
and Glenn 2011).
Cinchona pubescens: Colombia: Stems and root used as analgesic; bark used to
treat diarrhea, fever, indigestion, and malaria (Bussmann et al. 2018). The bark of
Quina has healing, anti-inflammatory and antihemorrhagic properties, it is also
febrifuge, it heals wounds and sores, and it is antimalarial, antidiarrheal, and
facilitates digestion. Quina is also used in the treatment of inappetence, cardiac
arrhythmias, gastroduodenal ulcers, and inflammations of the small intestine (Mini-
sterio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The bark is used
to extract quinine, alkaloid used to cure malaria and fevers. This species is the most
abundant in quinine and other alkaloids (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo,
Bolívar, Azuay, Cañar, Napo). Quinine is used to treat heart conditions; it is tonic,
euptic, and anti-fermentative in chronic stomach colds with acidic fermentation
(promotes digestion) (unspecified ethnic group – Bolívar). The bark, mixed with
brandy, is used to treat cold and sore throat (unspecified ethnic group – Loja) (de la
Torre et al. 2008). Quinine sulfate is extracted from the bark, which is used in the
manufacture of contraceptive condoms (unspecified ethnic group-Bolívar).
Local Food Uses
Cinchona officinalis: Ecuador: The bark is used to prepare liquors (unspecified

ethnic group – Chimborazo) (from de la Torre et al. 2008).
Cinchona officinalis L. . . . 557
Cinchona officinalis: Ecuador: The macerated bark is used to dye the leather
(unspecified ethnic group-Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The extract is used to
treat freight/susto.
Cinchona pubescens: Ecuador: Cascarilla water that is used to combat hair loss is
extracted from the crust (de la Torre et al. 2008). It is the national flower of Ecuador
(unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Desarrollo Territorial, Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Hum-
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
Rev Peru Biol. 2010a;17(2):331–46.
9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010a;
9(4):742–53.

10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
Cistanthe amarantoides (Phil.) Carolin ex
Hershkovitz
Cistanthe celosioides (Phil.) Carolin ex
Hershkovitz
MONTIACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Cistanthe amarantoides (Phil.) Carolin ex Hershkovitz: Philippiamra

amaranthoides (Phil.) Kuntze
Cistanthe celosioides (Phil.) Carolin ex Hershkovitz: Philippiamra celosioides (Phil.)
Kuntze, Philippiamra fastigiata (Phil.) Pax & K. Hoffm., Philippiamra pachyphylla
(Phil.) Kuntze, Silvaea celesioides Phil., Silvaea fastigiata Phil., Silvaea pachyphylla Phil.
Local Names
Cistanthe amarantoides: Chile: Anojarjinchu, Tiqintiqi, Anojarchanchu, Oreja de

chancho, Oreja de perro
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Cistanthe celosioides: Chile: Basal, Básalhembra, Basal rojo básal granada, Pasto
colorado, Hierba sal, Kámin lukupa, Likupabrava, Pata de guanaco
Botany and Ecology
Cistanthe amarantoides: Annual herb, little branched from the base; little branched stems,
which grow lying on the ground. Leaves obovate-spatulate, fleshy, between 3 and 6 cm
long; basal, petiolate, upper, sessile (semiabrazadoras). Inflorescences in glomeruli.
Flowers violaceous, sessile; sepals between 1.5 and 2.5 mm long; petals (3–) 4, fuchsia
to reddish. Fruit does not open when ripe, approximately 1.3 mm long; black, orbicular,
smooth, shiny seeds about 0.7 mm long. Sea level to 3300 m. (González and Molina 2017).
Cistanthe celosioides: Annual herb, erect, branched from the base, 5–10 cm high;
pivoting root. Leaves in basal rosette, broad, fleshy, oblong-linear, 2.5–5.5 cm long;
basal, petiolate; sessile superiors Inflorescences in glomeruli. Flowers pentámeras,
hermafroditas, sésiles, violaceous, of 0.3–0.5 cm of diameter; white or red bracts,
Fig. 1 Cistanthe celosoides

(Montiancae), Chile. (Photo
Fig. 2 Cistanthe celosoides

(Montiancae), Chile. (Photo
Cistanthe amarantoides (Phil.) Carolin ex Hershkovitz. . . 561
Fig. 3 Cistanthe longiscapa

(Montiancae), Ayquina, Chile.
Señoret)
Fig. 4 Cistanthe longiscapa

(Montiancae), Ayquina, Chile.
Señoret)
Fig. 5 Cistanthe picta

(Montiancae), Socaire, Chile.
Señoret)
Fig. 6 Cistanthe salsoloides

(Montiancae), Calama, Chile.
Señoret)
Fig. 7 Cistanthe salsoloides

(Montiancae), Calama, Chile.
Señoret)
1.5–3 mm long; sepals 1.5–2 mm long; petal 4, white or red. Fruit: Nucelle with
black seeds, circular, smooth, shiny, 0.5–0.7 mm long. Sea level to 4000 m
(González and Molina 2017) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7).
Cistanthe amarantoides: The infusion of the aerial parts serves to heal wounds and
skin burns (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
Cistanthe celosioides: The aerial parts, fresh and moist, applied on the skin are used
as a sunscreen (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and
Castro 2003).
Cistanthe amarantoides (Phil.) Carolin ex Hershkovitz. . . 563
Local Food Uses
Cistanthe celosioides: The aerial parts are edible being sweet and gelatinous. It is
eaten as a stew and to thicken soups (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al.
Cistanthe amarantoides: Forage use. Formerly the aerial parts were boiled and
served to dye sacks of flour (used to make clothes) (González and Molina 2017;
Cistanthe celosioides: Forage use. Used also to dye textiles red (González and
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Citrus aurantifolia Swingle
Citrus maxima (L.) Osbeck
Citrus medica L.
Citrus reticulata Blanco
RUTACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Citrus maxima (L.) Osbeck: Aurantium decumanum (L.) Mill.; Aurantium maximum
Burm.; Citrus x aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle; Citrus x aurantium fo. grandis (L.)
Hiroë; Citrus x aurantium L.; Citrus x aurantium subsp. decumana (L.) Tanaka; Citrus
x aurantium var. decumana L.; Citrus x aurantium var. grandis L.; Citrus x limetta
Risso; Citrus x nobilis Lour.; Citrus x paradisi Macfad.; Citrus x sinensis (L.) Osbeck;
Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle; Citrus aurantium L. Citrus aurantium var.
decumana L.; Citrus aurantium var. grandis L.; Citrus aurantium var. sinensis L.;
Citrus costata Raf.; Citrus decumana (L.) L.; Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck.; Citrus
grandis var. pyriformis (Hassk.) R.K. Karaya; Citrus grandis var. sabon (Siebold ex
Hayata) Hayata; Citrus kwangsiensis H.H. Hu; Citrus limetta Risso; Citrus maxima
(Burm.) Merr., Citrus maxima var. uvacarpa Merr.; Citris medica subfo. pyriformis
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

(Hassk.) Hiroë; Citrus obovoidea Yo. Tanaka; Citrus pampelmos Risso; Citrus paradisi
Macfad.; Citrus pompelos Risso; Citrus pyriformis Hassk.; Citrus sabon Siebold ex
Hayata; Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck; Limonia x aurantiifolia Chritsm.; Limonia
aurantifolia Christm.
Citrus medica L.: Aurantium medicum (L.) M. Gómez; Citreum vulgare Torn. ex
Mill.; Citrus x aurantium subvar. amilbed Engl.; Citrus x aurantium subvar.
ckakotra Engl.; Citrus x limon (L.) Osbeck; Citrus x limon var. digitata Risso;
Citrus x limonia (L.) Osbeck; Citrus x limonum Risso; Citrus alata (Tanaka)
Tanaka; Citrus cedra Link; Citrus cedrata Raf.; Citrus fragrans Salisb.; Citrus
limon (L.) Osbeck; Citrus medica fo. monstrosa Guillaumin; Citrus medica subsp.
bajoum H. Perrier; Citrus medica var. alata Tanaka; Citrus medica var. digitata
Risso; Citrus medica var. ethrog Engl.; Citrus medica var. limon L.; Citrus medica
var. proper Hook. f.; Citrus medica var. sarcodactylis (Hoola van Nooten) Swingle;
Citrus odorata Roussel; Citrus sacrodactulis Hoola van Nooten; Citrus tuberosa
Mill; Sarcodactilis helicteroides Gaertn.
Citrus reticulata Blanco: Citrus x aurantium fo. deliciosa (Ten.) Hiroë; Citrus
aurantium var. tachibana Makino; Citrus x nobilis Lour.; Citrus x nobilis subfo.
deliciosa (Ten.) Hiroë; Citrus x nobilis subfo. erythrosa (Yu. Tanaka) Hiroë; Citrus x
nobilis subfo. reticulata (Blanco) Hiroë; Citrus x nobilis subfo. succosa (Tanaka)
Hiroë; Citrus x nobilis subfo. tachibana (Makino) Guillaumin; Citrus x nobilis var.
unshiu (Marcov.) Hiroë; Citrus x nobilis var. deliciosa (Ten.) Guillaumin; Citrus x
nobilis var., major Ker Gawl.; Citrus x nobilis var. ponki Hayata; Citrus x nobilis
var. spontanea Ito; Citrus x nobilis var. sunki Hayata; Citrus x nobilis var. tachibana
(Makino) Ito; Citrus x nobilis var. ushiu (Marcov.) Tanaka ex Swingle; Citrus x
nobilis var. vangasy (Bojer) Guillaumin; Citrus aurantium subsp. suntra Engl.;
Citrus chrysocarpa Lush.; Citrus daoxianensis S.W. He & G.F. Liu; Citrus deliciosa
Ten.; Citrus depressa Hayata; Citrus erythrosa Yu. Tanaka; Citrus madurensis var.
deliciosa (Ten.) Sagot; Citrus mangshanensis S.W. He & G.F. Liu; Citrus nobilis
Lour.; Citrus nobilis var. deliciosa (Ten.) Swingle; Citrus ponki Yu. Tanaka; Citrus
pooensis Yu. Tanaka; Citrus reticulata subsp. deliciosa (Ten.) Rivera & et al.; Citrus
reticulata subsp. tachibana Rivera & et al.; Citrus reticulata subsp. uinshu
(Marcov.) Rivera & et al.; Citrus reticulata var. australe Swingle; Citrus succosa
Tanaka; Citrus suhuiensis Hayata; Citrus sunki hort. ex Tanaka; Citrus tachibana
(Makino) Yu. Tanaka; Citrus tachibana subfo. depressa (Hayata) Hiroë; Citrus
tachibana subfo. ponki (Yu. Tanaka) Hiroë; Citrus tachibana subfo. suhuiensis
(Hayata) Hiroë; Citrus tangerina Yu. Tanaka; Citrus tankan Hayata; Citrus unshiu
Marcov.; Citrus vangasy Bojer; Citrus vonagasay Bojer
Local Names
Citrus aurantifolia: Bolivia: Naranja, Flor de naranja (Spanish) (Bussmann et al.

2016); Colombia: Hoja del limón, Limón (Bussmann et al. 2018)
Citrus x aurantium: Colombia: Limón, Limón criollo; Naranja ácida, Naranja agria
(Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Naranja agria, Cajel, Hoja de naranja,
Citrus aurantifolia Swingle. . . 567
Naranja, Naranja dulce (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Hojas de naranja
(Spanish)
Citrus maxima: Colombia: Naranja común, Naranja dulce, Naranjo, Pamplemusa,
Toronja; Peru: Toronja, Lima
Citrus medica: Colombia: Cidra; Bolivia: Cidra (Spanish) (Justo and Moraes 2015;
Bussmann et al. 2016); Ecuador: Wichilla limón (Spanish-Kichwa), Ppairi pia,
Saija’i pairi pia (Pai coca), Cidra, Limón, Limón real (Spanish), Lemon (English)
(de la Torre et al. 2008)
Citrus reticulata: Colombia: Mandarina, Mandarina común, Mandarina reina,
Mandarina satsuma, Limón mandarino; Ecuador: Limón dulce, Mandarina (Span-
ish), Mandarin orange (English); Peru: Mandarina (Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Citrus aurantifolia: This species is native to the region between northwestern India
and the border areas of China and Burma. It’s probably a hybrid between zamboa
and mandarin. It was introduced in Europe by the Arabs, who used it for medicinal
purposes and as an ornamental plant in their gardens. It was the first citrus fruit that
arrived in the American continent. Medium to large, leafy tree with open growth
habit, although somewhat more erect than the sweet orange; more rustic and
resistant, hence its use as rootstocks of that. With the presence of thorns. Elliptical
leaves medium to large size with full margin and longer petiole than the sweet
orange tree with developed wings. Medium-sized flowers, with white petals and
yellow anthers. They give off a much appreciated fragrance to the essential oils
present, known as neroli oil. Usually, the fruits are of average size and spherical
shape, globose, although also you can find somewhat flattened fruits. They present
a slight depression both in the basal zone as in the apical zone. The bark, intense
orange in color in maturity is thick and rough to the touch. Juicy pulp, pale orange,
acidic, and with a characteristic bitter taste. When maturity is reached, it becomes
hollow. Presence of numerous seeds, polyembryonic, with the purple chalaza.
Citrus maxima: The large size of its fruits, the largest of citrus fruits, is reflected in
its botanical name (C. maxima, formerly C. grandis). Its origin is located in
Indonesia and Malaysia, where it can be found in the wild. It is a highly prized
fruit in Southeast Asian countries. Description Large trees of open bearing, vigor-
ous, and with the presence of thorns. The young shoots, green in color, are
pubescent unlike pomelos. Leaves very large, elliptical, dark green with slightly
serrated or entire margin. It has developed wings on the petiole. The flowers are
usually born in terminal clusters and are the largest in the genus. Aromatic, yellow
anthers, hairy calyx and thick white petals, turned back when they are in full
bloom. The fruit is very big. Its shape can be from spherical to flattened or even
pear-shaped, depending on the different varieties. The bark, of great thickness, is
pale yellow, sometimes showing a greenish hue. The pulp, with a firm texture, can
be greenish yellow, yellow, or with reddish tones. Large, hollow or semisolid
central axis. The membranes that wrap the segments are very hard and can be
removed easily. The juice vesicles are the largest of citrus fruits. Seed content
varies from low to very high; They are large and monoembryonic. We can find
varieties from very juicy to practically dry, as well as with a lot of acidity or insipid.
Uses: Peeled segments are consumed fresh and used in the preparation of salads
and desserts. The juice is also appreciated. The flowers are used to make perfumes.
The hard wood is suitable for the manufacture of tools. In the Philippines and
Southeast Asia, it has different applications in traditional medicine; The decoctions
of leaves, flowers, and bark are administered for their sedative effect in cases of
epilepsy and convulsive cough. The bark is sometimes used to make jam and can
also be confit. In China, it is added to be sautéed with pork (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Citrus medica: The latest research indicates that it could be a direct cross between
bitter orange and citron. The origin of the lemon is a mystery, but it could be located
in northwestern India, northern Burma, and China. Description The lemon tree is a
tree of medium to large size, vigorous, and with habit of open growth. It has
abundant small spines on the branches. Although more resistant to cold than
Mexican lime and citron, it is more sensitive than other commercial citrus. The
young shoots are deep purple. Large pale green leaves, which give off a pleasant
scent of lemon when squeezed. Shape of the elliptical limbus and dentate margin.
Petiole not winged or with presence of very small wings. Large flowers, purple
petals, yellow anthers, and in large percentage staminated by abortion of the pistil. If
conditions are favorable, you may have several florations per year. The fruit is light
Fig. 1 Citrus maxima

(Rutaceae), Beni, Bolivia.
Fig. 2 Citrus maxima (Rutaceae), Granada, Spain. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Fig. 3 Citrus maxima

(Rutaceae), Granada, Spain.
yellow, ellipsoidal, with a more or less pronounced mamelon in the apical zone. Bark
smooth or slightly rough. It may have a neck at the base of the fruit. Pulp yellow and
juicy, very acidic. Solid or semisolid central axis. It presents seeds with a low degree
of polyembryony. Uses: Lemon is mainly used as juice and essential oils. Lemon
Juice is used as an ingredient for lemonade and other soft drinks, as well as pastry
and restoration; the oils, both of the leaf and the fruit, are used in perfumery. In the
past, it was of great importance in maritime navigation to prevent scurvy, a disease
caused by the lack of Vitamin C. Citrus lemon juice is widely known as diuretic,
astringent, and febrifuge. The wood is compact and easy to work with. In Mexico, it
is used to carve chess pieces, toys, small spoons, and other items.
Citrus reticulata: Satsuma is the name of an old Japanese province, now Prefecture
of Kagoshima, on the southern tip of the island of Kyushu, where it is believed to
have originated this species. In Japan, where it is well known and appreciated, it
receives the name of unshû mikan, hence its specific name unshiu. Tree of small to
medium size, slow growing. Open bearing, somewhat disheveled, with distribution
of scattered branches that sometimes grow inclined towards the floor, which gives it
a weepy look. It does not have thorns. It’s the commercial citrus more resistant to
cold and unfavorable conditions for most of them. Leaves medium size, leathery, and
lanceolate. Petiole slightly winged and entire margin. The flowers are medium sized,
white petals, and anthers of color white or pale yellow, without pollen. The fruit is of
medium size, flattened, and orange color, although it is collected with green tones
since the bark is very prone to swelling This, slightly rough, comes off very easily.
Intense orange pulp, with hollow central axis and large amount of juice, of not very
good quality for its low values of both acidity and sugar.
It does not produce seeds. In the case of any appearance of seeds, they are
polyembryonic (Figs. 4, 5, and 6).
Fig. 4 Citrus pomelo

(Rutaceae), market, Tbilisi,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 5 Citrus sinensis

(Rutaceae), Beni, Bolivia.
Fig. 6 Citrus sinensis

(Rutaceae), market,
R.W. Bussmann and
Citrus aurantiifolia: Bolivia: Fresh or dried leaves and flowers are used to treat
heartache, high blood pressure, gallbladder, nerves, to accelerate childbirth, cough,
mucus in the lungs, tonsils, hemorrhage, for wound healing, as tranquilizer, and to
stay young (Bussmann et al. 2016). Colombia: Leaves are used to treat heartburn;
leaves and fruits are used to treat throat inflammation, pleural inflammation, indi-
gestion, high blood pressure, headache, general malaise, gallbladder, flatulence,
conjunctivitis, cirrhosis, Arthritis, sores, as analgesic, and as tranquilizer; fruits are
used to treat stye (Bussmann et al. 2018). Used in Kenya to treat malaria and
sexually transmitted diseases (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a, b).
Citrus x aurantium: Boilvia: For heart and nervous system (Quiroga et al. 2012).
Colombia: Fresh leaves are used as sedative; fruits used to treat liver problems,
gallbladder (Bussmann et al. 2018). The fruit of the lemon is considered one of the
most useful medicinal plant products, since it cures a great variety of diseases. The
main applications of lemon are: as eye drops applying 1 or 2 drops inside the eye,
prepared as infusion, to cure chronic conjunctivitis and propensity to styes; it is also
used as a digestive and reliever in intestinal diseases, as a disinfectant, and is
frequently used to treat dysentery and gastrointestinal diseases; it cures inflamma-
tions of the tissues that line the lungs and the thoracic cavity, and it is used in the
treatment of liver cirrhosis, rheumatism, sores, to relieve headaches, and biliary
conditions. Lemon juice with bicarbonate used in the form of gargles cures throat
plaques and chest sores. Lemon is also considered as a powerful depurative of the
blood and as a soothing of the imbalances of the nervous system. The lemon
consumed in a good amount on an empty stomach is very good to cure and relieve
arthritis and very high blood pressure (Fonnegra Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011;
Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Martínez Correa and Montes
Martínez 2017; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: Fresh peel and fruits are used to
treat scurvy, stomachache, high blood pressure, as deodorant, and for bad air (mal
aire) (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: Small leaves
and stems, dried, are used for nerves and stomach (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a). Orange
leaves are regularly sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). No known toxicity
In Madagascar, the species is used to treat cough (Rabearivony et al. 2015) and
stomachache (Rakotoarivelo et al. 2015), and to treat malaria (Razafindraibe et al.
2013).
Citrus maxima: Bolivia: For nervous system and heart problems, gallbladder,
stomach pain, gastritis, and colds (Quiroga et al. 2012). It is used in Colombia to
make juices and consume as fresh fruit in the treatment of digestive discomfort
(García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The species is especially widely used in
Peru, especially in its variety limetta (lime). It is used to remedy nervous system
problems, stomach inflammation, gastritis, heart disease, heartburn, and helps to
refresh the stomach, as well as to lower Cholesterol and lose weight (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010, 2011a; Bussmann et al.
2010a). Also used to treat colds, bronchial problems, cough, flu, liver problems,
diarrhea, dysentery, and nausea (Monigatti et al. 2013). It has limited antibacterial
activity (Bussmann et al. 2009, 2010b, c, 2011a; Bussmann and Glenn 2011c). Like
many plants, Citrus maxima is used in herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010d).
Recently, the species is used to treat diabetes and cancer (Bussmann and Glenn
2011d). In Madagscar, it is used to treat cough (Rakotoarivelo et al. 2015), malaria,
and to expel the placenta (Razafindraibe et al. 2013).
Citrus medica: Bolivia: Dried fruits are used to treat gallbladder, gallstones, cold,
cough, diabetes, and for rage (Justo and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016). The
fruit of citron is used in Colombia as a stimulant and corrective of digestion (García
Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: Bathing with an infusion of branches
reduces fever (Mestiza-Pichincha). Roasted fruit is scrubbed on the part affected by

scabies. The fruit is used to treat dutch disease (aviral skin disease) (Kichwa de la
Sierra-Imbabura). Roasted fruit is effective in treating cough. The fruit juice is used
to clean wounds and treat inflammations of the mouth and throat (unspecified
ethnicity – Pichincha). The juice of the fruit, mixed with different remedies, is
taken to treat nausea and lower fever (Kichwa of the East-Napo). Fruit juice is
used to lower uric acid levels and treat gout, in addition, it relieves diarrhea, colds,
respiratory conditions and lowers fever (Mestiza-Pichincha; Kichwa of the East-
Napo; unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha, Others (Coast region)). The fruit juice has
antiscorbutic, refrigerant, and febrifuge properties (Kichwa del Oriente-Sucumbíos;
unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). It is used to clarify the view. It is used to
treat foot fungus (unspecified ethnicity – Other (Coast Region)). It is used to treat
arthritis, rheumatism, influenza, angina, cuts, mumps, nosebleeds, and gallbladder
pain (Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity-Other (Costa Region)) (de la Torre
et al. 2008).
Citrus reticulata: The oil extracted from the bark and leaves is used in Colombia to
remove skin spots. The infusion of mandarin leaves is used as an antispasmodic. The
juice of the fruit is used in the inflammation of the peripheral nerves, as antiscorbutic,
laxative, antiflatulent, and sedative (Fonnegra Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011;
García Barriga 1975). Ecuador: The flowers, in infusion, are used to treat the nerves
(ethnicity not specified – Loja). Peru: Flowers and fruit peel are used fresh for
nerves (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011a;
Bussmann et al. 2010a).
Local Food Uses
Citrus x aurantium: Ecuador: The leaves are used to prepare aromatic waters
(unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It is eaten in
Ethiopia (Bussmann et al. 2011c).
Citrus maxima: Used widely for curing ceremonies in Peru, especially spiritual
flowering, sucking the pain away, refreshing the patient, and taking bitterness away
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011a;
Bussmann et al. 2010a). A common ingredient in emollients (Bussmann et al. 2015).
Citrus medica: Ecuador: The fruit is edible and, in certain regions, is used to
prepare soft drinks and confectionery (Secoya-Sucumbíos; Kichwa del Oriente-
Napo; Mestiza-Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua, Costa Region; unspecified ethnic
group-Esmeraldas, Pichincha, Azuay, Cañar, Loja). The leaves are used to prepare
aromatic waters (Kichwa del Oriente-Napo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Fruit juice is
used as a salad seasoning (Mestizo-Pichincha; Kichwa del Oriente-Napo) (de la
Torre et al. 2008).
Citrus reticulata: Ecuador: The fruit is edible (Secoya-Sucumbíos; Kichwa del
Oriente, Shuar Napo; Mestiza-Manabí, Imbabura, Tungurahua, Azuay, Loja;
unspecified ethnic group-Manabí, Loja, Others (Coast Region)). The leaves are
used to prepare aromatic waters (East Kichwa-Napo; unspecified ethnicity – Loja).
Citrus aurantifolia: Bolivia: So that the kari kari (a bad spirit) stays away
Citrus medica: Ecuador: Fruit juice is used to prevent hair loss and dandruff
(unspecified ethnicity-Pichincha). The leaves, in infusion, are used to control bad
breath (unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). It is mixed with bicarbonate to remove
bad odors from the armpits (unspecified ethnic group – Other (Coast Region)).
Social: The fruit is used to treat “vices” (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha) (de la
Torre et al. 2008).
Citrus reticulata: Ecuador: It has beekeeping use (unspecified ethnicity – Loja)
(de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Peruvian ethnomedicine. Arnaldoa. 2010;17(2):255–70.
disease, blood pressure irregularities and cholesterol control. Arnaldoa. 2011a;18(2):167–78.
Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional medicinal plants used in northern Peru for kidney problems
and urinary infections. Arnaldoa. 2011b;18(1):77–94.
fungal infections and inflammation symptoms. J Med Plant Res. 2011c;5(8):1297–304.
of diabetes and cancer in northern Peru. J Med Plant Res. 2011d;5(31):6916–30.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010b;
9(4):742–53.
Peru as antibacterial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010c;132:101–8.
medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010d;6:10.
2015;69:83–8.
plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2018;14(1):43. https://doi.org/
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8
Fonnegra Gómez R, Villa-Londoño J. Plantas medicinales usadas en algunas veredas de municipios
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
450–64.
Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Phytotherapeutic management of Diversity and utilization of antima-
larial ethnophytotherapeutic remedies among the Kikuyus (central Kenya). J Ethnobiol
Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Traditional management of ear, nose and throat (ENT) diseases in
central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:54.
2013;9:73.
Clusia lechleri Rusby
Clusia minor L.
Clusia pachamamae Zenteno Ruiz &
A. Fuentes
Clusia sp.
CLUSIACEAE
Synonyms
Clusia minor L.: Clusia galactodendron Desvaux, Clusia odorata Seem., Clusia
parvicapsula Vesue, Clusia parviflora Hum,b. & Bonpl., Clusia pratensis Seem.,
Clusia utilis S.F. Blake, Clusia venosa Jacq., Clusia venosa L.
Local Names
Clusia minor: Peru: Chusgon

Clusia lechleri/Clusia pachamamae: Bolivia: Incienso
Botany and Ecology
Clusia minor: Shrub or tree up to 10 m high with somewhat angular twigs; obovate,
cartilaginous leaves, 5–10 cm long, from obtuse to rounded at the apex; cuneate base;
with 1–2 cm thin petiole; medium thin nerve, prominent on the underside, slightly
R. W. Bussmann (*)

prominent sides; the pauciflora inflorescences; with pedicels of 2–5 mm; 4 sepals
of 6–7 mm; 4–5 white or pink petals; the subglobose or obovoid fruit
1.5–2 cm long.
Clusia lechleri/Clusia pachamamae: Dioecious tree 4–8(–12) m high; trunk 10–15
(25) cm diameter at chest height, usually with adventitious roots, the outer cortex
sometimes covered of white-gray-crustacean crustaceans, the bark internal whitish,
which oxidizes reddish; sap yellow-light sticky that when crystallized becomes yel-
low; cylindrical to subcuadrangular foliar branches, 0.5–1.4 cm diameter, light gray to
brown-yellowish, glabrous, sometimes fistulous, the peridermis striated transversely,
dry longitudinally corrugated simple leaves, decussate, the petiole winged 1.5–2.6
0.6–1.8 cm; plate 9.5–20 (–25.5) 5–10 (–13.5) cm, obovoid, rarely elliptical, coria-
ceous, subcarnose, glabra; base of subamplexicaule; rounded apex, rarely obtuse;
whole margin, slightly jumbled; dark green beam; veins white-greenish to white-
yellowish, sometimes young leaf magenta; round main nerve in cross section, fresh,
gently prominent in the beam and very prominent in the poison, ending before the
apex of the leaf; secondary nerves (30)35–45(55) pairs, with an angle of ca. 70–75 ,
little prominent in the beam and prominent in the poison. Terminal inflorescence, 1 or
rarely 2 spikes pauciflorous; triangular floral bracts, 0.3–1 0.3–0.5 cm, coriaceous
subtending a single flower; male inflorescence 3.3–7.5 cm long, the spine 2–6
0.2–0.5 cm, tetragonal, peduncle 0.1 1 0.4 0.6 cm, tetragonal, flowers 6–16;
female inflorescence 2–4.5 cm, spine 1.6 2.4 0.4 0.7 cm, tetragonal, peduncle
0.4 0.7 0.4 0.7 cm, tetragonal, flowers 7–11. Unisexual flowers; sepals 4, ca.
1.1 1.6 cm, broadly oval, concave, coriaceous, entire margin, scarious, the rounded
apex; petals 5, ca. 1 1.7 0.6 1 cm, yellowish-white, obovate to oblong, something
concave, subcarnosos, the rounded apex; flowers male with 50–75 stamens, the
filaments short ca. 2 0.5 mm, white to light brown to maturity, the anthers ca.
3.5 0.7 mm, linear, reddish female flowers with 5 styles, rarely 6, ca. 1 0.8 mm,
capitinous and stigmata stigmas, ca. 1.6 2 mm, yellowish-white. Infrutescences up
to 6 cm, you freeze at maturity; capsule fruit septicide, 2.5–4 cm diameter, spherical,
fleshy, yellow-green light green with reddish hues to the maturity; styles 5, rarely
6, 3–5 mm, persistent, the stigmata capitated, papillose, locules 5, rare time 6, column
1.3 2 0.8 1.5 mm, woody, with 5 or rarely 6 wings; seeds ca. 8 per locule,
5–6 2–2.5 mm, green-brownish, elongated-reniform; aryl fleshy, intense orange
(Zenteno-Ruíz and Fuentes 2008) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7).
Clusia minor is used in Peru to treat nervous system problems and heart disease
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010, 2011). Some-
times it is sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). The species has antibacterial
properties (Bussmann et al. 2009).
Clusia lechleri Rusby. . . 579
Fig. 1 Clusia
sp. (Clusiaceae), Kuelap,
Fig. 2 Clusia
Fig. 3 Clusia
Fig. 4 Clusia
Fig. 5 Clusia
Fig. 6 Clusia
Clusia lechleri Rusby. . . 581
Fig. 7 Chrysochlamys
Clusia lechleri and Clusia pachamamae are used as incense in ceremonies in

Bolivia (Bussmann et al. 2016; Zenteno-Ruíz and Fuentes 2008). Chrysochlamys
sp. has been suspected to have hallucinogenic properties.
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Malca G G, Perez A F, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in Northern
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
Pharmacol. 2010;4(9):580–629.
Zenteno-Ruíz FS, Fuentes A. El Incienso de Bolivia: Una Especie Nueva de Clusia (Clusiaceae) de
los Bosques Montanos del Norte de La Paz, Bolivia. Novon. 2008;18(1):130–4.
Coffea arabica L.
RUBIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Coffea arabica L.: Coffea arabica var. stenophyllea Bello; Coffea corymbulosa
Bertol.; Coffea laurifolia Salisb.; Coffea moka Heynh.; Coffea sundana Miq.; Coffea
vulgaris Moench
Local Names
Bolivia: Sultana (Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005); Colombia: Café, Cafeto, Cafeto
enano, Cafeto San Lorenzo, Cafeto San Ramón; Ecuador: Kafeechi kusjurul
(Chafi’ki), Runa café (Spanish-Kichwa), Meñimo, Wekawemo (Wao tededo),
Kajui (Shuar chicham), Café, Café delgado (Spanish), Coffee (English) (de la
Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Café (Spanish); English: Coffee
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Shrub or tree, up to 20 m tall, densely branched; stipules 4–5 mm long; leaves short-
petiolate, the blades lance-elliptic, 12–16 cm long, cuspidate-acuminate, acute at the
base, subcoriaceous; flowers in clusters of 3–7 in the leaf axils, sessile; calyx
annuliform, almost obsolete; corolla white, 17–19 mm long, the 5 lobes widely
spreading; fruit subglobose, red at maturity, 10–16 mm in diameter. Native to
Ethiopia and growing at elevations from 1000 to 2000 m, cultivated from 600 to
1600 m (Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 1 Coffea arabica

(Rubiaceae), Harenna,
Ethiopia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann)

(Rubiaceae), Harenna,
Ethiopia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann)
Coffea arabica L. 585

(Rubiaceae), market,
Harenna, Ethiopia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann)

(Rubiaceae), market,
Harenna, Ethiopia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann)
Bolivia: The dry skin of fruits is used to treat diabetes and high blood pressure
(Macía et al. 2005). Colombia: Coffee is used as a tonic, stimulant, diuretic, to
stop bleeding, as a bronchial dilator, and to relieve headache (Fonnegra-Gómez
and Villa-Londoño 2011; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez
1996). Ecuador: The macerated fruit is used to treat hemorrhages caused by cuts
and as a wound healing (Tsa’chi-Pichincha; Kichwa of the East-Napo). Environ-
mental: The plant is part of agroforestry systems (unspecified ethnic group –
Manabí) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves are used to clean the “bad air”
(Kichwa of the East-Napo). The seeds are used to prepare stimulant drinks
(Mestizo-Manabí; unspecified ethnicity – Guayas, Tungurahua, Others (Costa
Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Dried seeds are used for pain (physical)
and alertness (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b). Coffea roots are used
to treat back pain in women (Njoroge and Bussmann 2009) and respiratory
problems (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006) in Kenya.
In Madagascar, coffee leaves are used to treat malaria (Razafindraibe et al. 2013).
Local Food Uses
The species is widely used as beverage, with a very long use history (Bussmann
2016).
Ecuador: The fruit is edible and is used to prepare juices (Mestizo-El Oro; Cofán,
East Kichwa-Sucumbíos; Wao-Napo, Orellana; unspecified ethnic group –
Pichincha, Napo). The fruit is used for the preparation of aromatic drinks
(unspecified ethnicity – Loja). The seeds are edible; toasted and ground seeds are
used to prepare a hot tonic drink (Chachi-Esmeraldas; Mestizo-Pichincha; Siona-
Sucumbíos; Kichwa of the East-Pastaza; Shuar-Napo; unspecified ethnic group –
Esmeraldas, Manabi, Imbabura, Pichincha, Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
The seeds are used to flavor food (Secoya-Sucumbíos) (de la Torre et al. 2008)
(Figs. 3 and 4).
Ecuador: The fruit is bird food (Wao-Orellana) (de La Torre et al. 2008). Bees visit
the flowers of this species (unspecified ethnicity-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
Coffea arabica L. 587
9960231-3-9.
Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Traditional management of Ear, Nose and Throat (ENT) diseases in
Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:54.
Knowl. 2009;8(2):262–9.
2013;9:73.
Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist
Conyza deserticola Phil.
ASTERACEAE

Synonyms
Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist: Conyza albida Willd. ex Spreng.; Conyza

ambigua DC.; Conyza bonariensis var. leiotheca (S.F. Blake) Cuatrec.; Conyza
bonariensis var. microcephala (Cabrera) Cabrera; Conyza floribunda Kunth; Conyza
hispida Kunth; Conyza linearis DC.; Conyza linifolia (Willd.) Täckh.; Conyza
naudinii Bonnet; Conyza plebeja Phil.; Conyza spiculosa (Hook. & Arn.) Zardini;
Erigeron bonariensis L.; Erigeron bonariensis var. floribundus (Kunth) Cuatrec.;
Erigeron bonariensis var. leiothecus S.F. Blake; Erigeron bonariensis var. micro-
cephalus Cabrera; Erigeron crispus Pourr.; Erigeron crispus subsp. naudinii (Bonnet)
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero

Bonnier; Erigeron floribundus (Kunth) Sch. Bip.; Erigeron linifolius Willd.; Erigeron
naudinii (Bonnet) Humbert; Leptilon bonariense (L.) Small.; Leptilon linifolium
(Willd.) Small; Marsea bonariensis (L.) V.M. Badillo; Marsea bonariensis var.
leiotheca (S.F. Blake) V.M. Badillo
Conyza deserticola Phil.: Conyza punensis Cabrera; Erigeron canescens Sch. Bip.
Local Names
Conyza bonariensis: Colombia: Árbol lengua de perro, Awiriebarünae, Hoja de

sangre, Venadillo, Arbol lengua de perro, Isimalinaeyo (Guahi), Parüwünae (Guahi)
Conyza deserticola: Chile: Maransela, Anojarjinchu, Oreja de perro, Maransel,
Maransel hebra
Botany and Ecology
Conyza bonariensis: Annual herb, stem 100–200 cm high, erect, usually

branching only above in inflorescence, densely leafy, more or less densely covered
with somewhat stiff, simple hairs, some hairs long and erect but majority short,
upcurved. Leaves green, spreading upward, linearly lanceolate, long acuminate,
ciliately pubescent and both sides with hairs like stem, 0.15–12 cm long and
0.2–18.0 mm wide, gradually reduced from base to apex; lower leaves petiolate,
coarsely serrate-toothed, upper sessile, entire. Inflorescence usually broad panic-
ulate. Capitulae numerous, about 6 mm long and 11 mm wide. Inner involucral
bracts about 4.5 mm long and 0.7 mm wide, linear, acute, dorsally sparsely
covered with somewhat stiff, simple, appressed hairs, herbaceous, membranous
along margin, finely ciliate at apex, fimbriate; outer bracts less than half as long
as inner, not membranous along margin, more densely pubescent. Receptacle
alveolate with distinct septae between alveolae, central alveolae larger than
peripheral. Ray florets pistillate, many-rowed, about 4 mm long, sparsely pubes-
cent in upper part of tube; ligules erect, white, pale violet after flowering,
about 0.3 mm long and 0.2 mm wide, linear, with two slender, acute teeth at
apex. Disk florets pale yellow, bisexual, tubular, five-toothed, pubescent in upper
part of tube with scattered short hairs; above slightly conically enlarged at lobes.
Pappus about 4 mm long, of 20 equal bristles, one-rowed; achenes 1.25 mm long,
broad, lanceolate, sparsely pubescent with thin, semi-appressed hairs, compressed,
developing in all florets (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4,
and 5).
Conyza deserticola: Herb, shortly hirsute, basal leaves entire, oblong-linear, long
petiolate, to 7 cm long, stem leaves linear-lanceolate, acute, capitula 3–5 in raceme,
2000–4500 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 6, 7,
and 8).
Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist. . . 591
Fig. 1 Conyza canadensis



Conyza bonariensis: In Colombia, it is used as a diuretic and to promote the proper

functioning of the liver. The macerated leaves are used in bathrooms to remove skin
spots (Bernal et al. 2011; Ortiz Gómez 1989). In Ecuador, it is used to treat colics
(Bussmann and Sharon 2007).
Conyza deserticola: The infusion of the leaves is used for the uterus (Rodriguez et al.
Conyza deserticola: The plant is used as forage.



Fig. 6 Conyza primulifolia

(Asteraceae), Chile. (Photo
J. Echeverría)

J. Echeverría)

J. Echeverría)
References
conservación y uso sostenible de las plantas medicinales nativas en Colombia. Bogotá:
Estrategia Nacional para la Conservación de Plantas. Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
9789962-2-2.
Ortiz Gómez F. Botánica médica Guahibo. Plantas medicinales, mágicas y psicotrópicas utilizadas
por los Sikuani y Cuiba (Llanos Orientales de Colombia). Caldasia. 1989;16(76):14–22.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pav.) Oken
Cordia lutea Lam.
BORAGINACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pav.) Oken: Cerdana alliodora Ruiz. & Pav.; Cordia
alliodora (Ruiz & Pav.) Cham.; Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pav.) Cham. ex A. DC.;
Cordia alliodora fo. albotomentosa Chodat & Hassl.; Cordia alliodora var.
boliviana Chodat & Vischer; Cordia alliodora var. glabra A. DC.; Cordia alliodora
var. tomentosa A. DC.; Cordia andina Chodat; Cordia cerdana Roem. & Schult.;
Cordia chamissoana var. complicata Chodat; Cordia cujabensis Silva Manso &
Lhotsky; Cordia gerascanthus fo. martinicensis Chodat; Cordia gerascanthus Jacq.;
Cordia gerascanthus var. subcanescens A. DC.; Cordia goudotii Chodat; Cordia
rusbyi Britton ex Rusby; Cordia velutina Mart.; Cerascanthus alliodorus (Ruiz &
Pav.) Borhidi; Cerascanthus cujabensis (Silva Manso & Lhotsky) Borhidi;
Lithocardium alliodorum (Ruiz & Pav.) Kuntze; Lithocardium cujabense (Silva
Manso & Lhotsky) Kuntze; Varronia tuberosa Sessé & Moc.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Cordia lutea Lam.: Cordia flava (Andersson) Gürke; Cordia marchionica Drake;
Cordia rotundifolia Ruiz & Pav.; Lithocardium flavum (Andersson) Kuntze;
Lithocardium rotundifolium (Ruiz & Pav.) Kuntze; Varronia flava Andersson
Local Names
Cordia alliodora: Colombia: Cedrito, Moho, Murrapo, Laurel (Spanish)

(Bussmann et al. en prep); Ecuador: Osa (Tsafi’ki), Misunsal yura (kKchwa),
Araña kaspi (Spanish-Kichwa), Jëa jati (Pai coca), Awenkawe, Giyikadowe,
Koyotowe, Odangawe (Wao tededo), Murushi, Murushinumi (Shuar chicham),
Laurel, Laurel blanco, Laurel corazón negro, Laurel costeño, Laurel de cera, Laurel
de puná (Spanish), Chaquiñe, Misonsal (unspecifid language) (de la Torre et al.
2008); Peru: Ajos giro, Ajos quiro, Ajo sacha
Cordia lurta: Ecuador: Overol, Uva (Spanish), muyuyo hembra (Spanish-
unspecified language), muyuyo (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008);
Peru: Overo, Flor de overo, Overal
Botany and Ecology
Cordia alliodora: More or less densely stellate-pubescent with small or minute

forked trichomes, especially the ample inflorescences; petioles 1–3 cm long; leaves
rather broadly elliptic, obtusely acute both ends or acuminate apically, usually
10–55 cm long, about half as wide, entire, coriaceous, glabrous above where slightly
marked by the impressed nerves and veins, these rather prominent beneath; inflo-
rescence terminal, laxly branched, the flowers crowded; calyx nearly globular,
strongly 10-ribbed, canescent-puberulent, truncate, 6–7(14) mm long, the teeth
minute, the exserted corolla tube with oblong rounded lobes, these 5–10 mm long,
usually about 3 mm wide; fruit fibrous, chartaceous, 5 mm long, about 3 mm thick,
falling within the persisting calyx tube and corolla. A distinctive feature of the plant
is its myrmecophily; the leafy twigs and frequently the axis of the inflorescence
develop as irregular swellings which serve as ant domatia. Small ants sometimes
totally destroy the leaves, cutting them into triangular pieces and storing them
symmetrically; each piece may be six times the size of the ant that carries it by the
shortest side, apparently like a sail (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Cordia lutea: Flowering branchlets many, canescent-lanate to puberulent including
the conspicuously ribbed calyces of the showy pale yellow flowers; petioles
1–2.5 cm long; leaves subrotund to broadly ovate-elliptic, mostly 4–5 cm wide
and little longer, sometimes much larger, weakly crenulate, early canescent short-
pilose beneath, harshly scabrous above; calyx soon obconic, about 1 cm long, teeth
subulate; corolla a clear light yellow, 3 cm long or longer, the throat dilated, the limb
6–8 lobed; filaments villous at base; fruit ovoid, white (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pav.) Oken 599
Fig. 1 Cordia lutea

(Boraginaceae), Trujillo, Peru.
Fig. 2 Cordia lutea

Fig. 3 Cordia lutea

Cordia alliodora: Colombia: The decoction of the leaves is used in Colombia as a

disinfectant and anti-inflammatory in cases of wounds or blows. In the form of a
poultice, the leaves are placed on the affected part (García Barriga 1975). Leaves and
fruits used to treat infections, promote sweating, and as stimulant (Bussmann et al.
en prep).
Ecuador: Burial of this plant detects ceramic burials. The plant is used to clean the
“bad air” (Tsa’chi-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Dried bark and stems are used for daño, fright/susto, and to dispel negative
energy from the house.
Cordia lutea: Ecuador: With the fruit, an expectorant syrup is prepared. The
flowers, in infusion, are used to treat cough (unspecified ethnic group – Esmeraldas,
Manabi, Guayas, El Oro). The fruit is used to treat bleeding ulcers. The leaves, in
infusion, are used to treat inflammation of the gum veins (Mestiza-Manabí). Fruit
juice is taken to cure ulcers. The infusion of the flower is used to stop the bleeding. It
is used to eliminate fungi (ringworm) (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas). The
flower is used to treat yellow fever. The decoction of the leaves is used to wash
wounds, as a disinfectant (unspecified ethnicity – Loja). The infusion or water
extracted from the flower is used to treat liver conditions, cough, and stomach pain
(Mestizo, unspecified ethnicity – Manabi). Crushed leaves, in infusion, are used to
treat headache and fever (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay). It is also used to treat
indeterminate conditions (unspecified ethnic group – El Oro) (de la Torre et al.
2008).
Peru: Flowers, fresh or dried, are used to treat liver, bladder, hepatitis, inflammation
of the kidneys, and prostate inflammation (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007,
2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010). Cordia lutea is very widely used in Northern
Peru and a common component of local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2009).
The species has antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2010, 2011a, b).
Local Food Uses
Cordia lutea: Ecuador: The fruit is edible (unspecified ethnic group – Loja) (de la
Torre et al. 2008).
Cordia alliodora: Ecuador: It has beekeeping use (unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la
Torre et al. 2008). Soft fibers are extracted from the bark (unspecified ethnicity – Other
(Western Region)). The wood is used in the manufacture of furniture, veneers, parquet,
rafts, canoes, boats, and in the construction of houses such as boards, beams, stringers,
pillars, walls, or floors (Tsa’chi-Pichincha; Afroecuatoriana-Esmeraldas; Cofán, Red-
wood, Siona-Sucumbíos; Kichwa of the East-Orellana, Pastaza, Sucumbíos; Wao-Napo;
Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pav.) Oken 601
Fig. 4 Cordia lutea

(Boraginaceae), fruits,
Trujillo, Peru. (Photo R.W.
Bussmann and N.Y.
Paniagua-Zambrana)
Shuar-Napo, Zamora Chinchipe; Mestiza-Manabí, Guayas, Loja, Morona Santiago;

unspecified ethnic group – Esmeraldas, Manabi, Guayas, El Oro, Bolívar, Loja, Napo,
Orellana). Cooked leaves are used for baths (Tsa’chi-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
The plant is planted in fences around farms and pastures; it is used to provide shade for
cattle (Tsa’chi-Pichincha; Mestiza-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Cordia lutea: Ecuador: The fruit is pig food (Mestiza-Manabí; unspecified ethnicity
– Manabí, Loja). It is food for cattle, goats, and birds (unspecified ethnic group –
Guayas, Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The stem is used to make looms, barrels, and
in the construction of poles, fences, boats, canoes, and rafts (Mestiza-Manabí;
unspecified ethnic group – Guayas). The resin of the fruit is used as glue and as a
hair gum (Mestiza-Manabí, Guayas, El Oro; unspecified ethnic group – Manabí,
Guayas, Loja). The leaves are used in bathrooms (unspecified ethnic group –
Guayas) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is used to reforest and as a living
fence (Mestiza, unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008) (Fig. 4).
References
Rev Peruana Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007b;3:37.
Peru – part II. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103.
Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of Northern Peru –
can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010;
9(4):742–53.
Coriandrum sativum L.
APIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Selinum coriandrum Krause
Local Names
Spanish: Cilantro, Culantro. English: Coriander
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Annual; entire plant glabrous; root thin, fusiform; stem erect, 20–70 cm high,
cylindrical, finely sulcate, branching above or from base; leaves pale green, the
radical early withering, long-petioled, entire, incised-dentate or 3-lobed or 3-partite
or pinnate, with rounded-cuneate, incised-dentate leaflets; lower cauline leaves
bipinnate, with few ovate pinnatifid leaflets usually with cuneate base; median and
upper cauline leaves sessile on sheaths with broadly scarious margin, bi- or tri-
pinnatisect into linear or subfiliform, usually entire, acute lobes. Umbels long-
pedunculate, of 3–5 glabrous rays; involucre or of 1 leaflet; involucres secund,
usually of 3 very narrow, filiform-subulate leaflets with tuft-like tip; calyx-teeth
triangular-lanceolate or linear, irregular, 2 outer much longer than the 3 inner; petals
white or reddish, the peripheral unpaired, petals 3–4 mm long, deeply 2-lobed, with
oblong-obovate lobes, the 2 adjacent petals asymmetrical, obliquely obcordate,
2-lobed, the anterior lobe much larger than the posterior, 2 remaining petals small,
symmetrical, obcordate; petals of remaining flowers faintly notched; fruit globose,
2–5 mm across, brown- or straw-yellow; styles elongate, diverging at acute angle,
2–3 times as long as conical stylopodium, with slightly thickened tip. June–July.
Ural, Caucasus. Cultivated, often as weed of gardens and crops, near dwellings and
roadsides (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7).
Fig. 1 Coriandrum sativum

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Coriandrum sativum L. 605

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
In Colombia, an infusion of Coriandrum sativum has been used against

intestinal gas and to relieve colic. Canker sores are cured by chewing a piece of
green plant and keeping it for a while in the mouth. Coriander juice is used to
cure duodenal ulcers (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga

(Apiaceae), garden, Svaneti,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The whole fresh or dried plant is used as a
sleeping aid (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a; de la Torre et al. 2008).
Coriander has antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2011a, b). In Pakistan,
coriander seeds are used to maintain blood pressure and also used as a carminative
(Sher et al. 2016).

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

(Apiaceae), drying for winter,
R.W. Bussmann and

(Apiaceae), dry seeds,
R.W. Bussmann and
Local Food Uses
The whole fresh Cilantro plant is used as a condiment and to flavor various culinary
recipes and sold in markets everywhere (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008, 2014, 2016).
Ecuador: The whole fresh or dried plant is used as a spice (Bussmann and Sharon
2006a, 2007a) (Figs. 8 and 9).
Peru: Fresh leaves are used for bad air (mal aire) that takes your sight (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010).
References
016-0110-2.
2014;12:237–313.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010;4(9):580–629.
Appl. 2008;6:351–61.
Sher H, Bussmann RW, Hart R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha,
Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol.
2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059.
Corryocactus brevistylus (K. Schum. ex
Vaupel) Britton & Rose
CACTACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Corryocactus brevistylus (K. Schum. ex Vaupel) Britton & Rose: Cereus

brevistylus K. Schum. ex Vaupel, Corryocactus krausii Backeb.
Local Names
Chile: Cardón, Cardón verde, Guacalla, Tacaysiña, Cactus, Fruits: Romba, Rumba,
Maksa, Konumla, Kontumila, Kontoksa, Kontuksa.
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Shrubby or often arborescent cactus, between 1.5 and 5 m high; trunk short and
thick, branched from the base. Ribs 6–9, triangular, rounded areolas, coffee-orange
the new and gray the old ones. Right spines, yellow to reddish, acicular; those of the
edge thin and short, between 0.3 and 3 cm long; the central ones between 4 and
10 cm long. Lateral flowers, diurnal, between 8 and 11 cm long; corolla very open,
golden yellow; floral tube densely covered with gray-green scales. Fruit: large berry,
between 7 and 10 cm long, round, olive green, with numerous brown seeds inside,
2000–3500 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017).
The juice of the fruit consumed in fasting is used for the treatment of gallbladder,
stomach pain, liver, kidney stones, and as a laxative (González and Molina 2017;
Local Food Uses
The fresh fruit is edible, and due to its acidic characteristics, some people consume it
with sugar (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
The wood is used for the elaboration of handicrafts, such as “palos de agua” a rattle
built with the wood of the stem, with the thorns turned inwards and filled with
pebbles or seeds that produce a harmonious sound, like the flow of water, when
turning the wood (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and
Castro 2003). Corryocactus melanotrichus is used in Bolivia to treat witchcraft and
bring good luck (Bussmann et al. 2016; Macía et al. 2005).
References
Corryocactus brevistylus (K. Schum. ex Vaupel) Britton & Rose 613

Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Cortaderia speciosa (Nees & Meyen) Stapf
POACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Cortaderia speciosa (Nees & Meyen) Stapf: Cortaderia atacamensis (Phil.) Pilg.,
Cortaderia quila (Nees & Meyen) Stapf, Cortaderia rudiuscula Stapf, Gynerium
argenteum var. arviflorum E. Desv., Gynerium argenteum var. strictum E. Desv.,
Gynerium atacamense Phil., Gynerium quila Nees & Meyen, Gynerium quila var.
pygmaeum Nees, Gynerium speciosum Nees & Meyen, Moorea quila (Molina)
Stapf, Moorea sopeciosa (Nees & Meyen) Stapf
Local Names
Chile: Cortadera
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Perennial herb, between 1.5 and 3 m tall. Leaves with open, hairy sheath; hairy
ligule; flat blade with sharp edges. Floriferous reeds very numerous in each plant,
that exceed somewhat the foliage, sometimes included in it. Panojas between
40 and 70 cm long, erect, fusiform, very compact, earthy. Spicules between
(3)4–6 flowers. Subgual glumes. Slogans trinerves gradually narrowing towards
the apex and ending in a short edge. Palea 1/2 the length of his motto;
lodges cuneate, shortly pauciciliated. Fruit: Caryopsis 1.5 mm long, elongated
fusiform, dark brown at maturity. Sea level to 4000 m (Gonzalez and
Molina 2017).
The toasted leaves with lemon and pisco are used to treat cough and cold, while the
toasted leaf with lemon and toasted chukikandia (Azorella atacamensis) are used for
the treatment of influenza. Formerly a tea was made with pisco or alcohol, which
served for childbirth. In addition, frictions are made with the ground and hot plant in
combination with chachakoma (Senecio nutans), and kopakopa (Artemisia copa) is
used as a paste to relieve muscular-skeletal pain of back and hip. The water in the
leaf is used to treat fever, aches, and colds. It is also used as purgative. The tender
root boiled with toasted sugar is a remedy for cold and fever. Roots and leaves are
used as baths to relieve cold, and flowers are used for cooling. The infusion of the
leaves with the roots of brama (Distichlis sp.) and burned sugar is used to treat lung
diseases such as tuberculosis. The aerial parts mixed with vulture meat are used to
relieve muscle aches (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán
and Castro 2003) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 1 Cortaderia speciosa

(Poaceae), San Pedro de
Atacama, Chile. (Photo Lucas
Burchard Señoret)
Cortaderia speciosa (Nees & Meyen) Stapf 617
Fig. 2 Cortaderia speciosa

(Poaceae), San Pedro de
Atacama, Chile. (Photo Lucas
Burchard Señoret)
The plant is used as forage. The stem or cane is used to make crafts, either to make
baskets, hats or tackle for donkeys. The stems were formerly used as building
material for roofs of houses and now for ramadas. The spikes or kuchucho (inflo-
rescences) sometimes stained are used as ornaments in vases or as an offering in the
cemetery (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Corynaea crassa Hook. f.
BALANOPHORACEAE
Synonyms
Corynaea crassa Hook. f.: Corynaea purdei Hook. f.; Corynaea shaerica Hook. f.;
Corynaea sprucei Eichler; Itoasia crassa (Hook. f.) Kuntze; Itoasia purdiei (Hook.
f.) Kuntze; Itoasia sphaerica (Hook. f.) Kuntze
Local Names
Peru: Huanarpo (hembra & macho)
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Corynaea crassa

(Balanophoraceae), San
Martin, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and
Corynaea crassa Hook. f. 621
Botany and Ecology
Parasite, rhizome broad, flattened, lobed, sometimes up to 50 cm long; stipes white,

2–2.5 cm high, 12 mm thick, bearing a subglobose or ovoid, bisexual flower body
about 3.5 cm thick, this at first white but soon covered with brown-red, hexagonal,
peltate scales; found on Cinchona roots (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Peru: Tuber/root is used to treat fertility, sexual potency, male impotence, elderly
men, and tension (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2014, 2015a, b; Bussmann and
Glenn 2010; Bussmann et al. 2010a). Sometimes the species is used as ingredient of
herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010b). Some antibacterial activity has been
reported (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010c, 2011a, b). The active ingredients are mostly
sisterols, which does explain the effect on sexual potency (Malca Garcia et al. 2015).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Northern-Peruvian medicinal plants – a low cost laboratory approach to assess biological
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
Fernandez F, Benito M. Minimum inhibitory concentration of medicinal plants used in Northern

Malca Garcia GR, Hennig L, Sieler J, Bussmann RW, Giannis A. Constituents of Corynaea crassa
Hook. f. (Balanophoraceae) “Peruvian Viagra”. Rev Bras. 2015;25(2):92–7.
Crescentia cujete L.
BIGNONIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Crescentia cujete L.: Crescentia acuminata Kunth; Crescentia angustifolia Willd.

ex. Seem.; Crescentia arborea Raf.; Crescentia cujete var. puberula Bureau &
K. Schum.; Crescentia cuneifolia Gardner; Crescentia fascicularis Miers; Crescentia
plectrantha Miers; Crescentia spathulata Miers
Local Names
Colombia: Totumo, Totumo mate, Mate, Poro, Poto, Palo totumas, Táparo, Mate,
Caabaza, Arbol de las calabazas, Palo de calabaza, Camasa, Tecomate, Calabazo,
Allita, Kalbas, Higüero, Güira, Camazo, Tápara, Calabash tree, Gourd; Ecuador:
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Kaapiwallu chi (Chafi’ki), Ba’ku (Tsafi’ki), Auka pillchi, Hatun pillchi, Kuya, Kuya
yura, Pillchi, Pillchi yura, Tuntuma, Uma (Kichwa), Ichoro’cho (A’ingae), Sa’sa,
Sa’sa sisuë (Pai coca), Oweta, Owewe (Wao tededo), Tsapa (Shuar chicham), Árbol
de calabaza, Bototo, Calabaza, Maraca, Mate, Puro, Totumo (Spanish), Tree cala-
bash (English), Pumuko (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru:
Higeron (Spanish); English: Canonball tree
Botany and Ecology
Leaves more or less oblanceolate, long-attenuate to base, rounded to shortly cuspi-

date, chartaceous, lustrous, glabrous, or pilose beneath on the nerves; calyx deeply
split; corolla usually yellowish or greenish-white with red-purple veins, 4–7 cm
long; disk thick, yellowish; fruit variable in shape and size, sometimes 30 cm long.
Widely cultivated and apparently naturalized (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4).
Fig. 1 Crescentia cujete

(Bignoniaceae), Guayaquil,
Ecuador. (Photo R.W.
Zambrana)
Crescentia cujete L. 625

Ecuador. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Ecuador. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

(Bignoniaceae), Moyobamba,
Colombia: The part of the totumo more used in popular medicine is the pulp of the
fruit. The pulp of the fruit is consumed for the treatment of respiratory conditions
such as asthma (in syrup), bronchitis, pneumonia, cold, cough, and to alleviate
gastrointestinal affections. Externally it is applied in plasters made with the fruit in
the treatment of dermatitis. The leaves and buds are prepared in the form of juice or
maceration as a topical remedy to relieve bleeding and also to facilitate the healing of
ulcers. The pulp of the fruit, in addition to being used in the treatment of asthma, is
used as a depurative of blood and to cure varicose veins (Díaz 2003; García Barriga
1975; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Leaves and leaf buds are used to treat hemorrhages, skin ulcers, and for breast care;
leaves and fruits are used to treat asthma, cough, and as bronchial dilator and
expectorant; fruits are used to treat bronchial diseases, fever, headache, respiratory
tract, sinusitis, sunstroke, varicose veins, and for blood cleansing (Bussmann et al.
2018).
Ecuador: The bark, in infusion, is used to induce abortion and as a tranquilizer
(Kichwa of the East-Napo). The fruit is used as a purgative. The sap of the fruit is
mixed with salt and taken to improve poor blood circulation. The leaves, in infusion,
are used to relieve body aches (Tsa’chi-Pichincha). The fruit is used to treat
indeterminate conditions (Sequoia-Succumbios). The fruit is used to treat bronchitis
and headache. The leaves, in infusion, are used to treat diarrhea (unspecified ethnic
group – Esmeraldas, Guayas, Los Ríos). The infusion of the cortex is used to expel
the aborted fetus naturally (Kichwa delOriente-Napo, Pastaza) (de la Torre et al.
2008). The peel of the fruit is used as a boat in which a lit candle is placed, and it is
released in the pools or rivers where an accident has occurred (unspecified ethnic
group – Esmeraldas, Guayas, Los Ríos) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Fresh latex
from leaf used for healing of belly button after birth (Bussmann and Sharon 2006,
2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010). The plants are rarely sold in markets in
Peru (Bussmann et al. 2007). Crescentia latex has antibacterial properties
(Bussmann et al. 2009, 2010, 2011a, b), which provides an explanation for its use.
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: With the tender fruit, chicha (local beer) is prepared that is drunk to
quench thirst (Wao-Napo) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
The plant is frequently used to make bowls and other containers (Figs. 5, 6 and 7).
Ecuador: The stem is timber and is used to make tool handles (handsaw, hammer,
etc.) (Mestiza, unspecified ethnic group – Guayas). The bark of the fruit is useful for
modeling clay and for making maracas, bases for dart and cotton holders, utensils
(spoons), ornaments with engravings, containers (pots, cups, bowls, piles) to pre-
serve food, to drink water, chicha or chucula or to store the curare (Chachi-
Esmeraldas; Mestiza-Guayas; Tsa’chi-Pichincha; Cofán, Secoya, Siona-Sucumbíos;
Kichwa of the East-Sucumbíos, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza; Wao, Shuar-Napo,

(Bignoniaceae), bowl, Alto
Ivon, Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and
Orellana; unspecified ethnic group – Esmeraldas, Guayas, Los Ríos, Bolívar, Cañar,
Azuay, Loja, Napo, Pastaza, Others (Andean Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The
plant is used as a living fence and as a soil stabilizer (Tsa’chi-Pichincha; unspecified
ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The shamans used the fruit to make drums
in divination ceremonies (Shuar-Others (Ecuador)).
References
Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú; 2007. ISBN 978-0-
9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of Northern Peru – can
traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010;9(4):742–53.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
boldt, Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial; 2003. 111 pp.
Patiño VM. Plantas cultivadas y animales domésticos en América equinoccial II: plantas
Croton draconoides Müll. Arg.
Croton lechleri Müll. Arg.
EUPHORBIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Croton lechleri Müll. Arg.: Croton draco var. cordatus Müll. Arg.
Local Names
Croton lechleri: Bolivia: Sangre de drago (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2016);

Colombia: Drago, Palo de grado, Sangre de drago, Sangre de dragón, Sangre de
grado, Sangue de agua; Ecuador: Sangre de drago (Spanish); Tulan wiki, Tulan
yura, Yawar kaspi, Yawar wiki, Yawar wiki panka (Kichwa), Sacha tucufais
(Kichwa-unspecified), Masujin (A’ingae), Ao yëhui (Pai coca), Koñiwe, Koyibe
(Wao tededo), Urúchmas (Shuar chicham), Uruch numi (Achuar chicham), Hoja
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

de sangre, Resina de sangre, Sangre de drago (Spanish), Sulsul, Tupic (unspecified

language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Sangre de grado (Spanish); English:
Dragons blood tree.
Croton wagneri: Ecuador: Mosquera, Mosquero, Purga (Spanish) (de la Torre et al.
2008)
Botany and Ecology
Croton draconoides: Branches and branchlets covered with depressed stellate tri-
chomes or these nearly simple; stipules lanceolate-subulate, elongate, entire; petioles
subequaling the broadly cordate-ovate acuminate leaves, these commonly 10–15 cm
long, 7–11 cm wide, 5–7-plinerved, patellate-glandular at base, membranous, the
younger depressed stellulate becoming puncticulate above, cinereous beneath; sec-
ondary nerves about 12 pairs; racemes very long, the bracts all fasciculately flow-
ered; female calyx segments ovate; stamens 15–18, the filaments sparsely pubescent
below; ovary stellate-tomentulose; styles biparted, slender (Macbride and
Croton lechleri: Comparable to and maybe not distinct from C. draconoides;
stipules scarcely 2 mm long, rigid, early dentiform, sublanceolate but neither
subulate nor setaceous; petioles shorter than the leaves, these 12–20 cm long,
5–14 cm wide, the younger more or less vividly ferrugineous-tomentose both sides
becoming glabrescent and stellate-puberulent; racemes lax, more than 30 cm long;
stamens about 15, filaments pilose below; capsules 3 mm long, 4.5 mm broad,
depressed globose, tridymous. The specific status of this and a number of forms
proposed as distinct remains to be proved (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).
Croton draconoides/Croton lechleri: In traditional medicine, Croton latex is used

internally to treat cancer, constipation, diabetes, digestive problems, dysentery,
fever, inflammations, and malaria, and sometimes as weight loss supplement. The
latex is also applied externally to wounds, herpes sores, and skin lesions.
Croton lechleri: Bolivia: Fresh latex and bark are used to treat gastritis/ulcers,
cancer, hemorrhage, and wound healing (Bussmann et al. 2016). Colombia: The
latex exuded from the plant is used in the treatment of gastrointestinal problems, in
diarrhea, stomach ulcers, liver ailments, colds, flu, itchy skin, excessive vaginal
discharge, hemorrhoids, rheumatism, the malaria, and the affections of the skin.
Latex is also used as an analgesic, vaginal antiseptic, and for wound care (Díaz 2003;
Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Exudate and leaves are
used to treat heartburn, hemorrhage, healing, skin ulcers and as tonic, and fungicide.
Ecuador: Fresh latex is used to treat kidney infections (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann
and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Stem latex is used as a healing agent to treat wounds and
cuts (Cofán, Secoya, Siona-Sucumbíos; Kichwa del Oriente-Sucumbíos, Napo,
Croton draconoides Müll. Arg. . . . 633
Fig. 1 Croton lechleri

(Euphorbiaceae),
Moyobamba, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Croton
sp. (Euphorbiaceae), Pusac,
Fig. 3 Croton
Zamora Chinchipe; Shuar-Napo, Orellana; Achuar-Pastaza; Mestizo-Morona Santi-

ago; unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura, Tungurahua, Sucumbíos, Napo, Pastaza,
Morona Santiago, Zamora Chinchipe). The stem latex is applied as a wound healing
agent, to remove pimples from the tongue, and heal injured gums (Wao-Napo,
Fig. 4 Croton
Fig. 5 Croton
Fig. 6 Croton
Fig. 7 Croton
Fig. 8 Croton
Orellana). Latex is used as an antiparasitic and antiseptic agent (Siona-Sucumbíos;

unspecified ethnic group – Zamora Chinchipe). Latex is used as a panacea because of
its colagogue action (improves bile secretion) and to treat dermatitis, pimples
(applied directly to the skin), gastric ulcers (taken diluted in water), toothache
(apply with cotton), and gingivitis (Kichwa from the East-Sucumbíos, Napo,
Orellana). Taspine is extracted from the latex, which has anti-inflammatory proper-
ties and can be used to treat rheumatism (unspecified ethnic group – Napo, Pastaza).
The latex is used to treat gastritis, ulcers, and inflammations of the intestine
(Sequoia-Succumbios). Latex is used to treat skin spots, among other conditions

(unspecified ethnicity – Tungurahua). Latex is used to treat diseased teeth and stop
bleeding (unspecified ethnic group – Napo). Latex is used to prevent infections and
also to treat menstruation conditions; it is applied directly to the skin to treat pimples;
dissolved in water or milk, it is drunk to relieve the indisposition caused by hepatitis
and to treat ulcers (Shuar-Napo, Orellana, Pastaza). The ground leaves are used to
eliminate the lice of the hens (Kichwa of the East-Orellana). It is used to treat
“holanda” (disease caused by a virus) (Kichwa from the East-Napo, Orellana). It is
used to cure throat infections (unspecified ethnicity – Pastaza) (de la Torre et al.
2008). Latex is used as an invigorator (unspecified ethnic group – Napo) (de la Torre
et al. 2008).
Peru: Fresh latex is used to treat internal ulcers, internal bleeding, gastritis, blood
circulation, ulcers, scars from insect bites, and after internal surgery (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2014, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010). Sangre de Drago
is one of the ten most widely sold medicinal plants in Peru and Bolivia (Bussmann
et al. 2007, 2016; Bussmann and Sharon 2009, 2010). The plant has proven
antibacterial activity (Bussmann and Glenn 2011; Bussmann et al. 2011). The
latex is often added to emolientes (Bussmann et al. 2015).
Croton wagneri: Ecuador: Fresh leaves are used to treat stomach pain, pneumonia,
rheumatism, and for tooth extraction. The stem latex is applied to remove warts and
to treat wounds, sores, and cancerous ulcers (Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic-
ity – Imbabura, Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Croton lechleri: Ecuador: The wood is used to make drawers and for formwork,
plywood, and construction finishes (Shuar-Napo; Achuar-Pastaza; unspecified eth-
nicity – Tungurahua, Zamora Chinchipe) (from de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is
used as a living fence, as a mother plant for regeneration and to reforest wells
(Mestiza-Guayas; unspecified ethnicity – Pastaza) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
9789962-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Markets, Healers, Vendors, Collectors, the sustainability of medicinal
plant use in Northern Peru. Mt Res Dev. 2009;29(2):128–34.
traditional plant use in Northern Peru. In: Albuquerque UP, Hanazaki N, editors. Recent
2010. p. 184–207. 288 p.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
in Northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;137:121–40.
2015;69:83–8.
Cryptantha hispida (Phil.) Reiche
BORAGINACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Eritrichium hispidum Phil.
Local Names
Chile: Itallapa, Illapa
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Cryptantha diffusa

(Boraginaceae), Ayquina,
Señoret)
Botany and Ecology
Annual sparsely branched 6–20 cm tall clearly setoso-ruffled. Leaves linear 10–40 mm
long, 2.3 mm wide. Capituliformes a dense array of terminal hair, the flowers and crops,
sessile; sepal, 2700–3800 m above sea level (Philippi 1860) (Fig. 1).
The infusion of the aerial parts is used as a stimulant to treat decay and sleep
(Philippi 1860; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
The plant is used as forage (Philippi 1860; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and
Castro 2003).
References
Atacamense. Halle: Sumptibus E. Anton; 1860.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Cucumis dipsaceus Ehrenb. ex Spach
CUCURBITACEAE
Synonyms
Cucumis dipsaceus Ehrenb. ex Spach: Cucumis ambigua Fenl ex Hook. f.;

Cucumis bardana Fenzl ex Naudin; Cucumis dasycarpa Hochst. ex A. Rich.
Local Names
Ecuador: Melón de puerco (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Jaboncillo de
campo, Jaboncillo del campo, Jaboncillo, Patito de campo
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Cucumis dipsaceus

(Cucurbitaceae), Pusac, Peru.
Botany and Ecology
Plants annual, prostrate, covered with an abundant pubescence of rather thick, rough
hairs; leaves long-petiolate, the blades semi-orbicular or reniform-cordate, rounded
at the apex, 5-nerved, usually simple but sometimes rather deeply lobate, 5–10 cm
long and wide; corolla of the staminate flower yellow, villous, 8–9 mm long; fruit
pale yellowish, ovoid-cylindric, 3–5 cm long, covered with soft spines 5–7 mm long
(Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).
Peru: Fruits, fresh, are used for dandruff, adding shine and beauty to hair, hair loss
(prevention), and for stopping baby from breastfeeding (Bussmann and Sharon
2006, 2007, 2015a, b). It is also used for reproductive problems (Bussmann and
Glenn 2010).
Peru: Fruits, fresh, are used for dandruff, adding shine and beauty to hair, hair loss
(prevention), and for stopping baby from breastfeeding (Bussmann and Sharon
2006, 2007, 2015a, b).
References
Cucumis dipsaceus Ehrenb. ex Spach 643
9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Cucumis sativus L.
CUCURBITACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Cucumis sativus L.: Cucumis esculentus Salisb.; Cucumis hardwickii Royle; Cucumis
muricatus Willd.; Cucumis rumphii Hassk.; Cucumis sativus fo. albus Hiroë; Cucumis
sativus fo. albus Pangalo; Cucumis sativus fo. australis Kitam.; Cucumis sativus
fo. Kitam.; Cucumis sativus fo. brunnescens Gabeav; Cucumis sativus fo. pallescens
Gabeav.; Cucumis sativus fo. tuberculatus Hiroë; Cucumis sativus fo. typicus Gabaeev;
Cucumis sativus sativus grex viridis (Ser.) Alef.; Cucumis sativus subsp. agrestis
Gabaev; Cucumis sativus subsp. gracilior Gabaev; Cucumis sativus subsp. rigidus
Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. albus Ser.; Cucumis sativus var. anatolicus Gabaev;
Cucumis sativus var. anglicus L.H. Bailey; Cucumis sativus var. arakis Forssk.;
Cucumis sativus var. asiaticus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. battich-djebbal Forssk.;
Cucumis sativus var. brullos Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. chatte Forssk.; Cucumis
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

sativus var. cilicicus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. curtus Alef.; Cucumis sativus var.
donii Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. ennemis Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. europaeus
Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. excellens Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. fakus Forssk.;
Cucumis sativus var. falcatus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. fastigatus Ser.; Cucumis
sativus var. flavus Ser.; Cucumis sativus var. flexuosus Alef.; Cucumis sativus var.
gracilior Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. grossularioudes Tkachenko; Cucumis sativus
var. hardwickii (Royle) Gabaev.; Cucumis sativus var. hollandicus Alef.; Cucumis
sativus var. indo-europaeus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. irano-turanicus Gabaev;
Cucumis sativus var. izmir Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. longus Harz; Cucumis sativus
var. opheocarpus Harz; Cucumis sativus var. orasiaticus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus
var. pallidus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. praecox Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. rossicus
Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. schemmam Forssk.; Cucumis sativus var. serotinus
Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. setosus Alef.; Cucumis sativus var. sikkimensis Hook. f.;
Cucumis sativus var. sikkimiae Harz; Cucumis sativus var. smilli Forssk.; Cucumis
sativus var. squamosus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. destudaceus Gabaev;
Cucumis sativus var. tuberculatus Gabaev; Cucumis sativus var. turcicus Alef; Cucumis
sativus var. variegatus Ser.; Cucumis sativus var. viridis Ser.; Cucumis sativus var.
vulgaris Alef; Cucumis sativus var. xishuangbannensis Qi Chuzhang & Yuan
Zhenzhen; Cucumis setosus Cogn.; Cucumis sphaeroarpus Gabaev; Cucumis vilorrinii
Sprenger
Local Names
Colombia: Cohombro, Pepino, Pepino cohombro; Ecuador: Pepino europeo (Span-

ish), Cahombro (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Pepinillo
(Spanish).
English: Cucumber
Botany and Ecology
Annual; stems prostrate or climbing by simple tendrils, bristly haired, faceted,

0.5–4 m; leaves on thickened stiff-haired petioles, cordate-ovate, 3–5-lobed
or pentagonal, lobes nearly equal, acute, crenate or dentate, bristly haired
above and beneath, (8)12–18(20) cm across; corolla vitelline yellow, 2.5–4 cm
across, sometimes larger; staminate flowers with densely pubescent (villous)
receptacle; sepals nearly as long as receptacle; corolla lobes oblong-lanceolate,
acute; ovary often cylindrical or fusiform, 2 cm long when flower dehiscing,
tuberculate, with black, white or rufous prickles; fruit usually cylindrical or -
short-cylindrical, sometimes angular or rounded, dark or yellow-green, smooth
or tuberculate, sometimes with prickles, ripe fruit brown or cinnamon-brown,
with netted surface; seeds numerous, oblong, 8–14 mm long. Widely cultivated
(Fig. 1).
Cucumis sativus L. 647
Fig. 1 Cucumis sativus

(Cucurbitaceae), garden,
Cappadocia, Turkey. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Cucumis sativus

(Cucurbitaceae), pickled,
R.W. Bussmann and
Colombia: Cucumber juice sweetened with sugar is used to treat throat diseases
such as hoarseness and angina. This juice is complemented with poultices made
with cucumber pulp and placed on the neck. Cucumber juice is considered a good
tonic for the skin of the face, removes stains, and helps clear up freckles. The salads
prepared with cucumber cure the discomforts and pains of stomach and intestines
(Arias Alzate 1962; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Pérez Arbeláez
1996). Peru: The whole fresh fruit is used to burn fat, lose weight, and to treat
inflammation of the liver, indigestion, heart burn, and intestinal acidity (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b).
Local Food Uses
Cucumber is widely used as food, especially in salads. Cucumber is considered good

food, with refreshing effects, laxatives, and mineral supplier to the body. The species
is an especially vital food ingredient in the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016).
Ecuador: The fruit is edible (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar) (from de la
Torre et al. 2008) (Fig. 2).
References
9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
2014;12:237–313.
016-0110-2.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
Cucurbita maxima Duchesne
Cucurbita moschata Duchesne
CUCURBITACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Cucurbita maxima Duchesne: Cucurbita andreana Naudin; Cucurbita pepo var.

maxima (Duchesne) Delile
Cucurbita moschata Duchesne: Cucurbita moschata Duchesne ex Poir.; Cucurbita
pepo var. moschata (Duchesne) Duchesne
Local Names
Cucurbita maxima: Bolivia: Zapallo (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2016); Colombia:

Ahuyama, Auyama, Huyama, Uyama, Wuir, Zapallo; Ecuador: Zapallo, Zapallo
para chupo (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Zapallo (Spanish)
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Cucurbita moschata: Colombia: Auyama, Churí, Gallina, Jirornon, Jiroumou,

Joumou, Kalawasu, Lakayote, Uyama, Zapallo, Zapayo; Ecuador: Mama, Sambo,
Yule, Zapallo, Zapotillo (Spanish), Chirija (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al.
2008); Peru: Zapallo (Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Cucurbita maxima: Annual; stems cylindrical, prostrate, 4–5 m long, like leaves
finely pubescent; leaves more or less reniform, serrate-dentate, 5-lobed, with short
obtuse rounded lobes, sometimes not lobed, only undulantly notched at margin,
deeply notched at base, petioled, covered with stiff hairs. Staminate flowers on
cylindrical peduncles, with cup-shaped or obconoid receptacle and linear or filiform
sepals; corolla campanulate, intensively yellow, its lobes wide, recurved; column of
anthers conoid, longer than filaments; peduncles of pistillate flowers thickened,
fleshy, cylindrical or clavate; fruit usually globosely flattened, placentas spongy,
not easily separating; seeds ovoid, large, smooth, white or yellowish; pedicels when
ripe cylindrical (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Cucurbita moschata: Annual; stems 4–5 m long, usually prostrate, obtusely faceted,
finely pubescent, often black- spotted at nodes; leaves rounded-reniform, crenate-
dentate, 5–7-lobed, intensively green, often with white spots and pendent margins,
lobes acute, sometimes entire, velutinous, with incisions between them. Staminate
flowers on more or less terete peduncles with flat receptacle and linear sepals, often
broadened at apex; corolla 7–10 cm across, pale yellow, campanulate, its lobes
acuminate, recurved; peduncles of pistillate flowers pentahedral, coarse, broadened
at apex; fruiting pedicels faceted; fruit variously colored, usually cylindrical,
constricted at middle, with easily separating placentas; seeds dingy white, distinctly
bordered. Described from Armenia.
Cucurbita maxima: Bolivia: In Bolivia, the plant is used as a laxative for digestive
system problems (Bussmann et al. 2016). Colombia: Roasted seeds are used against
intestinal worms (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975;
Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Fruits are used to treat arthritis, constipation, and
as brain tonic; leaves and tendrils are used for liver cleaning; seeds are used as
anthelmintic (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The fruit is used to treat fever,
tumors, hemorrhoids, ulcers, arthritis, rheumatism, and dermatological conditions
of the heart, liver, nerves, lungs, angina (tonsils), spleen, and bladder (Mestiza-
Pichincha). The flower, heated with guinea pig butter (Cavia porcellus), treats the
“born” (abscesses with pus) and the navel of newborns (applied by covering with
black cloth). The seeds are used to accelerate labor contractions; they are boiled
together with capulí flower (Prunus serotina), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), mamey
seeds (Pouteria sp.), and fish bones (Kichwa de la Sierra-Tungurahua). The
Cucurbita maxima Duchesne . . . 651
Fig. 1 Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae), Bragança, Portugal. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Cucurbita pepo

(Cucurbitaceae), Bragança,
Portugal. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
macerated seeds are used to treat scabies and “rainbows” (sic) (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Imbabura). The seeds, prepared as raw horchata, have vermifuge properties
(Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar). Stem decoction is used
as an abortifacient (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru:
Flowers and joints of stems, fresh or dried, are used for preventing miscarriages,
inflammation (general), and anxiety (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b).
Pumpkins are one of the most widely used medicinal plants in Northern Peru and are
very widely sold (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008a). Antibacterial activity has been
shown (Bussmann et al. 2008a, 2009). Cucurbita is used to prevent miscarriages

Portugal. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Portugal. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
(Bussmann and Glenn 2010a), to lower fevers (Bussmann et al. 2009), and is often
used in mixture with other species (Bussmann et al. 2010).
Cucurbita moschata: In Colombia, the plant is used as a promoter of milk produc-
tion in lactating women and against intestinal worms. In general, the uses listed
under C. maxima also apply to C. moschata. (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño
2011; García Barriga 1975; Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The seeds

(Cucurbitaceae), Guria,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
are used to eliminate intestinal parasites (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas) (de la
Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Flowers and joints of stems, fresh or dried, are used for
preventing miscarriages, inflammation (general), and anxiety (Bussmann and Sharon
2006, 2007, 2015a, b). Pumpkins are one of the most widely used medicinal plants in
Northern Peru and are very widely sold (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008a). Antibacterial
activity has been shown (Bussmann et al. 2008a, b, 2009). Cucurbita is used to
prevent miscarriages (Bussmann and Glenn 2010a), to lower fevers (Bussmann et al.
2009; Bussmann and Glenn 2010b), and is often used in mixture with other species
(Bussmann et al. 2010). It is also used as anthelminthic and against intestinal
parasites (Monigatti et al. 2013).
Local Food Uses
Cucurbita maxima: The fruit is consumed in Colombia as food and is considered

very nutritious (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975;
Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The fruit is edible, and it is used to
prepare sweets and salt washes (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Manabí,
Pichincha, Azuay, Cañar; Shuar-Pastaza). The seeds are edible, and they are used
to prepare sauces (unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha, Azuay, Cañar). The fruit is
used as a condiment (unspecified ethnic group – Other (Costa and Sierra Region)).
Fig. 6 Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae), Tbilisi market, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
The leaves are used as animal fodder (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha) (de la Torre
et al. 2008) (Fig. 6).
Cucurbita mochata: Ecuador: The fruit is edible, and it is used to prepare soups,
cakes, sweets, and preserves (Shuar-Orellana, Pastaza, Morona Santiago;
unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Others (Costa Region, Andean Region, tropical
and subtropical region of Ecuador)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Cucurbita moschata: Ecuador: The fruit is used as an animal feed (unspecified

ethnicity – Manabí). The leaves are used to wrap meat and vegetables that are cooked
on fire (Shuar-Pastaza) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Cooling the heat – traditional remedies for malaria and fever in Northern
Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2010b;8:125–34.
9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):43. https://doi.org/10.
1186/s13002-018-0241-8
Patiño VM. Plantas cultivadas y animales domésticos en América equinoccial II: plantas
Cumulopuntia sphaerica (C.F. Först.)
E.F. Anderson
CACTACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Cumulopuntia sphaerica (C.F. Först.) E.F. Anderson: Cumulopuntia berteri

(Colla) F. Ritter, Opuntia leucophaea Phil., Opuntia sphaerica C.F. Först.,
Tephrocactus dimorphus (C.F. Först.) Backeb., Tephrocactus sphaericus (Foerster)
Backeb.
Local Names
Chile: Jalajala, Espina, Mestizo, Quisco, Espina del suri, Tuna del campo
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Cumulopuntia boliviana (Cactaceae), Inacaliri, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)
Botany and Ecology
Cactus growing in loose cushions, between 10 and 20 cm high, with lateral branches,
easily separable from the mother plant; spherical or elongated stems, variable in size,
gray-greenish or somewhat blue. Missing ribs. Areolas with white felt, very small
and deciduous leaves, bundles of gloquidia and 5–12 acicular spines, straight,
divergent, long also very changeable. Flowers lateral or apical, golden yellow to
orange, between 3 and 4 cm long. Fruit: relatively dry, globose, more or less thorny,
with many small seeds between 3.5 and 4 mm long, subglobose, and smooth. Sea
level to 3500 m (González and Molina 2017) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Local Food Uses
The fresh fruits are edible and sweet tasting (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez
Cumulopuntia sphaerica (C.F. Först.) E.F. Anderson 659
Fig. 2 Cumulopuntia
boliviana (Cactaceae),
Tocone, Chile. (Photo Lucas
Burchard Señoret)
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Cuphea carthagenensis (Jacq.) J.F. Macbr.
Cuphea ciliata Ruiz & Pav.
Cuphea racemosa (L. f.) Spreng.
Cuphea strigulosa Kunth
LYTHRACEAE
Synonyms
Cuphea carthagenensis (Jacq.) J.F. Macbr.: Balsamo pinto Vand.; Cuphea

balsamona Cham. & Schltdl.; Cuphea divaricata Pohl ex Koehne; Cuphea elliptica
Koehne; Cuphea peplioides Martel ex Koehne; Cuphea pinto Koehne; Lythrum
carthagenense Jacq.; Parsonsia balsamona (Cham. & Schltdl.) Standl.; Parsonsia
pinto (Vand.) A. Heller
Cuphea ciliata Ruiz & Pav.: Cuphea loxensis Kunth; Cuphea microphylla Kunth;
Cuphea serpyllifolia Kunth; Cuphea serpyllifolia var. tachirensis Steyerm.
Cuphea racemosa (L. f.) Spreng.: Cuphea commersoniana (A. St.-Hil.) Koehne;
Cuphea densiflora Koehne; Cuphea fruticosa Spreng.; Cuphea longiflora Koehne;
Cuphea obtusifolia Koehne ex Bacig.; Cuphea origanifolia Cham. & Schltdl.;
Cuphea racemosa var. discolor Lourteig; Cuphea racemosa var. palustris Lourteig;
Cuphea spicata Cav.; Lythrum roseum L. f.; Parsonsia racemosa (L. f.) Standl.
Cuphea strigulosa Kunth: Cuphea strigulosa subsp. nitens Koehne; Cuphea
strigulosa subsp. opaca Koehne
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Local Names
English: Cuphea carthagenensis/Cuphea racemosa/Cuphea strigulosa: Lancetilla,

Sanguinaria, Hierba del Toro
Botany and Ecology
Cuphea carthagenensis: Scabrous-leaved annual or half-shrub, the stems sparsely

hispid and minutely strigillose, the former trichomes dark-colored and more or less
glandular; leaves shortly petioled, 3–3.5 cm long, sometimes smaller, usually atten-
uate at base, obovate to lanceolate-oblong, acute, more or less scabrous or early
somewhat strigose, rarely glabrous; pedicels scarcely 1 mm long, bracteolate api-
cally; calyx 4.5–6 mm long, sparsely hirsute; petals rose-violet or purple; stamens
11, shorter than the tube, the ventral 9 unequal; disk small, plane above, semiglobose
beneath; style glabrous, always included; ovules 4–8; seeds smooth, narrowly
winged (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Cuphea ciliata: Subdecumbent or sprawling shrub resembling vegetatively
C. antisyphilitica and C. gracilis but usually minutely viscid-hirtellous and with
fruiting pedicels mostly 5 mm long or longer; leaves subsessile, oblong to linear-
lanceolate, 5–13(16) mm long, 1.5–5 mm broad, often glandular-ciliate and viscid-
puberulent or glabrous, rigid-coriaceous; pedicels 3–9 mm long, bracteolate apically;
calyx 6–8 mm long, dark violet, densely hirtellous or viscid-hispidulous; petals deep
purple or violet; disk horizontal, broader than ovary, 3-lobed; style glabrous or
slightly villous above, always included; ovules 8–10. The 11 stamens are shorter
than the tube. Often common on grassy or partly shrubby slopes (Macbride and
Cuphea racemosa: A slender herbaceous or suffrutescent viscid-hirsute species
with ovate-elliptic leaves, these usually 2–5 cm long, 1–3.5 cm broad, acute at each
Fig. 1 Cuphea
antisyphilitica (Lythraceae),
Pusac, Peru (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Cuphea carthagenensis (Jacq.) J.F. Macbr. . . . 663
Fig. 2 Cuphea
Pusac, Peru (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 3 Cuphea
Pusac, Peru (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
end, glabrous or nearly so except for the scabrous margins; flowers in elongate
racemes, on slender pedicels 3–6 mm long, the pink petals about half as long as the
usually glandular hirtellous calyx, this 5.5–10 mm long; pedicels usually with a
roundish bract about 1.5 mm long at base; disk horizontal, ovate or narrowly
oblong; style villous, finally exserted (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 4, 5, and 6).
Cuphea strigulosa: A small shrub with medium-sized scabrous leaves (1)2–3
(4) cm long and axillary subsessile pink flowers; stems usually more or less hirsute;
leaves somewhat petiolate; pedicels 1–2 mm long, bracteolate toward the tip; calyx
6–8 mm long, strigillose or very shortly hirtellous and hispidulous, villous within
below the stamens, the oblong roseate or violet petals half as long; infrastaminal
vesicles none; stamens usually shorter than the tube; disk plane above, semiglobose
beneath; ovules 6–8( 12); seeds margined. In var. sinclairii Koehne, pedicels
2.5–4 mm. Closely related to C. carthagenensis (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
Fig. 4 Cuphea racemosa

(Lythraceae), Pusac, Peru

Cuphea loxensis is used in Ecuador to treat leucorrhea (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann
Cuphea strigulosa is used in Peru to improve blood circulation, fever, blood
purification, intestinal infections, heart, nervous system, liver, colics, gas, diarrhea,
stomach inflammations, kidney problems, anemia, and to strengthen the body
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b,
Cuphea carthagenensis (Jacq.) J.F. Macbr. . . . 665

2011). Cuphea species are widely sold (Bussmann et al. 2007; 2009). The species
has limited antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2008a, b, 2010a, b, 2011a, b)
and is normally used in preparations together with other herbs (Bussmann et al.
2010c).
Cuphea racemosa is used in Ecuador to treat freight/susto (Béjar et al. 2002;

Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b).
Cuphea strigulosa is used in Peru for spiritual flowering, for good luck, in seguros
(protective mixtures), and for mal aire/bad air (Bussmann et al. 2010d).
References
9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Barocio Y, Díaz PD, Sharon D. Peruvian Plants Canchalagua (Schkuhria pinnata
2008b;15(1):149–52.
can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med.
2010a;9(4):742–53.
medicine in Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010c;6:10.
Pharmacol. 2010d;4(9):580–629.
Cupressus lusitanica Mill.
Cupressus sargentii Jeps.
CUPRESSACEAE
Synonyms
Cupressus lusitanica Mill.: Callitropsis lusitanica (Mill.) D.P. Little; Cupressus

benthamii Endl.; Cupressus benthamii var. knightiana (Perry ex Gordon) Mast.;
Cupressus benthamii var. lindleyi (Klotzsch ex Endl.) Mast.; Cupressus glauca
Lam.; Cupressus knightiana Perry ex Gordon; Cupressus lindleyi Klotzsch ex
Endl.; Cupressus lindleyi var. hondurensis (Silba) Silba; Cupressus lusitanica var.
benthamii (Endl.) Carrière; Cupressus lusitanica var. hondurensis Silba; Cupressus
lusitanica var. knightiana Rehder; Cupressus lusitanica var. lindleyi Klotzsch ex
Endl.) Franco; Hesperocyparis lusitanica (Mill.) Bartel
Cupressus sargentii Jeps.: Callitropsis sargentii (Jeps.) D.P. Little; Cupressus
goveniana Gordon; Cupressus sargentii var. duttonii Jeps.; Neocupressus sargentii
(Jeps.) de Laub.
Local Names
Cupressus lusitanica: Spanish: Ciprés; English: Cypress, Mexican cypress

Cupressus sargentii: Bolivia: Pino (Spanish)
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Cupressus lusitanica: Evergreen tree, up to 35 m high, with a dense, conical crown.

Branches spread out widely but terminate in pendulous branchlets. Trunk short,
70 cm in diameter. Bark reddish-brown, exfoliating in long, narrow strips, eventually
becoming roughened by the development of many short cracks. Branchlets covered
with small, decussate, adpressed, acute, sessile, scale leaves with flexed tips. The
distinctly bluish-green foliage is ovate, closely pressed, usually with long, pointed
apex. Male flowers small, oblong or cylindrical; female subglobose, very small,
composed of 6–14 fertile decussate scales with several ovules each. Cones ellipsoid;
bluish-green when young turning reddish-brown when mature; 13–25 mm in diam-
eter; composed of 6–12 woody, shield-like scales, each bearing 8–10 seeds; male
cones appear to be fat tips to branchlets and produce clouds of yellow pollen; female
cones rounded, scales with central pointed projections. Seeds brown, with resin
glands, up to 4 mm long, with a narrow wing (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Cupressus sargentii: Trees up to 25 m tall but often shrubby and less than 10 m;
crown broader than tall or columnar, dense or open. Bark rough, furrowed, fibrous.
Branchlets decussate, (1.5)2–2.5 mm in diameter. Leaves usually with inconspicu-
ous, shallow, pitlike, abaxial gland that usually does not produce drop of resin, often
glaucous. Pollen cones mostly 3–4 2 mm; pollen sacs 3–4. Seed cones usually
globose, mostly 2–2.5 cm, brown or gray, not glaucous; scales mostly 3–4 pairs, with
scattered resin blisters, umbos inconspicuous or to 4 mm. Seeds 4–6 mm, dark
brown, faintly to prominently glaucous (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Cupressus sargentii: Bolivia: Fresh leaves are used to treat asthma, cough, and cold
(Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Macía et al. 2005). Peru: It
is used to treat vaginal and other hemorrhages, acne, hair loss (Bussmann and Sharon
Fig. 1 Cupressus
sp. (Cupressaceae), Tbilisi,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Cupressus lusitanica Mill. . . 669
Fig. 2 Cupressus
sp. (Cupressaceae), Tbilisi,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2007), and reproductive issues (Bussmann
and Glenn 2010; Bussmann et al. 2011a, b); the species also shows some anti-
bacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008).
References
9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.

Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Cydonia oblonga Mill.
ROSACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Cydonia oblonga Mill.: Cydonia vulgaris Pers.; Pyrus cydonia L.
Local Names
Colombia: Membrillo (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Membrillo

(spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Membrillo (Spanish); English: Quince
Botany and Ecology
Small tree or shrub 1.5–5 m high, with thin, scaling bark; shoots lanate-tomentose
when young, later glabrous; leaves ovate or oval, less often orbicular, entire, acute or
obtuse, mucronulate, rounded at base or slightly cordate, the young leaves
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

arachnoid-tomentose, glabrous when fully developed, and dark green above, grayish
tomentose below, to 10(12) cm long, 7.5 cm broad; stipules glandular-dentate;
flowers pale pink, to 5 mm in diameter, short-pediceled; pedicels, receptacle, and
outside of sepals tomentose-pubescent; receptacle ovate; sepals oval, glandular-
serrate; stamens densely lanate at base and tightly constricted by projections of
perigynous disk; fruits initially tomentose, glabrous at maturity, lemon-colored or
dark yellow, sometimes reddening laterally, mostly somewhat ribbed, globose
(f. maliformis Kirchn.) or pyriform (f. pyriformis Kirchn.), in wild quince
2.5–3.5 cm long and weighing up to 60–100 g; flesh with numerous grit cells, not
very succulent, astringent, but very aromatic. Flowering May, fruiting September.
Caucasus and Middle Asia, in forests, shrublands, along the shores of overgrown
lakes, in the lower and mid-mountain belts, and widely cultivated (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Fig. 1 Cydonia oblonga

(Rosaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia.

Cydonia oblonga Mill. 673

Colombia: The fruit is used as a healing, anti-inflammatory, and anti-hemorrhagic in

the form of juice and syrup. It also cures diarrhea and dysentery and fortifies the
digestive system. A decoction fo the seeds is used in the diseases of the chest and as
anti-inflammatory for the eyes; it also alleviates the cracks in the lips, the discomfort
of the chest, and the lesions of the erysipelas and relieves inflamed hemorrhoids and
the eczemas of the hands. Externally, it is used in the form of a poultice to reduce
swollen infected lymph nodes and for angina. With the cooking of the mucilage of
the quince seeds, a gel is made that is used to polish and fix the hair (Arias Alzate
1962; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Fruits are used to strengthen the digestive system and
against diarrhea; seeds are used to treat lung diseases, hemorrhoids, cracked lips, and
conjunctivitis (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The leaves and stem, in infusion,
are used to treat diarrhea in children (unspecified ethnic group – Carchi) (de la Torre
et al. 2008).
Peru: Fresh leaves and fruit peel are used for depression, nerves, insomnia, and heart
problems; fresh fruit pulp is used to treat vomiting and nausea (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2010a). Quince leaves and fruits
are widely sold (Bussmann and Sharon 2007; Bussmann et al. 2007a). The leaves
have shown antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010b, c, 2011a, b). They
are often used in herbal preparations together with other plants (Bussmann et al.
2010d). The fruits are sometimes included in emolientes (healthy beverages mostly
drunk for breakfast) (Bussmann et al. 2015).
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: The fruit is edible (Mestizo-Otros (Interandean Region)) (de la Torre et al.
2008).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
medicinal del Norte de Peru. Brown Center, MBG, St. Louis: William L; 2015b. ISBN 978-0-
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010b;9
(4):742–53.
medicine in Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010d;6:10.
2015;69:83–8.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf
POACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf: Abdropogon cerifer Hack.; Andropodon citratus

DC.; Andropogon citratus DC. ex Nees; Andropogon citriodorum hort ex Desf.;
Andropogon nardus subsp. ceriferus (Hack.) Hack.; Andropogon roxburghii Nees ex
Steud.; Andropogon schoenanthus L.; Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle; Cymbopogon
nardus subvar. citratus (DC.) Roberty
Local Names
Bolivia: Hierba luisa (Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015;
Bussmann et al. 2016); Colombia: Limoncillo, Limonera, Zacate de limón, Hierba de
limón, Paja de limón, Fever grass, Zacate limón, Té limón, Zacate té, Molojillo Criollo,
Sitwonel, Limoncillo, Limonaria (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Hierba luisa, Paja
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Cymbopogon citratus

(Poaceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
luisa (Spanish), Liwisa (Tsafi’ki), Shoshovi, Shoshovi ñomemba (A’ingae), Catëma’ña

(Pai coca), Chirichri (Shuar chicham), Hierba buena, Hierba luisa, Limoncilla,
Limoncillo, Sanguinaria (Spanish), Lemon grass (English) (de la Torre et al. 2008);
Peru: Cedron, Hierba luisa, Maria luisa (Spanish); English: Lemongrass
Botany and Ecology
Coarse glabrous perennial, forming dense clumps; blades 5–15 mm wide, scabrous
on the margins; inflorescence 30–60 cm long, nodding. A native of the Old World
but cultivated and naturalized in the American tropics. In America, the species does
not flower, but it may be recognized easily by its lemon-scented leaves (Macbride
and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).
Cymbopodon is introduced to Latin America from Africa and has become a very
widely used medicinal species. Bolivia: Fresh or dried leaves are used to treat
stomachache; correct the blood, nerves, and cold; swelling due to frost; heart disease;
and stress (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016).
Colombia: In Colombia, this plant is used mainly in decoction to regulate digestive
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf 677
functions, as antiflatulent, relieving cramps, and against ulcers and spasms. The
infusion or cooking of the leaves and essential oil are used to treat gastrointestinal
disorders (diarrhea, dysentery, dyspepsia, stomach pain, vomiting) and respiratory
(asthma, bronchitis, cough) problems. Lemongrass in infusion is stimulating, relieves
intestinal gas and colic, and promotes sweating. It also serves to drive away mosqui-
toes and the gnat. The rhizome prepared in infusion is used as a tonic. The part of the
bare stem is used to rub the teeth directly to clean them, keep them white, and avoid
cavities. The infusion of the leaves is used to treat fever and the cold of malaria (Arias
Alzate 1962; Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra
Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1974; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez
2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The whole plant
is used to treat flatulence, fever, as stimulant, to promote sweating, and as skin tonic;
stems and root are used for tooth cleaning; stems are used to treat cavities; root and
leaves are used as vermifuge; leaves are used to treat “fríos encajados” (Bussmann
et al. 2018). Ecuador: Fresh leaves and root are used to treat dysentery (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The infusion of the leaves, mixed with lemon and scrape,
is taken to remove the cold and treat the chill (unspecified ethnic group – Carchi,
Tungurahua). The infusion of the leaves helps digestion and is effective in treating
headache, stomach, chest, severe diarrhea, gastritis, ulcers, low blood pressure, nerve
conditions, heart, cancer, and rheumatism. The leaves are also used as diuretics,
diaphoretic, and to regulate the menstrual cycle (Tsa’chi-Pichincha; Mestiza-
Pichincha, Loja; Secoya-Sucumbíos; Siona-Otros (Ecuadorian Amazon Region that
borders the border of Colombia and Peru) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The infusion of the
leaves is taken for pleasure or to ward off fear, and it is also applied in energy baths
(Mestiza-Pichincha; Kichwa of the East-Orellana). The infusion of the leaves is used
as a stimulant of the nervous system (unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha, Others
(Interandine and Tropic Region)). The leaves are tied on the shoulder or wrist when
you are going to drink yaje (drink prepared based on Banisteriopsis caapi) (Cofán-
Sucumbíos) (from de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Leaves, roots, and stems, fresh or dried, are used to treat cold, cough, nerves,
flu, varicose veins, stomach pain, colics, blood circulation, and cancer (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010) and also as remedy
against anxiety and anger (Monigatti et al. 2013). Lemon grass is sold in markets
everywhere (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008a, 2009). The extract has antibacterial
activity (Bussmann et al. 2008b, 2010a, 2011a, b). Often other species are added to
lemongrass preparations (Bussmann et al. 2010b). Cymbopogon is now also used for
the treatment of illnesses like diabetes and cancer (Bussmann and Glenn 2011). In
Madagascar, it is used to treat fevers (Razafindraibe et al. 2013).
Local Food Uses
Ecuador, Peru: The leaves are used to prepare aromatic waters, soft drinks, and
candy. It is usually taken after meals (Cofán, Secoya-Sucumbíos; Kichwa del
Oriente-Napo, Orellana, Pastaza; Shuar-Pastaza; Mestiza-Guayas, Azuay, Morona
Santiago; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua, Bolívar)

(de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves are used as spice in the corn chicha and chicha
morada (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha) (of de la Torre et al. 2008).
Ecuador: It is used as food for cattle and donkeys (unspecified ethnic group –
Guayaslde (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves are used as dentifrice, rubbed directly
on the teeth help to keep them white (unspecified ethnic group – Other (Coast
Region, Interandine Region and the tropics)). The leaves serve as body ornament
(Sequoia-Succumbios). It is used commercially to perfume and scare away mosqui-
toes and jején (unspecified ethnic group – Other (Interandine and Tropic Region)). It
is used to extract oil and make soap and medicines (unspecified ethnic group – Other
(Costa Region)) (of de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The species is often a main
ingredient in emolientes (healthy, hot beverages used for breakfast especially;
Bussmann et al. 2015).
References
Rev Peruana Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
of diabetes and cancer in Northern Peru. J Med Plant Res. 2011;5(31):6916–30.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007a;3:37.
amongst patients at Clinica Anticona in El Porvenir, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007b;5:185–99.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf 679
medicine in Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010a;6:10.
(4):742–53.
2015;69:83–8.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Justo Chipana M, Moraes R M. Plantas medicinales comercializadas por las chifleras de La Paz y El
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Abierta y a Distancia UNAD. Escuela de Ciencias Agrícolas, Pecuarias y del Medio Ambiente.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
(2):450–64.
2013;9:73.
Cynara cardunculus L.
ASTERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Cynara cardunculus L.: Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus (L.) Fiori; Cynara
scolymus L.
Local Names
Bolivia, Colombia, Peru: Alcachofa (Spanish); Ecuador: Alcachofa, Cardo (Span-

ish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); English: Artichoke
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Perennial herb, 0.5–2 m high. Stem thick, straight, densely grayish- or whitish-
arachnoid-hairy, weakly sulcate. Leaves larger, forming broad rosette at stem base,
arachnoid-hairy beneath; lower leaves oblong or broadly lanceolate, about 1 m long
and 50 cm wide, decurrent, twice pinnately incised, primary segments decurrent on
Fig. 1 Cynara cardunculus

(Asteraceae), garden, Chicani,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Cynara cardunculus L. 683
winged axis and divided into irregularly lobate or toothed lobes, lobes and teeth
unarmed, glabrous and green above, densely tomentose beneath; middle and upper
cauline leaves reduced, sessile, weakly decurrent, upward reduced to linear and
oblong apical leaves, 5–6 cm long. Capitulae large, 7–10 cm long, solitary, terminal,
on short branches. Involucre ovate or subglobose; involucral bracts subglabrous,
smooth, stiff, coriaceous, with more or less fleshy base, outer bracts slightly
deflected, erect, or recurved, middle and innermost bracts straight, imbricate,
appressed; middle bracts more or less narrowed above, acute, lacking spine, inner
ones with short, roundish, or obtuse appendage. Florets numerous; corolla bluish-
purple. Achenes 6–7 mm long, oblong, reddish-brown with inconspicuous white and
darker, sometimes black spots; pappus considerably longer than achenes, 2–3 cm
long, more or less yellowish (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7).
Bolivia: The inflorescences are used to treat high blood pressure, anemia, gallblad-
der, gallstones, liver, gastritis/ulcers, cholesterol, diabetes, kidney infection, and
vomiting (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Macía et al.
2005).

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Colombia: Stems, root, and inflorescences are used to treat anemia, arteriosclerosis,
gallbladder, as hepatic stimulant, for indigestion, rheumatism, and as diuretic;
inflorescences are used to treat asthma, blood cleansing, constipation, diabetes,
goiter, kidney infection, prostate, as restorative, and for weakness in children
(Bussmann et al. 2018). The artichoke has beneficial effects on diseases of the
digestive system and digestive discomfort. The roots are used against fevers. The
dried leaves in decoction or extract are used to activate the gallbladder, protect the
liver, lower blood cholesterol, and facilitate digestion. Another medicinal application
of the artichoke is in the treatment of the “coto” or goiter, for it the leaves and the
bracts are used. The leaves are also used in decoction as a laxative, as a diuretic, and
to eliminate excess bile (Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011;
Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Protección Social
2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The whole plant or leaves, infused and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
combined with taraxaco, escancel, “kasha cerraja”, calaguala, plantain, cerote, corn
hair, and a lemon, is used to treat liver and kidney conditions (ethnicity not specified
– Imbabura). The leaves and flowers serve to level uric acid and to treat liver
conditions, rheumatism, cystitis, kidney stones, inflammation of the kidneys, and
jaundice (Mestiza-Pichincha). The leaves, in infusion, are used to treat liver and
kidney conditions (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Stems and leaves, fresh or dried, are used to treat diabetes, physical weariness,
liver, blood purification, mental weariness, and memory (Bussmann and Sharon
2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2007). Cynara is one of the few medicinal
plant species that is actually cultivated (Bussmann et al. 2008; Revene et al. 2008).
The species has antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2009a, b, 2010, 2011a, b).
Cynara is also used for “modern” ailments like diabetes and cancer (Bussmann and
Glenn 2011) and often added to emollients – healthy beverages often used for
breakfast (Bussmann et al. 2015).

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Local Food Uses
Generally, widely eaten. Ecuador: The leaf petiole is edible in soups, salads, or
stews. The stem, receptacle and base of the bracts are edible (unspecified ethnic
group-Azuay, Cañar). Food additive: The flowers, dried in the shade, have the
property of curdling milk (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre
et al. 2008).
Ecuador: The leaves are food for animals (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar)

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008;6:351–61.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Cardenas R, Chait G, Castro M, Regalado S, Del Toro C R,
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Castro M, Cardenas R, Chait G, Regalado S, Del Toro CR, Malca G G, Perez
A F, Glenn A. Phyto-chemical analysis of Peruvian medicinal plants. Arnaldoa. 2009b;16(1):105–10.
traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010;9(4):742–53.
2015;69:83–8.
medicine – Medicinal plants and their uses in the markets of Bogotá (Colombia), La Paz/El
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Northern Peru – a plant collector’s tale. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008;6:15–22.
Daucus carota L.
Daucus montanus Humb. & Bonpl. ex
Spreng.
APIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Daucus carota L.: Carota sativa Rupr.; Caucalis carota Crantz; Caucalis daucis
Crantz
Daucus montanus Humb. & Bonpl. ex Spreng.: Daucus australis Poepp. ex DC.;
Daucus toriloides DC.; Torilis peruviana C. Presl.
Local Names
Ecuador: Culandrillo (Spanish); Peru: Zanahoria de Zorro, Zanahoria de Gentil,

Zanahoria (Spanish); English: Carrot
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Daucus carota: Biennial, rarely annual; root fusiform, commonly whitish; stem
25–100 cm high, furrowed, simple or branching above, like leaves scabrous-hairy
(rarely subglabrous); leaves triangular, ovate or oblong, 14–20 cm long, 4–6 cm
wide, 2–4-pinnate, lower with more or less long petioles, upper sessile on oblong
sheath with white-scarious margin; lobules of last order ovate or oblong, obtuse,
with short mucro, dentate or incised, margin slightly rolled downward, obtuse.
Umbels 4–10 cm across, 50-rayed, rays scabrous-hairy, flowering umbels flat or
convex, compact in fruit; involucre of many 3-partite or pinnate leaflets with narrow
scarious margins in lower part, nearly as long as umbels; umbellets 1–2 cm across,
many-flowered, leaflets of involucre many, linear-subulate or oblong or narrowly
ovate, inner entire, nearly wholly membranous, outer nearly wholly herbaceous,
with narrow scarious margins, often 3-partite or 3-toothed, rarely pinnate, all with
more or less ciliate margin; flowers in part bisexual, otherwise staminate (particu-
larly in lateral umbellets); middle umbellet, in center of umbel is reduced to a dark
red (often cleistogamous) flower; calyx-teeth small but visible, triangular-ovate;
petals white or yellow (sulfur-yellow when dry), rarely pink or purple, obcordate,
villous inside, smooth or with remote hairs outside, notched, with inward curved
lobule; peripheral petals enlarged, up to 2–3 mm long, 2-lobed to middle; fruit
3–4 mm long, 1.5–2 mm wide. Flowering May–July. Ural, Caucasus, along roads,
in orchards, gardens. Widely cultivated (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Fig. 1 Daucus carota

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Daucus carota L. . . . 691

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Daucus montanus: Annual erect herb with a few to a single stem up to 100 cm tall
with few branches. The plant has an odor of parsley. Leaves compound and parsley-
like, overall up to 11 cm long and borne on a leaf stalk up to 12 cm long, becoming
smaller and simpler up the stem, with 2–6 pairs of leaflets. Inflorescence with a stalk
up to 25 cm long, borne from the tip of the stem, from which are disposed rays
branch off at the same point. The 4–20 rays unequal in length and disposed with
clusters of flowers on very short stalks. Flowers white, green, yellow, pink, or
reddish purple. Fruits up to 6 mm long with 2 rows of long erect hairs. A weedy
species which occurs widespread in shrubby slopes and roadsides of western South
America as far south as Chile from 1900–3800 m above sea level (Macbride and
Daucus carota: In Colombia, carrot is used as an anti-inflammatory, anthelmintic,

and as a protector of the nerves and liver, in addition to being widely used to treat
diseases of the eyes. The root is used in cases of vitamin deficiency, for scurvy and in
infantile diarrhea, also as a cardiac tonic, to avoid or remove pimples from the facial
skin. Roots and carrot fruits are used as a diuretic. Stems, leaves, and flowers are
used against intestinal gas, as a reliever of digestive colics, and as diuretics (García
Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecua-
dor: The whole fresh plant used to treat stomach ache and gas (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: Fresh leaves and stems are used to treat used sunspots
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). Sometimes carrot leaves are used
together with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010a).
Daucus montanus: In Ecuador, it is used to treat stomach ache and gas (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). In Peru, the extract is used to treat sunspots (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b).

(Apiaceae), harvest in Tusheti,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Local Food Uses
Widely used as food and sold everywhere (Bussmann et al. 2007) (Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
and 9).

(Apiaceae), carrot diversity,

(Apiaceae), carrot seeds,
R.W. Bussmann and

(Apiaceae), harvested carrots,
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 8 Daucus carota (Apiaceae), carrot salad, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and

(Apiaceae), purple carrots,
close to wild variety, Istanbul,
Turkey. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Both species are used in Peru to treat bad air/mal aire, sorcery, twists caused by
sorcery, contusions caused by sorcery, susto in the huacas (freight cause by being
close to burial sites), and susto of the summits (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b,
2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010b).
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010b;4(9):580–629.
Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl
BRASSICACEAE
Synonyms
Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl: Descurainia sophia var. brachycarpa

O.E. Schulz; Descurainia sophia var. sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl.; Descurainia
sophia (L.) Schur; Hesperis sophia (L.) Kuntze; Sisymbrium parviflorum Lam.;
Sisymbrium persicum Spreng.; Sisymbrium sophia L.; Sisymbrium sophia var.
brachycarpa Boiss.; Sisymbrium tripinnatum DC.; Sophia lobelii Rupr.; Sophia
parviflora (Lam.) Standl.; Sophia sophia (L.) Britton
Local Names
Spanish: Hierba de la sabiduría, Hierba de Santa Sofia; English: Fixweed, Tansy

mustard
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Annual, canescent with short branched hairs, sometimes subglabrous (var. glabrata
N. Busch); stem 15–80 cm high, erect, spreadingly branching; leaves 2-pinnatipartite
sometimes 3-pinnatipartite, with linear or oblong-linear acute lobules (on solonetzic
soils lobules thicker – var. salsuginea Schulz). Racemes many-flowered, in fruit
6–40 mm long; sepals spreading; petals pale yellow, oblong, ca. 2–2.5 mm long,
equal to or shorter than sepals, or longer (var. dolichopetala Schulz), or sometimes
completely absent (var. apetala (Noulet) Schulz); fruiting pedicels thin, 7–14 mm
long; siliques 10–30 mm long, ca. 1 mm thick, 10–14 mm in var. brachycarpa
Boiss., 3–4 cm in var. longisiliqua (Gruner) Schulz, slender, curved upward, tuber-
culate; seeds grayish-brownish, 1–1.25 mm long, 0.5–0.75 mm broad (Macbride and
Phytochemistry
Alcohols (helioscopyol); Steroids (osterin); Alkaloids; Vitamins (C, E); Flavonoids

(kaemferol, quercetin); Cardenolides Mustard oils (benzyl isothiocyanate;
allylsulfonate, propenylisotatinate); Thioglycosides (sinigrin)
Traditionally used as astringent, diuretic, irritant, antiemetic, antihepatic, as well as

for tuberculosis. In Central Asia, especially applied for pain related to sore throat, as
antipyretic, for measles and smallpox, and hemostatic. The juice is applied to
inflamed ulcers and infected wounds. In Middle Asia, the plant serves to sweating
during fever and malaria, and against diarrhea (Umair et al. 2019).
References
Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW, Abbasi AM. Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab
riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:7. https://doi.org/
10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4.
Desmodium molliculum (Kunth) DC.
Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC.
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Desmodium molliculum (Kunth) DC.: Desmodium mexicanum S. Watson;

Desmodium mexicanum Sweet; Hedysarum molliculum Kunth; Heteroloma lanatum
Desv. ex Kunth; Meiboma mollicula (Kunth) Kuntze
Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC.: Aeschyomene triflora (L.) Poir.; Desmodium
bullamense G. Don.; Desmodium caespitosum (Poir.) DC.; Desmodium caespitosum
Bojer; Desmodium granulatum (Schumach. & Thonn.) Walp.; Desmodium
stipulaceum DC.; Desmodium stipulaceum Hassk.; Desmodium triflorum var.
adpressum Ohwi; Desmodium triflorum var. minimus Stehlé; Desmodium triflorum
var. minus Wight & Arn.; Desmodium triflorum var. pygmaeum Hoehne;
Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC. var. triflorum; Desmodium triflorum var. villosum
Wight & Arn.; Hedysarum biflorum Willd. ex Wallich; Hedysarum granulatum
Schumach. & Thonn.; Hedysarum stipulaceum Burm. f.; Hedysarum stipulaceum
Sesse ex DC.; Hedysarum triflorum L.; Hippocrepis humilis Blanco; Meiboma
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

triflora (L.) Kuntze; Meiboma triflora fo. coerulescens Kuntze; Meiboma triflora
fo. flavescens Kuntze; Meiboma triflora fo. purpurea Kuntze; Meiboma triflora
fo. violacea Kuntze; Meiboma triflora fo. virescens Kuntze; Meiboma triflora var.
glabrescens Kuntze; Meiboma triflora var. pilosa Kuntze; Meiboma triflora var.
reptans Kuntze; Nicolsonia reptans Hook. f. & Benth.; Nicolsonia reptans Meisn.;
Nicolsonia triflora (L.) Griseb.; Plrurolobus triflorus (L.) J. St.-Hil.; Sagotia triflora
(L.) Duchass. & Walp.
Local Names
Desmodium molliculum: Colombia: Amor Seco, SordéI; Ecuador: Vijado blanco,

Hierba de ángel, hierba de infante, Hierba del dedo (Spanish) (de la Torre et al.
2008); Peru: Pie de perro, Pata perro, Pata de perro, Chancas de comida, Muña,
Manayupa
Desmodium triflorum: Colombia: Pega pega (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018);
Ecuador, Peru: Pega pega (Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Desmodium molliculum: Trailing herb with stiff, grooved stems covered in flattened
hairs. Leaves alternate and compound, with 3 leaflets. Flowers on a spike, 1 cm long,
white. The legume is segmented and covered in hooked hairs. Occurs from Central
America as far south as Chile, up to 2600 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Desmosium triflorum: Creeping herb; much-branched, somewhat mat-forming;
leaves of 3 leaflets, the lower leaves sometimes unifoliolate; leaflets obovate to
obcordate, rounded and emarginate at tip, mostly less than 1 cm long, up to 9 mm
wide, sometimes with 2 white marks; flowers few in fascicles, opposite leaves,
pedicels 3–8 mm long, lengthening in fruit to just over 1 cm; puberulent; corolla
Fig. 1 Desmodium
molliculum (Fabaceae),
Marañon, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Desmodium molliculum (Kunth) DC. . . . 701
Fig. 2 Desmodium
R.W. Bussmann and
reddish-violet or pale pink, standard obovate, 4–5 mm long; pods up to 17 mm long,

about 2.3 mm broad, 3–7-jointed, indehiscent (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 5, 6, and 7).
Desmodium molliculum: The infusion of the branches is used in Colombia to treat

inflammations of the ovaries, liver diseases; Also, with the boiled branches, the
wounds are washed as a topical agent to fight infections and to reduce blows; they
are also used to relieve the pains associated with kidney problems. (Bernal et al.
2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The whole
plant is used fresh for intestinal pain, white and yellow vaginal discharge (Béjar et al.
2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The leaves, in infusion, are used to
clean and disinfect wounds (unspecified ethnicity-Pichincha, Cotopaxi). It is used, in
infusion, to regulate blood and to treat pimples, inflammations, and bellyache
(unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha, Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Loja) (de la Torre et al.
2008). Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat inflammation (both
internal and external, such as inflammation of the kidneys, ovaries, womb) diarrhea,
stomachache, gastritis, and for washing wounds (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013).
Fig. 3 Desmodium
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Desmodium
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 5 Desmodium
repandum (Fabaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 6 Desmodium
tortuosum (Fabaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 7 Desmodium
tortuosum (Fabaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Desmodium molliculum is a very frequently used medicinal plant, widely sold in

markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008a, 2009; Bussmann and Sharon 2009;
Revene et al. 2008), and even prescribed as herbal medicine in the Peruvian social
security system. It has shown some antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008b,
2010a, 2011a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011). The species is often used in herbal
mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010b). Very rarely the species is given as additive in
emollients (healthy beverages used for breakfast, Bussmann et al. 2015).
Desmodium triflorum: Colombia: In Colombia, the whole plant in decoction is
used in the treatment of pulmonary affections, as depurative of blood, laxative, and
against herpes (García Barriga 1974). Leaves and flowers are used to strengthen the
uterus (Bussmann et al. 2018). In India, Desmodium triflorum is used for abscesses,
eruptions, body ache, breast pain, colic, diarrhea, dysentery, menorrhea, sores,
spleen complaints, nail disorder, and tooth ache (Verma et al. 2007).
Desmodium elegans is used in Northern India for epilepsy and as carmative (Bhat
et al. 2015; Kumar et al. 2011). In Madagascar, Desmodium ramosissimum is used
to treat dental cavities, diarrhea, and abdominal pain (Rabearivony et al. 2015), as
well as cough (Rakotoarivelo et al. 2015). Desmosium gangeticum serves in India to
treat snakebites, asthma, bronchitis, cough, dysentery, eye infection, fever, and
vomiting (Verma et al. 2007).
Desmodium molliculum: Ecuador: The whole plant is used fresh to treat lesions
(Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: The whole fresh
plant is used for spiritual flowering (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b;
Bussmann et al. 2010c).
References
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
Bhat J, Malik ZA, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhat AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in
health care practices by Inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:
133–144.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
9789962-2-2.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Markets, healers, vendors, collectors the sustainability of medicinal
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629.
2015;69:83–8.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.

Kumar M, Sheikh MA, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal and ecological status of plants in Garhwal
Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:32.
2013;145(2):450–64.
Dianthus caryophyllus L.
Dianthus plumarius L.
CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Dianthus caryophyllus L.: Dianthus arbuscula Lindl.; Dianthus deltoides L.; Dian-
thus morrisii Hance; Tunica morrisii (Hance) Walp.
Local Names
Dianthus caryophyllus: Bolivia: Clavel, Clavel blanco (Spanish) (Justo Chipana

and Moraes 2015; Macía et al. 2005); Ecuador: Clavel, Clavel blanco, Clavel
ordinario, Clavel rojo, Clavelinas (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Claveles,
Clavelina, Clavel de la costa (Spanish)
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Dianthus plumarius: Bolivia: Clavel blanco, Clavel rojo/Clavilina (Spanish);

Ecuador: Clavelinas (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008)
Botany and Ecology
Dianthus caryophyllus: Perennial herb, more or less pruinose; stems 20–60(90) cm

long, simple or branched above, glabrous; leaves linear-lanceolate, acute, the margin
smooth or at base ciliate; flowers simple or double, solitary or in clusters at tips of
branches; calyx cylindrical, 20–30 mm long; epicalyx scales 4–6, broad-ovate,
abruptly mucronate, herbaceous, appressed to calyx, covering one-fifth to
one-quarter the length of calyx tube; petals large, triangular-obovate, toothed at
summit, various shades of red. Widely cultivated (Figs. 1 and 2).
Dianthus plumarius: Perennial, rather densely tufted, with non-elongated sterile
densely leafy basal shoots; flowering stems erect or ascending, 10–30 cm long,
simple or sometimes branched above, glabrous, glaucescent (var. borussicus Vierh.)
or green; leaves of sterile shoots linear to lance-linear, 1.5–3.5 cm long and 1–2 mm
broad, erect or falcately recurved (var. pseudosquarrosus Novak), scabrous beneath;
cauline leaves to 2 cm long, connate at base into sheath 1–2 mm long; flowers
fragrant, solitary or several (var. multiflorus Kryl.); calyx cylindrical, 18–20(23) mm
long, with acuminate teeth; epicalyx scales 4, ovate, mucronate, covering
one-quarter of calyx; petals white, rarely roseate; limb deeply fringed, with linear-
filiform segments, the upper surface hairy, with a greenish spot and purple dots
(Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).
Fig. 1 Dianthus carthusianorum (Caryophyllaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo

R.W. Bussmann and N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)
Dianthus caryophyllus L. . . . 709
Fig. 2 Dianthus
carthusianorum
(Caryophyllaceae), garden,
Paniagua-Zambrana)
Fig. 3 Dianthus plumarius (Caryophyllaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann
and N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)
Dianthus caryophyllus: The infusion of carnation is consumed to treat angina. This

same infusion taken as a tea after meals, helps digestion, fortifies the heart and
nervous system. The carnation oil applied on the affected area is useful against pain
(back and lumbar pain) and paralysis. Cotton impregnated with this same oil is
placed in the cavities to soothe the pain of teeth. Carnation syrup is used to fortify the
heart and tone weak nerves (Arias Alzate 1962; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bolivia:
Fresh flowers used to treat headache, stress, and nausea (Justo Chipana and Moraes
Fig. 4 Dianthus plumarius

Paniagua-Zambrana)

Paniagua-Zambrana)
2015; Macía et al. 2005). Ecuador: Fresh flowers used to treat heart, nervous
system, and nasal passages (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a,
2007a). The plant, cooked, is used to treat the parts affected by tetanus (Mestiza-
Pichincha). The leaves and flowers, in infusion, are used to treat heart conditions
(heart attacks), mood depression, and to eliminate melancholy (Kichwa of the Sierra-
Imbabura; Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group-Imbabura, Chimborazo).
Useful for treating conditions of the nerves and throat (Mestiza-Pichincha;
unspecified ethnicity – Azuay) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Whole plant, fresh,
is used for pain of love/mal de amor, sentimentality, heart, nerves, good luck, and
insomnia (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a;
Monigatti et al. 2013). The plants have some limited antibacterial activity
(Bussmann et al. 2011a) and low or essentially no toxicity (Bussmann et al.
2011b). Infrequently the species is use in mixture with other herbs (Bussmann
et al. 2010b). Carnations are found in many markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b,
2008).

Paniagua-Zambrana)
Fig. 7 Dianthus superbus

Paniagua-Zambrana)
Fig. 8 Dianthus superbus

Paniagua-Zambrana)
Dianthus plumarius: Bolivia: Fresh flowers used to treat heartache, liver problems,
nerves, eye irritation, cataracts, against curses, lightning stroke (cultural illnesses),
and to use in Mesas (ritual) (Bussmann et al. 2016).
Local Food Uses
Dianthus caryophyllus: Ecuador: The infusion is drunk as aromatic water

(unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The carnation petals, infused together with
white alelí, malva, and moradilla petals, are used to prepare herbal teas or fresh
waters (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Dianthus caryophyllus: The flower is used to make floral arrangements (Mestiza-

Dianthus plumarius: Ecuador: The flower is used to make floral arrangements
(Mestiza-Tungurahua) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008;6:351–61.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
(2):450–64.
Dictyocaryum lamarckianum (Mart.)
H. Wendl.
ARECACEAE
Synonyms
Dictyocaryum lamarckianum (Mart.) H. Wendl.: Deckeria lamarckiana (Mart.)

H. Karst.; Dictyocaryum globiferum Dugand; Dictyocaryum platysepalum Burret;
Dictyocaryum schultzei Burret; Dictyocaryum superbum Burret; Iriartea lamarckiana
Marty.
Local Names
Bolivia: Tola, Tola macho (Spanish), Ichu (Quechua) (Balslev et al. 2012; Moraes
2014; Moraes et al. 2014). Colombia: Barrigona, barrigona blanca, bombona,
chicón, tagua (Galeano and Bernal 2010). Ecuador: Narupa, wakra chanka
(Kichwa), bombón, palma, palma real (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru:
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Ichawi (Quechua) (Macía et al. 2014; Moraes 2014; Moraes et al. 2014; Paniagua-
Zambrana et al. 2012a, b, c, d, e).
Botany and Ecology
Single stem; 15–30 m high; up to 50 cm in diameter in the base, progressively

thickened up to 45–70 cm in diameter in half, and usually thinned up again; whitish
color, with a cone of roots at the base of the trunk up to 1.5 m high. Leaves from 3–6
to 8 m long; greenish-gray, feathery, arranged in a crown of hemospheric appear-
ance; cylindrical sheath up 2.5 m long, forming a notorious green-grayish structure
(capital) below the crown of leaves; petiole 25–30 cm long; spine 2.5–5 m long; 35–
54 pinnae on each side, divided to the base into 2–17 rigid segments arranged in
several directions, in total 421–469 segments on each side, whitish below. Inflores-
cences in solitary clusters that go below the crown of leaves, erect when they have
not yet opened and also when they open; up to 3 m long, with 7–8 flora bracts that
fall when they open. Fruits spherical; 2.5–3 cm in diameter; smooth, greenish-yellow
Fig. 1 Dictyocaryum lamarckianum (Arecaceae), large specimen, San Martín, Peru. (Photo
Dictyocaryum lamarckianum (Mart.) H. Wendl. 717
Fig. 2 Dictyocaryum lamarckianum (Arecaceae), population on mountain ridge, San Martín, Peru.
Fig. 3 Dictyocaryum lamarckianum (Arecaceae), isolated individuals, San Martín, Peru. (Photo
Fig. 4 Dictyocaryum lamarckianum (Arecaceae), population on mountain ridge, San Martín, Peru.
Fig. 5 Dictyocaryum
lamarckianum (Arecaceae),
crown of mature specimen,
San Martín, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 6 Dictyocaryum lamarckianum (Arecaceae), flowering trees, San Martín, Peru. (Photo
Fig. 7 Dictyocaryum
infructescence, San Martín,
Fig. 8 Dictyocaryum
stilt roots, San Martín, Peru.
Fig. 9 Dictyocaryum
fruiting specimen, San Martín,
Fig. 10 Dictyocaryum
young infructescence, San
Martín, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
infructescence, San Martín,
leaf bases, San Martín, Peru.
Fig. 13 Dictyocaryum lamarckianum (Arecaceae), large population, San Martín, Peru. (Photo
stilt roots, San Martín, Peru.
young roots, San Martín,
young central leaves,
collected for palm hearts,
pueblo Lecos, Apolo, Bolivia.
Zambrana)
to brownish and irregularly cracked when they ripen. Seeds spherical to ellipsoid,
often flattened on one side; of 1.5–2.5 cm long, 1.5–2.2 cm in diameter; brown, with
lines dark drawing a grid (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15).
Local Food Uses
Bolivia: The palm heart is edible raw or cooked (Balslev et al. 2012; Moraes 2014;
Moraes et al. 2014; Macía et al. 2014). Ecuador: The palm heart and the young
inflorescence are edible; the larvae that develop on the trunk are edible (de la Torre
et al. 2008; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014). Peru: The palm heart is
consumed raw or cooked; the larvae that develop on the trunk are edible (Macía
et al. 2014; Moraes 2014b; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2012a) (Figs. 16, 17, and 18).
separation of palm heart,
Zambrana)
extracted palm heart, pueblo
Lecos, Apolo, Bolivia. (Photo
Fig. 19 Dictyocaryum lamarckianum (Arecaceae), bridge made from split stems, pueblo Lecos,
Apolo, Bolivia. (Photo N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
bridge made from split stems,
detail, pueblo Lecos, Apolo,
Bolivia. (Photo
Fig. 21 Dictyocaryum lamarckianum (Arecaceae), water pipes made from split stems, pueblo
Lecos, Apolo, Bolivia. (Photo N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
water pipes made from split
stems, pueblo Lecos, Apolo,
Bolivia. (Photo
collection of leaf base
(petiole) to make containers,
Zambrana)
collection of leaf base
(petiole) to make containers,
Zambrana)
finished containers made from
leaf base (petiole), pueblo
Lecos, Apolo, Bolivia. (Photo
Bolivia: The endocarp is used by children to play (wave, marbles); the rachis of the
leaves is used to make brooms; the foliar sheath is used to make swimsuits. The
leaves are used for roof construction; the stem is used for the housing framework and
the manufacture of canoeras, animal pens, housing walls, seats, shelves, and roof
tiles for kitchens and bridges (Balslev et al. 2012; Moraes 2014; Moraes et al. 2014;
Macía et al. 2014) (Figs. 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, and 28).
Colombia: The seeds are used to make handicrafts, together with the seeds of the
“tagua” (Phytelephas macrocarpa), so they are also given the name tagua; hollowed
stems are sometimes used as coffins by the indigenous people of the Western
Cordillera (Galeano and Bernal 2010; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014).
Ecuador: The leaves are used to manufacture roofing; the stem is used for house/
ranch/kitchen poles; the seeds are used in schools to teach how to count (de la Torre
et al. 2008; Macía et al. 2014; Moraes et al. 2014). Peru: The leaves are used for the
construction of the roof ridge; the logs are used in construction walls and tumbadillos
Fig. 26 Dictyocaryum lamarckianum (Arecaceae), house wall made from split trunks, roof from
leaves, pueblo Lecos, Apolo, Bolivia. (Photo N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
Fig. 27 Dictyocaryum lamarckianum (Arecaceae), house wall made from split trunks, pueblo
Lecos, Apolo, Bolivia. (Photo N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
roof thatched with leaves,
Zambrana)
(second-level floors) and for posts of houses/ranches/kitchens (Macía et al. 2014;

Moraes 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2012a).
References
Balslev H, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Blacutt E, Moraes RM, Macia MJ, Parada A, Inturias Y,
Perez Z, Teran J, Aliaga AM, Grandez C, Serralta A. Palmeras de los Leco y sus usos. La
Paz: Herbario Nacional de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andres; 2012.
Nacional de Colombia. Instituto de Ciencias Naturales-Universidad Nacional de Colombia;
2010. 688 pp.
Ecuador; 2014.
St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2012a. ISBN-13: 978-9848415-3-0.
Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Macía MJ. El bosque SI tiene valor - el uso de palmeras en
las comunidades campesinas e indígenas de la región de Inambari, Madre de Dios, Perú.
William L. Brown Center, MBG, St. Louis; 2012b. ISBN: 978-9848415-4-7.
Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Vega C, Téllez C, Macía MJ. Kampanak se usa para el
techo pero ya no hay – Uso y conservación de palmeras entre los Awajun, Amazonas, Perú.
William L. Brown Center, MBG, St. Louis; 2012c. ISBN: 978-9848415-5-4.
Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Macía MJ. El conocimiento de nuestros ancestros – los
Ese Eja y su uso de palmeras, Madre de Dios, Peru. William L. Brown Center, MBG, St. Louis;
2012d. ISBN-13: 978-9848415-6-1.
Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW, Blacutt E, Macía MJ. Conservando nuestros bosques:
conocimiento y uso de las palmeras en las comunidades campesinas del norte de Bolivia. La Paz
and William L. Brown Center, MBG, St. Louis; 2012e. ISBN: 978-9848415-1-6.
Dioscorea tambillensis R. Knuth
Dioscorea trifida L. f.
DIOSCOREACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Dioscorea trifida L. f.: Dioscorea affinis Kunth; Dioscorea angustifolia Rusby;

Dioscorea brasiliana Poir.; Dioscorea brasiliensis Willd.; Dioscorea goyazensis
Grieseb.; Dioscorea quinquelobata Vell.; Dioscorea ruiziana Klotzsch ex Kunth.;
Dioscorea trifida var. tuberosa Stehlé; Dioscorea triloba H. Karst. ex Kunth;
Dioscorea truncata Miq.
Local Names
Dioscorea tambillensis: Peru: Papa semitona (Spanish)

Dioscorea trifida: Colombia: Batata, Tabena; Ecuador: Chilma (Awapit), Tsanbu
(Chafi’ki), Chaki papa, Sacha papa, Sani papa (Spanish-Kichwa), Mayaji, Nea ñaju,
Po ñaju (Pai coca), Kawa, Kowango (Wao tededo), Kénke (Shuar chicham), Ñame,
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Papa, Papa jíbara, Papa ñame, Tuyo (Spanish), Indian yam (English), pPapa chilma
(Spanish-Awapit), Cush cush yam (unspecified language – English), Cush cush,
Yampee (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Papa madre, Papa
pacta; English: Yams
Botany and Ecology
Dioscorea tambillensis: Glabrous; leaves nearly coriaceous, deeply cordate, slightly

contracted at the obtuse mucronulate apex, often up to 11 cm long, 7-nerved, the
3 middle nerves forming a lanceolate-ovate area; cross veins beneath slender;
petioles often 2.5 mm thick; male racemes to nearly 30 cm long; flowers campan-
ulate, 2 mm long or longer; stamens 6, the filaments connate (Macbride and
Dioscorea trifida: Stems, winged, with tuberculated bulbils. Alternate leaves,
9–20 8–20(–23) cm, palmately lobed, glabrous, stipulated. Male inflorescence
10–20 cm long, in, with pubescent to glabrous rachis. Staminate flowers solitary,
pedicelled, purple to dark brown; tepals separate, stamens 6, separated, 1–1.5 mm
long, inserted at the base of the tepals, staminodes absent; pistilodium 1. Fruits
1.7 cm wide, oblong to elliptic at elevations from 1100–2300 m. (Macbride and
Fig. 1 Dioscorea
chusqueifolia
(Dioscoreaceae), Marañon,
Dioscorea tambillensis R. Knuth . . . 735
Fig. 2 Dioscorea
chusqueifolia
Fig. 3 Dioscorea
chusqueifolia
Fig. 4 Dioscorea coriacea

Fig. 5 Dioscorea
syringiflolia (Dioscoreaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Dioscorea tambillensis: Peru: The fresh tuber is used to treat inflammation of the
kidneys, inflammation of ovaries, and inflammation of the liver (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b). It is a very commonly
used species in Peru and always available in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b).
Some antibacterial activity has been reported (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010a, b,
2011a), but the species is nontoxic (Bussmann et al. 2011b). Dioscorea is often
used in herbal mixtures (Bussmann and Glenn 2010b). It can be used as antifungal
(Bussmann and Glenn 2011).
Dioscorea trifida: This plant is frequently used in Colombia against liver disorders
and rheumatism. The decoction of the tubers is used against joint rheumatism
(Bussmann et al. 2018; García Barriga 1974; Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Ecuador: The leaf and the bud are used to treat the sores (Shuar-Orellana, Morona
Santiago) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Fresh tuber used to treat inflammations, renal
disease, uterus disease and discharge, cysts, internal inflammation, cancer of the uterus,
inflammation of the ovaries, vaginal discharge, and inflammation of the kidneys
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b). It is a
very commonly used species in Peru, and always available in markets (Bussmann et al.
2007a, b). Some antibacterial activity has been reported (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010a,
b, 2011a), but the species is nontoxic (Bussmann et al. 2011b). Dioscorea is often used
in herbal mixtures (Bussmann and Glenn 2010b; Bussmann et al. 2011c). It can be used
as antifungal (Bussmann and Glenn 2011a; Bussmann et al. 2010c). Also used for
cancer treatments (Bussmann and Glenn 2011b).
Dioscorea species are used medicinally at a global scale, and new species have been
decribed recently (Romero-Hernández et al. 2019). In India, Dioscorea bulbifera is
used as expectorant, for asthma and bronchitis, diarrhea, urinary discharge,
leucoderma, and as febrifuge (Joshi et al. 2013), as well as jaundice (Raj et al.
2018), to treat fever and boils (Singh et al. 2017). Dioscorea deltoidea is used as
anthelminthic (Kunwar et al. 2013), for urogenital disorders and cough (Malik et al.
2015). Dioscorea belophylla is used for pain relief and against pneumonia (Raj et al.
2018).
Local Food Uses
Dioscorea trifida: Ecuador: The cooked fruit is edible (Shuar-Morona Santiago).

The tuber is consumed cooked, roasted, or in soup (Awa, Chachi-Esmeraldas;
Cofán-No locality; Secoya-Sucumbíos; Kichwa of the East-Sucumbíos, Napo, Pas-
taza; Wao-Napo, Orellana; Shuar-Sucumbíos, Napo, Pastaza, Morona Santiago,
Zamora Chinchipe; unspecified ethnic group-Esmeraldas, Los Ríos, Zamora
Chinchipe, Others (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
ailments. Arnaldoa. 2010a;17(2):243–54.
of diabetes and cancer in Northern Peru. J Med Plant Res. 2011b;5(31):6916–30.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010b;9(4):
742–53.
Bussmann RW, et al. Traditional knowledge for modern ailments – plants used for the treatment of
diabetes and cancer in Northern Peru. J Med Plant Res. 2011c;5(31):6916–30.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel MP, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas
in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromatic Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2013;4(Special Issue 1):43–6.
Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used
in health care practices by inhabitants of Western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol.
2015;172:133–44.
Northern Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-
018-0208-9.
Romero-Hernández C, Téllez-Valdés O, Bussmann RW. Dioscorea chusqueifolia (Dioscoreaceae), a
new species from Northern Peru. Brittonia. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12228-019-09587-8.
itants of Jakholi Block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Etnobiol Ethnomed.
2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3.
Diplostephium cinereum Cuatrec.
Diplostephium gynoxyoides Cuatrec.
Diplostephium sagasteguii Cuatrec.
ASTERACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Local Names
Chile: Koa, Koba, Koya, Koya hembra, Koba hembra.
Botany and Ecology
Diplostephium cinereum: Perennial shrub 0.6–1.5 m tall, very leafy, gray branches,
tomentose terminals. Leaves 8–13 mm long, alternate, coriaceous, gray, linear-
oblong, sessile, and mucronate. Terminal inflorescences in solitary chapters 1 cm
long, briefly pedunculated or sessile, 8–9 mm long with 5 series of scarious bracts.
Marginal flowers of white color, ligulate, up to 18 per chapter; Tubular central
flowers, yellow. Fruit aquenio somewhat flattened, with very feathery vilano of
light color. 3600–4600 m above sea level (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Diplostephum
Fig. 2 Diplostephum
Fig. 3 Diplostephum meyenii

Señoret)
Diplostephium cinereum Cuatrec. . . . 743
Fig. 4 Diplostephum meyenii

Señoret)
Fig. 5 Diplostephum
Diplostephium cinereum: In Chile, medicinal use for “air in the stomach”

Diplostephium gynoxyoides: In Peru, used to treat colds and inflammation of the
lungs (Bussmann and Glenn 2010).
Diplostephium cinereum: In Colombia, the aerial parts of this plant are used as
incense to burn the cattle in ritual and ceremonial contexts during the annual cycle
festivities. The smoke is offered to the deity to ensure its fertility. Also the aerial
parts of this plant mixed with grease (llama fat), copal, espuro (Pennisetum chilense),
and wine is used in the vilanchas or wilanchas, which is a blood sacrifice ceremony
of a white llama or little lamb that made in honor to the Pachamama or the
“achachilas” to get their favor and protection. It is also used as incense to burn in
houses and bath to “clean” people (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al.
Diplostephium gynoxyoides: In Peru, used in curing ceremonies for bad air/mal aire
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a).
Diplostephium sagasteguii: Used in Peru to treat bad air/ mal aire, as fragrance, for
good luck, for work of sorcery/daño (prevention), undo bad things done to the
victim, strength, evil/ maldad (cure), evil eye/mal ojo/protection from evil
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a). The plants
are available in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007) and are always used as mixture with
other species (Bussmann et al. 2010b). Interestingly, the species shows strong
antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2010b, c, 2011a). The ethanol extract is
highly toxic (Bussmann et al. 2011b).
References
Rev Peruana Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plantas medicinales de los Andes y la Amazonía – La flora mágica y medicinal
del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN 978-0-9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene.
POACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene.: Agropyrum peruvianum (Lam.) Roem. & Schult.,
Brachypodium peruvianum Roem. & Schult. ex Kunth., Briza spicata (L.) Lam.,
Brizopyrum americanum (L.) Link, Brizopyrum boreale J. Presl., Brizopyrum
ovatum Nees, Brizopyrum prostratum var. erectum E. Fourn., Brizopyrum pro-
stratum var. humile E. Fourn., Brizopyrum spicatum (L.) Hook. & Arn., Brizopyrum
thalassicum (Kunth) Nees, Distichlis maritima Raf., Distichlis mendocina Phil.,
Distichlis nodosa Raf., Distichlis spicata ssp. stricta (Torr.) Thorne, Distichlis
spicata var. andina Beetle, Distichlis spicata var. borealis (J. Presl.), Beetle,
Distichlis spicata var. dentata C.L. Hitchc., Distichlis spicata var. distichophylla
(Michx.) Beetle, Distichlis spicata var. divaricata Beetle, Distichlis spicata var.
mendocina Beetle ex Renvoize, Distichlis spicata var. stolonifera Beetle, Distichlis
spicata var. stricta (Torr.) Beetle, Distichlis spicata var. stricta (Torr.) Scribn.,
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Distichlis stricta (Torr.) Rydb., Distichlis thalassica (Kunth) E. Desv., Festuca

distichophylla Michx., Festuca multiflora Suter, Festuca spicata Nutt., Festuca
triticea Lam. ex Kunth, Festuca triticoides Lam., Megastachya thalassica
(Kunth.) Roem. & Schult., Poa borealis (J. Presl) Kunth, Poa michjauxii Kunth,
Poa thalassica Kunth, Triticum peruvianum Lam., Uniola distichophylla (Michx.)
Roem. & Schult., Uniola spicata L., Uniola spicata Llanos, Uniola stricta Torr.,
Uniola thalassica (Kunth) Trin.
Local Names
Chile: Grama, Brama, Gramillo, Gramilla
Botany and Ecology
Dioecious, perennial plants of 10–60 cm height, with thick and branched rhizomes,
with sharp scales. 0.5–1 mm ligules, membranous, lashes. Conspicuous auricles.
Dysstic and rigid laminae, 2.5–15 cm, flat, glabrous, with pointed apices, sometimes
scabrous. Panicles spiciform, spikelets plurifloras, 0.5–3 cm. Staminate panicles
emerging from the basal foliage, 8–9 cm, 6–30 spikelets 7–25 mm, 5–18 floras.
Glumes 2–3 mm, 1–3 nerves, keeled. Lemmas of 3.5–6 mm, blunt, smooth apices,
inconspicuous nerves. Palea with smooth keels. Anthers of 2–3 mm. The pistillate
panicles do not exceed the foliage, short and dense, 5–8 cm, more than 35 spikelets,
of +10 mm. Spikelets 5–9 floras, tightly imbricated. Glumes of 2–2.5 mm. Lemmas
coriaceous, 3.5–6 mm, 7–11nerves. Paleas about the same length as the lemmas,
with winged and ero-dentate carinas. Fruit a caryopsis +2 mm. 2300–4300 m above
sea level (Peñazola et al. 2013) (Figs. 1 and 2).
The infusion of the root has refreshing characteristics and is used to relieve urinary
infection (Peñazola et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Local Food Uses
The infusion of its root is refreshing (Peñazola et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene. 747
Fig. 1 Distichlis spicata

(Poaceae), Calama, Chile.
Señoret)
Fig. 2 Distichlis spicata

(Poaceae), Chiu Chiu, Chile.
Señoret)
Forage especially for the sheep (Peñazolaet al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Villagrán and Castro 2003). Used in Peru for spiritual cleansing and shows light
antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2011a, b).
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Dodonaea viscosa Jacq.
SAPINDACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Dodonaea viscosa Jacq.: Dodonaea angustfolia L. f.; Dodonaea bialata Kunth;

Dodonaea burmanniana DC.; Dodonaea dioica Roxb. ex DC.; Dodonaea
bombeyana Blume; Dodonaea eriocarpa fo. galapagensis Sherff; Dodonaea var.
vaccinioides Sherff; Dodonaea spatulata Sm.; Dodonaea viscosa subsp.
angustifolia (L. f.) J.G. West; Dodonaea viscosa subsp. burmanniana (DC.)
J.G. West; Dodonaea viscosa var. amgustifolia (L. f.) Benth.; Dodonaea viscosa
var. galapagensis (Sherff) Porter; Dodonaea viscosa var. spatulata (Sherff) Porter;
Dodonaea viscosa var. vulgaris Benth.; Ptelea viscosa L.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Colombia: Chamana, Chamano, Hayuelo; Bolivia: Ch’akhataya (Aymara) (Macía

et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016); Ecuador:
Chamana (Spanish); Chamana (Kichwa), Chanchillo, Crestona (Spanish) (de la
Torre et al. 2008); English: Sand olive
Botany and Ecology
Glabrous viscous shrub-tree, the erect reddish-brown flowering branches com-

pressed, angled and with an elevated line below the insertion of the more or less
petioled leaves, these varying from subobovate-cuneate to lanceolate or sublinear,
acute or obtuse, entire but the margins sometimes unequally subrepand, to 15 cm
long, 2 cm or so wide, subchartaceous, pale green, lustrous, and with many fine
lateral nerves; panicles in flower about half as long as the leaves, the 5–8 mm long
pedicels twice as long in fruit; flowers greenish-white or reddish, 3 mm long often
hermaphrodite; sepals usually 4, trinerved, puberulent marginally; capsule sub-
orbicular, excised apex and base or subcordate, mostly triquetrous, 3-celled, each
cell surrounded by a membranous radiate reticulate-veined often roseate wing.
Common, especially in the interandean valleys between 1000 and 3000 m. The
center of origin of Dodonaea viscosa is believed to be Australia, but it occurs
throughout the tropics and subtropics (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
In Colombia this plant is generally used in women’s diseases associated with

sterility, heavy menstruation and abortion, and during postpartum recovery. It is
also recognized in the treatment of colic, fever, gout, wounds, sores, diseases of the
scalp, and venereal. A sahumerio prepared with the plant fights the cold in cold
climates. Leaves prepared as poultices are often used to heal fractures. The leaves are
used in the form of plasters to treat rheumatism, sprains, and kidney ailments. The
flowers prepared in decoction are recommended against coughing (Bussmann et al.
2018; García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bolivia: Stems and leaves are
used to treat varicose veins, bone pain, fractures, rheumatism, sprains, strong blows,
fever, childbed problems, for postpartum care, for postpartum washing, uterus and
menstrual pain, acne, kidney infection, air, lightning strike (Macía et al. 2005; Justo
Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016).
Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat arthritis, bones, cold, muscle pain,
bone pain, and rheumatism (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007).
The bath with infusion of the leaves is used to treat nervous disorders (Kichwa de la
Sierra-Chimborazo; Unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar, others (Ecuador)).
The plant, in infusion, is used in bathrooms for women after childbirth (Kichwa de la
Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. 751
Fig. 1 Dodonaea viscosa

(Sapindaceae), Pusac, Peru.

Sierra-Loja). The leaves are applied to children’s legs when they cannot walk.
Crushed leaves serve to heal wounds in pigs (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay).
Roasted leaves and flowers are used to treat the cold (unspecified ethnicity –
Cañar). The plaster of the leaves, heated, is applied to treat sprains, cripples,
rheumatisms, and inflammations (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo, Loja; Mestizo-


Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Carchi, Imbabura, Cañar, Azuay) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). In Peru, the species is widely sold in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b,
2008a) and has some antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008b), but it is not
widely used. However, no toxicity has been reported (Bussmann et al. 2011).
In Kenya, the stem are used as toothbrush (Bussmann 2006).
Ecuador: The leaves are used as fodder. It is an appreciated animal feed (Kichwa de
la Sierra-Chimborazo; unspecified ethnicity-Tungurahua) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Wood is used as raw material for the manufacture of plows and fences (Kichwa de la
Sierra-Chimborazo, Loja). The young plant is used in the construction of hut roofs
Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. 753


(unspecified ethnic group-Tungurahua). It is used to make brooms (Kichwa de la

Sierra-Loja; Unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Chimborazo, Azuay)
(de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is used as a living fence (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is planted around the house to ward off
evil spirits and enemies; they do not allow the “whites” to touch it (unspecified
ethnicity – Imbabura). It is used to sweep ovens in order to take out the devil and not
damage the bread. It is used to cure “bad air” (unspecified ethnic group – others
(Ecuador)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany of the Samburu of Mt. Nyiru, South Turkana, Kenya. J Ethnobiol
9789962-2-2.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
in Northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;137:121–40.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Drimys granadensis L. f.
WINTERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Drimys granadensis L. f.: Drimys granadensis var. chiriquiensis A.C. Sm.; Dirmys
granadensis var. mexicana (DC.) A.C. Sm.; Drimys mexicana DC.
Local Names
Colombia: Ají, Ají de páramo, Boighe, Boique, Canela, Canelo, Canelo de monte,
Canelo de páramo, Cascarilla, Cupis, Foiye, Fuñe, Fuñe boighe, Palo de ají, Quinón,
Quiñón, Quirón
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Drimys granadensis: Shrub or tree up to 10 m tall. Branches with narrow, cone-

shaped stipules at the tip. Leaves simple, alternate, held erect, crowded on the stem,
8–12 cm long, egg-shaped to lance-shaped and widest above the middle, with strong
midvein. The leaves are spicy-aromatic, and the underside is pale green-white.
Inflorescence a single stalk dividing into 3 or more flower stalks. The flowers are
about 3 cm in diameter, white. Fruits clustered together on stalks, each pear to
egg-shaped, turning from whitish green to black and ca. 1 cm long. Occurs in subparamo,
montane forests, and cloud forests from central America to northern Peru at elevations
between 1500 and 3000 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 1 Drimys granadensis

(Winteraceae), Leymebamba,
Fig. 2 Drimys granadensis

(Winteraceae), Leymebamba,
Drimys granadensis L. f. 757
In general, in Colombia the plant is used as a healing, anti-inflammatory, anti-

hemorrhagic, general tonic, antiflatulent, against colic, to promote digestion, as a
diuretic and antispasmodic. It is also used in the treatment of gastritis, ulcers,
respiratory tract disorders, tooth pain, dermatitis, rheumatism, and fungal, yeast,
and bacterial infections. The bark is used for the treatment of inflammatory diseases,
as a healer, for the treatment of cancer and in cases of indigestion, dermatitis and
scurvy, as a tonic, and as a stimulant (García Barriga 1974; Ministerio de Protección
Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
References
Dunalia spinosa (Meyen) Dammer
SOLANACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Dunalia spinosa (Meyen) Dammer: Atropa spinosa Meyen, Dierbachia lyciodes

(Miers) Kuntze, Dunalia angustifolia Dammer, Dunalia besseri Dammer, Dunalia
lycioides Miers, Grabowskia meyeniana (Nees) Walp., Lycioplesium meyenianum
(Nees) Miers, Lycium meyenianum Nees
Local Names
Bolivia: Espino; Chile: Yara, Chilka hembra, Chilka
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Erect shrub, up to 2 meters high, very ramified; branches with thick spines and with
little sharpened tips. Leaves alternate, geminated or fasciculate, petiolate, simple,
whole, and membranous. Actinomorphic flowers, small, with non-articulated pedi-
cels, axillary-lateral, grouped in dense fascicles (glomeruli) or contracted tops, of
few flowers, geminated or solitary; tubular corolla, purple, rarely yellow. Fruit a
berry red to orange, numerous seeds, compressed, reniform, or lenticular.
3000–3500 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
The infusion of leaves with burnt sugar is used for the treatment of convulsive
cough. Fruits crushed with hot oil are used for the “grindstone air.” The aerial parts
are used for the treatment of Puna disease (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez
Fig. 1 Lycium humile

(Solanaceae), Mina, Chile.
Señoret)

(Solanaceae), Turi, Chile.
Señoret)
Dunalia spinosa (Meyen) Dammer 761

(Solanaceae), Turi, Chile.
Señoret)

(Solanaceae), Chiu Chiu,
Señoret)
Spiny branches are used for making closures properties. Firewood use (González
and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Dunalia
brachyacantha is used to treat witchcraft and to bring good luck in Bolivia
(Bussmann et al. 2016; Macía et al. 2005).
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del Norte de Chile. Santiago de Chile:
Editorial Universitaria; 2003.
Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin &
Clemants
AMARANTHACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants: Ambrina ambrosioides

(L.) Spach; Ambrina parvula Phil.; Ambrina spathulata Moq.; Atriplex
ambrosioides (L.) Crantz.; Blitum ambrosioides (L.) Beck.; Chenopodium
ambrosioides fo. dentatum (Fenzl) Aellen; Chenopodium ambrosioides fo.
genuinum (Willk.) Aellen; Chenopodium ambrosioides fo. integrifolium (Fenzl)
Aellen; Chenopodium ambrosioides fo. pinnatifidum (Willk.) Aellen;
Chenopodium ambrosioides fo. rotundatum Aellen; Chenopodium ambrosioides
fo. spathulatum (Sieber ex Moq.) Aellen; Chenopodium ambrosioides L.;
Chenopodium ambrosioides subsp. euambrosioides Aellen; Chenopodium
ambrosioides var. costei Aellen; Chenopodium ambrosioides var. dentata
Fenzl.; Chenopodium ambrosioides var. genuinum Willk.; Chenopodium
ambrosioides var. integrifolium Fenzl; Chenopodium ambrosioides var.
pinnatifidum Willk.; Chenopodium ambrosioides var. querciforme (Murr)
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Aellen; Chenopodium ambrosioides var. suffruticosum (Willd.) Graebn.;

Chenopodium ambrosioides var. typicum (Speg.) Aellen; Chenopodium
integrifolium Vorosch.; Chenopodium spathulatum (Moq.) Sieber ex Moq.;
Chenopodium suffruticosum subsp. remotum Vorosch.; Chenopodium
suffruticosum Willd.; Teloxys ambrosioides (L.) W.A. Weber
Local Names
Bolivia: Paico (Spanish), Paik’u (Aymara); Colombia: Flor del Paico, Paico, Payco
Apazote, Camatai, Chemen contra, Pasote, Pazote, Shipiwai, Yerba santa, Semen
contra; Ecuador: Paico (Spanish); Payku tape (Kichwa-chafi’ki), Kayku (Kichwa),
Paicco nomemba, Paicco nomemba seje’pa (A’ingae), Huasiëco (Pai coca), Epazote,
Paico, Solitaria, Té de México (Spanish), Wormseed (English), Nerbrena blanca
(Spanish-unspecified), Baiko, Subrosia (unspecified) (de la Torre et al. 2008);
English: Wormseed
Botany and Ecology
Erect or ascending annual herb up to 100(–150) cm tall, often very branched, strong-
smelling; stem angularly ribbed, glabrous or finely pubescent. Leaves alternate,
oblong-lanceolate, 1.5–15 cm 0.5–5 cm, acute and often almost decurrent at
base, acute to obtuse at apex, usually coarsely or shallowly serrate-dentate but
highest leaves entire, herbaceous, bright green, lower surface variably densely
studded with yellow glands, otherwise subglabrous, secondary veins thin; petiole
short; stipules absent. Flowers in 3–25 flowered clusters in the axil of bract-like
leaves, united in lax spikes together forming a leafy panicle, small, bisexual or some
female, sometimes some male; perianth 4–5 cleft to near the base, 1–1.5 mm long,
pale green with a paler base, with ovate-triangular, very concave segments; stamens
(1–)4–5, filaments free, slightly exceeding the perianth; ovary superior, depressed
globose, with many small, yellow glands on top, 1-celled, stigmas (2–)3–5; fruit a
nut entirely concealed by the connivent tepals, 1-seeded. Seed usually horizontally
in fruit, broadly obovoid or ellipsoid, 0.6–0.8 mm in diameter, shiny brownish-black
(Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Colombia: The whole plant is used to treat asthma, cholera, digestive problems,
indigestion, stomach problems, flatulence, flu, malaria, spasms, as xermifuge and as
emmenagogue; leaves are used to treat Inflammations; leaves, flowers, and fruits
used to treat arthritis, colics, and diarrhea; flowers used to treat cough and tachycar-
dia (Bussmann et al. 2018). These are used all over the world as a vermifuge. It is an
effective anthelmintic with a long history of use and has been used in America since
Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants 765
Fig. 1 Dysphania
ambrosioides (Asteraceae),
Pusac, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
about 1800. Bruised fruits are administered in small doses or the juice from the plant
is given undiluted or as a decoction in milk or water. It is effective against hook-
worms (Ankylostoma duodenale, Necator americanus), roundworm (Ascaris
lumbricoides), and whipworm (Trichuris trichiura). The essential oil, which is
generally considered as nervine and antirheumatic, is very effective against amoebae
causing dysentery. Wormseed is also commonly used externally to treat ulcers,
eczema, and erysipelas. Crushed leaves are widely applied as poultices on bruises,
insect bites, and ulcers. In Colombia, the stems and macerated leaves of the Paico are
used as antiparasitic and purgative. The infusion of the leaves is prescribed in cases
of anemia (Bernal et al. 2011; Galvis Rueda and Torres Torres 2017; Giraldo
Quintero et al. 2015; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez. 2017; Pérez Arbeláez
1996). In the Philippines, the leaves are also used as a carminative in poultices
applied to the abdomen of children suffering from dyspepsia and are also considered
an emmenagogue. In Central America, it has been used as an antispasmodic and
stomachic, and a decoction is used to be administered as an internal hemostatic, as a
remedy for indigestion and to treat ulcers.
Bolivia: Fresh stems and leaves are used to treat colics, gallbladder, gastritis/ulcers,
stomach ache, vomiting, kidney inflammations, and as purgative, laxative, and anti-
inflammatory in general (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015;
Macía et al. 2005). Colombia: The whole plant serves to treat asthma, cholera,
Fig. 2 Dysphania
Pusac, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
stomach problems, flatulence, flu, indigestion, malaria, spasms, and as emmenagogue;

whole plant, stems, root, leaves, flowers, and fruits are used as vermifuge; leaves are
used for inflammation; leaves, flowers, and fruits are used to treat diarrhea and
arthritis; leaves, flowers, and fruits are used to treat colics; flowers are used to treat
cough and tachycardia (Bussmann et al. 2018).
Ecuador: The whole fresh plant used as anthelmintic, and for intelligence (Busmann
and Sharon 2007a). The oil extracted from the fruits is vermifuge (unspecified ethnic
group – other (Coast Region)). The juice is used as an antispasmodic, cardiac
stimulant, and to stimulate the secretions of the skin and kidneys. The juice of the
crushed plant is drunk to treat bile conditions (unspecified ethnic group – Cañar).
The juice of the plant is used as a laxative (Mestiza-Guayas). Root juice, with honey,
is effective in treating skin pimples; the juice of the plant treats diarrhea (unspecified
ethnic group – Chimborazo). The cooking of the plant is used as a medicine to treat
influenza (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja; Unspecified ethnicity – Loja). The decoction of
the plant calms the headache and stomach ache (Chachi-Esmeraldas). Infusion of the
root, stem, and leaves is used as a cerebral tonic to improve memory (Kichwa de la
Sierra-Cotopaxi, Chimborazo; Mestiza-Pichincha; Unspecified ethnic group –
Imbabura, Pichincha, Chimborazo, Bolívar, Cañar, Azuay, Loja). The infusion is
used as a scar and to treat warts and stomach aches (unspecified ethnic group –
Chimborazo). The infused plant is used to improve memory and to combat anemia,
Fig. 3 Dysphania
Pusac, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Dysphania
R.W. Bussmann and
colds and cough (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura). The root is used as a purgative

(Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura). The branches are used to relieve headache (Mestiza-
Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). Marinated leaves are used to treat
scabies; in infusion, they are used for stomach washes, to treat colic and piles
(Unspecified ethnic group – other (coastal region)). The leaves are used as an
antiseptic and to accelerate the healing of pustules (unspecified ethnic group –
Fig. 5 Dysphania
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 6 Dysphania
Chela, Chile. (Photo Lucas
Burchard Señoret)
Azuay, Cañar). The leaves treat indeterminate conditions. It is used as a purgative

(Succumbios). The leaves calm the headache (Kichwa of the Sierra-Cotopaxi). The
leaves and stem, in infusion, are used to treat kidney pain; ground and roasted heal
wounds (unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). Ground leaves and stem are used to treat
hysteria, “stomach cold,” and intestinal cramps (unspecified ethnicity – Carchi). The
leaves, in plasters, are used to treat the cholera and mixed with those of the frame are
used to treat caries (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo). The infused leaves are used to
treat colic, empachos and other stomach conditions (Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified
ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua, Azuay). The leaves, stem, and roots
are used to eliminate worms, amoebas, ascaris, and other intestinal parasites (Kichwa
of the Sierra-Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Loja; Cofán, Secoya-Sucumbíos; Kichwa of
the Oriente-Orellana; Mestiza-Pichincha; Ethnicity no specified- Manabi, Carchi,
Imbabura, Pichincha, Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Bolívar, Cañar, Azuay,
Loja, Napo). It is cardiac stimulant and stimulator of skin secretions (unspecified
ethnicity – Cotopaxi). Useful to regulate menstrual flow, heal wounds, and treat
postpartum cramps, diabetes, warts, and lung conditions (Mestiza-Pichincha). It is
used to fight skin fungus (Kichwa of the East-Orellana). The infusion is effective for
treating infections and as a purgative (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura) (de la
Torre et al. 2008). Leaf juice is used to strengthen the brain and reactivate intelligence
(Unspecified ethnicity – Cotopaxi, Chimborazo). The sap mixed with camphor serves
as a medicine against “bad air” (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). It is used as a stimulant
(Unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura) for children who cannot study (Mestiza-Pichincha)
(de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Fresh leaves and stems are used as anthelmintic
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010;
Monigatti et al. 2013). The species has antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008a,
2010, 2011a, b). Frequently sold in vegetable markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b,
2008b). Used for wound treatments in Kenya (Njoroge et al. 2004). In Madagascar, it
is used for intestinal parasites (Rabearivony et al. 2015), as well as nosebleeds and
placenta apposition (Razafindraibe et al. 2013). In Pakistan, the species is used for the
removal of warts (Sher et al. 2016).
Local Food Uses
Paico is used as condiment for soups, stews, sauces, salads, tamales, and beans.
Ecuador: The bud is edible chopped with egg (unspecified ethnicity-Loja). The fruit
is edible, has high vitamin content, and is used to prepare refreshing drinks (Kichwa
de la Sierra-Loja; Secoya-Sucumbíos). The leaves are edible; they are used to
prepare soups, locros, and sangos with cheese. The juice is drunk along with milk
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Chimborazo; Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic
group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Chimborazo, Cañar, Loja, Others (Andean Region)).
In the feeding of children, it helps the development of the brain (ethnicity not
specified – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves, fruit, and flower are used as
a condiment in salads, soups, and other foods (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo;
unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimbo-
razo, Bolívar, Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Ecuador: The plant is used in houses as an insect repellent (unspecified ethnic group
– Imbabura). The plant is placed on the arm as perfume (Cofán-Sucumbíos). It serves
as a broom (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). It is used for rubbing and as a
lavatory (unspecified ethnic group-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
Rev Peruana Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
2010;9(4):742–53.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.

Sogamoso, Boyacá, Colombia. Rev Invest Agraria Ambiental. 2017;8(2):187–206.
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Justo Chipana M, Moraes R. M. Plantas medicinales comercializadas por las chifleras de La Paz y
El Alto (Bolivia) – medicinal plants marketed by chifleras of La Paz and El Alto cities (Bolivia).
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
source of traditional medicines in Central Kenya: optimizing resource efficiency (R.U.E.) in
2013;9:73.
Echinopsis pachanoi (Britton & Rose)
Friedrich & G.D. Rowley
CACTACEAE
Synonyms
Echinopsis pachanoi (Britton & Rose) Friedrich & G.D. Rowley: Cereus
pachanoi (Britton & Rose) Werderm.; Cereus rosei Werderm.; Echniopsis peruviana
(Britton & Rose) Friedrich & G.D. Rowley; Trichocereus pachanoi Britton & Rose;
Trichocereus macrogonus (Salm-Dyck) Riccob.; Trichocereus pachanoi fo.
peruvianus (Britton & Rose) F. Ritter; Trichocereus peruvianus Britton & Rose
Local Names
Peru, Bolivia: Achuma, Huachuma, San Pedro, Gigantón; Ecuador: San Pedro,
Huachuma; English: San Pedro cactus
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Stems light to dark green, 3–6( 12) m tall, with a diameter of 6–15 cm, and usually
4–8 ribs. The whitish areoles with 2–7 yellow to brown spines, each up to 2 cm long,
although sometimes spineless. The areoles spaced evenly along the ribs, approxi-
mately 2 cm (0.8 in) apart. Flowers white, at the end of the stems, opening at night.
The flowers are large, 19–24 cm long, with a diameter of up to 20 cm, with black
hairs along the length of the tube leading to the flower. Fruits oblong dark green,
about 3 cm wide and 5–6 cm long (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).
Ecuador: The whole fresh plant used to treat ulcers and as purgative (Béjar et al.
2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The decoction is used as medicine for
livestock (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The flowers are cut and drunk, its infusion
Fig. 1 Echinopsis pachanoi

(Cactaceae), garden,
R.W. Bussmann and
Echinopsis pachanoi (Britton & Rose) Friedrich & G.D. Rowley 775
along with that of other species, to treat nervous conditions (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Loja). Used to treat undetermined conditions, it contains mezcalin (unspecified
ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The plant is used to treat stomach
ulcers and as shampoo (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2014; 2015a, b). It has
limited antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2011a) and essentially no toxicity
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: The mucilage is used to wash the hair (unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la
Torre et al. 2008). Environmental: The plant is used as a living fence (Unspecified
ethnic group – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It is grown in the gardens and near the
peasant houses of Ecuador, for its beauty and under the tradition that the plant
confers protection to the family (Kichwa del Oriente-Otros (Ecuador)) (de la Torre
et al. 2008).
Ecuador: San Pedro is used as hallucinogen in curing ceremonies (Béjar et al. 2002;
Busamann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: It is great example for the traditional
use of hallucinogens in the north coast of Peru. The use of sacred psychoactive plants
(entheogens), in particular, the San Pedro cactus (Trichocereus pachanoi), is a vital
component in Andean healing practices and has been around for millennia
(Bussmann 2016; Camino 1992; Polia 1988; Sharon 1978). Archaeological evidence
for this sacred cactus has been found at Guitarrero Cave (8200–6800 B.C.) in the
highlands of Peru (Lynch 1980) and Garagay (1643–879 B.C.) on the central coast
(Burger 1992). The San Pedro cactus is frequently depicted in Cupisnique, Chavín,
Moche, Nazca, and Lambayeque iconography (Glass-Coffin et al. 2004; Sharon
et al. 2010).. The plant is still widely used as hallucinogen in curing ceremonies, to
treat bad air/mal aire, sorcery, and daño (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2014,
2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a). While readily available in many markets in Peru
(Bussmann et al. 2007; Bussmann and Sharon 2009, 2010), its sale has been
prohibited in neighboring countries, e.g., Bolivia (Bussmann et al. 2016). It is
normally prepared together with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010b) (Figs. 2, 3,
4, and 5).

(Cactaceae), preparation for
curing ceremony, Huanchaco,

(Cactaceae), preparation for
curing ceremony, Huanchaco,

(Cactaceae), depiction in
Salinar ceramic, Huanchaco,
Echinopsis pachanoi (Britton & Rose) Friedrich & G.D. Rowley 777

(Cactaceae), depiction in
healer’s staff, Huanchaco,
References
Burger R. Chavin and the origins of Andean civilization. London: Thames and Hudson; 1992.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Markets, healers, vendors, collectors, the sustainability of medicinal
plant use in northern Peru. Mt Res Dev. 2009;29(2):128–34.
2010. p. 184–207. 288 p.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
Camino L. Cerros, plantas y lagunas poderosas: La medicina al norte del Perú. Lima: Lluvia
Editores; 1992.
Glass-Coffin B, Sharon D, Uceda S. Curanderos a la sombra de la Huaca de la luna. Bull Inst Fr
d’Etudes Andines. 2004;33(1):81–95.
Lynch T. Guitarrero cave. New York: Academic; 1980.
Polia M. Las Lagunas de los Encantos – Medicina Tradicional Andina en el Perú septentrional.
Lima: CePeSer; 1988.
Sharon D. Wizard of the four winds: a Shaman’s story. Los Angeles: Free Press; 1978.
Sharon D, Glass-Coffin B, Bussmann RW. La mesa de Julia Calderón de Ávila. In: Galvez C, editor.
Medicina Tradicional Conocimiento Milenario. Serie Antropología No 1-2009. Trujillo: Museo
de Arquelogía, Antropología e Historia, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Nacional de
Trujillo; 2010. p. 245–54.
Elatteria cardamomum (L.) Maton
ZINGIBERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Elatteria cardamomum (L.) Maton: Amomum cardamomum L.; Cardamomum

officinale (L.) Salisb.
Local Names
Spanish: Cardamomo; English: Green cardamom
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Herbaceous perennial up to 6 m tall. Leaf-shoots arising from a stout rhizome.

Growing in a thick clump of up to 20 leafy shoots. Leaves dark green, long, and
sword-shaped. The underside is paler and may have a covering of tiny hairs. Flowers
on stalks that can reach over 1 m long. The pale green flowers contain both male and
female parts. One of the petals is white and streaked with violet. Fruits pale green to
yellow and elongated oval-shape. Each fruit has three chambers filled with small
aromatic seeds, each about 3 mm long. The fruits and seeds dry to a straw-brown
color and are widely used as flavoring. Elatteria cardamom is native to the Western
Ghats of southern India. It has been introduced to other parts of tropical Asia and is
widely grown for its aromatic seeds. The dried fruits and seeds of cardamom are used
to add a unique taste to rice, meat, vegetables, and other savory dishes. Whole and
ground cardamom seeds are added to flavor coffee, tea, liqueurs, ice cream, confec-
tionery, and baked goods. Cardamom essential oil is extracted from the seeds. It is
mainly used in the flavoring of processed foods and drinks such as cordials, bitters,
and liqueurs and occasionally in perfumery. Cardamom is the third most expensive
spice, by weight, after saffron and vanilla. It is traded internationally in the form of
whole fruits and to a lesser extent as seeds. Until the nineteenth century, the world’s
supply of cardamom came mainly from the wild populations in the Cardamom Hills
of the Western Ghats of India. India was the world’s largest producer of cardamom
until about 1980, when Guatemala emerged as the greatest producer and exporter of
cardamom. Cardamom is propagated either vegetatively or by seeds. For vegetative
propagation, the rhizomes of large clumps are divided into small pieces that are
planted into prepared holes in the soil (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Elatteria cardamom

(Zingiberaceae), Madurai,
India. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann)
Elatteria cardamomum (L.) Maton 781
Cardamom is used as an appetite stimulant and to treat gastrointestinal disorders and

dyspepsia, also as a digestive and against flatulence and colic. The decoction of the
seeds is used to treat bad breath and flatulence (Martínez Correa and Montes
Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008).
Local Food Uses
Worldwide used as spice.
References
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
Ephedra americana Humb. & Bonpl. ex
Willd.
Ephedra breana Phil.
Ephedra multiflora Stapf
Ephedra rupestris Benth.
EPHEDRACEAE

Javier Echeverría
Synonyms
Ephedra americana Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.: Ephedra americana var.

humboldtii Stapf; Wphedra andina Poepp. ex C.A. Mey
Ephedra breana Phil.: Ephedra wraithiana I.M. Johnst.
Ephedra rupestris Benth.: Ephedra americana var. rupestris (Benth) Ball.; Ephe-
dra americana var. rupestris (Benth.) Stapf; Ephedra andina var. humilis (Wedd.)
Parl.; Ephedra humilis Wedd.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría

Local Names
Ephedra sp.: English: Ephedra

Ephedra americana: Bolivia: Cola de caballo, Cola de caballo hembra (Spanish),
Wich’incjcawallu k’achu (Aymara); Ecuador: Chita mikuna (Kichwa), Cola de
buey (Spanish), Pingopingo (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru:
Diego Lopez, Suelda con Suelda
Ephedra breana: Chile: Pingopingo, Pinkopinko, Pingo, Pingopingo mach,
Granadam Granadilla, Sanguinaria, Tume, Tumetume, T’ume, Túmi, Transmontana
Ephedra multiflora: Chile: Granada, Granadilla, Granadillo, Granadina,
Pingopingo, Vinovino, Tume
Ephedra rupestris: Bolivia: Sanu sanu (Aymara)
Botany and Ecology
Ephedra americana: Shrubs, up to 2 m tall, branches strict, erect; leaves more or

less developed, the lower sheaths biparted; aments typically peduncled but usually
sessile or subsessile; bracts 5–7 or, in the apparently intergrading var. andina
(Poepp.) Stapf, the female only 2–4, red or white, more or less fleshy; seeds included
(typically) or exserted (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, and 8).
Fig. 1 Ephedra americana

(Ephedraceae), Uchumarca,
Ephedra americana Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. . . . 785

(Ephedraceae), market, La
Paz, Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

(Ephedraceae), market, La
Paz, Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Ephedra breana: Shrub 60–200 cm high. Apical branches of 1.5–2 mm in diameter,

with internodes of 1.5–2 cm. Decussated leaves, united at their base, 2–5 mm,
denticular and triangular lamina, short. Male strobilites of 4–6 mm, sessile, axillary,
solitary or less frequently in glomeruli. Bracts decussate ore ternate in 4–9 whorls,
broadly ovate; bracts of 2 mm, ovate; stamens 3 generally. Female strobili, 6–7 mm,
sessile, solitary or sometimes in glomeruli. Bracts in 5–7 whorls, from obtuse to
ovate-lanceolate. Ovoid seeds, apiculate, from 1 to 2 per strobilus. Sea level to
Ephedra multiflora: Erect shrub of 0.40–1.50 m tall. Diooecious, with almost free
bracts, membranaceous-papillaceous from light brown to yellowish color (reddish in
herbarium), flora abundant in clusters in the nodes, and glutinous young stems.
2300–4000 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Ephedra rupestris: Closely related to E. americana and often treated as subspecies.
Often very low and depressed or even prostrate, and often with many fasciculate-
verticillate “aerial” branchlets; leaves more or less reduced to sheaths; seeds
included or exserted. Up to 4500 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Fig. 4 Ephedra rupestris (Ephedraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 5 Ephedra rupestris

Ephedra americana: Often sold as falsification of “Cola de caballo” (Equisetum

sp.). Bolivia: Leaves and branches are used to treat liver problems, uterus, cysts in
the uterus, kidney and urinary tract infection, prostate, high pressure, and varices
(Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016);
Ecuador: Used as an antisyphilitic and to treat overbirth (sic) (Unspecified ethnic
group – Azuay; Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The
whole plant, fresh or dried is used to treat bruises, fractures, broken bones, and for



external injuries (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn
2011). Ephedra can be found in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008a, 2009).
It has antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2008b, 2010a, 2011a, b). Often used
as admixture with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010b).
Ephedra breana: It is a remedy for ovaries, kidneys, colds, anemia, stomach pain,
and also used as a purgative and to treat urine retention (González and Molina 2017;
Peñazola et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Ephedra multiflora: It is a remedy for the kidneys, cooling and for the “bad air”
(Muñoz 1987; Peñazola et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
Ephedra rupestris: Bolivia: It is used as a remedy for the problems of liver,
stomachache, childbed, abortive, uterus prolapse, menstrual pain, “regla blanca,”
kidney infection, purative, diuretic, and prostate (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana
and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016). Often sold as falsification of “Cola de
caballo” (Equisetum sp.) (Bussmann et al. 2015).
Local Food Uses
Ephedra americna: Ecuador: The fruit is edible (unspecified ethnic group –

Imbabura, Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Ephedra multiflora: The fruits is edible (Muñoz 1987; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Ephedra americana: Used as fodder for goats (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi) (de la

Torre et al. 2008).
Ephedra breana: It serves as firewood and the tender bud is eaten by animals. The
fleshy fruit is also consumed by goats and birds (González and Molina 2017;
Ephedra multiflora: The stem is used for biting to firm the teeth when they are
distempered (Muñoz 1987; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
Malca-G. G, Perez-A. F, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in Northern
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Moya Huanca AL. Dangerous confusion – “Cola de
Caballo” – horsetail, in the markets of La Paz, Bolivia. Econ Bot. 2015;69:89–93.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Muñoz M. Ephedra multiflora Phil. Ex Stapf (Ephedraceae) confirmada en Chile. Noticiario Mens
Mus Nac Hist Nat. 1987;312:13–4.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Equisetum bogotense Kunth
Equisetum giganteum L.
EQUISETACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Equisetum giganteum L.: Equisetum bolivianum Gand.; Equisetum martii Milde;

Equisetum pyramidale Goldm.; Equisetum ramosissimum Kunth; Equisetum
schaffneri Milde; Equisetum xylochaetum Mett.
Local Names
Equisetum bogotense: Colombia: Canutillo, Cola de caballo, Equisetum, Hierba de

conejo, Juntalli, Tembladera pequeña; Bolivia: Sanu sanu (Aymara); Colombia:
Cola de caballo, Tembladera Pequeña, Hierba de conejo, Canutillo, Equisetum,
Juntalli (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Caballo chupa, Caballo
chupa hembra (Spanish-Kichwa), Cañitillo, Cola de caballo, Colicaballo (Spanish)
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

(de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Cola de caballo, Cola de caballo (Hembra); English:
Horsetail
Equisetum giganteum: Bolivia: Cola de caballo, Cola de caballo macho, Cola de
caballo yungueño (Spanish), Wich’ijcawallu (Aymara) (Macía et al. 2005; Justo
Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016); Colombia: Cola de caballo,
Canutillo, Cola de caballo gigante (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Sukillu
(Kichwa), Caballo chupa, Chupa caballo (Spanish-Kichwa), Cola de caballo, Cola
de caballo rara, Hierba platero (Spanish), Tubakavache (unspecified language) (de la
Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Limpia plata, Cola de caballo, Tembladera; English:
Horsetail
Botany and Ecology
Equisetum bogotense: A small shrublike horsetail, 20–50 cm tall with segmented

stems with sheaths at each segment. Branches irregular, each with 4 ridges. The
sheath has short, brown, papery teeth on those stems without strobili. The teeth of
sheaths on fertile stems have lighter brown teeth. The strobili are 1.5 cm long and
borne on stalks (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
On wet soil, among wet rocks, as an epiphyte of lagoon banks, streams, moist
seeps, roadside ditches throughout Central and South America at elevations up to
2000 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Fig. 1 Equisetum bogotense

(Equisetaceae), Cajamarca,
Equisetum bogotense Kunth. . . 793


Equisetum giganteum: A large, erect horsetail 1–5 m tall in which erect stems are
borne from underground stems. The erect stems are jointed with ridges and are
hollow within and 1–4 cm across. The leaves are cylindrical and segmented,
arranged in whorls at regular intervals. Together the leaves are fused into a sheath
from below, each light brown. The sporangia are large, borne densely on a short
spike at the tops of many leaves. Occurs throughout Central and South America in
wet, open areas, on stream sides between 1900 and 3500 m above sea level (Figs. 5,
6, and 7).

Fig. 5 Equisetum giganteum

(Equisetaceae), Pusac, Peru.
N.Y Paniagua-Zambrana)

Equisetum bogotense: Bolivia: Leaves and branches are used to treat stomachache,
foot pain, fractures, “Makurka,” childbed infections, postpartum washing, abortive
and kidney infection (Bussmann et al. 2016, 2018a). In Bolivia, the species is
frequently confused with Ephedra americana, which is sold in markets under the
same vernacular name, potentially leading to toxicity or patients (Bussmann et al.
2015a). Colombia: The infusion of the plant is used as a diuretic, healing, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-hemorrhagic and also to wash wounds in nose, mouth,
vaginal, and intestinal hemorrhages and against fever. It is used in the treatment of
dysentery and to prevent hair loss. Horsetail is also used to stop uterine bleeding, for
problems of the ovaries, in periodontitis, and as an antiseptic of the urinary tract. It is
used externally to cure skin problems. The stems are also used to heal bleeding,
dysentery, and to prevent hair loss. Prepared in infusion and consuming them, they
are used as a diuretic and anti-inflammatory and for the treatment of pulmonary
diseases (Bernal et al. 2011; Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011;
Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1974; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015;
Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The whole plant
is used to treat varicose veins, vaginal infections, urinary infection, throat inflam-
mation, sweating, indigestion, hemorrhage, dysentery, cystitis, sores, rickets,

muscular pain, lung diseases, liver problems, laryngitis, kidney infection, inflamma-
tion, wound healing, flu, diuretic, circulatory stimulant, arteriosclerosis, alopecia,
and as an analgesic; stems are used for blood cleansing and diarrhea; leaves are used
to treat halitosis (Bussmann et al. 2018b). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to
treat kidneys and for washing of wounds (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon
2006a, 2007a). The spores are used to calm pain (Kichwa of the Sierra-Imbabura). A
rhizome infusion is taken to relieve kidney pain (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha).
The infusion of the plant is used to treat liver and kidney conditions (unspecified
ethnicity – Tungurahua). The infusion of the plant, mixed with watercress and a
tablet of Andrews salt, is taken to soothe kidney pain (unspecified ethnicity –
Azuay). It is used to treat headaches, stomach and back pain, high blood pressure,
excessive menstruation, nosebleeds, and inflammations (unspecified ethnicity –
Cañar). The plant treats indeterminate conditions (Mestizo-Morona Santiago)
(de la Torre et al. 2008). It is used to purify the blood (unspecified ethnic group –
Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Dried stems are used to treat inflammation of
the kidneys, wounds (cleansing), stomach, urinary tract, kidney stones, and inflam-
mations (general) (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and
Glenn 2011). It is also used for internal inflammations, infections, stomach inflam-
mation, intestinal infection, vaginal infection, ovary inflammation, puerperal care,
and vaginal washings or cataplasms (Monigatti et al. 2013). Horsetail is one of the
most commonly collected and sold plants in Northern Peru (Bussmann et al. 2007a,
b, 2008a, 2009; Bussmann and Sharon 2009; Revene et al. 2008). Antibacterial
activity has been confirmed (Bussmann et al. 2008b, c, 2010a, b, 2011a, b). Often the
species forms part of emolientes (warm beverages used for breakfast) (Bussmann
et al. 2015b).
Equisetum giganteum: Bolivia: Stems and leaves are used to treat liver, rheuma-
tism, varicose veins, blood cleansing, high pressure, “regla blanca,” waist pain,
uterus, kidney infection, prostate, and as diuretic and purgative (Macía et al. 2005;
Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016), and also for diarrhea, liver,
and stomach problems (Quiroga et al. 2012). Colombia: The plant is used as diuretic
for kidney disorders, as digestive, antianemic for gastrointestinal problems, as anti-
inflammatory agent for treat urinary tract infections, as an astringent, antifungal, and
for impotence and sterility. In Colombia, it has the same properties and medicinal
uses mentioned for E. bogotense. In general, this plant is used as a diuretic and anti-
inflammatory. The root has healing, anti-inflammatory, and anti-hemorrhagic prop-
erties, as well as diuretic and digestion-promoting. Externally it is used in the form of
infusions and decoctions for the washing of wounds and sores. The decoction of the
stem and the fresh leaves or macerated to powder in wine is consumed to treat
gastrointestinal and genitourinary affections (Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and
Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1974; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Ministerio
de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Stems and leaves are used to treat
alopecia, dysentery, hemorrhage, lung diseases, and as diuretic (Bussmann et al.
2018b). Ecuador: It is used to treat pimples, liver, kidney, and urinary system
conditions (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura). Mixed with Plantago sp., a species of
Malvaceae and Amaranthus sp., is used to treat headache, liver, blood, and kidney
conditions (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi). The infusion of the stem and leaves is
diuretic (Mestiza-Pichincha). Together with Lasiocephalus ovatus, Plantago major,
Myrcianthes hallii, Alternanthera lanceolata, and two unidentified species, it treats
liver conditions (Mestizo-Chimborazo). The bath with the infusion of the plant
serves to relieve irritated areas and also serves as a purgative and disinfectant
(unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). It is used as an emmenagogue and for the
treatment of people who expectorate blood, for dropsy, hemorrhages, cystic ulcera-
tions, and lung and kidney conditions. The ashes of the plant and the rhizome are
used as astringent and diuretics to calm heartburn and other digestive conditions. The
infusion is applied to wash wounds and to treat inflammations in the mouth and
gums, excoriation, and other skin conditions. It is used to stabilize the tissue that is
healing due to its content of silica acid (unspecified ethnic group – Others (Ecua-
dor)). The infusion is useful for treating kidney diseases (Shuar-Napo). The plant
treats indeterminate conditions (Kichwa of the East-Napo). The plant is used to treat
chronic cough (unspecified ethnic group – Napo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves
are used to clean the blood (unspecified ethnic group – Napo). Grass is used by
sorcerers (unspecified ethnicity – Others (Ecuador)) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru:
Dried stems are used to treat inflammation of the kidneys, wounds (cleansing),
stomach, urinary tract, kidney stones, and inflammations (general) (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011). It is also used for
internal inflammations, infections, stomach inflammation, intestinal infection, vag-
inal infection, ovary inflammation, puerperal care, and vaginal washings or cata-
plasms (Monigatti et al. 2013). Horsetail is one of the most commonly collected and
sold plants in Northern Peru (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008a, 2009; Bussmann and
Sharon 2009; Revene et al. 2008). Antibacterial activity has been confirmed
(Bussmann et al. 2008b, c, 2010a, b, 2011a, b). Often the species forms part of
emolientes (warm beverages used for breakfast) (Bussmann et al. 2015b).
Local Food Uses
Equisetum giganteum: Ecuador: Peeled rhizome is edible (unspecified ethnic

group – Other (Ecuador)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Markets, healers, vendors, collectors: the sustainability of medicinal
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
Bussmann RW, Barocio Y, Díaz P D, Sharon D. Peruvian plants Canchalagua (Schkuhria pinnata
(Lam.) Kuntze), Hercampuri (Gentianella alborosea (Gilg.) Fabris), and corpus way
2008c;15(1):149–52.
2010a;9(4):742–53.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Caballo” – horsetail, in the markets of La Paz, Bolivia. Econ Bot. 2015a;69:89–93.
2015b;69:83–8.
Alto (Bolivia) and Trujillo/Chiclayo (Perú). Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018a;17(3):494–8.
plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018b;14(1):43. https://doi.org/
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.

Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.
ROSACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.: Crataegus bibas Lour.; Mespilus japonica

Thunb.; Photinia japonica (Thunb.) Benth. & Hook. f. ex Asch. & Schweinf.
Local Names
Spanish: Níspero, Níspero del japón
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Small tree or shrub, with dense rufous-gray tomentose pubescence covering shoots,
underside of leaves, and inflorescence; leaves rigid-coriaceous, evergreen, glabrous
above, dark green, large, to 2–5 cm long and 7–8 cm wide, lanceolate or oblong-
lanceolate, acute, with decurrent cuneate base, minute-petioled, mostly with coarse,
sparse teeth, sometimes only in upper part, some leaves entire; inflorescence a
broadly pyramidal panicle to 17 cm long; flowers inconspicuous owing to dense
pubescence covering all parts of inflorescence, aromatic; sepals short, rounded-
obovate; petals white, pubescent inside; stamens 20; fruits large, about 3 cm in
diameter, with persistent sepals at the apex, glabrous at maturity, yellow, 3–5-locular,
with few, mostly 2–3, less often 1–4–7 large seeds, succulent, bittersweet. The ripe
fruits contain 6% invert sugars, 94% saccharose, 0.6% malic acid, and 3%
pentosans. The seeds contain a small quantity of prussic-acid, amygdalin,
laurocerasin, and saponin (Figs. 1 and 2).
The decoction of the bark and the fruit of the Níspero are used in Colombia to purify
the blood, to cure the evils of the kidney, to throw gallstones, and to temper the
nerves. It is also recommended to cure diabetes by cooking the leaves or flowers. The
decoction of the leaves is used for the treatment of varicose veins and poor circula-
tion, to cleanse the kidney and against the problems associated with uric acid (Bernal
et al. 2011; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2011;
Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: Fresh leaves are used to treat liver, diabetes, and to
reduce cholesterol (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007). The
infusion of the leaves is taken to treat arthritis and kidney pain (unspecified ethnicity
– Azuay). It is also used to heal wounds and to treat rheumatism, urine sickness, and
kidney conditions (Mestizo-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). In Madagascar,
Fig. 1 Eriobotrya japonica

Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. 803

Eriobotrya is used to treat cough (Rakotoarivelo et al. 2015) as well as infections

during pregnancy and bilharzia (Rabearivony et al. 2015).
Local Food Uses
Widely eaten. Ecuador: The fruit is edible (Mestizo-Imbabura, Pichincha,

Tungurahua, Azuay, Loja, Others (Costa Region); unspecified ethnic group – Gua-
yas, Pichincha, Cañar, Azuay, Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). In Peru, the species is
sometimes used in emolientes (Bussmann et al. 2015). It is widely planted in parts of
the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2018) (Fig. 3).
Ecuador: The fruit is used as food for animals (unspecified ethnic group –
Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Bees visit the flowers of this species (unspecified
ethnicity – Loja). The stem is used to make fence posts (Mestizo, unspecified
ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is sown as a living fence
(Mestiza-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

(Rosaceae), market, Tbilisi,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
References
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of longevity – the medicinal flora of Vilcabamba. Plantas de longevidad
– La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-2-2.
2015;69:83–8.
the Ambalabe rural commune. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015.
Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Hér. ex Aiton
GERANIACEAE
Synonyms
Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Hér. ex Aiton: Erodium chaerophyllum Steud.;

Erodium cicutarium fo. chaerophyllum (Cav.) DC.; Erodium chaerophyllum var.
arenicola (Steud.) Speg.; Erodium cicutarium var. triviale Trautv.; Erodium
millefolium Kunth; Erodium moranense Kunth; Erodium pimpinellifolium Sibth.;
Erodium praecox Willd.; Erodium triviale Jord.; Geranium arenicola Steud.; Gera-
nium chaerophyllum Cav.; Geranium cicutarium L.; Geranium pimpinellifolium
With.
Local Names
Bolivia: Aguja aguja, Reloj reloj (Spanish), Yauri yauri (Aymara) (Macía et al. 2005;
Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016); Ecuador: Agujas, Alfiler,
Alfilerillo (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Agujilla blanca, Auguilla,
Augilla (Spanish).
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Erodium cicutarium

(Geraniaceae), Grazalema,
Spain. (Photo R.W. Bussmann
and N.Y. Paniagua-Zamnrana)
Botany and Ecology
Annual herb, plant covered with lamelliform hairs, more or less glandular; stems
prostrate or ascending, 10–50 cm high; leaves oblong, pinnatisect, with
pinnatipartite or pinnatisect segments decurrent on stem. Sepals 4–5 mm long,
7 mm in fruit, short-awned; petals pink-purple, 4–6 mm long; mericarps ca. 5 mm
long, not tuberculate, pit surrounded by fold; beak 20–40 mm long. Dry slopes,
steppes, semideserts, deserts, foothills, and as a weed (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Bolivia: The whole fresh plant serves to treat molar pain, gallbladder, measles,
cystitis, kidney infection, prostate, and for inflammations (Macía et al. 2005; Justo
Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016). Ecuador: The plant is used as
purgative. The infusion of the plant is drunk before the menstrual period (unspecified
ethnicity – Cotopaxi). The plant is given to women who fall and have vaginal
bleeding, and it is also used for other types of hemorrhages (Mestizo, unspecified
ethnicity – Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Hér. ex Aiton 807
Fig. 2 Erodium cicutarium

(Geraniaceae), Caspana,
Señoret)
Peru: The whole fresh plant is used to treat inflammation, bronchitis, high blood
pressure, and low blood pressure (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b;
Bussmann and Glenn 2010). It is sometimes sold in local markets (Bussmann et al.
2007; Revene et al. 2008). It has some antibacterial activity (Bussmann and Glenn
2010; Bussmann et al. 2010, 2011a, b).
Local Food Uses
In the Caucasus, Erodium leaves are part of herb pies, similar to spinach (Bussmann
et al. 2018).
Ecuador: The plant is used as fodder for cattle and other quadrupeds (unspecified
ethnic group – Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Bolívar, Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al.
2008).
References
Rev Peruana Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Errazurizia multifoliolata (Clos) I.M. Johnst.
FABACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Errazurizia multifoliolata (Clos) I.M. Johnst.: Errazurizia glandulifera Phil.,

Psoralea multifoliolata Clos, Psoralea multifoliolata (Clos) J.F. Macbr.
Local Names
Chile: Castilla ruda, Roda
Botany and Ecology
Procumbent, loosely straggling or diffuse, softly woody, resinously malodorous sub-

shrubs forming masses of entangled stems up to 1.5 m diam but less than half as tall, the
young stems and leaf-rachis densely villous-tomentulose with sinuous, subappressed
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

and ascending hairs up to 0.3–0.55 mm long and charged with many subglobose, grain-
like orange glands emergent from the vesture, the herbage greenish-cinereous, the
leaflets pubescent both sides, gland-sprinkled beneath; stipules linear-subulate, (1.5)
2–4.5 mm long, firm but not spinescent, castaneous, thinly strigulose, or distally
glabrate, when young tipped with a caducous gland; post- and intrapetiolular glands
grain-like; leaves 2–8 cm long, short-petioled, with 5–10(11) pairs of oblong-
oblanceolate to obovate or oblong-elliptic, retuse, obtuse, or truncate and gland-
apiculate, shortly petiolulate leaflets 2–10 mm long; peduncles 1–4 cm long; spikes
narrow, loosely 15–75-flowered, the ascending flowers all separated or some irregularly
clustered, the axis becoming 5–20 cm long; bracts persistent or tardily deciduous,
resembling stipules, 1.5–4 mm long; bracteoles represented by sessile glands; calyx
4.3–5.3 mm long, thinly gray-pilosulous, the tube 2.4–3 mm long, 2.5–3 mm diam,
prominently 11-ribbed, the rib leading to the dorsal sinus double, the firm intervals
charged with 1 row of 3–5 small blister-glands, the ovate, obtuse, or gland-mucronate
and thus subacute teeth all similar but the dorsal one slightly longer than the rest,
2–2.5 mm long; petals yellow, subcarnosulous, the banner densely pubescent dorsally,
sometimes thinly so within, the inner petals glabrous; banner broadly oblong-obovate,
4.5–5 mm long, 2.1–2.6 mm wide, emarginate, around the apex involute; wings only a
trifle shorter, obliquely oblanceolate, the blade separated from the claw by an obscure
auricle; keel 4.1–5 mm long, the claws 1.8–2.5 mm, the obliquely triangular blades
1.7–2.5 mm long, 1.6–1.8 mm wide; androecium 9-merous, 4 mm long, the filaments
unequal, the longest free for 2 mm, the yellow anthers 0.5–0.6 mm long; style stout,
1.3–2.2 mm long, somewhat dorsoventrally compressed at base and laterally so at apex,
abruptly incurved below the stigma and charged dorsally at the bend with a large gland;
ovules 2, not exactly collateral; pod 4 mm long, obovoid, nearly glabrous or thinly
pilose distally, charged with many large purple-brown glands; seed (little known)
3.1–3.6 mm long. Sea level to 1400 m (Barneby 1977).
The infusion of aerial parts is used for the treatment of stomach pain, while the
combustion of aerial parts as incense is used against “air sickness” (Barneby 1977;
References
Barneby RC. Daleae Imagines, an illustrated revision of Errazurizia Philippi, Psorothamnus
Rydberg, Marine Liebmann, and Dalea Lucanus emen. Barneby, including all species of
Leguminosae tribe Amorpheae Borissova ever referred to Dalea. Mem New York Bot Gard.
1977;27:1–892.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Eryngium foetidum L.
APIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Eryngium foetidum L.: Eryngium antihystericum Rottb.; Eryngium foetidum var.

comosum Urb.; Eryngium foetidum fo. comosum Urb.; Eryngium fo. nudum
H. Wolff.; Eryngium molleri Gand.
Local Names
Colombia: Cilantro ancho, Cilantro cimarrón, Cilantro de indio, Culantro, Culantro

de coyote, Culantro de culebra, Culantro de sabana, Culantrón, Koulant, Perocón;
Cilantrón, Piurená, Chadwoin Beni, Culentro de Culebra, Koulant, Culantro; Ecua-
dor: Culantrillo; English: Spirit Weed
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
An erect and thin-stemmed biennial up to 60 cm tall with fibrous roots. The plant has
a cilantro-like odor. The bottom leaves are up to 30 cm long and lance-shaped with
thickened fine teeth along the margin and the base sheaths around the stem for 3 cm.
The upper leaves are smaller and often opposite with spiny tips. The flower heads are
short spikes and surrounded below by a whorl of 5–6 spreading leafy bracts. The tips
of the bracts are 3-lobed and each is spine tipped. The fruit is round with tiny,
tan-colored appendages. Occurs widespread in the neotropics as far south as Bolivia
(Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
In Colombia, the whole plant is used as a febrifuge, to promote menstruation, to

increase appetite, as antiscorbutic, antirheumatic, antiseptic, against vomiting and
nausea, as antiflatulent and prepared in decoction against colic and also in the
treatment of influenza, the pain of head, hemorrhage, stomach pain, seizures,
diarrhea, malaria, cough, spasms, and sexual impotence. Prepared in the form of
baths, it is widely used in the treatment of smallpox and gonorrhea. It is consid-
ered a substitute for cilantro, and in hot earth, it is used as a seasoning especially
for soups (Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de
Protección Social 2008; Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The whole plant is
used to treat flatulence, flu, indigestion, smallpox, stomach problems, and as
vermifuge (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to
treat kidney problems.
Fig. 1 Eryngium humile

(Apiaceae), Uchumarca, Peru.
Eryngium foetidum L. 813




Local Food Uses
Colombia: The whole plant is used as condiment (Bussmann et al. 2018).
References
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Erythranthe glabrata (Kunth) G.L. Nesom
PHRYMACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Erythranthe glabrata (Kunth) G.L. Nesom: Mimulus glabratus Kunth
Local Names
Chile: Oqoro, Berro, Berro colorado, Chigüilla
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Erythranthe glabrata

(Phrymaceae), Matancilla,
Señoret)
Botany and Ecology
Annual or perennial herb, 1–10 cm high, with stems prostrate or weakly ascending,
with basal root nodes. Leaves opposite, with herbaceous and flattened petiole, with
ovate sheet from 8–20 7–20 mm, soft, with entire or irregularly crenate margin.
Yellow flowers, sometimes with reddish spots, solitary in the armpits of the leaves;
pedicels from 10 to 40 mm; bell-shaped calyx finished in 5 teeth; corolla 7–18 mm,
with two lobed lips, the lower one larger, emarginated. Fruit bivalve capsule, with
numerous small seeds, chestnuts. It blooms in late spring, early summer, sea level to
4500 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).
The aerial parts are fresh and are used for treatment of liver diseases. The infusion of
the aerial parts mixed with cortadera (Cortederia atacamensis) is used to relieve
fever and for diseases of the vesicle (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
Erythranthe glabrata (Kunth) G.L. Nesom 817
Local Food Uses
The leaves with oil are eaten as a salad (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
The plant is used as forage (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Erythrina fusca Lour.
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Erythrina fusca Lour.: Corallodendron fuscum (Lour.) Kuntze; Corallodendron

glaucum (Willd.) Kuntze; Corallodendron patens (Moc. & Sessé ex DC.) Kuntze;
Duchassaingia glauca (Willd.) Walp.; Duchassaingia ovalifolia (Roxb.) Walp.;
Erythrina atrosanguinea Ridl.; Erythrina caffra Blanco; Erythrina caffra Thnub.;
Erythrina fusca var. inermis Pulle; Erythrina var. inermis Rock; Erythrina glauca
Willd; Erythrina moelebii Veill. ex Guillaumin & Beauvisage; Erythrina ovalifolia
Roxb.; Erythrina patens DC.; Erythrina patens Moc. & Sessé ex DC.; Erythrina
picta Blanco; Gelala aquatica Rumph.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Erythrina edulis

(Fabaceae), Leymebamba,
Local Names
Colombia: Chochos; Ecuador: Porotillo; Palo prieto (Spanish) (de la Torre et al.
2008).
Botany and Ecology
A small tree up to 7 m tall with spiny, slender young stems. Leaves alternate and
compound, each with 3 leaflets and is borne from a short leaf stalk. The middle
leaflets is largest and egg-shaped, up to 15 cm long and each has a blunt base.
Flowers borne on a spike near the top of the branch, each flower with a dark red stalk.
The sepals form a bell-shape 1 cm long and are green, often with orange stripes. The
flag is bright orange, elliptic and 3 cm long, the wings and keel are green with black
margins, and the keel is 2 cm long. The legume is 30–40 cm long and 1.5 cm wide
with blackish-green wax covering and is pinched around the seeds. Seeds are
kidney-shaped and beige-brown in color. Occurs in disturbed montane forests and
cloud forests including riparian areas from Colombia to Argentina at elevations up to
2300 m (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
In Colombia, the infusion of the flowers is used to fall asleep. The extract (also taken
from flowers) has hypnotic and sedative properties and is very useful in the treatment
of madness. This species is also diuretic and purgative. The extract is also used in the
Erythrina fusca Lour. 821


treatment of cough, asthma, hepatitis, and liver problems. Mature seeds are used to
eliminate styes, leaving three or four of these in a glass of cold water and taking a
small portion every morning on an empty stomach (García Barriga 1974; Patiño

Local Food Uses
The seeds of Erythrina edulis are wildely eaten (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007).
Ecuador: The leaves are used as fodder for cattle and other quadrupeds (Mestizo-
Guayas) (de La Torre et al. 2008). The plant is sown as a living fence (Mestizo-
Guayas; unspecified ethnic group – Los Ríos) (de La Torre et al. 2008). It is used to
make coal (unspecified ethnicity – Others (Coast Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
9789962-2-2.
Erythroxylum coca Lam.
ERYTHROXYLACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Erythroxylum coca Lam.: Erythroxylum bolivianum Burck.; Erythroxylum chulpei

E. Machado; Erythroxylum coca L. ex Ant. Molina
Local Names
Colombia: Árbol del coca, Coca, Cocaá, Igatúa, Ipatú, Javo, Jayuelo, Kaji, Pató,
Patu (Colombia); Bolivia: Coca (Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005; Bussmann et al.
2016); Ecuador: Coca (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Coca (Spanish)
English: Coca shrub
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Dicotyledonous shrub, growing up to 5 m tall. The bark is rough, reddish brown. It

has small axillary flowers of color ivory they measure, about 2 cm in diameter, and a
smell similar to almonds. The seed is an ovoid drupe whose diameter oscillates
between 1 and 2 cm and of a red color when it is mature. The leaves, which are the
most important part, are usually arranged in groups of seven on each stem. They are
oval in shape and their dimensions vary between 4 and 8 cm wide, bright green, with
little aroma and flavor bitter and astringent, which when placed in the mouth causes a
slight sensation of numbness and local anesthesia. In Bolivia and Peru, the tradi-
tional forms of use and consumption of the coca leaf, as well as its cultivation, are
legal by each government up to a certain amount in tons and hectares to, precisely,
avoid the large-scale production of cocaine. Coca is harvested up to three times a
year manually in the area of the Bolivian Yungas (in the Department of La Paz,
Bolivia); it is harvested 4 times a year in the Chapare of the Department of
Cochabamba (Bolivia) and up to six times in the Alto Huallaga (Peru). The use of
coca leaves, both in its ritual aspect as well as light stimulant and analgesic, in the
Andean area goes back at least to about three thousand years before our era, since
coca leaves have been found as part of the offerings in the burials of all the
pre-Columbian populations. Moreover, analyses of hair remains of millenary
Andean mummies have proven the presence of the components of the coca leaf,
which showed the great age of their consumption. Even before the emergence of the
Inca empire (approximately in the year 1400 of our era), the use of coca was within
the reach of the population in general. However, in the time of the Incas, coca was
controlled by the Inca State and considered a luxury item, and was used during the
priestly rites only by the Inca and noble emperors. Subsequently, however, its
consumption was stimulated by the Spanish conquistadors to extend the hours of
work of the original labor force and since then its use was once again widely
disseminated among the indigenous population of the Andes (Bussmann 2016).
The chaqchar, piqchar, or acullicar (in local languages) is the act of introducing
the coca leaves in the mouth and moistening them with saliva, forming a bolus,
which is kept between the teeth and the inside of the cheeks, to slowly extract the
active substances and stimulants. To achieve the desired effects, it is necessary to
periodically add a little alkaline component to the mixture, usually alkaline ash
(mostly calcium bicarbonate of vegetable origin). This is achieved with llipta, lliqta,
or toqra (burned plant material mixed with urine and flavoring agents of plant origin)
or simply with the help of a toothpick previously moistened with saliva and
submerged in slaked lime (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Bolivia: Fresh or dried leaves are used to treat stomachache, arthritis, headache, and
cold (Macía et al. 2005; Bussmann et al. 2016). Colombia: In Colombia, the leaves
are used as a stimulant and as an anesthetic tonic in gargles. Coca is a narcotic and is
Erythroxylum coca Lam. 825
Fig. 1 Erythroxylum coca

(Erythroxylaceae), Coroico,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
used as pain reliever in different preparations. The coca leaves in infusion or tisane
are used as a sedative and mild soothing to relieve pain. The decoction of the leaves
applied in cloths is useful to treat conjunctivitis. The indigenous population uses
coca as a stimulant or “food for saving,” chewing (“mambeando”) the leaves in the
form of powder, in order to withstand the lack of food; it also calms fatigue and does
not give desire to eat, although only they use it on trips or long trips, or when they go
for hunting (García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Leaves are used to treat
conjunctivitis and are also used as sedative, as stimulant, and as tranquilizer
(Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: An anesthetic is extracted from its leaves with
which Inca surgeons performed trepanning. Later, in 1860, Niemann isolated
cocaine from the leaves and the discovery of its application as a local anesthetic
by Koller, in 1884, contributed significantly to advances in pharmacology
(unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar, Others (Ecuador, South America)). Tea
of leaves serves to treat a sore throat, nausea, dizziness, and severe headaches
resulting from soroche or mountain sickness that occasionally results from low
oxygen content in the air and low atmospheric pressure (unspecified ethnic group
– Other (South America)). The leaves are used to treat malaria, and this use had a
high rating (unspecified ethnic group – Others (Bolivia)). The leaves, in infusion, are
considered as the remedy par excellence to treat conditions of the digestive system
(indigestion, gas, and stomachache). Sprays are used to treat inflammations caused

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
by worms, rotten wounds, and to reduce swelling of wounds; pulverized and in

proportion of two parts with one part of sugar and mixed with the seeds, they are
used to treat asthma and hoarseness of the chest; pulverized and mixed with salt and
egg white, they are used to treat skin ulcers, fractures, and to help strengthen bones
preventing their disintegration; when chewed, they are used to treat eye irritation
(unspecified ethnicity – Other (South America)). The infusion of the seeds, with
honey and good grass, is taken to relax the stomach and relieve vomiting. The seeds
Erythroxylum coca Lam. 827
are used to stop all blood flow from the nose. It is used to treat rheumatic ailments
and inflammations (unspecified ethnicity – Other (South America)) (de la Torre et al.
2008). Peru: Dried leaves are used to treat cold, cough, inflammation of the throat,
induces childbirth, strength for woman during childbirth, helping delivery of new-
born, alertness, and ritual practices (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b;
Monigatti et al. 2013). It is rarely sold in markets in Peru (Bussmann et al. 2007,
2010a; Bussmann and Sharon 2009) but very commonly in Bolivia (Bussmann et al.
2016). Coca is chewed with the ashes of other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010b). It is
sometimes used as an ingredient in emolientes (Bussmann et al. 2015).
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: The local population considers coca leaves as food from which they
receive sustenance (unspecified ethnicity – Other (South America)). Materials: The
leaves are used to prevent weakness of the teeth and gums (unspecified ethnic group
– Other (South America)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
The chewing of the leaves has been widely practiced by the indigenous people of
South America, for more than two thousand years (together with an alkaline
mixture), for its stimulating effect that reduces muscle depletion, relieves hunger,
thirst, and expels the cold of body. It has been especially used in shaman practices to
reach trance states. In addition, the plant, considered sacred and divine, was used as
an offering in the sacrifices (Carchi – Carchi Culture; Pre-Columbian Cultures –
Other (Andean Region); unspecified ethnicity – Other (Ecuador, Andean Region,
South America)). It is the tonic stimulant best known by modern man; it was used in
this way by kings, popes, doctors, and artists, since about 1884 (unspecified ethnicity
– no locality). It is used as a powerful addictive narcotic. This use began 50 or
60 years after being isolated by Niemann in 1860 (unspecified ethnicity – Others
(Ecuador)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Markets, Healers, Vendors, Collectors, – the sustainability of medicinal
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
2015;69:83–8.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
450–64.
Eucalyptus citriodora Hook.
Eucalyptus globulus Labill.
MYRTACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Eucalyptus citriodora Hook.: Eucalyptus maculata var. citriodora (Hook.)

L.H. Bailey
Local Names
Eucalyptus citriodora: Ecuador: Mishki eucalipto (Spanish-Kichwa), Eucalipto,

Eucalipto aromático (Spanish), Nanume (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al.
2008)
Eucalyptus globulus: Bolivia: Eucalipto (Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005; Justo
Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016); Colombia: Eucaliptus, Ocal,
Eucalipto, Caucapito (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Eucalipto (Span-
ish); Peru: Alcanfor, Eucalipto Serrano, Eucalipto (Spanish); English: Blue gum
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Eucalyptus citriodora: A medium-sized tree; bark smooth, deciduous; wood light-

colored, tough; juvenile leaves opposite, 4–5 pairs, petioled, oblong or oblong-
lanceolate, some peltate, 7–15 cm long and 3–6 cm broad; mature leaves alternate,
petioled, narrowly or broadly lanceolate, with strong lemon scent, 10–16 cm long
and 1–2 cm broad; inflorescence terminal, corymbose; umbels 3–5-flowered; pedun-
cles terete, 5–7 mm long; flower buds ovoid, stalked 10–12 mm long and 7–8 mm
broad; operculum hemispherical, shorter than calyx-tube; anthers obovate, locules
long and broad, gland ovoid, about half length of locules; fruit urceolate, stalked,
10 mm long and as broad, tapered to short thick neck; disk small, oblique. Native to
Australia, widely cultivated. Fresh leaves contain 11.5% essential oil, dry leaves
3–4%; oil largely composed of citronellal (80–92%), and hence it is used in soap
making (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Eucalyptus globulus: A large or medium tree, up to 50 m tall; bark smooth, bluish,
deciduous except in lower part of trunk; juvenile leaves opposite, a considerable
number of pairs, sessile to amplexicaul, glaucous, cordate or ovate or broadly
lanceolate, 7–16 cm long and 1–9 cm broad; mature leaves alternate, petioled,
dark green, lustrous, lanceolate or cordate-lanceolate, acuminate, 10–30 cm long
and 3–4 cm broad; flower buds usually solitary, sessile or very short stalked, tubular,
4-angled, warty or tuberculate, 30 mm long and 20 mm broad; operculum
cup-shaped, with dome-shaped appendage, warty, sometimes much shorter than
tube; anther obovate, dehiscing by broad parallel slits, visible on anterior side;
fruit sessile, depressed-spherical or broadly tubular, warty, with 4 main ribs and
1 to several short subsidiary ribs, 10–15 mm long and 15–30 mm broad; disk large,
convex, very thick. The main component is cineolic acid (58–70%). Eucalyptus
globulus is native to Tasmania and south-eastern Australia but is now widely planted
and naturalized in subtropical regions around the world (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Eucalyptus citriodora: Ecuador: The leaves are used to treat respiratory conditions
such as flu, colds, and pneumonia, both in infusion and steam baths. It is antitussive
(Kichwa of the Sierra-Imbabura; Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group –
Imbabura, Pichincha, Chimborazo). It is used to treat rheumatic pain (Mestiza-
Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used
to treat diabetes (Bussmann and Glenn 2011a).
Eucalyptus globulus: Bolivia: Fresh or dried leaves are used to treat rheumatism,
for postpartum care, asthma, cough, flu, cold, mucus in the lungs and “air” (Macía
et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016; Quiroga et al.
2012). Colombia: In Colombia, the species is used for its expectorant properties, as
febrifuge, reducing blood sugar, bronchial mucus, and intestinal worms. The essen-
tial oil is used against dry and irritating throat cough, as an expectorant, and as an
Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. . . . 831
Fig. 1 Eucalyptus
sp. (Myrtaceae), Batumi,
Georgia. (Photos
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Eucalyptus
Georgia. (Photos
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 3 Eucalyptus sp. (Myrtaceae), Batumi, Georgia. (Photos R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Fig. 4 Eucalyptus
Georgia. (Photos
R.W. Bussmann and
antiseptic. The ripe leaves, fresh or dried, are prepared in decoction or infusion to
relieve the flu and as a disinfectant in bronchial, laryngeal, and catarrh affections.
The decoction of the leaves is also consumed to cure diabetes. Eucalyptus leaves
Fig. 5 Eucalyptus sp. (Myrtaceae), Batumi, Georgia. (Photos R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Fig. 6 Eucalyptus
Georgia. (Photos
R.W. Bussmann and
also serve in the treatment of intermittent fever and especially in malaria. The leaves
have sudorific properties, antispasmodic, and against colds. Preparing inhalations of
eucalyptus alleviates hoarseness and loss of voice and sinusitis is cured. The leaves
are also used against fever and as an insecticide (Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and
Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Martínez
Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez
Arbeláez 1996). Fresh or dried leaves are used to treat varicose veins, throat inflam-
mation, sores, rheumatism, respiratory tract, flu, cough, fever, laryngitis, as expecto-
rant, for diabetes, promotes sweating, as insecticide, and for sahumerio; leaves and
fruits are used to treat sinusitis, lung diseases, bronchitis, asthma, and as decongestant
(Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: Fresh leaves are used to treat sore throat and
bronchitis (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: Fresh or
dried leaves are used to treat bronchitis, respiration, cold, cough, sinusitis, asthma,
congestion, rheumatism, bone pain, and burn fat (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010, 2011b; Monigatti et al. 2013), as well
as nervous system problems (Bussmann et al. 2010b, d). Eucalyptus is one of the most
commonly sold medicinal plants (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008a). It has proven
antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008b, 2009, 2010b, c, 2011a, b; Bussmann and
Sharon 2009). It is very often used in mixture with other species (Bussmann et al.
2010a). Nowadays eucalyptus is also used to treat “modern” ailments like diabetes and
cancer (Bussmann and Glenn 2011a). It is in Peru frequently added to emolientes
(Bussmann et al. 2015). Eucalyptus is used in Kenya to treat malaria (Njoroge and
Bussmann 2006a), pimples and ringworm (Njoroge and Bussmann 2007), sexually
transmitted diseases (Njoroge and Bussmann 2009), and respiratory disorders
(Njoroge and Bussmann 2006b). In Madagascar, it is used to treat stomachache
(Rabearivony et al. 2015) and malaria (Rakotoarivelo et al. 2015), and is often found
in local markets (Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015).
The flowers are visited by bees. The wood is used as posts and beams (unspecified
ethnic group – Carchi, Pichincha). The plant is sown as living fence (de la Torre et al.
2008). It is used in Kenya to treat respiratory tract problems in cattle (Njoroge and
Bussmann 2006c).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
of diabetes and cancer in Northern Peru. J Med Plant Res. 2011a;5(31):6916–30.
rheumatism, arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011b;10(3):397–412.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Markets, healers, vendors, collectors: the sustainability of medicinal
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010d;4(9):580–629.
2015;69:83–8.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.

D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Phytotherapeutic management of diversity and utilization of antima-
larial ethnophytotherapeutic remedies among the Kikuyus (Central Kenya). J Ethnobiol
Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:54.
Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Herbal usage and informant consensus in ethnoveterinary manage-
ment of cattle diseases among the Kikuyus (Central Kenya). J Ethnopharmacol.
2006c;108:332–9.
Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Ethnotherapeutic management of skin diseases among the Kikuyus of
Central Kenya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2007;111:303–7.
Knowl. 2009;8(2):262–9.
2015;11:60.
Euphorbia klotzschii Oudejans
EUPHORBIACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Euphorbia klotzschii Oudejans: Anisophyllum ovalifolium Klotzsch & Garcke,

Euphorbia ovalifolia (Klotzsch & Garcke) Boiss.
Local Names
Chile: Leche, Pastoleche, Pastolechero, Verdulaga, Lecheleche, Lecherito del campo
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Euphorbia amandi

(Euphorbiaceae), Chile.
Señoret)
Fig. 2 Chamaesyce prostrata

(Euphorbiaceae), Pusac, Peru.

Euphorbia klotzschii Oudejans 839
Fig. 4 Chamaesyce
prostrata (Euphorbiaceae),
Pusac, Peru. (Photo
Paniagua-Zambrana)

Botany and Ecology
Annual herb with leaves showing a certain degree of succulence. When the plant
blooms, the foliage often becomes tinged with dark red or purplish hues (Fig. 1).
Similar to Chamaesyce prostrata (Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
The secreted latex is used to heal wounds and to remove warts on the skin
Fig. 6 Chamaesyce prostrata (Euphorbiaceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y
Paniagua-Zambrana)
Local Food Uses
The aerial parts are consumed as salads and soup accompanied with potatoes
(Solanum tuberosum) (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
The plant is used as forage (bitter and toxic) (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and
Castro 2003).
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Fabiana bryoides Phil.
Fabiana densa J. Remy
Fabiana denudata Miers
Fabiana ramulosa (Wedd.) Hunz. & Barboza
Fabiana squamata Phil.
SOLANACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Fabiana densa J. Remy: Fabiana clarenii Dammer

Fabiana denudata Miers: Fabiana hieronymi Niederl.
Fabiana ramulosa (Wedd.) Hunz. & Barboza: Fabiana densa var. ramulosa
Wedd. Fabiana deserticola Reiche.
Local Names
Fabiana bryoides: Chile: Pata de perdiz, Pata de pizaca, K’oa Santiago, K’oa
Fabiana densa: Chile: Khachukipa, Kipa hembra, Khachu, Kipt’ula.
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fabiana denudata: Chile: Alma tola, Leña del alma, Tara, Taratara, Tara hembra,
Khachutara, Chinatara, Tarita, Tablilla, Khachu, Kipt’ula, Kipat’ula hembra,
Kipat’ula, Kipat’ola, kKpa hembra, Kipa, Tolita, tolilla, Tola del campo.
Fabiana ramulosa: Chile: Kipa, Kipat’ula, Tola, Chajilla, Tatnlawa, Monte negro,
Monte derecho, Monte soldao, Tara, Tara macho, Tola, Tolilla, Tola tara, Pecha.
Fabiana squamata: Chile: Qoba, Q’oba, Koba macho, Koba Santiago, Santiago
koba, Koa, Koa Santiago, Ilakowa, Qhoiye, Pata de perdiz, Kipa, kKipa, Orqokipa,
Kipa macho, Kipat’ol, Orqo kipat’ula, Kipat’ula macho, Secrado, Ilink’ikipa Macha
tara macho.
Botany and Ecology
Fabiana bryoides: Low plants up to 50 cm high, macroblasts completely covered by

brachyblasts, rosulated, scaly, and glabrous leaves, which gives a rough appearance.
Flowers sessile, glabrescent, solitary in each braquiblast. Corolla 9–11.5 mm, white
to violaceous, infundibuliform, with the thinnest tube towards the base, with 5 lobes,
subtriangular, wider than long; stamens heteromorphic, anthers almost as long as
wide, 0.5–0.7 mm; semilunar stigma. Fruit a pluriseminated septicidal capsule,
ovoid to obovoid, partly enveloped by the growing calyx. 2900–4900 m above sea
level.
Fabiana densa: Shrub up to 1 m in height. Foliage dense with glandular hairs. The
flowers are in the upper parts of the branches and are 3–5.7 mm long, the calyx tube
is at the base of the urn-shaped form. The corolla is funnel-shaped, measuring 10–13
(rare 13.5) mm, often has red or purple stripes on a yellow background. The fruit is a
capsule of 6–7 mm and the seeds have a size of approximately 1.5 0.5 mm.
2700–4500 m above sea level (Alaria and Peralta 2013).
Fabiana denudata: Greenish shrub, 0.5–1 m tall, without leaves, or if they exist,
they are squamiform, with photosynthetic, flexuous stems. Terminal flowers, sessile
or briefly pedicelled, on macro or brachyblasts. Calyx 6–8 mm, with the tube 2 or
more times longer than the segments, with few glandular hairs. Infundibuliform
corolla up to 2 cm. Stamens heteromorphic, with independent teak. Fruit an ovoid to
obovoid capsule, something covered by the increased calyx. 300–3700 m above sea
level (Alaria and Peralta 2013).
Fabiana ramulosa: Resinous shrub 0.5–1 m tall; Stem erect, branching, resinous,
and glandular. Leaves densely pubescent, small, sessile, alternate, linear, 2–4 mm
long. Solitary, showy flowers, can exceed 1 cm in length, terminals on braquiblasts,
pedicels 1–6 mm long; corolla with petals infundibuliform, pubescent, yellow with
violet veins. Fruit a capsule 7–7.5 mm long; numerous seeds, small, globose, oval,
brown. 3200–4000 m above sea level (Alaria and Peralta 2013).
Fabiana squamata: Shrub 20–30 cm high. Stem erect, branched, resinous, glabrous.
Leaves persistent, sessile, glabrous densely imbricated, oval-triangular sheet of
2 mm 1.5–2 mm. Solitary flowers, terminals on macroblasts, erect. Calyx tubular,
glabrous, of 2–3.5 mm 2 mm, triangular lobes of 1 mm 0.5 mm. Corolla
infundibuliform yellow to green-yellowish, glabrous, of 6–11.5 mm 2 mm, lobes
Fabiana bryoides Phil. . . . 843
short, erect of 1 mm 0.5–1 mm. Stamens heteromorphic, inserted 2 mm from the

base of the corolla, the 2 longest of 5 mm. and the 3 shortest of 3 mm, anthers of
0.8–1 mm 0.2–0.4 mm wide. Ovary obovate, 1–1.5 mm 1 mm, stigma barely
truncated. 3000–4400 m above sea level (Alaria and Peralta 2013).
Fabiana bryoides: Aerial parts such as bath are used against rubella (Peñaloza et al.
Fabiana densa: The infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment of cooling,
stomach pain, and cough. As a poultice, mixed with other herbs, it is used for the
treatment of breaks and bone pains. It is also used to cast bones (Rodriguez et al.
Fabiana denudata: The aerial parts are used as a poultice for the breaking of animal
bones. Like unguent, prepared from the infusion of this plant with verbena (Verbena
bonariaensis) and rue (Ruta chalepensis), and it is used for pains after a bone break
or postoperation. The aerial parts are used as “baños de pisada” for the treatment of
knee pain, stomachaches, internal pains, and cooling. The infusion of the aerial parts
is used for convulsive cough, colds, and catarrhs (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez
et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003) (Fig. 1).
Fabiana ramulosa: The aerial parts are used in bathrooms for the treatment of
“desmandes.” The infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment of cough. It is
used against hair loss (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán
and Castro 2003) (Figs. 2, 3, and 4).
Fabiana squamata: The infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment of
stomach pain, vomiting, and diarrhea. The aerial parts crushed as a poultice are used
for the treatment of lung diseases, for nerves, for inflammation, and for bone
fractures. The crushed aerial parts are used as baths to relieve inflammation. It is
used as a purgative (Alaria and Peralta 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and
Castro 2003) (Fig. 5).
Local Food Uses
Fabiana ramulosa: Host of the edible parasite Ombrophytum subterraneum

(Balanaphoraceae) (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán
and Castro 2003).
Fabiana bryoides: Ceremonial shrub is used in rituals related to “payments to the

ancients,” “enfloramiento de ganado,” carnivals, cleaning of channels burning the
aerial parts as incense in a ceramic incense burner made for this purpose. It is often
Fig. 1 Fabiana denudata

(Solanaceae), Ayquina, Chile.
Señoret)
Fig. 2 Fabiana ramulosa

(Solanaceae), Caspana, Chile.
Señoret)

(Solanaceae), Ayquina, Chile.
Señoret)
Fabiana bryoides Phil. . . . 845

(Solanaceae), Quebrada Chita,
Señoret)
Fig. 5 Fabiana squamata

(Solanaceae), Chile. (Photo
mixed with wirakoa (Diplostephium cinereum). Firewood use (Peñaloza et al. 2013;
Fabiana denudata: The aerial parts, whiter and drier, of this plant knotted with
Sikuya straw (Stipa subaristata, Anatherostipa venusta) and with this bouquet
“limpia” the soul of the deceased. Then together with feathers of chururo or parina
(Phoenicoparrus andinus) and mouse guano are burned as incense for the deceased,
to separate lamas. This plant has a prominent role in animal medicine as a poultice,
mixing it in two ways: (i) when it is green with wheat flour, (ii) ground as a paste
mixed with urine, egg white, and wayko guano (Agriornis sp.), applying it as
bandages for the breaking of animal bones. Forage and firewood uses (Peñaloza
et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Fabiana ramulosa: The aerial parts of this plant are burned as incense in ceremonies
for the deceased. In the “clean of the deceased,” it is used for the “separation of
souls” mixed with Sikuya straw and parina feathers (Phoenicoparrus andinus). It is
also used as incense to remove “malos aires.” It is used as land closure. Forage and
firewood use (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and
Castro 2003).
Fabiana squamata: The aerial parts of this plant mixed with yareta resin (Azorella
compacta) and with wirakoba (Diplostephium cinereum) are burned as incense
during the cattle “enfloramento” in summer and in the cattle “rodeo” in winter, as
well as mixed with flame fat for the “gentiles”. It also has an ethnoveterinary use,
since the smoke from the combustion of the aerial parts causes the animals to yawn
and eliminate the worms they have in their heads. Firewood use (Alaria and Peralta
References
Alaria A, Peralta I. Las especies de Fabiana Ruiz et Pav. (Solanaceae) que crecen en chile.
2013;16:1–24.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Festuca chrysophylla Phil.
POACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Festuca chrysophylla Phil.: Festuca deserticola var. chrysophylla (Phil.) St.-Yves.,

Festuca deserticola. var. juncea St.-Yves., Festuca eriostoma Hack., Festuca juncea
(L.) Moench, Festuca juncea Phil., Festuca meyenii (St.-Yves) E.B. Alexeev,
Festuca ortophylla Pilg., Festuca ortophylla subvar. boliviana (Pilg.) St.-Yves,
Festuca ortophylla subvar. glabrescens (Pilg.) St.-Yves, Festuca ortophylla var.
boliviana Pilg., Festuca ortophylla var. eriostoma (Hack.) St.-Yves., Festuca
ortophylla var. glabrescens Pilg., Festuca ortophylla var. meyenii St.-Yves., Festuca
saltana St.-Yves
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Local Names
Chile: Iru wichu, Orqovichu, Wicho, Vichu, Vicho, Paja, Paja brava, Paja iru, Paja
iro, Espiga/Parwalla
Botany and Ecology
Perennial, caespitose plants, 20–45(65) cm high. Basal leaves papyrus pods, shiny,
glabrous. Ligule about 0.5 mm, pubescent on the margins. Jute or acicular laminae,
of (7)10–42 cm 0.5–1 mm, glabrous on the abaxial side and pubescent on the
adaxial, pungent. Panicles linear 5–14 cm, lax, basal branches 1–3 cm, glabrous,
adpressed. Spikelets elliptic to oblong, 3–5 flowers, 7–10 mm long. Glumes longer
than half of the lemma, lower of 4.2–4.5 mm, 1-nervia, upper of 5–6.2 mm, 3-nerves.
Lemmas lanceolate, of 5.3–6.5 mm, pubescent on the margins toward the apex,
acuminate. Glabra or only filament hairy at the bottom, near the margin. Palea of the
same length as the lemma, keels, and whitish apex. Ovary pubescent at the apex.
3500–4900 m (Peñaloza et al. 2013) (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Festuca sp. (Solanaceae), Quebrada Chita, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)
Festuca chrysophylla Phil. 849
An infusion of aerial parts is used in Chile for the treatment of cold and against
decay. The aerial parts mixed with añawaya (Adesmia spinosissima) and spines of
ayrampu cactus (Cumulopuntia soherensii) are used for the treatment of constipation
and cystitis (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Forage use. It is used as a building material in the roofing of houses (Peñaloza et al.
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Ficus carica L.
Ficus insipida Willd.
MORACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Ficus carica L.: Ficus kopetdagensis Pachom.

Ficus insipida Willd.: Ficus adhatodifolia Schott ex Spreng.; Ficus anthelminthica
Rich. & DC.; Ficus anthelminthica Mart.; Ficus boyacensis Dugand; Ficus crassa
Klotzsch & H. Karst. ex Dugand; Ficus crassiuscula Warb. ex Standl.; Ficus
finlayana Warb.; Ficus glabrata Kunth; Ficus glabrata var. obtusula Dugand;
Ficus insipida subsp. radulina (S. Watson) Carvajal; Ficus inspida subsp. segoviae
(Miq.) Carvajal; Ficus krugiana Warb.; Ficus longistipula Pittier; Ficus mexicana
(Miq.) Miq.; Ficus palmirana Dugand; Ficus radulina S. Watson; Ficus segoviae
Miq.; Ficus vermifuga (Miq.) Miq.; Ficus wreckleana Rossberg; Ficus whitei
Rusby; Pharmacosycea angustifolia Lam.; Pharmacosycea brittonii Rusby;
Pharmacosycea vermifuga Miq.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Ficus carica: Bolivia: Hoja de higo (Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and
Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016); Colombia: Brevo (Spanish) (Bussmann et al.
2018); Ecuador: Breva, Higo, Hoja de higo, Evos (Spanish) (de la Torre et al.
2008); Peru: Higo (Spanish); English: Fig
Ficus insipida: Colombia: Higuerón, Higuerote, Cachinguba, Caucho, Caucho
Menudito, Chibechi, Leche de Casingua, Leche de higuerón Menudito, Ojé,
Cumacanae, Lipanae, Damagua, Bibosi, Cocoba, Ficus, Gomelero, Higueroncillo,
Ira, Sacha Ooé, Cope higuerón, Copei (Bussmann et al. en prep.); Ecuador: Arajpi
chi tape (Chafi’ki), Hatun ila, iIa, IIa muyu, Parutu (Kichwa), Apach, Japa Wampu,
(Shuar chicham), Ajéj, Seem (Achuar chicham), Higuerón (Spanish), Ojé
(unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); English: Wild Fig
Botany and Ecology
Ficus carica: A shrub or tree to 7–10 m, sparsely branched; bark light gray;
branches upcurved, the young ones pubescent; leaves deciduous, rough above
with stiff hairs; more or less pubescent beneath, large, borne at the ends of branches
on petioles 2–5 cm long; leaf blade orbicular or broad-ovate, 8–15 cm long and
6–18 cm broad, with a cordate sinus at base, 3–5-lobed, sinuate, rarely undivided;
inflorescences and the compound fruits axillary, solitary on short stalks, pyriform,
5–8 cm long, pale yellow to violet-brown; flowers borne inside the receptacle, the
staminate with a 3–5-parted perianth and 3–5 stamens, the pistillate with a 5-parted
perianth and a 1-seeded ovary; style lateral, with 1 or 2 stigmas; winter buds
glabrous, the lateral globose or ovoid with numerous scales, the terminal oblong-
ovoid and long-acuminate with 1 or 2 scales. Flowering April–May, fruiting June–-
November. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, wild, or naturalized on exposed stony
slopes and among rocks, also on walls of old dilapidated buildings; growing wild in
the undergrowth of broad-leaved woods (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7).
Ficus insipida: Ficus insipida is usually a medium- to large-sized, evergreen tree
with an open, spreading crown; it can grow from 12 to 40 m tall. The bole is
moderately straight, cylindrical, and slightly compressed. Branches from low
down but can also sometimes be unbranched for most of the tree’s height;
45–70 cm in diameter.
Ficus carica: Bolivia: Dry leaves are used to treat stomachache; blood cleansing;
abortive, menstrual hemorrhage; menstrual pain, uterine cysts, kidney infection, and
uterus prolapse (Bussmann et al. 2016; Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and Moraes
2015; Quiroga et al. 2012). Colombia: The latex is applied repeatedly on the
affected area to cure the skin’s petty. The fruit prepared in decoction calms the
Ficus carica L. . . . 853
Fig. 1 Ficus carica

(Moraceae), garden, Chicani,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Ficus carica

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 3 Ficus carica

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
cough and, taken a few days before the delivery, facilitates it (Fonnegra-Gómez and
Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Leaves are used
for skin care and to treat throat inflammation, high blood pressure, and bronchitis;
Fig. 4 Ficus carica

(Moraceae), garden, Tbilisi,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 5 Ficus carica (Moraceae), natural habitat, Adjara, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 6 Ficus carica

(Moraceae), market, Gori,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 7 Ficus carica

(Moraceae), drying, Racha,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
leaves and inflorescence used to treat cough; inflorescence used to treat constipation;
latex used to treat warts, and rashes; and fruits used for breast care (Bussmann et al.
2018). Ecuador: The fruit is used to treat constipation (unspecified ethnicity –
Azuay). The fruit is used to treat the “white rule” (sic) and liver irritation (Kichwa
de la Sierra-Imbabura). Latex is applied to remove calluses (unspecified ethnicity –
others (Coast Region)). The infusion of the leaves is drunk as a purgative, increases
the woman’s fertility, and treats menstrual cramps and other conditions related to
menstruation, as well as problems of the respiratory tract and stomach pain (Kichwa
de la Sierra, Loja; Mestiza, Bolívar, Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Azuay,
Chimborazo, Pichincha, others (Coast Region)). The leaves are considered to pro-
vide vitamins, so they are included in salads (unspecified ethnic group – Chimbo-
razo). The branches are used to treat conditions of the uterus and inflammations of
the ovaries (Mestiza-Pichincha). It is used to increase body temperature to accelerate
birth (unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). It is used to remove freckles from the face
and to treat insect bites, constipation, coughs, colds, bronchitis, acute pneumonia,
and nosebleeds (Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity, Cotopaxi) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). Peru: Leaves and stems, fresh or dried used to treat diabetes.
Ficus insipida: Colombia: In Colombia the latex is applied repeatedly on the
affected area to cure the skin’s petty. The fruit prepared in decoction calms the
cough and, taken a few days before the delivery, facilitates it (Fonnegra-Gómez and
Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bark and latex
used as anthelmintic and as vermifuge (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The latex
is taken, alone or mixed with brandy, to eliminate intestinal parasites such as worms
(Ascaris lumbricoides, Ancylostoma) and amoebas (Chachi-Esmeraldas; Kichwa
from the East-Orellana, Sucumbíos; Shuar-Orellana; Achuar-Pastaza; unspecified
ethnicity-Orellana. Latex is used as a purgative, to treat bile conditions and pain
caused by conga (Paraponera spp.) Or streak bites. The stem treats heartaches
(Kichwa of the East-Orellana). The bark, cooked in water, is used as an emetic.
Latex has veterinary use (Shuar-Napo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The latex of the plant
is taken, fasting, to purify the blood (Kichwa del Oriente-Orellana) (de la Torre et al.
2008). Peru: Leaves and stems, fresh or dried, are used to treat diabetes (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2007b, 2011). Often sold in
markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b). Fig latex has antibacterial activity (Bussmann
et al. 2008, 2009; Bussmann and Glenn 2011).
Local Food Uses
Ficus carica: Widely eaten fresh and used for jams and preserves. Ecuador: The ripe
fruit and seeds are edible, and they are used to prepare sweets and laundry (Kichwa de
la Sierra-Loja; Mestiza-Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua, Azuay, Loja; unspecified
ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar, Chimborazo, Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Ficus insipida: Ecuador: Latex is used to preserve alcoholic beverages (cane
alcohol) (Kichwa del Oriente-Orellana) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Ficus carica Ecuador: The leaves, in infusion, are used in baths (unspecified ethnic
group – Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Ficus insipida Ecuador: The fruit is food for animals, particularly birds (Kichwa
del Oriente-Sucumbíos) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The fruit is used as bait for fishing
(Chachi-Esmeraldas). The stem is used in fine woodworking and for construction
(Chachi-Esmeraldas; Kichwa del Oriente-Sucumbíos; unspecified ethnicity-
Sucumbíos) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Flaveria bidentis (L.) Kuntze
ASTERACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Flaveria bidentis (L.) Kuntze: Ethulia bidentis L., Eupatorium chilense Molina,
Flaveria bidentis var. angustifolia Kuntze, Flaveria bonariensis DC., Flaveria
capitata Juss. ex Sm., Flaveria chilensis (Molina) J.F. Gmel., Flaveria contrayerba
(Cav.) Pers., Flaveria peruviana J.F. Gmel., Milleria chiloensis Juss., Milleria
contrayerba Cav., Vermifuga corymbosa Ruiz & Pav.
Local Names
Chile: Chinaspaya, Kinapaya, Flor amarilla, Pasto, Contrahierba, Dasdaqui, Daudá,

Mata gusanos, Sinapaya, Monte colorado; Peru: Mata gusano
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Herb up to 1 m tall; Dichotomically branched stems. Leaves decussate between

5 and 12 cm long, opposite, broadly elliptical, entire and somewhat fleshy, with
slightly serrated or smooth edges. Inflorescence in chapters between 6 and 8 mm
long, sessile. Irregular, yellow flowers, heterogeneous dimorphs, a marginal pistillate
with ligule 0.5 mm long; the central ones perfect, between 2 and 5 per head, tubular,
between 3 and 4 mm long. Fruit a dark achene between 2.5 and 3 mm long, without
vilane. Sea level to 3000 m (González and Molina 2017).
In Chile the leaves are used to wash and wrap infected wounds. The infusion of
aerial parts serves for the treatment of diabetes and to clean the blood and to lose
weight (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003). In Peru used to treat cough and bronchitis (Bussmann and Sharon 2006,
2007, 2015a, b). Sometimes the plant can be found in local markets (Bussmann et al.
2007; Bussmann and Glenn 2010). Flaveria has some antibacterial activity
(Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010, 2011a, b).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010;
9(4):742–53.
Flaveria bidentis (L.) Kuntze 861
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Foeniculum vulgare Mill.
APIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Foeniculum vulgare Mill.: Anethum foeniculum L.; Anethum pannorium Roxb.;

Foeniculum foeniculum (L.) H. Karst.; Foeniculum officinale Ait.; Foeniculum
pannorium (Roxb.) DC.; Ligusticum foeniculum (L.) Crantz; Meum foeniculum (L.)
Spreng.; Selinum foeniculum (L.) E.H.L. Krause; Seseli foeniculum (L.) Koso-Pol.
Local Names
Bolivia, Colombia: Hinojo (Spanish); Ecuador: Hinojo, Anís, Eneldo, Hinojo

común, Hinojo eneldo (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Hinojo, Anis Criollo (Span-
ish); English: Fennel
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Foeniculum vulgare

(Apiaceae), Svaneti, Georgia.
Botany and Ecology
Perennial or biennial; root fusiform, to 1 cm thick, branching above, multicapital;

stem erect, 90–200 cm high, cylindrical, finely ribbed, strongly branching; leaves
ovate-triangular, 3–4-pinnatisect, lower leaves on petioles, the upper sessile on
dilated sheath; lobules linear-filiform or linear-subulate, acuminate, slightly carti-
laginous; sheaths of leaves 3–6 cm long, narrowly oblong, with scarious margins,
slightly broadening toward hood-shaped apex. Umbels 3–15 cm across, of 3–20
(25) unequal glabrous rays; involucre and involucels absent; petals broadly ovate,
yellow, ca. 1 mm long, nearly as wide; fruit ovoid-oblong, 5–10 mm long, 2–3 mm
wide. Flowering July–August. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia, on stony slopes, screes,
in cracks of rocks, along rivers. Widely cultivated (Fig. 1).
Fennel fruits are used in Colombia for digestive problems and to relieve colic and are
also used as purgative, antiflatulent, and stimulant. The seeds are also used in
digestive disorders, against intestinal gas and to relieve colic, and in dyspepsia,
inflammation of the small intestine, gastritis, and nausea, and are also frequently
applied in colds and coughs and as antidiarrheals. The leaves or fruits in infusion,
decoction, or syrup are used for soothing, digestion and flavor correction. These
infusions are also used to promote milk production in mothers who are breastfeeding
(Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García
2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bolivia: Fresh
stems and leaves are used as galactogogue and to treat skin spots, kidney infection,
and lung pain (Bussmann et al. 2016a, b; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Macía
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 865
et al. 2005). Colombia: The whole plant is used to treat dizziness; the whole plant
and seeds are used as expectorant; the whole plant, leaves, and fruits are used to treat
spasms and indigestion; the whole plant, root, leaves, and seeds are used as diuretic
and to treat flatulence; the whole plant, stems, and leaves are used to treat hemor-
rhage and as purgative; leaves and fruits are used to treat conjunctivitis and stomach
problems and as tranquilizer; leaves, fruits, and seeds are used as galactogogue; the
root is used to treat infected breasts and mastitis; root, leaves, and seeds are used to
treat lack of appetite; seeds are used to treat colic, cough, flu, headache, and kidney
stones and as emmenagogue and as vermifuge (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador:
The whole fresh plant is used to treat infections and for women after childbirth (Béjar
et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The infusion of seeds stimulates
the appetite and treats pains of the liver and stomach. The infusion of the whole plant
or of the leaves and flowers is drunk to treat stomach pain and cramps by empacho
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja; Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura,
Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group, Chimborazo). The infusion is used against
colds, to draw air from the stomach, and relieve headache and cramping (unspecified
ethnicity – Imbabura). The ground seeds or the infusion of the plant is used to treat
stomach and intestinal pains and is carminative and tonic (unspecified ethnic group –
Cañar, Azuay). Treat undetermined conditions (Mestiza-Tungurahua). Used to pro-
mote blood circulation and cure kidney conditions (unspecified ethnicity – Loja). It
is used, in infusion and mixed with honey, to treat stomach pain and liver and kidney
conditions (unspecified ethnic group – Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The
whole fresh plant and seeds are used to treat colic, gases, stomachache, and diarrhea
and for women after childbirth (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b;
Bussmann and Glenn 2010; Bussmann et al. 2011a). Fennel is quite frequently
available in markets and one of the few medicinal species in cultivation (Bussmann
and Sharon 2007b; Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008a, 2009a, b; Revene et al. 2008).
The seeds show antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008b). No toxicity has been
reported (Bussmann et al. 2011b). Often mixed with other species (Bussmann et al.
2010). Often used in emollients (Bussmann et al. 2015). In Pakistan the seeds are
used for bronchitis and abdominal pain (Sher et al. 2016).
Local Food Uses
Colombia: Fresh leaves are used as condiment (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador:
From the seeds aromatic oils are extracted with which liquors are produced. Leaf
petioles are edible (unspecified ethnic group – Cañar, Azuay). It is used to prepare
chicha (local beer) and aromatic waters (Mestiza-Tungurahua; unspecified ethnic
group – Cañar, Loja). Food additive: The leaves and seeds are used as a condiment in
salads (unspecified ethnic group – Bolívar). It is seasoning in purple laundry
(unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Fennel is a very
important food ingredient in the Mediterraneo-Caucasian agricultural complex
(Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b).
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009b;16(1):93–103.
2014;12:237–313.
2015;69:83–8.
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 867
016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
Fragaria vesca L.
ROSACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Fragaria vesca L.: Fragaria americana (Porter) Britton; Fragaria chinensis

Losink.; Fragaria concolor Kitag.; Fragaria hortensis Duchesne; Fragaria
mexicana Schltdl.; Fragaria minor Duchesne; Fragaria nemoralis Salisb.; Fragaria
portentosa Poit. & Turpin; Fragaria silvestris Duchesne; Fragaria silvestris var.
botrychiformis Duchesne; Fragaria silvestris var. variegata Duchesne; Fragaria
vesca subsp. americana Porter; Fragaria vesca var. hortensis (Duchesne) Asch. &
Graebn.; Fragaria vesca var. sylvestris L.; Fragaria vesca var. typica Asch. &
Graebn.; Fragaria vesca var. rubra Ehrh.; Potentilla vesca (L.) Scop.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Spanish: Ecuador: Fresa, Fresa común, Fresa frutilla, Fresa silvestre, Frutilla,
Frutilla silvestre, Mora (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Fresa (Spanish);
English: Strawberry
Botany and Ecology
Perennial herb, 5–20(30) cm tall; rootstock horizontal or oblique, densely covered

with decayed stipules and leaves, developing in axils of radical leaves, long stolons
rooting on nodes; stems erect or ascending, barely exceeding radical leaves,
covered in lower part with spreading hairs, more or less appressed in the upper
part; radical leaves long-petioled, covered with horizontally spreading hairs; leaf-
lets 3, the middle short-petioled, ovate or rhombic, the lateral obliquely ovate,
usually sessile, with 6–13 large triangular-subovate or suborbicular teeth on each
side, terminating in a small reddish mucro, terminal tooth smaller than the adjacent
teeth but exserted above them, leaflets dark green, diffusely appressed hairy at
apex, glaucescent-green, diffusely appressed-silky-hairy beneath, with slightly
protruding lateral veins; stipules lanceolate, long-acuminate, entire, appressed-
hairy beneath. Inflorescence with reduced cauline leaves at base, corymbiform,
few-flowered; pedicels long, appressed-hairy; flowers usually not more than 2 cm
in diameter, usually bisexual; sepals triangular, acute or short-acuminate,
appressed-hairy, spreading or recurved below in fruit, outer sepals linear or lance-
olate; petals 4–8(10) mm long, ovate or orbicular, clawed, usually white; stamens
as long as or longer than pistil; torus glabrous or slightly hairy; fruit up to 2 cm
long, ovoid, turbinate or subglobose, bright red when ripe. Dry grassy slopes,
meadows, forests, among shrubs (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1,
2, and 3).
Colombia: The leaves of strawberry boiled with milk and sugar are an excellent and
fortifying drink that is used in the infections of the urinary tract. To treat dysentery a
preparation of green leaves in brandy is very useful. Chronic diarrhea, accompanied
by anemia, is cured using the same preparation. For angina pectoris, gargles prepared
from the cooked leaves and roots of strawberries are used. Strawberries are also used
as purifiers of the intestines and are considered excellent against stones, gout, liver
diseases, and rebound of bile. The fruits are prescribed to patients with anemia and
rickets and are considered useful in the treatment of arthritis and rheumatism. The
strawberries also fight tuberculosis, hemorrhoids, and melancholy, in addition to
Fragaria vesca L. 871
Fig. 1 Fragaria vesca

(Rosaceae), Manglisi,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

(Rosaceae), Manglisi,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
invigorating the gums. Strawberries in infusion promote the production of milk in

nursing mothers. The spots of the face produced by air and sunstroke are removed by
crushing some strawberries and applying them to the face at bedtime (Arias Alzate
1962; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: Root infusion is given to women before
delivery to act as a purgative (unspecified ethnicity – Tungurahua). The plant, in
infusion, is used to treat pain in the abdomen and body (unspecified ethnic group –
Pichincha, Cañar). The leaves, in infusion, are used to treat kidney conditions
(unspecified ethnicity – Carchi). It is useful in the treatment of diabetes, obesity,
rheumatism, reddening of the skin, infected wounds, muscle and kidney pain, fever,
diarrhea, and respiratory conditions (cough, cold, and asthma) (Mestizo, unspecified
ethnicity – Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Fresh leaves are used to treat
nerves, insomnia, and heart disease (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b;
Bussmann et al. 2010a), often as admixture to other species (Bussmann et al. 2010b).

(Rosaceae), compote, Svaneti,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
In India the fruit is used as astringent and the leaves for diarrhea and problems of the
urinary system (Joshi et al. 2010).
Fragaria nubicola is used in India to treat earache (Bhat et al. 2013) and in Nepal
for wound healing (Kumar and Bussmann 2010; Kunwar et al. 2013). The seeds are
ground in Pakistan and used for throat inflammations (Sher et al. 2016).
Local Food Uses
Widely eaten.
Ecuador: The fruit is edible and is used to make juices, jams, and sweets (Mestizo-
Pichincha, Tungurahua, Loja, others (Colombia); unspecified ethnic group – Carchi,
Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar, Loja) (de la Torre et al.
2008). The fruit is used to prepare essences (unspecified ethnicity – Tungurahua)
(de la Torre et al. 2008) (Fig. 4).
Fragaria vesca L. 873
Fig. 4 Fragaria ananassa

(Rosaceae), fresh fruits,
R.W. Bussmann and
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
in Kumaun Himalaya. Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Science and Biotechnology. 2010;4
(special issue 1):43–46.
Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicinal uses of plant resources of the Haigad watershed in
Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(Special issue 1):43–6.
Galium hypocarpium (L.) Endl. ex Griseb.
RUBIACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Galium hypocarpium (L.) Endl. ex Griseb.: Galium albicans Wedd., Galium

croceum Ruiz & Pav., Galium fluminense Vell., Galium gardneri Walp., Galium
hypocarpium (L.) Fosberg, Galium ovale Ruiz & Pav., Galium pauciflorum Willd.
ex K. Schum., Galium quitense Wedd., Galium relbun (Cham. & Schltdl.) Clos,
Galium rupestre (Gardner) Walp., Relbunium bangii Rusby, Relbunium croceum
(Ruiz & Pav.) K. Schum., Relbunium glaberrimum Standl., Relbunium hypocarpium
(L.) Hemsl., Relbunium hypocarpium subsp. fluminense (Vell.) Ehrend., Relbunium
hypocarpium subsp. grandifolium Ehrend., Relbunium hypocarpium subsp. nitidum
(Kunth) Ehrend., Relbunium hypocarpium var. alpestre K. Schum., Relbunium
hypocarpium var. incanum (Kunth) K. Schum., Relbunium hypocarpium var. inde-
corum (Cham. & Schltdl.) K. Schum., Relbunium hypocarpium var. relbun
(Cham. & Schltdl.) K. Schum., Relbunium hypocarpium var. viridiflorum Chodat,
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Relbunium indecorum (Cham. & Schltdl.) Ehrend., Relbunium nitidum (Kunth)

K. Schum., Relbunium orinocensis (Kunth) K. Schum., Relbunium ovale (Ruiz &
Pav.) K. Schum., Relbunium relbun (Cham. & Schltdl.) Herter, Relbunium rupestre
(Gardner) Ehrend., Relbunium wettsteinii Zahlbr., Rubia affinis Gardner, Rubia
chilensis Molina, Rubia crocea (Ruiz & Pav.) DC., Rubia glabra Gardner, Rubia
hispida Willd. ex Spreng., Rubia hypocarpia (L.) DC., Rubia incana Kunth,
Rubia indecora Cham. & Schltdl., Rubia nitida Kunth, Rubia orinocensis Kunth,
Rubia ovalis (Ruiz & Pav.) DC., Rubia ramosissima var. hispida Wawra, Rubia
relbun Cham. & Schltdl., Rubia rupestris Gardner. Valantia hypocarpia L.
Local Names
Chile: Kantoría; Bolivia: Chapi (Aymara) (Bussmann et al. 2016)
Botany and Ecology
Small herb of climbing or creeping habit, with whorled four leaves through trans-
formation of stipules, sheet less than 1.5 cm long, small fruits, orange, flattened and
with two pre-borings corresponding to the seeds. Sea level to 4000 m (Macbride and
Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Bolivia: The whole dried plant is used to treat stomachache in pregnant women and
uterus problems (Bussmann et al. 2016).
Fig. 1 Galium hypocarpium

(Rubiaceae), Uchumarca,
Galium hypocarpium (L.) Endl. ex Griseb. 877

Fig. 3 Galium hypocarpium (Rubiaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Local Food Uses
Fresh aerial parts are used as a seasoning. The infusion is used as tea (Rodriguez
Used to dye fabrics deep red, like madder.


References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Gentianella alborosea (Gilg.) Fabris ex
J.S. Pringle
Gentianella bicolor (Wedd.) Fabris ex
J.S. Pringle
Gentianella brunneotincta (Gilg) Pringle
Gentianella crassicaulis J.S. Pringle
Gentianella dianthoides (Kunth) Fabris ex
J.S. Pringle
Gentianella graminea (Kunth) Fabris
Gentianella thyrsoidea (Hook.) Fabris
GENTIANACEAE
Synonyms
Gentianella bicolor (Wedd.) Fabris ex J.S. Pringle: Gentiana bicolor Wedd.;

Gentiana stuebelii Gilg
Gentianella brunneotincta (Gilg) Pringle: Gentiana brunneotincta Gilg.
Gentianella crassicaulis J.S. Pringle: Gentiana crassicaulis Gilg.
Gentianella dianthoides (Kunth) Fabris ex J.S. Pringle: Gentiana amoena Wedd.;
Gentiana chelanoides Willd.; Gentiana dianthoides Kunth; Gentianella amoena
(Wedd.) Fabris
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Gentianella graminea (Kunth) Fabris: Gentiana arenarioides Gilg; Gentiana

graminea Kunth; Gentiana liniflora (Willd.) Roem. ex Schult.
Gentianella thyrsoidea (Hook.) Fabris: Gentiana pinifolia Ruiz & Pav.
ex. D. Don.; Gentiana thyrsoidea Hook.; Gentiana tupa Gilg; Pitygentias pinifolia
(Ruiz & Pav. ex D. Don.) Gilg; Pitygentias thyrsoidea (Hook.) Gilg; Selatium
thyrsoideum (Hook.) D. Don. ex D. Don.
Local Names
Gentianella alborosea: Peru: Corpus way, Corposhuar, Hornamo leon

Gentianella bicolor: Peru: Corpus way, Corposhuar, Hornamo leon
Gentianella brunneotincta: Peru: Anga macha
Gentianella crassicaulis: Peru: Violeta genciana
Gentianella dianthoides: Peru: Genciana, Egenciana, Amargon, Campanilla
Gentianella graminea: Peru: Sumaran, Chinchimali, Corpushuay
Gentianella thyrsoidea: Peru: Corpus way, Corposhuar, Hornamo leon, Genciana,
Egenciana, Amargon, Campanilla
Botany and Ecology
Gentianella alborosea: Low, densely pulvinate, only 3 or 4 cm high but often

10–15 cm across from a rather slender elongate root supporting the much divided
caudex, the prostrate portions densely covered with leaf remains, the many erect
leafy flowering stems about 2 cm high, with some sterile stems intermixed; leaves
opposite, approximate, oblong, little narrowed to vaginate base, acute, 6–7 mm long,
scarcely 2 mm wide, somewhat fleshy, often marginally papillose; flowers always
solitary on slender pedicels 10–13 mm long; calyx about 8 mm long, campanulate-
cylindric tube 5 mm long, 4–5 mm in diameter, subovate-acute lobes 3 mm long,
2 mm wide at base, nerves subcarinately prominent; corolla finally 15–18 mm long,
cylindric tube 7 or 8 mm long, 4–5 mm across, the rounded lobes 8–9 mm long,
nearly as wide. Flowers whitish, the lobes more or less roseate. Looks much like
G. nitida except for lack of barbate corolla (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Gentianella bicolor: Biennial or perennial with many basal rosulate linear leaves,
3–5 cm long, 2–3 mm wide, and flowering stem or stems in type branched from base;
stem leaves similar, not amplexicaul, acute, 2–3 cm long, 2–4 mm wide; flowers in a
panicle of cymes at tip of stems and branches, pedicels 2–3 cm long; calyx
13–15 mm long, the linear acuminate lobes about as long as the tube; corolla 2.5
to nearly 3 cm long, the oblong rounded lobes and tube subequal. Variable in habit,
stems erect, 25 cm tall, or curved-ascending, to 50 cm high (Macbride and
Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10).
Gentianella brunneotincta: Small, acaulescent, the rather thick root with a
moderate-sized rosette of oblanceolate acutish leaves, pseudopetiolate to base,
1.5–2 cm long, 3 mm wide, remote, decreased and much smaller on the many
Gentianella alborosea (Gilg.) Fabris ex J.S. Pringle. . . 881
Fig. 1 Gentianella alborosea

(Gentianaceae), Cajamarca,
Fig. 2 Gentianella alborosea

(Gentianaceae), Cajamarca,
erect-spreading stems, these are 2–5(6) long and always 1-flowered, the pseudo-
peduncle or pedicel 1–2 cm long; calyx narrowly campanulate, 5 or 6 mm long, the
ovate-oblong subacute lobes about as long as the tube, around 1 mm wide; corolla
11–14 mm long, the obovate-obtuse lobes and obconic-cylindric tube subequal.
Flowers yellow, later tipped with brown (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Gentianella crassicaulis: Stout-stemmed perennial, 40 cm tall or more, the erect
simple stems 7–8 mm thick below inflorescence; basal leaves unknown but a
separate sterile stem scarred by fallen leaves and bearing a rosette of erect oblong-
Fig. 3 Gentianella alborosea (Gentianaceae), Cajamarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
lanceolate acute leaves, little narrowed below the middle, then dilated at base where
connate for at least 1 cm, 11–13 cm long, 13–14 mm wide, fleshy-herbaceous,
obviously 5-nerved, the nerves subimpressed; leaves of flowering stem similar but
ovate-lanceolate, the uppermost nearly sessile, 3–5 cm long, about 1.5 cm wide, the
lower cauline, 6–7 cm long; flowers mostly nodding before anthesis in rather dense
cymes at apex of stem and short branchlets, the bracts reduced; pedicels 1–2 cm
long; calyx 16 mm long, campanulate tube 1 cm long, 6–7 mm wide, lobes
lanceolate, acuminate, 6 mm long, at base 2 mm wide, nerves prominent; corolla
2–2.2 cm long, the subcylindrical tube 12 mm long, 5–6 mm thick, lobes rounded-
obovate, 1 cm long, 6 mm wide (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Gentianella dianthoides: Ascending or erect herb, about 30 cm tall or taller,
typically linear acute to acuminate, glabrous basally connate leaves about
2.5–3.5 cm long, the lower subequaling the internodes, 3 mm wide; flowers 4–6
(type), laxly pedicelled; pedicels about 1.5 cm long or longer; calyx about 1 cm long,
the narrowly ovate-lanceolate acuminate lobes slightly longer than the tube; corolla
to 3 cm long, the ample subrotund lobes somewhat shorter than the tube. Flowers
greenish-pale, yellow, or pink. Gentianella graminea: Largely cespitose, a few
procumbent-ascending stems from each rosette, the sterile densely, the 1–3(5)
flowered remotely leafy, much taller (10–40 cm), the internodes 1–8 cm; leaves all
linear, acute, more or less connate basally, smooth, up to 3.5 cm long, 1–2 mm wide;
Fig. 4 Gentianella alborosea (Gentianaceae), Cajamarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
calyx lobes linear, acuminate, longer than the tube; corolla 2–2.5 cm long in type,
often shorter than pedicel, the lobes obovate-oblong (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
Gentianella graminea: Laxly cespitose, a few procumbent-ascending stems from
each rosette, the sterile densely, the 1–3(5) flowered remotely leafy, much taller
(1–4 dm), the internodes 1–8 cm; leaves all linear, acute, more or less connate
basally, smooth, to 3.5 cm long, 1–2 mm wide; calyx lobes linear, acuminate, longer
than the tube; corolla 2–2.5 cm long in type, often shorter than pedicel, the lobes
obovate-oblong (Weddell). Bonpland observed the corolla as barbate; described by
Kunth as nearly glabrous. The slender stems seem to be scarcely ligneous even at
base when with too few ascending-erect somewhat quadrate branches, remotely
leafy above (Figs. 11, 12, 13, and 14).
Gentianella thyrsoidea: Herb, 20–40 cm tall. Stout stem marked by vaginate leaf
bases, up to 2 cm thick; leaves verticillate, crowded, 6–8 cm long, 3–4 mm wide, the
imbricated cauline often vaginate for 6–8 mm, the lower broadly so, reflexing, all
linear-lanceolate, 4–7 cm long, 4–5 mm wide; inflorescence many-flowered, leafy,
densely racemiform, 10–15 cm long, 5–6 cm thick; calyx 17–20 mm long, the lobes
linear- or ovate-lanceolate, acute, scarcely or clearly shorter than the tube; flowers
solitary in the verticillate axis, longer than pedicels, 1.5–2 cm long; subcampanulate
Fig. 5 Gentianella bicolor

(Gentianaceae), Uchumarca,



or subtubular corolla, 1.5–2 cm long or longer with ovate-acute lobes much shorter
than the tube (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Gentianella alborosea: Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat
arthritis, diabetes, bone pain, cholesterol, gastritis, liver, blood, and rheumatism
(Bussmann et al. 2008a; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b, c, 2011a; Bussmann and


Fig. 11 Gentianella
graminea (Gentianaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b). Like all Gentiannella species, it is a common
ingredient in local medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008b, 2009a,
b; Bussmann and Sharon 2010). All species show limited antibacterial activity
Fig. 12 Gentianella
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 13 Gentianella
R.W. Bussmann and
(Bussmann et al. 2008c, 2010a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011b, c). Sometimes
Gentianella is used in herbal plant mixtures with others species (Bussmann et al.
2010c). In modern Peruvian medicine, Gentianella is especially used to treat diabetes
(Bussmann et al. 2011) and is distributed in social security hospitals. Gentianella is
also often added to emollients (Bussamnn et al. 2015c). Sometimes the correct
species are replaced with toxic Gentianella thyrsoidea, creating serious dangers in
public health (Bussmann et al. 2013).
Gentianella bicolor: Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat arthritis,
diabetes, bone pain, cholesterol, gastritis, liver, blood, and rheumatism (Bussmann
et al. 2008a; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b, c, 2011a; Bussmann and Sharon 2006,
2007, 2015a, b). Like all Gentiannella species, it is a common ingredient in local
medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008b, 2009a, b; Bussmann and
Sharon 2010). All species show limited antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al.
2008c, 2010a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011b, c). Sometimes Gentianella is used
in herbal plant mixtures with others species (Bussmann et al. 2010c). In modern
Fig. 14 Gentianella
thyrsoidea (Gentianaceae),
mercado Aviación, Lima,
Peruvian medicine, Gentianella is especially used to treat diabetes (Bussmann et al.

2011) and is distributed in social security hospitals. Gentianella is also often added to
emollients (Bussamnn et al. 2015c). Sometimes the correct species are replaced with
toxic Gentianella thyrsoidea, creating serious dangers in public health (Bussmann
et al. 2013).
Gentianella brunneotincta: Peru: The whole fresh plant is used to treat infections
of the uterus after giving birth (Bussmann et al. 2008a; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a,
b, c, 2011a; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b). Like all Gentiannella
species, it is a common ingredient in local medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al.
2007, 2008b, 2009a, b; Bussmann and Sharon 2010). All species show limited
antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008c, 2010a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011b,
c). Sometimes Gentianella is used in herbal plant mixtures with others species
(Bussmann et al. 2010c). In modern Peruvian medicine, Gentianella is especially
used to treat diabetes (Bussmann et al. 2011) and is distributed in social security
hospitals. Gentianella is also often added to emollients (Bussamnn et al. 2015c).
Sometimes the correct species are replaced with toxic Gentianella thyrsoidea,
creating serious dangers in public health (Bussmann et al. 2013).
Gentianella crassicaulis: Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat
gastritis, diabetes (special types), and dizziness (Bussmann et al. 2008a; Bussmann
Fig. 15 Gentianella sp. (Gentianaceae), mercado Aviación, Lima, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann
and Glenn 2010a, b, c, 2011a; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b). Like all
Gentiannella species, a common ingredient in local medicinal plant markets
(Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008b, 2009a, b; Bussmann and Sharon 2010). All species
show limited antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008c, 2010a, b; Bussmann and
Glenn 2011b, c). Sometimes Gentianella is used in herbal plant mixtures with others
species (Bussmann et al. 2010c). In modern Peruvian medicine, Gentianella is

especially used to treat diabetes (Bussmann et al. 2011) and is distributed in social
security hospitals. Gentianella is also often added to emollients (Bussamnn et al.
2015c). Sometimes the correct species are replaced with toxic Gentianella
thyrsoidea, creating serious dangers in public health (Bussmann et al. 2013).
Gentianella dianthoides: Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat
diabetes, liver, blood, burn fat, intestinal fever, cough, fever, infection, allergies of
the blood, varicose veins, blood purification, and for inflammation of the liver
Gentianella graminea: Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat
diabetes, liver, blood, burn fat, intestinal fever, cough, fever, infection, allergies of
the blood, varicose veins, blood purification, and for inflammation of the liver

Gentianella thyrsoidea: Used as falsification of other Gentianella species
(Bussmann et al. 2013) (Figs. 15, 16, and 17).
References
Peruvian ethnomedicine. Arnaldoa; 2010a;17(2):255–70.
ailments. Arnaldoa; 2010b;17(2):243–54.
Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Cooling the heat – Traditional remedies for malaria and fever in Northern
Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2010c;8:125–34.
Bussmann, R.W., Glenn, A. Traditional medicinal plants used in Northern Peru for kidney problems
and urinary infections. Arnaldoa; 2011a;18(1):77–94.
rheumatism, Arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011c;10(3):397–412.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
traditional plant use in Northern Peru. Albuquerque UP, Hanazaki N. (Eds). Recent develop-
ments and case studies in ethnobotany. Recife, Brazil: Brazilian Society of Ethnobiology and
Ethnoecology (SBEE)/Publication Group of Ecology and Applied Ethnobotany (NUPEEA).
288p; 2010d; pp. 184–207.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Barocio Y, Díaz P, Sharon D. Peruvian Plants Canchalagua (Schkuhria pinnata
(Gentianella bicolor (Wedd.) J. Pringle) prove to be effective in the treatment of acne. Arnaldoa;
2008a;15(1):149–52.
activity. Arnaldoa; 2008b;15(1):127–48.
Appl. 2008c;6:351–61.
Malca-G. G, Perez-A. F, Glenn, A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in Northern
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Castro M, Cardenas R, Chait G, Regalado S, Del Toro-C. R, Malca-G.
G, Perez-A. F, Glenn, A. Phyto-Chemical analysis of peruvian medicinal plants. Arnaldoa;
2009b;16(1):105–10.
(4):742–53.
Geoffroea decorticans (Gillies ex Hook. &
Arn.) Burkart
FABACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Geoffroea decorticans (Gillies ex Hook. & Arn.) Burkart: Geoffroya spinosa

(Molina) M. de Moussy, Geoffroya chilensis Clos, Gourliea decorticans Gillies ex
Hook. & Arn., Gourliea spinosa (Molina) Skeels, Lucuma spinosa Molina
Local Names
Chile: Chañar
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Geoffroea decorticans (Fabaceae), Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)
Botany and Ecology
Shrub or xerophilous tree, between 2 and 12 m high; stems with often thorny
branches. Leaves pinnate with alternate leaflets or sub-positions in number from
3 to 13, subcoriáceos, whole or with some marginal glands, glabrous or finely
puberulous on both sides. Inflorescences in faint clusters, arising from the
brachyblasts of branches or spiny branches, anterior or simultaneous with the leaves,
often subcorymbose, between 0.5 and 6 cm long. Flowers 1 cm long; ebracteolate
pubicle calyx; corolla orange or yellow, striated reddish. Fruit: drupe ovoid or
globose, reddish, glabrous, and smooth. 100–2600 m (González and Molina 2017)
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
The bark, leaves, and flowers of the Chañar have expectorant properties. The boiled
rind is used as an expectorant and anti-asthmatic. The “arrope de chañar” is an
excellent syrup for the treatment of cough (González and Molina 2017; Mostny and
Glaser 1954; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Geoffroea decorticans (Gillies ex Hook. & Arn.) Burkart 895
Fig. 2 Geoffroea decorticans

(Fabaceae), Chile. (Photo


Local Food Uses
Chañar fruit has a sweet flavor and is eaten raw, cooked, or roasted. The sweet fruit
of the chañar can be consumed fresh or through various culinary preparations. The
“arrope de chañar” is a syrup obtained after boiling the fruit and then filtering and
evaporating the water. The “arrope de chañar” mixed with flour and goat’s milk is
used to prepare desserts or custards. The “cocho de chañar” is a culinary dish, similar
to a pudding widely consumed by atacameños (González and Molina 2017; Mostny
and Glaser 1954; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Chañar wood is widely used as building material for houses, roof beams, fences and
closures of land, tool handles, and accessories for the loom, such as “husos,”
“peines,” “tijnes” (instrument that serves to hit the weft of the textile in its place,
after having passed it through the urdimbre), and “vinaza” (wooden instrument in the
form of a thin board and somewhat longer than the width of the textile). It has
rounded ends and is inserted in the shed before passing the naveta, serving as a kind
of guide to its, to put the thread for looms on the ground, “kolmatur” (frame of two
thick sticks that is placed on the ground, at the distance corresponding to the length
of the textile fabric to be made), or sticks to catch the thread and the only unit of
“lizos” or “ilyava” (stick on which a number of threads pass, number qe corresponds
to half of the of urdimbrep). The wood is also used for elaboration of diverse types of
handicrafts and firewood use and is used to make charcoal. The fruit and leaves are
used as fodder for livestock (González and Molina 2017; Mostny and Glaser 1954;
References
Mostny G, Glaser GM. Peine, un pueblo atacameño (No. 4). Santiago de Chile: Instituto de
Geografia; 1954.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Geranium ayavacense Willd. ex Kunth
Geranium humbloldtii Willd. ex Spreng.
Geranium sessiliflorum Cav.
GERANIACEAE
Synonyms
Geranium ayavacense Willd. ex Kunth: Geranium decumbens R. Knuth; Gera-

nium mathewsii Briq.; Geranium partitum Briq.; Geranium piurense R. Knuth;
Geranium tiguense Aedo & Muñoz Garm.
Geranium humbloldtii Willd. ex Spreng.: Geranium acaule Kunth; Geranium hypo-
leucum Benth.; Geranium multipartidum Benth.; Geranium multipartidum var.
glabrescens Hieron. ex R. Knuth; Geranium multipartidum var. velutinum R. Knuth;
Geranium potetilloides Willd. ex Spreng.; Geranium sessiliflorum var. acaule Reiche
Geranium sessiliflorum Cav.: Geranium acaule L.; Geranium bangii Hieron.;
Geranium caespitosum Walp.; Geranium malpasense R. Knuth; Geranium
pallidifolium R. Knuth; Geranium pflanzii R. Knuth; Geranium razuhillcaense
R. Knuth; Geranium santacruzense Knuth; Geranium sessiloflorum fo. albiflorum
Kuntze; Geranium sessiliflorum var. albatum J.F. Macbr.; Geranium sessiliflorum
var. compactum R. Knuth; Geranium sessiliflorum car. lanatum R. sessiliflorum
microphyllum Kuntze; Geranium staffordianum R. Knuth; Geranium tucumanum
R. Knuth; Geranium weberbauerianum R. Knuth
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Local Names
Geranium ayavacense: Peru: Puli punchi, Pasuchaca, Pachuchaca, Miscamisca

Geranium humboldtii: Ecuador: Valeriana
Geranium sesiliflorum: Peru: Puli Punchi, Pasuchaca, Pachuchaca, Miscamisca
Botany and Ecology
Geranium ayavacense: A small rosette forming perennial herb, 10–60 cm tall with a
rootstock ca. 9 mm across, that is turnip shaped. Stems leafy and erect and bearing
roots at some leaf nodes. Petiole up to 18 cm long and has gland-less hairs. Leaves
5-lobed, the middle lobe generally diamond-shaped, and each of the 5 lobes with a
cleft base and ca. 2.5 cm long. The middle lobe is with 3 small lobes. The lobes are
narrow and pinched at their bases. The bottom of the leaf has silvery hair. Flowers
borne singly from the base of a leaf pair, sepals and bracts often red. The petals are
ca. 6 mm long and narrow, white or magenta with colored veins. The 10 stamens are
arranged in 2 whorls, each yellow and interrupted by 5 nectaries. The pistil is
somewhat longer than the stamens. The fruit is a seed-ejection type, brown, and
covered with hairs, 3 mm long. The seeds are brown and small. From southern
Ecuador to northern Peru at elevations between 2300 and 4200 m (Macbride and
Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7).
Geranium humbloldtii: Perennial herbs 2–8 cm tall. Rhizome 2–7 mm diameter,
horizontal, with short vegetative stems. Leaf blade 1.1–1.5 cm long, 0.9–1.6 cm
wide, palmatific in the polygonal outline, cordiform, sericeous above, with tight,
glandular hairs below, not coriaceous, nerves not projected; segments 7, rhombic
with linear-lanceolate lobes, 0.6–1 mm wide at the base, 3–4 segments in the distal
medium; Petioles 7 cm long, usually glabrous, sometimes with scattered, patent,
glandular hairs 0.8–1.2 mm long; stipules 12–14 mm long, 2–3 mm wide, lanceolate,
papery appearance, reddish in color, glabrous on both sides, with patents, glandular
cilia of 0.2–0.3 mm, ending in 1–2 bristles 0.5–0.8 mm long. Peduncles absent;
pedicels 0.5–0.6 cm long, glabrous; pedicels do not exceed the sheet you subtend.
Sepals 6.5–7.5 mm long, 1.9–2 mm wide, 3-ribbed, mucronate, with scarious
margins of 0.1 mm wide, glabrous or with glandular hairs dispersed in the abaxial,
erect-patents, glandular hairs 0.5–1 mm long in the margin, and sericeous the
adaxial. Petals 8.5–11 mm long, 2.5–4 mm wide, all, usually glabrous, sometimes
hairy at 1/4 of the lower part of its adaxial surface, ciliated at the base of the margin
and glabrous the abaxial, purple. Stamens: Filaments 3–4 mm long, not protruding,
lanceolate or lanceolate with a sharply reduced apex, glabrous, or hairs 0.2–0.4 mm
long on the abaxial side and on the margin; anthers 0.8–1 mm long, 0.5–0.6 mm
wide, yellowish. Glabrous nectaries. Gyneceum 4–5 mm long, yellowish. Fruit
11–12 mm long; mericarp 2.2 mm long, 1.3 mm wide, with hairs 0.2–0.3 mm
long; rostrum 6.5–7 mm long, without reduced apex, with erect-patent glandular
hairs 0.1–0.2 mm long; Stigmatic remnants of 1.2 mm in length, with 5 glabrous
lobes. Seeds 1–9 mm long, 1.1 mm wide (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Geranium ayavacense Willd. ex Kunth . . . 899
Fig. 1 Geranium ayavacense

(Geraniaceae), Cajamarca,



Geranium sessiliflorum: Herbs 2.2–8.9 cm in height. Rhizomes of 2.8–18.9 mm

diameter, without fusiform roots. Basal leaves in persistent rosette; blade
7.3–27.2 8.8–31 cm, pattern orbicular to polygonal, cordiform, palmatific,
glabrescent to hairy on both sides, with tight, glandular hairs; segments 5–7, rhombic
to obtriangular, 0.9–4.7 mm in the base, 3–12 lobed in half distal; petioles 8 cm long,
tight, glandular hairs 0.2–1.7 mm long; stipules of 5.5–15.8 0.8–3.1 mm, with
glandular hairs on the abaxial surface and on the margin, glabrous on the adaxial.
Inflorescence with 1 flower cylinders, solitary, peduncles (0)0.5 (1,4) cm long, with
retrose, tight, glandular hairs 0.3–1 mm long; bracteoles of 5–6.1 1–1.65 mm,
linear-lanceolate, with glandular hairs on both sides and in the margin, pedicels
0.4–4.2 cm long, with adherent, glandular hairs of 0.3–1.2 mm long; pedicel not
exceeding the sheet you subtend. Sepals 4.7–6.2(–7.1) 1.44–3.37 mm, lanceolate,
with mucro (0.3–)0.45–0.7(–1.1) mm long, with scarious margins 0.1–0.2 mm wide,
with erect glandular hairs 0.3–0.6 mm long on the abaxial. Petals (4,5–)
6–12.8 1.6–5 mm, whole, rarely emarginated, glabrous, rarely with some cilia
in the basal margin, purple, sometimes white, filaments of 2.1–4.6 mm long,
yellowish, with glandular hairs 0.2–0.3 mm long on the abaxial side and margin,
anthers 0.5–1.1 0.3–0.64 mm, yellowish, pollen of unknown color, glabrous

nectaries. Gynoeceum, 1.9–5 mm long, yellowish, fruit 6.8–19.5 mm long; carp

1.8–4.5 0.9–2.25 mm, smooth, with erect-patents, glandular hairs 0.1–0.6 mm
long, brown, rostrum 4.1–13 mm long, without apex reduced, with erect-patents,
glandular hairs 0.2–1.2 mm long; Stigmatic remnants 1–1.5(–2) mm long, with
5 glabrous lobes. Seeds 1.1–3.3 0.9–2.1 mm, finely reticulated; hilum 1/4, of
the contour of the perimeter. Occurs from Peru south as far as Argentina and Chile on
paramo, puna, boggy areas, river banks, along roads at elevations between 3800 and
4500 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 8 and 9).
Geranium ayavacense: Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat
diabetes (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a;
Monigatti et al. 2013). Roots of Geranium species are very often sold in local
markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008a, 2010a; Bussmann and Sharon 2009; Revene
et al. 2008). Most of the time, only the roots are being sold, which makes correct

species identification almost impossible and carries the danger of replacements being
sold (Bussmann et al. 2013). Antibacterial activity has been confirmed (Bussmann
et al. 2008b, 2010b, 2011a, b; Bussmann and Sharon 2010). Often the species is used
together with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010c).
Geranium humboldtii: Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat inflamma-
tion and cramps (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a) (Figs. 10 and 11).
Geranium sesiliflorum Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat
diabetes (Bussmann and Glenn 2011; Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2015a, b;
Bussmann et al. 2010a; Monigatti et al. 2013). Roots of Geranium species are
very often sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008a, 2010a; Bussmann
and Sharon 2009; Revene et al. 2008). Most of the time only the roots are being sold,
which makes correct species identification almost impossible and carries the danger
of replacements being sold (Bussmann et al. 2013). Antibacterial activity has been
confirmed (Bussmann et al. 2008b, 2010b, 2011a, b; Bussmann and Sharon 2010).
Often the species is used together with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010c).
Geranium wallichianum is used in India for ophthalmic problems, cold, and
diarrhea (Bhat et al. 2013; Malik et al. 2015). Geranium ocellatum serves as a
Fig. 7 Geranium
sessiliflorum (Geraniaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
remedy for liver problems and fever (Kumar et al. 2011). Geranium rotundifolium is
used in Pakistan to treat stomachache and jaundice (Sher et al. 2016; Ullah et al.
2019).
Local Food Uses
Some species are eaten in vegetable pies in the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2018).
Geranium humboldtii: In Ecuador, used to treat bad air (mal aire) (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Fig. 8 Geranium
sessiliflorum (Geraniaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 9 Geranium
sibbaldioides (Geraniaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 10 Geranium
sp. (Geraniaceae), Cajamarca,
Fig. 11 Geranium sp. (Geraniaceae), Cajamarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Markets, healers, vendors, collectors – the sustainability of medicinal
plant use in northern Peru. Mt Res Dev. 2009;29(2):128–34.
2010. p. 184–207. 288 p.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010a;9(4):
742–53.
Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used in
health care practices by inhabitants of western Himalaya. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;172:133–44.
Ullah M, Mehmood S, Ali M, Bussmann RW, Aldosari A, Ali Khan R, Ullah R, Hussain W,
Rahman Shah MA. An ethnopharmacological study of plants used for treatment of diabetes in
the southern and tribal regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Ethnobot Res Appl.
2019;18(8). https://doi.org/10.17348/era.18.8.1-20.
Gilia laciniata Ruiz & Pav.
POLEMONIACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Gilia laciniata Ruiz & Pav.: Cantua brevifolia Juss., Cantua lacinata (Ruiz & Pav.)
Poir., Gilia alpina (Wedd.) Brand, Gilia erecta Hieron., Gilia laciniata var. alpina
Wedd., Gilia laciniata var. erecta Brand, Ipomeria albida Nutt., Thouinia multifida
Dombey ex Juss.
Local Names
Chile: Latalata, Comino del campo
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Biannual herb 3–35 cm high, with numerous erect stems. Leaves of 5–60 mm; the
basal ones forming a fine rosette with lacinies up to 0.9 mm long, narrow,
pinnatisects; Caulinar leaves somewhat shorter, subsessile, alternate, linear, with
lacinia up to 0.9 mm and corneal apex. Flowers liláceas, solitary, or in number of 2–3
in the ends of the branches; corolla 6–10 mm, funnel-shaped ending in 5 lobes ovate,
imbricated, whole, gently waved. Fruit ovoid capsule of 3–7 mm, mucronate, with
brown seeds. It blooms in spring. Sea level to 4300 m (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
The aerial parts are used as medicine in general (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and
Castro 2003).
Local Food Uses
The aerial parts are used as a condiment in culinary preparations (Rodriguez et al.
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp.
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp.: Gliricidia maculata (Kunth) Kunth ex

Walp.; Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Grieseb.; Gliricidia sepium Kunth ex
Steud.; Lonchocarpus maculatus (Kunth) DC.; Robinia maculata Kunth; Robinia
sepium Jacq.
Local Names
Colombia: Bien vestida, Desnodo florecido, Floresco, piñón florido, Amory celoso,
Palo de parque, Piñón de cuba, Almácigo extranjero, Mataraton, Varita de San José,
Mata ratón, Madre de cacao, Madre negro, Piñón amoroso, Acacia, Desnudo
florecido, Madre del cacao, Mata-ratón, matarratón, Piñón florido, Raborratón;
Ecuador: Mata ratón, Tinto, Yuca de ratón (Spanish), Miján (unspecified language)
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

(de La Torre et al. 2008); Colombia: Acacia, Desnudo florecido, Madre del cacao,
Piñón florido, Rabo ratón, Moutaraton; Mata ratón (Bussmann et al. 2018); English:
Gliricidia, Tree of iron, St. Vincent plum, Mexican lilac, Mother of cocoa
Botany and Ecology
Tree, 2–15 m tall, with a medium crown, single- or multi-stemmed. Bark color
mainly greyish-brown, much fissured. Leaves alternate and pinnate with (7)13–21
(25) leaflets, papery, oblong with a distinctive pointed tip. Leaflet size increases
towards the distal end of the leaf. At maturity, the upper surface ranges from smooth
and hairless to bristly and usually has no tanniniferous patches. The lower surface
can be smooth and hairless or bristly, normally with purplish tanniniferous patches
concentrated towards the center of the lamina. Flowers arranged on conspicuously
short, upward-curving to erect inflorescences, usually pink, fading to whitish-brown
or pale purple. Pods explosively dehiscence, strongly laterally compressed, and pale
green or reddish-pink when unripe, turning pale yellow-brown when fully ripe.
Seeds transversely oriented, lenticular, not constricted in the middle. Seeds uni-
formly light brown, turning dark brown with age; 3–10 seeds in a single pod.
Colombia: Leaves used as insecticide, used to treat skin diseases and as sunstroke
In Colombia, the roots, leaves, and seeds are used as poison for small rodents. The
leaves are used to reduce fever and the infusion of them is used in skin conditions
(rashes, erysipelas, gangrene, burns, insect bites and ulcers). The leaves are also used
as an insecticide and as abortifacients for cattle. The leaves of Mata-Ratón placed
inside the hat avoid the insolation in warm climates. Preparing the leaves in
decoction and using them in the form of baths serve to cure skin conditions
(Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1974; Ministerio de Protección Social
2008; Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Ecuador: The leaves, in infusion, are used to treat fever (Mestiza-Morona Santiago)
Ecuador: The fruit is food of donkeys (Mestiza-Manabí). The stem is used to make
plows, posts, and struts for the construction of fences and houses (Mestiza-Manabí;
Unspecified ethnic group-Guayas). The leaves, roots, and seeds are used as insecti-
cides (unspecified ethnicity-Other (Coast Region)). The plant is used as a living
fence and for the reforestation of slopes and streets (unspecified ethnic group – Los
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. 913
Ríos, Others (Coast Region)). The leaves are used as fertilizer (unspecified ethnic
group – Guayas). The stem is used to make coal (Mestiza-Guayas).
References
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8
Glycine max (L.) Merr.
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Glycine max (L.) Merr.: Dolichos sofa L.; Dolichos soja L.; Glycine angustifolia
Miq.; Glycine gracilis Skvortsov; Glycine hispida (Moench) Maxim.; Glycine soja
Siebold & Zucc.; Phaseolus max L.; Soja angustifolia Miq.; Soja hispida Moench;
Soja japonica Savi; Soja max (L.) Piper; Soja viridis Savi
Local Names
Ecuador: Soya (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Colombia: Soya, Haba soya
(Bussmann et al. 2018); English: Soybean
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Annual; stems 0.5–2 m high, thin, prostrate or climbing, sparsely long hair; leaves
pale green, with oval or broadly lanceolate leaflets. Inflorescence 1–15 flowered;
corolla white or red-violet; pods 2–7, flattened, brown, short, hairy, 2–3.5 cm long,
1–1.2 cm wide; seeds 5–7 mm long, 3–4 mm wide, oval, from mat dark brown to
shiny black. Soy was domesticated in the north-east of China around the eleventh
century BC. From there, it spread to Manchuria, Korea, Japan, and other parts of
Asia. Soya bean was introduced into Korea between 30 BC and 70 AD and it was
mentioned in Japanese literature around 712 AD. It reached Europe before 1737. Soy
was introduced into the United States in 1765 and into Brazil in 1882. Nowadays,
soy is widely cultivated in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions throughout
the world. The slow distribution outside Asia is explained by the absence of soya
bean specific rhizobia in the soils of other regions (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
In popular medicine, they are used to reduce the risk of osteoporosis and cancer
associated with estrogenic activity (such as breast cancer and cervical cancer); they
also help lower cholesterol levels and relieve menopause symptoms such as heats,
sleep disorders, and lack of sexual desire (García Barriga 1974; Ministerio de
Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Ecuador: The seeds are used to produce flour and edible oil, and it is also used to
make milk and cheese for children and diabetics (unspecified ethnic group – other
(Costa Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Local Food Uses
Colombia: Seeds are used as food (Bussmann et al. 2018).

Soybeans are very good food and have been widely introduced worldwide
Colombia: Seeds used as animal food (Bussmann et al. 2018).

Ecuador: It is used for substitutes for rubber and plastics. Seed oil is used to make
varnishes, soaps, and lubricants (unspecified ethnicity – others (Coast Region))
(de la Torre et al. 2008). Soy is used to obtain oil that serves as fuel (unspecified
ethnicity – others (Coast Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Glycine max (L.) Merr. 917
References
016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Grindelia boliviana Rusby
Grindelia tarapacana Phil.
ASTERACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Grindelia tarapacana Phil.: Grindelia obovata Rusby
Local Names
Bolivia: Chili chili; Chile: Chinchillawa, Keñakeña, Bailahuén, Waylabayla
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Erect, branched, glabrous shrub, less than 1 m tall, stems somewhat woody, very
sticky, and shiny. Leaves alternate, 1.5–3 cm long, 0.5–1 cm wide; Sharp apex,
margin strongly serrated, glabrous with small glands. Inflorescences in solitary
chapters. Ligulate marginal flowers, yellow, between 18 and 20 per chapter; tubular
central flowers, up to 70, yellow. Fruits dark achenes, prismatic between 2.5 and
3 mm long, vilano with stiff hairs. 2900–3500 m above sea level (González and
Molina 2017).
Grindelia boliviana: Used for musculoskeletal problems and fractures (Bussmann

et al. 2016).
Grindelia tarapacana: The infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment of
stomach pain, vomiting, and for heart diseases (González and Molina 2017;
Grindelia tarapacana: Forage use (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al.
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Guazuma ulmifolia Lam.
MALVACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Guazuma ulmifolia Lam.: Bubroma grandifolium Willd. ex Spreng.; Bubroma

guazuma (L.) Willd.; Bubroma invira Willd.; Bubroma polybotryum (Cav.) Willd.;
Bubroma tomentosum (Kunth) Spreng.; Diuroglossum dufescens Turcz.; Guazuma
blumei G. Don.; Guazuma bubroma Tussac; Guazuma coriacea Rusby; Guazuma
grandiflora (Willd. ex Spreng.) G. Don.; Guazuma guazuma (L.) Cockerell;
Guazuma guazuma var. ulmifolia (Lam.) Kuntze; Guazuma invira (Willd.)
G. Don.; Guazuma parviflora A. Rich.; Guazuma polybotra Cav.; Guazuma
tomentosa Kunth; Guazuma tomentosa var. cumanensis G. Don.; Guazuma mono-
poxensis G. Don.; Guazuma ulmifolia var. glabra K. Schum.; Guazuma ulmifolia
var. tomentella K. Schum.; Guazuma ulmifolia var. tomentosa (Kunth) K. Schum.;
Guazuma ulmifolia var. velutina K. Schum.; Guazuma utilis Peopp.; Theobroma
grandiflorum (Willd. ex Spreng.) K. Schum.; Theobroma guazuma L.; Theobroma
tomentosum (Kunth) M. Gómez
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Colombia: Guásimo, Guacimo, Jumuu, Guácimo, Huacimo, Cabeza de negrito,

Cara de Mico, Chicarrón, Caulote, Guácima, Bwa dom, Guácimo Colorado,
Nacedero, Miel quemada, Lumanae (Guahi), Dumane (Guahi), Mutheine (Guahi),
Guacimo/Guásimo (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: A’jijati (Pai coca),
Algodón de ceibo, Guásimo, Guasmo (Spanish), (de La Torre et al. 2008)
Botany and Ecology
Tree, sometimes 30 m tall, with long branchlets, leaves densely stellate toward the
tip, oblong or oblong-ovate acuminate 3-nerved serrulate sparsely stellate on both
sides or canescent beneath, short, about as long as petioles of yellowish flowers;
petioles short to 2.5 cm long; leaves up to 15 cm long, 5 cm wide, obtusely acute and
oblique at base; peduncles bifid; calyx ferruginous tomentose, the segments sub-
rotund; fruits subglobose, 2–4 cm thick, densely roughened with short sharp tuber-
cles (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Colombia: In Colombia the mucilage of the bark and the milky or latex exudate are
used. The decoction of the bark is used in folk medicine as a depurative of the blood,
in cutaneous affections and those of the scalp. In the form of syrup, the bark is used
to lower fevers. The cooking or maceration of the leaves applied intensely on the
epidermis and for several days relieves the elephantiasis and skin ailments. The
decoction or cold maceration of the leaves is used to contract the uterus. This plant is
also commonly used to relieve sunstroke and to prevent hair loss (García Barriga
The bark is used to treat burns; bark and fruits are used to treat diarrhea, healing
wounds, and as diuretic; the bark is used for healthy hair, inflammations, and skin
diseases (Bussmann et al. 2018).
Ecuador: The infusion of the fruit is used to treat cough and whooping cough
(Mestiza-Guayas; unspecified ethnic group – Loja, others (Costa Region)). Cooked
crust is used to treat dysentery (unspecified ethnicity – other (Coast Region)). The
leaves and fruit relieve stomach pain and inflammation (Mestiza-Manabí;
Unspecified ethnicity – Manabí, Loja) (de La Torre et al. 2008).
Local Food Uses
The many large hard seeds surrounded by a little edible sweet pulp.
Guazuma ulmifolia Lam. 923
Ecuador: The fruit is edible, the juice is removed, and the bagasse is thrown away
(Mestiza-Manabí, Guayas; Unspecified ethnic group – Manabí, Loja). Vertebrate
food: The fruit is food for goats, pigs, and horses (Mestiza-Manabí; unspecified
ethnic group – Manabí, Guayas, Loja) (de La Torre et al. 2008).
Local Handicraft and Other Use
Ecuador: E The stem is used for looms (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas). Ropes
are made with the bark (unspecified ethnicity – Loja). The wood is used in the
construction of houses and in the elaboration of capes and handicrafts (unspecified
ethnic group – Esmeraldas, Guayas; Mestiza-Loja; Secoya-Sucumbíos). The leaves,
in decoction, are used to combat baldness (unspecified ethnic group – other (Coast
Region)). The seeds are used to extract cotton used to make mattresses (Mestiza-
Manabí) (de La Torre et al. 2008). The plant is part of agroforestry systems, it is used
as a live fence and to provide shade for livestock (Mestiza-Guayas, Loja; unspecified
ethnic group – Manabí) (de La Torre et al. 2008). The entire plant is used as fuel
(Mestiza-Guayas) (de La Torre et al. 2008).
References
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Haageocereus fascicularis (Meyen) F. Ritter
CACTACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Haageocereus fascicularis (Meyen) F. Ritter: Cereus fascicularis Meyen, Tri-

chocereus fascicularis (Meyen) Britton & Rose, Weberbauerocereus fascicularis
(Meyen) Backeb.
Local Names
Chile: Cardon, Cardon chico, Chikachika, Tipatipa, Fruit: Pasakana
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Shrubby cactus, with semi-creeping and upright stems, between 50 and 100 cm in
length and between 4 and 7 cm in diameter; greenish gray skin. Ribs 11–18, romas.
New thorns brown and gray to whitish with age, 4–15 cm long. Night or evening
flowering, very perfumed, 7–8.5 cm long, white; pericarp and floral tube of green
color, covered with reddish scales and hairs; stamens and white pistil. Fruit: ovoid
bright red. 2000–3000 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017).
Local Food Uses
The fruit called “pasakana,” despite its acid characteristics, is edible (González and
The thorns are very long and are used as chopsticks to knit different clothes such as
socks, gloves, and “chuspitas” with wool. The spines are used as needles for
gramophones. The pulp of the fruits is used to fix the vegetable dyes in textiles
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Halerpestes cymbalaria (Pursh) Greene
RANUNCULACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Halerpestes cymbalaria (Pursh) Greene: Halerpestes tridentata (Kunth ex DC.)

Greene, Ranunculus cymbalaria Pursh, Ranunculus hemignostus Steud., Ranuncu-
lus microcarpus J. Presl, Ranunculus pozoaefolius Gay, Ranunculus tridentatus
Kunth ex DC., Ranunculus tridentatus var. major Kunth, Ranunculus tridentatus
var. minor DC.
Local Names
Chile: Berro picante, Berrillo, Monte picante, Cucharón, Cucharoncito, Cuharita,

Cucharilla, Cuchara de sapito, Chengua, Ciénago, Vega, Pastito del agua, Topotopo
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Perennial herb 3–20(30) cm, with stolons. Leaves basal, proximal cauline, and on
stolon 0.7–3.8 cm, 0.8–3.2 cm wide, oblong to cordate or round, simple, undivided,
base rounded to cordate, margin crenate or crenate-serrate, tip rounded; distal cauline
much reduced, simple, undivided. Flower: receptacle bristly or glabrous; sepals
5, spreading, 2.5–6 mm, 1.5–3 mm wide, early-deciduous; petals 5, 2–7 mm,
1–3 mm wide. Fruit 1–1.4(2.2) mm, 0.8–1.2 mm wide, lenticular, wall papery,
longitudinally ribbed, beak persistent, 0.1–0.2 mm, conic, straight. Sea level to
The infusion of aerial parts is used for the treatment of sore throat (Rodriguez et al.
Local Food Uses
Fresh aerial parts are edible (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Forage use (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Haplopappus rigidus Phil.
ASTERACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Local Names
Chile: Bailahuen, Bailawen, Bailabien, Bailawela, Bailawena, Bailavín, Bailavén,

Bailaveno, Bailahuina, Wailawen, Wailawin, Guailaven, Guailavina, Chajchajra,
Chajchara, Chejchara, Chejchajra
Botany and Ecology
Stems very woody, rigid, irregularly ramified, densely leafy near the base, glandular-
scabrous, with rough pubescence on the peduncles. Leaves sessile, semiamplexicaul,
oblong, 15–25 6–12 mm, obtuse apex, narrow base, coarsely dentate, triangular
teeth, apex with a spine, rigid, coriaceous. Solitary, radiated, peduncle 2–6 cm, almost
naked. Involucre hemispherical, about 10 mm high, bracts closely imbricate,
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Haplopappus rigidus

(Asteraceae), Cupo, Chile.
Señoret)
Fig. 2 Haplopappus rigidus

(Asteraceae), Cupo, Chile.
Señoret)
lanceolate-acuminate, dark green, pale base, internal ones with scarious end, densely
stipulated glandular. Ligules 30 or more, about 1 cm, yellow. Bracts scattered hairy.
Reddish Pappus. 3400–4000 m above sea level (Peñaloza et al. 2013) (Figs. 1 and 2).
The plant is considered an excellent medicine. The infusion of the aerial parts mixed
with rikarika (Aloysia deserticola) and goat’s milk is a remedy for the treatment of
cough, cold, kidneys, bladder, liver and urinary system, for menstrual pains. The
infusion of the aerial parts is used to treat heart disease, stomach pains (after food),
rheumatism, and against “empachos.” The infusions are taken with lemon, aspirin,
and toasted sugar for the treatment of cough, cold, and bronchopneumonia. The
infusion of aerial parts is used as an aphrodisiac (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez
Haplopappus rigidus Phil. 931
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Hedera helix L.
ARALIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Hedera helix L.: Aralia capitata Jacq.; Hedera caucasigena Pojark.; Hedera helix
subsp. caucasigena Takht. & Mulk.; Hedera taurica (Paul) Carrière
Local Names
Spanish: Hiedra, Yedra; English: Ivy
Botany and Ecology
Climber; stems woody, branching, creeping on ground and stones or climbing to 3–

20 m on trees and rocks by short adventitious roots on herbaceous juvenile shoots;
stems rarely reach more than 15 cm in diameter; leaves wintergreen, coriaceous,
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

glabrous, dark green, shiny above, paler beneath, with asymmetrical reticular vena-
tion, to 10 cm long and as wide, very variable in shape: on sterile shoots usually
broad with cordate base, from rounded-ovate to attenuate, 3–5(7)-angular-lobate,
usually with broad or slightly enlarged median lobe, sometimes mixed with narrow
sagittate leaves with markedly attenuate median lobe; veins often white or yellowish;
on fertile branches leaves broadly ovate or rhombic-ovate to rounded, sometimes
only the uppermost narrow, lanceolate (usually narrower in var. baltica Rehd.),
rarely with 2 (or 1) symmetrical or asymmetrical lateral lobes. Umbels multiflorous,
usually globular, 13–20 (35) mm across, the terminal to 40 mm across, in var. baltica
usually smaller, 17–23(25) mm across, mostly with 8–12 flowers; umbels on fairly
thick 1.7–3.5 cm pedicels, with 2–3 squamiform leaves at base, solitary or arranged
3–10 in raceme; pedicels 6–13(17) mm, with small brown squamiform bracts at
base; but for calyx-teeth all parts of inflorescence with dense grayish stellate 5–8
(10)-rayed hairs, the 6–7-rayed predominating; flowers bisexual, rarely unisexual,
ovary semi-inferior, calyx teeth very short; petals fleshy, (3)3.5–4 mm long, 2–
2.5 mm wide, brown outside with sparse stellate hairs, greenish inside, with longi-
tudinal keel; stamens shorter than petals; styles short, 0.8–1.2 mm; ovary commonly
with 5 (very rarely to 10) cells; fruit globular, 8–10 mm across, with 2–5, usually 2–
3-seeds, reddish-purple when unripe, later dark brown, the blue-black ripe fruit
persistent during the year. Shady places in gorges and ravines; broad-leaved, espe-
cially beech forests, in stony places and rocks, where it produces continuous cover
and climbs high on trees (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Ivy is used in Colombia as an expectorant and to eliminate bronchial mucus in cases

of strong cough; it is also prescribed for the treatment of bronchitis, chronic diseases
of the respiratory tract, and, in general, diseases of the respiratory tract (Ministerio de
Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996) (Figs. 4 and 5).
Fig. 1 Hedera helix

(Araliaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia.
Hedera helix L. 935
Fig. 2 Hedera helix

Fig. 3 Hedera helix

(Araliaceae), young fruits,
R.W. Bussmann and
In the Caucasus, the species is used to treat wounds and migraine (Bussmann
et al. 2018).
Widely planted as ornamental.

Fig. 4 Hedera helix

(Araliaceae), ripe fruits,
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 5 Hedera helix

References
Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis; 1996. 831 pp
Hesperomeles obtusifolia (Pers.) Lindl.
CLETHRACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Hesperomeles obtusifolia (Pers.) Lindl: Crataegus obtusifolia Pers.; Eriobotrya

heterophylla Ruiz & Pav. ex Lindl.; Eriobotrya obtusifolia (Pers.) DC.;
Hesperomeles chiricuensis Woodson; Hesperomeles escalloniifolia (Schltdl.)
C.K. Schneid.; Hesperomeles glabrata Kunth; Hesperomeles heterophylla Hook.;
Hesperomeles obovata (Pittier) Standl.; Hesperomeles pernettyoides var.
glaucophylla Wedd.; Hesperomeles pernettyoides var. microphylla Wedd.;
Hesperomeles pernettyoides Wedd.; Mespilus heterophylla Ruiz & Pav.; Osteomeles
obovata Pittier
Local Names
Colombia: Mote, Mote mote
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Hesperomeles
cuneata (Rosaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Hesperomeles
ferruginea (Rosaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 3 Hesperomeles
obtusifolia (Rosaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Hesperomeles obtusifolia (Pers.) Lindl. 939
Botany and Ecology
Gray-barked, the reddish, lenticellate branchlets, and the corymbs, including the
calyces, evanescently and slightly pilose, otherwise glabrous; petioles 5–8 mm long;
blades chartaceous, lustrous above, pale beneath, finely reticulate-veined on both
sides, elliptic or oblong-elliptic, acute at the base, mostly rounded at the apex or
slightly narrowed and subacute, the larger ones usually 3–4 cm long, 1.5–2.5 cm wide,
the short flowering branchlets often with 2 or 3 much smaller leaves at the base, all
more or less obscurely crenate-serrate from below the middle; corymbs dense, shorter
than the leaves; calyx tube ovate-acuminate, about 1 cm long; petals somewhat
crenulate; disk pilose (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
The infusion of the leaves or fruits serves tin Colombia to treat kidney, liver,
nervous, headache, and stomach pain and applied in baths during postpartum to
relieve symptoms (Bernal et al. 2011).
Local Food Uses
The fruit is edible.
References
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
Hoffmannseggia doellii Phil. ssp. doellii
Hoffmannseggia eremophila (Phil.) Burkart
ex Ulibarri
FABACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Hoffmannseggia eremophila (Phil.) Burkart ex Ulibarri: Hoffmannseggia andina

Miers., Hoffmannseggia andina Phil., Hoffmannseggia andina var. eremophila
(Phil.) Reiche, Hoffmannseggia philippiana Hosseus, Zuccagnia eremophila Phil.
Local Names
Hoffmannseggia doellii: Chile: Bilankichu, Kulchau, Kulchao, Algarrobilla,

Mutukuru, Motokoro, Motokuro. Fruit: Amachoka
Hoffmannseggia eremophila: Chile: Mutukuru.
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Hoffmannseggia doellii: Subcaulescent herb, densely glandular, leaves 3–7 cm,

leaflets 3–6 mm, ovate, flowers 8–10 mm, pod hispid, glandular, falcate or sigmoid,
25–30 mm. 2300–3500 m above sea level (Peñaloza et al. 2013) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Hoffmannseggia eremophila: Subacaule herb 5 cm high. Triangular-acuminate
stipules, pilosoglandulose, 1.5-2 1 mm. Leaves with petiole-rachis of 2–4 cm,
petiole 1–2 cm, pubescent-glandular, usually reddish, with pinnae (1–)2–5 pairs,
1–1.5 cm. Leaflets 5–7(–10) pairs, oblong-ovate to orbicular, 2–5 2–2.5 mm,
somewhat pubescent or glabrous, generally with an apical, glandular hair, and with
some others in the margin. Clusters with up to 10 flowers, reddish, pilosoglandulose,
pedicels of about 4 mm, hairy-glandular. Pilosoglandulose chalice, 7–9 mm, tube
2 mm, lobes 5–7 1–2 mm, ventral up to 3 mm, somewhat lacy. Corolla with petal
superior of 10 5 mm, the others something narrower. Legume slightly recurved,
hairy-glandulosa, 20–30 5–7 mm, with 7–8 seeds. 3000–4000 m above sea level
(Peñaloza et al. 2013).
Fig. 1 Hoffmannseggia
doellii (Fabaceae), Ayquina,
Señoret)
doellii (Fabaceae), Ayquina,
Señoret)
Hoffmannseggia doellii Phil. ssp. doellii . . . 943
doellii (Fabaceae), Ollagüe,
Señoret)
Local Food Uses
Hoffmannseggia doellii: The fresh or cooked bulbs, “amachoka,” are consumed as

food and have good flavor with sweet and milky characteristics (Proflora 1994;
Hoffmannseggia eremophila: The fresh or cooked bulbs, “amachoka,” are con-
sumed as food and have good flavor with sweet and milky characteristics (Peñaloza
Hoffmannseggia doellii: Forage use (Proflora 1994; Rodriguez et al. 2018;

Hoffmannseggia eremophila: Forage use (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al.
References
Peroflora (CONICET). Flora fanerogámica Argentina. Buenos Aires: CONICET; 1994.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Hordeum vulgare L.
POACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Hordeum vulgare L.: Frumentum sativum E.H.L. Krause; Hordeum agriocrithon

A.E. Åberg; Hordeum bifarium Roth; Hordeum coeleste (L.) P. Beauv.; Hordeum
deficiens Steud. ex A. Braun; Hordeum disticon L.; Hordeum distichon subsp. zeocrithon
(L.) Celak.; Hordeum distichum L.; Hordeum gymnodisticum Duthie; Hordeum hexa-
stichon L.; Hordeum himalayense Schult.; Hordeum leptostachts Griff.; Hordeum macro-
lepis A. Braun; Hordeum nigrum Willd.; Hordeum polystichon Haller f.; Hordeum
polystichon var. vulgare (L.) Döll; Hordeum revelatum (Körn.) A. Schulz; Hordeum
sativum Jess.; Hordeum sativum Pers.; Hordeum sativum var. vulgare (L.) Richt.;
Hordeum spontaneum K. Koch.; Hordeum tetrastichum Stokes; Hordeum vulgare
fo. hexastichum (L.) Hiroe; Hordeum vulgare subsp. agriocrithon (A.E. Åberg) Á.
Löve; Hordeum vulgare subsp. deficiens (Steud. ex A. Braun) Á. Löve; Hordeum vulgare
subsp. distichum (L.) Thell.; Hordeum vulgare subsp. hexastichon (L.) Celak.; Hordeum
vulgare subsp. spontaneum (K. Koch) Asch. & Graebn.; Hordeum zeocriton L.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Spanish: Bolivia: Cebada (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2016); Ecuador: Cebada,

Trigo (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Cebada (Spanish); English:
Barley
Botany and Ecology
Annual. Culms 50–85 cm tall, erect, smooth; sheaths shorter than the internodes,
glabrous; leaves flat, up to 1–1.2 cm broad, scabrous on both sides, auricles at the
base of the blade falcate, clasping the culm. Spikes linear, up to 12 cm long
(excluding awns), 0.7–0.8 cm broad, light green, rachis firm, hairy on the angles;
spikelets arranged in 3s, in 2 opposite rows; all 3 spikelets on each joint of the rachis
being fertile, each of the spikelets developing a grain; lateral spikelets subsessile.
Spikes broader, up to 1.5 cm, with a firm rachis, short-pubescent on the angles;
glumes linear-lanceolate at the base, short-pubescent, tapering into a slender, sca-
brous awn; lemmas of lateral spikelets long-awned, the awns flat, very scabrous on
the margin, 8–12 cm long, somewhat shorter than the awn of the central floret.
Flowering June. Originally very widely cultivated (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Hordeum vulgare (Poaceae), fields, Bale, Ethiopia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann)
Hordeum vulgare L. 947
Bolivia: Dry seeds are used to treat kidney infection (Bussmann et al. 2016);
Colombia: The decoction of a handful of grains of barley in a cup of water is
considered a good remedy in cases of cough. Barley is also used as an anti-
inflammatory, healing, and antihemorrhagic, also favors digestion and combats
stomach discomfort (García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: Dry
seeds are used to treat tiredness and diarrhea (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and
Sharon 2006a, 2007a). It is used to heal wounds, treat skin inflammations and, in
gargles, to treat gums. The flour of the seeds is consumed to treat conditions of the
nerves and insomnia. Cooked seeds are effective in treating diarrhea and pujos
(Mestizo-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Roasted barley is used to treat children
who do not walk fast because of the cold muscle (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura)
Peru: Dry seeds are used to treat inflammation of the kidneys and general inflam-
mations (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2009a),
urinary tract problems, and prostate and liver problems (Monigatti et al. 2013) and
antibacterial activity has been shown (Bussmann et al. 2009a, 2010a). Found in
many markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2009b). Barley is frequently used in
mixtures with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010b) and is a basic part of emollients
Local Food Uses
Widely eaten as porridge and often used for the production of beer. Ecuador: The
fruit is edible (unspecified ethnic group – Bolívar). It is an edible cereal and one of
the oldest and most important crops of humanity (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi;
unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi, Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Ecuador: The fruit is food of pigs and dogs, and the stem, of sheep and cows
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Dry straw, mixed with soil,
is used to make adobes (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009b;16(1):93–103.
(4):742–53.
2015;69:83–8.
Hura crepitans L.
EUPHORBIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Hura crepitans L.: Hura brasiliensis Willd.; Hura crepitans fo. oblongifolia Müll.
Arg.; Hura crepitans fo. orbicularis Müll. Arg.; Hura crepitans fo. ovata Müll. Arg.;
Hura crepitans var. genuina Müll. Arg.; Hura crepitans var. membranacea Müll.
Arg.; Hura crepitans var. strepens Müll. Arg.; Hura senegalensis Baill.; Hura
strepens Willd.
Local Names
Bolivia: Habilla (Spanish); Colombia: Acuapar, Arenillero, Arenillo, Castañeto,

Ceiba, Ceiba amarilla, Ceiba blanca, Ceiba lechosa, Ceibo, Ceibo mil pesos de
leche, Habilla, Jabillo, Jarillo, Milpesos, Sacha Solimán, Tronador, Uvilla; Ecua-
dor: Barbasco, Jabillo (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Habilla (spanish)
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Tree, up to 40 m tall, trunk to 1.8 m in diameter, armed below with stout conical
spines, the pale bark with shallow ridges, the latex said to be injurious to eyes
branchlets sometimes aculeate; stipules linear-lanceolate, pubescent, 1.5 cm long;
petioles as long as or longer than the basally rounded-cordate orbicular-ovate leaves,
these often 10–20 cm wide and long or longer, abruptly short-acuminate, remotely
repand dentate or subentire, often pilose on the prominent nerves beneath, dull both
sides; peduncles 5–8 cm long, the cylindric-ovoid spikes finally to 6 cm long, about
2 cm thick; anthers usually 2-verticillate; fruiting pedicels about equaling petioles;
ovary with style 3–5 cm long, the stigma reddish-violet; capsules concave both ends,
deeply sulcate, 8 cm broad, half as long at maturity, expelling the wafer-like seeds
with considerable force (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
As a popular medicine in Colombia, it is used as an emetic and purgative and as a

sudorific and diuretic; Externally and in contact with the skin, it is used to eliminate
vesicles and sometimes to relieve pain in various osteo-muscular conditions (García
Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bolivia: Dry seeds are used to treat gallbladder,
gallstones, as laxative, and for alcoholism (Bussmann et al. 2016). Ecuador: The
seeds are used as a purgative (unspecified Ethnicity – Guayas) (de la Torre
et al. 2008).
Peru: Seeds are dried and used as laxative and for removing laziness (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2007). A species rarely found in local
markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2010a). The species shows some antibacterial
activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010b, 2011).
In Madagascar it is used for dental problems, wounds, and diarrhea (Rabearivony
et al. 2015).
An extremely poisonous plant. The latex is used in Colombia to “embarrass” or kill

fish in rivers. It should be used with great caution and only administered by experts.
Ecuador: Used as timber (unspecified ethnicity-Guayas). Latex is poisonous
(unspecified ethnic group – Morona Santiago) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Hura crepitans L. 951
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
Hymenea courbaril L.
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Hymenea courbaril L.: Hymenea animifera Stokes; Hymenea candolleana Kunth;

Hymenea condertifolia Hayne; Hymenea courbaril var. obtusifolia Ducke; Hymenea
courbaril var. stilbocarpa (Hayne) Y.T. Lee & Langenh.; Hymenea courbaril var.
subsessilis Ducke; Hymenea courbaril var. cillosa Y.T. Lee & Andrade-Lima;
Hymenea multiflora Kleinhoonte; Hymenea resinifera Salisb.; Hymenea retusa
Willd. ex Hayne; Hymenea splendida Vogel; Hymenea stilbocarpa Hayne; Inga
megacarpa M.E. Jones
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Colombia: Algarrobo, Curbaril, Cuapinol, Jataí, Guapinol, Azucar Huayo, Jutaby;

Algarroba, Algarrobillo, Copal, Copal Americano, Corobore, Guapinol, Nazareno;
Ecuador: Azúcar muyu (Spanish-kKchwa), Siri fiño (A’ingae), Palo santo (Spanish)
(de la Torre et al. 2008); English: Brazilian cherry, Brazilian copal, Cayenne copal,
Copal, Demarara copal, Kerosene tree, Latin american locust
Botany and Ecology
Tree, usually 30–40 m high, sometimes reaching 50 m in high forest; trunk up to 2 m

in diameter, bark usually smooth, greyish, 1–3 cm thick and red internally; in the
forest branching 10–20 m above ground level, much lower in exposed sites, crown
wide and open or dense; root system fairly superficial with large roots often seen on
the surface. Leaves alternate, compound, bifoliate; stipules soon falling; petiole
12–30 mm long; leaflets 2, ovate to lanceolate, curving slightly towards each
other, 3–12 1.5–7 cm, apex acute to obtuse, base oblique, margins entire, glabrous,
shiny and leathery with small glands and prominent veins below, petioles 2–8 mm
long. Inflorescence a short, terminal panicle with few branches and flowers; flowers
bisexual; pedicles 3–10 mm long. Sepals 4, concave, oblong-obovate, 12–22 mm
long, stamens 10, filamentous, anthers 3–8 mm long, ovary 1-locular, ovules 6–18 or
more. Fruit an indehiscent oblong pod, 8–15 3–5 cm, pericarp dull dark brown,
hard, woody, about 5 cm thick; seeds 1–6, light to dark brown, hard, flattened,
obovoid to ellipsoid, 1–2 cm long, surrounded by a dry, creamy, brown or greenish
pulp. Pods weigh 10–50 g and the pulp accounts for less than 20% of this weight
The bark is used in Colombia for cases of cough, bronchitis, infected

wounds, urinary tract infections, inflammation of the prostate, diarrhea, fever,
upset stomach, rheumatism, diabetes, and as a restorative. The tea prepared with
the bark is used for the control of intestinal parasites and as a treatment for
indigestion and urinary infections. The infusion of the bark is used for constipation
and intestinal gas. The inner part of the internal cortex in decoction is used as a
vermifuge. It is also recommended for the treatment of hematuria (blood in the
urine) taking the decoction of the cortex (Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García
Barriga 1974; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Patiño 1963; Pérez Arbeláez
1996).
Hymenea courbaril L. 955
Local Food Use
Ecuador: The fruit is edible (Cofán-Sucumbíos; Kichwa del Oriente-Orellana)

Local Handicraft and Other Use
Ecuador: It is used as a spiritual offering (unspecified Ethnicity – others (Ecuador))

(de la Torre et al. 2008). The fruit is food of barizo (Saimiri sciureus) and chichico
(Saguinus nigricollis) (Cofán-Sucumbíos) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Hypericum aciculare Kunth
Hypericum laricifolium Juss.
Hypericum thesiifolium Kunth
HYPERICACEAE
Synonyms
Hypericum aciculare Kunth: Brathys acicularis (Kunth) Spach; Hypericum

struthifolium var. minutum Choisy
Hypericum laricifolium Juss.: Brathys acerosa (Kunth) Spach; Brathys laricifolia
(Juss.) Spach; Hypericum acerosum Kunth; Hypericum laricifolium var. acerosum
(Kunth) Wedd.; Hypericum laricoides Gleason; Hypericum platypetalum Turcz.;
Hypericum racemulosum Turcz.
Hypericum thesiifolium Kunth: Hypericum longibracteatum R. Keller; Hypericum
silenoides Juss.; Hypericum uliginosum fo. warmingii R. Keller; Hypericum
uliginosum Kunth; Hypericum uliginosum var. ecectum R. keller; Hypericum
uliginosum var. laeve R. Keller; Hypericum uliginosum var. nigropunctatum
R. Keller; Hypericum uliginosum var. warmingii (R. Keller) R. Keller
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Local Names
Hypericum aciculare: Peru: Hierba de las cordilleras, Lechuguilla, Hierba de

iman.; English: St. Johns Wort
Hypericum laricifolium: Ecuador: Matikillkana (Kichwa), Bura bura del llano,
Chinchi manilla del llano (Spanish-Kichwa), Corazoncillo, Hierba de San Juan,
Romerillo, Tilín (Spanish), Gabday, Gabdey, Gabisay, Guabisay (unspecified lan-
guage) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Hierba de cariño, Hierba de la fortuna, Solitario,
Chinchango, Abrecaminos
Botany and Ecology
Hypericum aciculare: Shrub, 0.3–2 m tall, erect, and bushy to decumbent and slender,
with branches strict to ascending, lateral, and frequently pseudo-dichotomous. Stems
orange-brown, 4-lined, and ancipitous when young, eventually terete, cortex exfoli-
ating irregularly; internodes 1–7 mm long. Leaves sessile, subimbricate or not, suberect,
outcurving, and usually twisting, not or scarcely tetrastichous, deciduous above base
without fading; lamina 3.5–7 0.4–0.6 mm, very narrowly elliptic to linear-acicular,
incurved, slightly cucullate, midrib impressed beneath, margin very narrowly hyaline,
concolorous, not glaucous, subcoriaceous to chartaceous; apex acute, base parallel-
sided, not sheathing, scarcely broadening but pairs forming narrow interfoliar ridge;
basal vein 1, unbranched; laminar glands dense to very sparse, visible beneath. Inflo-
rescence 1 flowered, terminal, with pseudo-dichotomous branches from node below and
terminating short unbranched lateral shoots; pedicel 1.5–2.5 mm long, not incrassate
upwards; upper leaves not transitional. Flowers 10–17 mm in diam., stellate. Sepals
4–7.5 0.7–1.5 mm, narrowly lanceolate, acute, incurved above, margin hyaline, veins
(3)5, midrib not prominent but whole sepal often becoming ribbed; glands linear,
distally punctiform. Petals yellow or apricot to orange, sometimes tinged red,
6–10 3–7 mm, oblong-obovate, apiculus sharply acute; glands striiform to
punctiform. Stamens 30–55, longest 3–5 mm long. Ovary 1.5–2.5 1–1.5 mm,
ellipsoid-subglobose; styles 3, 2.5–3(4) mm long 1.2 2 mm wide, ovary
outcurving-ascending; stigmas narrow. Capsule 3.5–4 2.5–3.5 mm, broadly ellipsoid,
shorter than sepals. Seeds 1.2 mm long, ecarinate; testa finely scalariform (Macbride and
Hypericum laricifolium: Shrub or small tree (0.1–)0.3–3(–6) m tall, bushy, or lax
and spreading, with branches erect to spreading, lateral, short (flowering), and long,
narrowly to broadly conical (extension). Stems 4 lined when young, eventually
terete, blackish-brown, without epidermal emergences, cortex exfoliating in strips
or irregular flakes; internodes 1.5–5 mm long. Leaves sessile, spreading or erect,
sometimes imbricate, not markedly tetrastichous, persistent; lamina (2–)3–6
(–8) 0.3–2.2 mm, narrowly elliptic or narrowly elliptic-oblong to acerose, condu-
plicate to incurved, with midrib impressed beneath, margin narrowly hyaline and
plane or subundulate, not glaucous, chartaceous to coriaceous; apex subacute to
obtuse, cucullate, base narrowly cuneate to angustate, loosely clasping or not, pairs
Hypericum aciculare Kunth. . . 959
Fig. 1 Hypericum aciculare

(Hypericaceae), Cotopaxi,
Ecuador. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
united to form narrow interfoliar ridge; basal vein 1, not or obscurely branched;
laminar glands dense, scattered or in 1 row, impressed, usually visible beneath only.
Inflorescence 1-flowered, on short lateral branches, rarely branching pseudo-
dichotomously; pedicel 1.5–5 mm long; upper leaves foliose. Flowers 15–25
(–30) mm in diam., stellate. Sepals 3–7 0.7–2.2 mm, oblong or elliptic to narrowly
ovate or lanceolate, subacute to acute, cucullate, margin hyaline; veins 7–9, not or
scarcely branched, midrib distally incrassate; glands linear, distally punctiform.
Petals bright golden yellow to orange-yellow, 7–14(–22) 4–10 mm, 2–3 sepals,
very obliquely, obovate; apiculus obtuse; glands striiform and punctiform. Stamens
70–110, longest 4–7 mm long. Ovary 2–3.5 0.8–1.5 mm, ellipsoid; styles
3, 4–9 mm long, 2–4.5 ovary, spreading; stigmas scarcely to narrowly capitate.
Capsule 4–7 3–4 mm, ovoid to subglobose, equaling or exceeding sepals. Seeds
0.8 1 mm long, ecarinate; testa finely scalariform (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 4, 5, and 6).
Hypericum thesiifolium: Perennial or annual herb 0.1–0.6 m tall, erect or sometimes
decumbent and rooting, usually branching at the base, with lateral branches ascend-
ing, numerous or absent, often naked below. Stems green to vinous red, persistently
4-lined, ancipitous when young, cortex deciduous in strips or persistent; internodes
2–35(–60) mm long, all but uppermost usually shorter than leaves. Leaves sessile,

(Hypericaceae), Uchumarca,
erect, or more usually spreading; lamina 6–26 1–6(–9) mm, lanceolate or linear-
lanceolate to elliptic or narrowly oblong or rarely linear, margin recurved or more
rarely plane, paler beneath, not glaucous, thinly chartaceous; apex acute to rounded,
base cuneate to rounded, decurrent-amplexicaul or rarely semi-amplexicaul, usually
forming shallow V, free; basal or near-basal veins (3)5–7(9), midrib sometimes with
1–2 pairs of main laterals and pinnately branched above, tertiary reticulum dense,
evident; laminar glands dense but small and obscure, not prominent. Inflorescence
(1–)5. 16-flowered, dichasial/monochasial, without accessory branches, usually with
lateral branches from up to 6 nodes below, the whole narrowly ellipsoid to
corymbiform; primary pedicels 2–17 mm long; bracts and bracteoles linear-
lanceolate to linear-oblong. Flowers (5–)9–14(–16) mm in diam., stellate; buds
ellipsoid, acute to rounded. Sepals 2–6 0.7–1.5 mm, subequal to unequal, imbri-
cate, linear-lanceolate to narrowly oblong, acute to obtuse; veins (3–)5, only midrib
becoming prominent; glands linear, distally often punctiform. Petals chrome yellow
to orange-yellow, tinged or veined red outside, (2.5–)4–8 (0.7–)1–2(–2.5) mm,
1.25–1.35 sepals, oblong-oblanceolate to oblong; apiculus obtuse; glands linear.
Stamens (9–)14–32, 3-fascicled or irregular, longest 2–5 mm long, 0.5–0.8 petals.
Ovary 0.8–2 0.5–1.7 mm, narrowly ovoid-ellipsoid to narrowly ovoid-pyramidal;

Fig. 4 Hypericum
laricifolium (Hypericaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
styles 3 (or very rarely 4–5), 0.7–2 mm long, 0.5–1 ovary, spreading-ascending;
stigmas broadly capitate. Capsule (3–)4.5–8 (1–)2–3.5 mm narrowly ovoid-
cylindric or more rarely cylindric-ellipsoid or cylindric, 1.3–2 sepals. Seeds
c. 0.5 mm long; testa finely ribbed-scalariform (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).

Fig. 6 Hypericum silenioides

Hypericum aciculare: Ecuador: In infusion it serves to wounds and furuncles of

animals (unspecified ethnic group – Carchi) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Hypericum laricifolium: Ecuador: The stem and flower contain dyes such as
hypericin and quercetin. Quercetin is a potent antibiotic for gram + and gram-
bacteria (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The decoction of the plant is drunk to
treat the cold (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The infusion of the leaves is used in
postpartum baths and to treat the flu (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Tungurahua,
Chimborazo, Cañar). It is used, as an infusion, as a tranquilizer and to treat skeletal
pain (Mestizo-Pichincha). It is used, in infusion, to treat headache (unspecified
ethnicity – Carchi). Environmental: The plant is used as a boundary and is part of
living fences (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar). It is
used as fertilizer (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar)
(de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is used to combat bad luck and as a protector
against spirits (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar;
unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha). The altars are adorned with the branches,
together with the cypress (Cupressus sp.) And the willow (Salix sp.), during Holy
Week and Christmas (Kichwa) de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo,
Cañar (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Hypericum aciculare: Peru: Fresh leaves and stems are used “So that you should
get all you want” (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b).
Hypericum laricifolium: Ecuador: The leaves are food for animals (Kichwa de la
Sierra-Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It is
used to make charcoal (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo,
Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The dry stem is lit on the tip and the natives use it to
carve figures in pumpkins (unspecified ethnic group-Azuay, Cañar). The stem and
flower contain dyes such as hypericin and quercetin (unspecified ethnicity –
Pichincha; Mestiza-No locality). The wood is used in the construction of houses
and pens, and for the manufacture of plows, yokes, rudders, ropes, teleras, beams,
screeds, boards, and furniture (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chim-
borazo, Cañar). The plant, in cooking, is used to dye clothes in different colors
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The cooked leaves (mixed with the leaves of Miconia
caelata) are used to dye green threads or wool fabrics (unspecified ethnic group –
Pichincha, Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The whole fresh plant is
used as fragrance, for good luck in love and work, bad air/mal aire, love, business
relations, protection, good fortune, and good health (Bussmann and Sharon 2006,
2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2007; Bussmann and Glenn 2011). The species is often
sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). Hypericum has some antibacterial
activity (Bussmann et al. 2009a, b, 2010c, 2011a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010).
The species is part of many herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010d).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103.
2009b;16(1):105–10.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
(4):742–53.
medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010d;6:10.
Hypochaeris chondrilloides (A. Gray) Cabrera
Hypochaeris taraxacoides (Walp.) Ball
ASTERACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Hypochaeris chondrilloides (A. Gray) Cabrera: Achyrophorus chondrilloides

A. Gray, Achyrophorus deserticola Phil., Achyrophorus glaucus Phil., Hypochaeris
glabrata Phil. Hypochaeris glauca (Phil.) Reiche, Hypochaeris glauca fo. halophila
Hauman, Hypochaeris halophila (Hauman) Cabrera, Oreophila chondrilloides Don
ex A. Gray
Hypochaeris taraxacoides (Walp.) Ball: Achyrophorus stenocephalus A. Gray ex
Wedd., Achyrophorus taraxacoides Walp., Hypochaeris stenocephala (A. Gray ex
Wedd.) Kuntze, Hypochaeris stenocephala var. integrifolia Kuntze, Hypochaeris
stenocephala var. taraxacoides Kuntze, Hypochaeris taraxacifolia Meyen & Walp.
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Local Names
Hypochaeris chondrilloides: Chile: Lokoche, Romaza.

Hypochaeris taraxacoides: Chile: Jaq’epsike, Psikepsike, Waripsike, Wsique del
burro, Psiñe de burro teqerere.
Botany and Ecology
Hypochaeris chondrilloides: Perennial herbs, up to 80 cm high, with deep rhizome

and simple stem or branchy, glabrous. Basal lanceolate or linear-lanceolate leaves,
4–20 0.5–2 cm long base attenuated, apex acute, entire, dentate or runcinate, fleshy,
glabrous, axilla lanuginosa; alternate cauline leaves, sessile, linear-lanceolate,
2–11 0.2–1 mm, or bracteiform, entire. Lonely chapters. Involucé flared,
10–17 8–13 mm; filaria 4–5-serial, the external lanceolate, apex acute, glabrous or
lanuginous on the margin; palea of the receptacle 16–20 mm long. Flowers longer than
the involucre; yellow corollas, 15–17 mm long; Ligule longer than the corolla tube.
Atenans isomorphs, long rostrated, 15–24 mm long, with scaly wall. Pappus 1-seriate,
10–16 mm long. Sea level to 3500 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Hypochaeris taraxacoides: Evergreen herb, leaves lanceolate or oblong, pinnatifid
to lobate, glabrous, at base attenuate, capitula pedicellate, involucre cylindrical,
bracts 4-seriate, lanceolate, rounded, ciliate. 2600–5000 m above sea level (Mac-
bride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Hypochaeris chondrilloides: The boiled root has febrifuge properties (Rodriguez

Hypochaeris taraxacoides: The ground root is used to treat diarrhea in children
Local Food Uses
Hypochaeris chondrilloides: The leaves are consumed as salads (Rodriguez et al.

Hypochaeris taraxacoides: The base of the leaf is eaten as a salad (Rodriguez et al.
Hypochaeris chondrilloides: The flowers are used as ornaments (Rodriguez et al.

Hypochaeris chondrilloides (A. Gray) Cabrera . . . 967
Fig. 1 Hypochaeris sp.

(Asteraceae), Laguna de los
Condores, Leymebamba,
Peru. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann
& Narel Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Fig. 2 Hypochaeris sp.

(Asteraceae), Cordillera
Andonsa, Uchumarca, Peru.
(Photo: R.W. Bussmann &
Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Hyptis capitata Jacq.
LAMIACEAE
Rainer W. Bussmann, Narel Y. Paniagua-Zambrana, and

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Hyptis capitata Jacq.: Clinopodium capitatum (Jacq.) Sw.; Hyptis capitata var.
pilosa Briq.; Hyptis macrochila Mart. ex Steud.; Hyptis pittieri Briq.; Hyptis
rhomboidea M. Martens & Galeotti; Mesosphaerum capitatum (Jacq.) Kuntze
Local Names
Colombia: Botón negro (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. En prep), Mastranto, Cuchilla

de perdomo, Perdomo; Ecuador: Mansaniya tape (Chafi’ki), Jelen te’pun, Wa
te’pun (Tsafi’ki), Calabos tape (unspecified language-Chafi’ki), Supay kiwa
(Kichwa), Caballo sisa (Spanish-kichwa), Nojabiam (A’ingae), Al jiël taëco,
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

970 R. W. Bussmann et al.
Nohabianyono (Pai coca), Albahaca de monte, Bola de gato, Mala racha, Manza-
nilla, Mastranto (Spanish), Biojo (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008);
Peru: Pedorera, Pedrorera, Hierba de la ventosedad, Pedorrera, Albaca serrana
Botany and Ecology
Perennial herb, the obtusely quadrate stems, and peduncles, these 2.5–7 cm long,
glabrate, or early finely appressed hirtellous; petioles 1–3 cm long; leaves ovate,
sometimes broadly, subrounded to the more or less attenuate base, obtuse or acute,
coarsely and irregularly serrate, at most about 10 cm long, half as wide, ordinarily
much smaller, minutely and sparsely hispid or rather densely on the veins beneath,
finally nearly glabrous; mature heads 2–2.5 cm in diameter, at first rather conspic-
uous bracts 5–7 mm long; calyx tube sparsely or scarcely villous, 1.5 mm long, in
fruit 8–10 mm long, the linear-subulate teeth 1.5 mm long, pulverulent; corolla
nearly white, the tube 2.5–3 mm long, nutlets 1.3 mm long (Macbride and
Fig. 1 Hyptis cf. eriocephala

(Lamiaceae), Uchumarca,
Fig. 2 Hyptis cf. eriocephala

Hyptis capitata Jacq. 971
Colombia: This plant is used as in Colombia an antiseptic and healing in varicose

ulcers, eczema, and skin conditions of inflammatory and allergic type. The decoction
of the leaves is used to clean wounds. The juice is also used or in the form of
poultices using the whole plant and placing them in contact with the wounds to stop
bleeding (Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Pro-
tección Social 2008). The whole plant is used as analgesic, wound healing and to
treat hemorrhages (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The flower, in infusion, is used
to treat the headache (Mestizo-Morona Santiago). The flower is used to treat “piann”
or “boa,” a disease caused by a spirogrette (Chachi-Esmeraldas). The flower is used
to treat gastritis and to eliminate gases (Tsa’chi-Pichincha). Macerated leaves are
used to treat fungal diseases such as “clove” (Chachi-Esmeraldas, Others (Ecuador);
Unspecified ethnic group – others (Coast Region)). The macerated leaves are used to
treat diarrhea and black diarrhea: they are mixed with cold water and the infusion is
drunk (Sequoia-Succumbios). The leaves and the flower are used to treat depression
(Shuar-Orellana). The leaves, in infusion, are used to treat conditions of the kidneys
(Kichwa of the East-Napo). The leaves, macerated or infused, are used to treat skin
conditions such as eczema (Chachi-Esmeraldas; Mestiza-Los Ríos; unspecified
ethnicity – other (Coast Region)). Used to soothe toothache (unspecified ethnic
group – other (Coast Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It serves to treat the “bad
wind” (Kichwa of the East-Sucumbíos, Orellana) (de la Torre et al. 2008). In Peru, it is
used to treat colics of the intestine, gases, gastritis, and cramps (Bussmann and Sharon
2006, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2007, 2011a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010). It can be
found in local markets (Bussmann and Sharon 2007). The species shows antibacterial
properties (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010a, b).
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: The leaves are used as tea (Chachi-Esmeraldas) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
972 R. W. Bussmann et al.
9960231-3-9.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Ilex guayusa Loes.
AQUIFOLIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Local Names
Colombia: Aguayusa, Guañusa, Guayusa, Guayusa de páramo, Huayusa, Wayusa;

Ecuador: Guayusa (Spanish); Wayusa, Wayusa panka (Kichwa), Waís (Shuar
chicham), Guayusa, Guayusa del monte (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru:
Guayusa, Agracejo, Citrodora (Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Trees, 10–20 m tall. Flowers often perfect, with persisting 4–5-parted calyx and
rotate 4 rarely 5–6-parted corolla, the petals or lobes imbricate in bud, ovate to
suborbicular or elliptic, rounded or very obtuse. Anthers ovoid or ellipsoid. Ovary
2–4–6(7–22) celled. Drupes globose or ellipsoid with 3–4 (or rarely many) pyrenes
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Ilex sp.

(Aquifoliaceae), Laguna
Huayllabamba, San Martin,
Peru. (Photo: R.W. Bussmann
and Narel Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
In Colombia, the leaves are used in decoction as a stimulant, narcotic, hypnotic, as a

general tonic, against excessive sweating, as a diuretic and in the treatment of
headaches and flu. The Indians of the upper Putumayo and the populations from
Sibundoy to Mocoa have used Guayusa leaves after being dried in decoction or
infusion as a stimulant (and at the same time as “saving food”), because when
drinking this beverage in the morning, they do not feel hungry until noon. It is
also used as a nervous and muscular stimulant, as a digestive and expectorant. The
leaves are also used to treat diabetes (García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Protección
Social 2008). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant used to treat anemia and as diuretic
(Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The infusion of the leaves
is taken to keep the stomach clean and treat indigestion (unspecified ethnicity-
Azuay). The infusion is taken by pregnant women and serves to fertilize women
who cannot have children (Mestiza-Pichincha). The infusion of the leaves stops
diarrhea in children (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The leaves, in infusion and in steam
baths, are used as a brain tonic and to treat abdominal pain before and after
childbirth, in addition to the flu, fever, rheumatism, body aches and headaches
(Kichwa of the East-Napo, Sucumbíos, Others (Ecuadorian Amazon Region that
borders the Border of Colombia and Peru)). It is used to mitigate depression, to
stimulate the functioning of the stomach and to treat snake bites (Kichwa of the East-
Napo, Sucumbíos). The decoction of the leaves relieves the discomfort of the body
(Sequoia-Succumbios). The infusion of the leaves is drunk to treat abortion and colic
(Tsa’chi-Pichincha). The leaves, in infusion, are used to treat arthritis and to lower
fever (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo, Azuay). The infusion of the leaves
fights the hangover, stress, and conditions of the kidneys (unspecified ethnic group –
Imbabura). The leaves, in infusion, are used by women before and after childbirth,
they are also useful for treating influenza, rheumatism, body aches, and as a brain
Ilex guayusa Loes. 975
tonic (Unspecified ethnic group – Napo). The leaves, boiled in water, are emetic so
they relieve stomach disorders (Shuar-Napo, Pastaza). Leaf tea is used to treat
headache, stomachache, dizziness, and malaise in general (Shuar-Napo, Orellana,
Others (Ecuadorian Amazon region that borders the border of Colombia and Peru).
The bark and leaves are used to treat arthritis and rheumatism (Shuar-Orellana) (de la
Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Dried leaves are used to treat diabetes and intoxication of
the blood (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). In markets, but not very
common (Bussmann et al. 2007). Guayusa has antibacterial properties (Bussmann
et al. 2008, 2010a, b, 2011a, b, c).
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: The leaves are used to prepare aromatic waters, refreshing and party
drinks, with alcohol (Cofán-Sucumbíos; Kichwa del Oriente-Napo, Orellana;
Shuar-Napo; Mestizo-Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). It is used in
the preparation of jugs with spirits (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo) (de la
Torre et al. 2008).
Ecuador: The infusion of the leaves is used as a mouthwash (East Kichwa-Napo).

The leaves are used in steam baths (Tsa’chi-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The
infusion of the bark and especially of the leaves (because they are rich in caffeine) is
a stimulating or toning drink that makes tiredness and sleep disappear (Kichwa from
the East-Napo, Orellana, Sucumbíos; Shuar-Pastaza, Others (Ecuadorian Amazon
that borders Colombia and Peru); unspecified ethnic group – Napo, Orellana, others
(tropical and subtropical Region of Ecuador)). The infusion of the leaves is taken to
purify the body (Kichwa of the East-Sucumbios). The leaves, in infusion, can be
added to ayahuasca (hallucinogenic drink prepared based on Banisteriopsis caapi),
in order to reduce its flavor, as well as possible hangover after drinking it (Kichwa
del Oriente-Napo; Shuar-Morona Santiago), others (Amazon Region Ecuadorian
that borders the border of Colombia and Peru) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Used against
sorcery (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
(4):742–53.
Bussmann RW, et al. Traditional knowledge for modern ailments – plants used for the treatment of
diabetes and cancer in Northern Peru. J Med Plant Res. 2011c;5(31):6916–6930.
Inga edulis Mart.
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Inga edulis Mart.: Feuilleea conferta (Benth.) Kuntze; Feuilleea edulis (Mart.)
Kuntze; Feuilleea scabriuscula (Benth.) Kuntze; Inga benthamiana Meisn.; Inga
conferta Benth.; Inga edulis var. grenadensis Urb.; Inga edulis var. parviflora
Benth.; Inga inga (L.) Britton; Inga minutula (Schery) T.S. Elias; Inga scabriuscula
Benth.; Inga scabriuscula var. villosior Benth.; Inga uncinata Spruce ex Benth; Inga
vera Kunth; Inga vera Willd.; Inga ynga (Vell.) J.W. Moore; Mimosa inga L.;
Mimosa inga Vell.; Mimosa ynga Vell.
Local Names
Colombia: Pacai, Pacae, Guamo churimo, Guamo, Rabo de mono, Guamo

santafereño; Ecuador: Pajúl, Guato, Be’shiichi, Puu shiichi, Puu shillu, Shiichi
jaki (Chafi’ki), Pi’tsan (Tsafi’ki), Ali pakay, Kutu pakay, Pakay, Pakay yura,
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Inga edulis (Fabaceae), Moyebamba, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Suñikara pakay, Turu pakay, Waska pakay (Kichwa), Barizo pakay (Spanish-
Kichwa), Onga fiño, Ongaccu fiño (A’ingae), Jo’ya pené (Pai coca), Ago, An,
Gonntokaawe, Gotokan, Meo ao, Ontokan (Wao tededo), Wámpa (Shuar
chicham), Guaba, Guaba bejuco, Guaba común, Guaba de bejuco, Guaba de la
costa, Guaba de monte, Guaba grande, Guaba grande de monte, Guaba larga,
Guaba mansa, Guabita bejuco, Guabo, guagua, Guamo, Pacay (Spanish), Huamba
(unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Huaba, Pacae, Guava,
Pacai; English: Guaba, Guava, Ice-cream bean
Botany and Ecology
Mature trees reach up to 30 m high and 60 cm diameter, usually branching from

below 3 m. Branches forming a broad, flat, moderately dense canopy. Bark pale
grey and smooth with pale elongated lenticels. Young twigs angular in cross-
section and covered with fine short hairs. Leaves, pinnate, up to 24 cm long, with
4–6 pairs of opposite leaflets. The terminal pair of leaflets larger than the basal pair
and up to 18 cm long 11 cm wide. Between each leaflet there is a nectary gland
on the leaf rachis. Seedlings with a characteristic greyish sheen on the upper leaf
surface. Inflorescence in dense axillary spikes, each flower consisting of a calyx
Inga edulis Mart. 979
Fig. 2 Inga edulis

(Fabaceae), Naranjal,
Ecuador. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
tube with 5 lobes, a corolla tube with 5 lobes, and a large number of white
stamens up to 4.5 cm long, united in a tube in the lower half. Fruits ribbed,
cylindrical pods straight or often spirally twisted, up to 1 m long with fleshy green
seeds in a sweet, white, cottony pulp (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
In Colombia the Guamo root is prepared in decoction to treat dysentery and chronic
diarrhea. Both the leaves and the bark prepared in decoction are healing, anti-
inflammatory, and antihemorrhagic and are used especially for the treatment of
diarrhea. They are also used in the form of washes and potions, to relieve joint
rheumatism. The bark and the fruit are used in the irritations of the mucosa of the
intestine and against the retention of fluid or edema (García Barriga 1974; Patiño
Ecuador: The crust, in cooking, is used to heal sores (Chachi-Esmeraldas). The
flower and the fruit, in cooking, are used to treat conditions of the nerves (Kichwa de
la Sierra-Loja). The leaves are used, in fresh baths, to treat the cold (Tsa’chi-
Fig. 3 Inga edulis

(Fabaceae), Naranjal,
Ecuador. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Seeds, fresh or dried, are used for
rehabilitation of drug addicts or alcoholics and as laxative (Bussmann and Sharon
2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010). Normally the plant is used in
mixture with other species (Bussmann et al. 2010).
Local Food Uses
The large fruit is popular in all the regions where Inga edulis grows. In Bolivia,
Brazil, Costa Rica, and Ecuador, they are frequently sold.
Ecuador: E The aryl is edible (Chachi, Afroecuatoriana-Esmeraldas; Mestiza-
Manabí, Guayas, Loja; Tsa’chi-Pichincha; Kichwa de la Sierra-Cañar, Loja;
Cofán, Secoya-Sucumbíos; Kichwa del Oriente-Sucumbíos, Napo, Orellana,
Zamora Chinchipe; Wao-Napo, Orellana; Shuar-Napo, Zamora Chinchipe;
Unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Pichincha, Loja, Sucumbíos, Napo, Pastaza,
Morona Santiago, Zamora Chinchipe, others (Costa and Sierra Region, Tropical and
Subtropical Region of Ecuador)) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The seeds are used to treat
alcoholism (Shuar-Orellana) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Inga edulis Mart. 981
Ecuador: Whole plant used for fodder for pigs and as fencing (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The aryl is food of squirrels, saínos (Tayassuidae), deer,
guantas (Agouti paca), and guatusas (Dasyprocta fuliginosa) (Kichwa of the East-
Succumbios; Wao-Orellana). Fuels: It is used to make coal (unspecified ethnic group
– Guayas; Kichwa de la Sierra-Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The stem is used for
beams and stringers in the construction of houses, and for making plows, yokes,
ropes, rudders, screeds, and bats (Mestiza-Manabí, Loja; Kichwa de la Sierra-Cañar;
Wao-Napo; unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Loja, Zamora Chinchipe). The
infusion of the leaves is used in hot baths and vaporizations (Tsa’chi-Pichincha).
The leaves are used for washing and are tied on the forehead (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is used in agroforestry systems, such as live
fences and to provide shade for livestock and crops (Mestiza-Loja; unspecified
ethnic group – Manabí, Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.
Ipomoea pauciflora M. Martens & Galeotti
CONVOLVULACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.: Aniseia martinicensis var. nitens (Choisy) O’Donell;
Batatas edulis (Thunb.) Choisy; Batatas edulis var. porphyrorhiza (Grieseb.) Ram.
Goyena; Batatas wallii C. Morren; Convolvulus apiculata M. Martens & Galeotti;
Convolvulus attenuatus M. Martens & Galeotti; Convolvulus batatas L.; Convolvu-
lus candicans Sol. ex Sims; Convolvulus denticulatus Lam.; Convolvulus edulis
Thunb.; Convolvulus esculentus Salisb.; Convolvulus herbaceus Sessé & Moc.;
Convolvulus tuberosus Vell.; Convolvulus variabilis Schltdl. & Cham.; Convolvulus
varius Vell.; Ipomoea apiculata M. Martens & Galeotti; Ipomoea batatas fo. trifida
Moldenke; Ipomoea batatas var. edulis (Thunb.) Makino; Ipomoea batatas var.
lobata Gagnep. & Courchet; Ipomoea confertifolia Standl.; Ipomoea davidsoniae
Standl.; Ipomoea denticulata (Lam.) Choisy; Ipomoea edulis (Thunb.) Makino;
Ipomoea fastigata (Roxb.) Sweet; Ipomoea indica var. variabilis (Schltdl. &
Cham.) L.O. Williams; Ipomoea mucronata Schery; Ipomoea purpusii House;
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Ipomoea setifera Poir.; Ipomoea triloba L.; Ipomoea variabilis (Schltdk. & Cham.)
Choisy; Ipomoea vulsa House; Ipomoea wallii (C. Morren) Hemsl.
Ipomoea pauciflora M. Martens & Galeotti: Ipomoea intrapilosa Rose; Ipomoea
murucoides var. glabrata A. Gray; Ipomoea populina House; Ipomoea vargasiana
O’Donell; Ipomoea wolcottoana Rose
Local Names
Ipomoea batatas: Colombia: Apichu, Batata, Batatillo, Camote, Cumara, Papa

dulce (Colombia); Ecuador: Kumal, Sacha kumal (Kichwa), Sacha camote
(Spanish-Kichwa), Ma yaji, Nea yaji, Po yaji, Sara yaji, Su’nyo yaji, Yaji (Pai
coca), Akage (Wao tededo), Chinkiamai inchi, Inchi, Kayuk inchi, Nantar inchi,
Saar inchi, Tsunki inchi, Uchich inchi, Unkuship inchi, Yaja inchi, Yutai inchi (Shuar
chicham), Batata, Camote (Spanish), Sweet potato (English), Apichu, Cumar,
Kumara (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Camote (Spanish);
English: Sewwt potato, Yams
Ipomoea pauciflora: Peru: Huanarpo
Botany and Ecology
Ipomoea batatas: Glabrous or pubescent perennial from tuberous roots, the

prostrate-rambling stems rooting at the nodes; leaves variously ovate or subrotund,
cordate or truncate at base, mucronate and obtusely or subacute angulate, lobed or
parted, 5–15 cm long; peduncles shorter or longer than the elongate slender petioles;
pedicels cymose, 7–12 mm long; sepals sub-coriaceous, glabrous, ovate-oblong,
acute to acuminate, mucronulate, the outer 7–8, the inner up to 12 mm long;
campanulate corolla graduated to narrow base, purple or white, 5 cm long; ovary
2-celled, sparsely if at all pubescent; seeds 4, or fewer. Perhaps native of tropical
America, but widely escaped from cultivation (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Ipomoea pauciflora: Shrubs branching from the base or treelets to 3 m tall, glabrous
unless for a few trichomes on the sepals within and many glandular trifid ones at the
base of the short filaments; branchlets brownish-gray barked, often 5–7 mm thick,
more or less leafless in flowering, the sepals and to some extent fruit valves
persisting; petioles 1–4 cm long; leaves ovate, 3–10 cm long, about 2.5–7 cm
wide, openly cordate or subtruncate at base, acute to acuminate, the subparallel
nerves prominent beneath; cymes 1–few flowered in the upper axils, on short
branchlets and terminal, the peduncles short or sometimes 2 cm long or longer,
pedicels erect, 1.5–3 cm long; bractlets caducous; buds ovoid, acute; sepals ovate,
concave, thick, subequal, 9–12 mm long, 7.5–10.5 mm wide, the outer acute, the
inner obtuse or subobtuse, puberulent above within; corolla funnelform, 5–7 cm
long; stamens 15–21 mm long, anthers 7–9 mm long, pollen spinose; disk thick,
Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. . . . 985
Fig. 1 Ipomoea
sp. (Convolvulaceae), Pusac,
Fig. 2 Ipomoea alba

(Convolvulaceae), Pusac,
Fig. 3 Ipomoea alba.

Fig. 4 Ipomoea incarnata. (Convolvulaceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 5 Ipomoea incarnata

fleshy; fruit valves 2 cm long (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 6, 7,

and 8).
Preparados en infusión en Colombia se han usado como diuréticos y en el

tratamiento de algunas enfermedades del riñón. La raíz se emplea como purgante
(García Barriga 1975; Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The liquid from
Fig. 6 Ipomoea cairica

the stem or the crushed leaves are applied to the wounds so that they heal quickly
(Kichwa of the East-Napo, Orellana). The fluid that comes out of the stem is applied
to the eyes as eye drops to treat eye conditions. The infusion of the leaves is used to
treat liver conditions (Kichwa of the East-Napo). Sweet potato buds are crushed and
applied to the place affected by bites of bats and dogs until it heals (Kichwa of the
East-Sucumbios). It is used to treat indeterminate conditions (Shuar-Pastaza) (de la
Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: The whole plant is used fresh for promoting lactation in women after giving
birth (Bussmann and Glenn 2010a).
Very interestingly, Ipomoae batatas is also used in Madagascar to expel the
placenta and to treat insect stings (Razafindraibe et al. 2013). In India, the species
is used for tumors of the mouth and throat, asthma, burns, fever, and diabetes (Raj
et al. 2018).
Ipomoea pauciflora: Peru: The whole fresh plant used to treat chills and colds
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010b, c). The
species has mild antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2009, 2010, 2011).
In Kenya Ipomoea spathulata is used to remedy eye problems (Bussmann et al.
2006; Njoroge and Bussmann 2006). Ipomoea acuatica serves in India to heal boils,
eye problems, diabetes, gonorrhea, liver problems, stomach disorders, and as
Fig. 7 Ipomoea tenuirostris

purgative, while Ipomoea fistulosa is used for cuts, wounds, sprains, and ulcers, and
Ipomoaea pes-tigris for dog bites, eye diseases, fever, and as antidote for snake bites
(Verma et al. 2007).
Local Food Uses
The tubers are of great nutritional value. Ecuador: The root is edible, it is used to
prepare chicha (mixed with cassava (Manihot esculenta)), mash, omelettes, delica-
cies, cakes, and jellies (Mestizo-Tungurahua; Secoya, Siona-Sucumbíos; Kichwa del
Oriente, Shuar-Napo, Orellana, Pastaza; Wao-Napo; unspecified ethnic group-
Guayas, Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua, Azuay, Cañar, Others (Costa and Sierra
Region, Andean Region, American Torrid Zone)). The leaves are edible (unspecified
ethnicity – others (Costa and Sierra Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Ipomoea carnea is used in Nepal to treat wounds in cattle (Kunwar et al. 2012).
Fig. 8 Ipomoea wightii

References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010b;17(2):331–46.
Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2010c;8:125–34.
de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Arogya, Honolulu; 2007. ISBN
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Gilbreath GG, Lutura M, Lutuluo R, Kunguru K, Wood N, Mathenge S. Plant use of
the Maasai of Sekenani Valley, Maasai Mara, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:22.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
(4):742–53.
species in far-west Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:589–600.
Njoroge GN, Bussmann RW. Herbal usage and informant consensus in ethnoveterinary management
of cattle diseases among the Kikuyus (central Kenya). J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;108:332–9.
018-0208-9.
2013;9:73.
Iresine diffusa Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.
Iresine herbstii Hook
AMARANTHACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Iresine diffusa Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.: Achyranthes lanata L.; Alternanthera
panicultata Bello; Alternanthera paniculata Kunth; Celosia paniculata L.; Iresine
acuminata Moq.; Iresine canescens Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.; Iresine celosia L.;
Iresine celosioides L.; Iresine celosioides var. eriophylla Benth.; Iresine celosioides
var. macrophylla Grieseb.; Iresine celosioides var. nicotianoides Suess.; Iresine
celosioides var. pubescens Moq.; Iresine elongata Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.;
Iresine eriophora Peyr.; Iresine eriophylla Moq.; Iresine floribunda M. Martens &
Galeotti; Iresine gossypiantha A. Rich.; Iresine havanensis Moq.; Iresine mutisii
Kunth; Iresine paniculata (L.) Kuntze; Iresine paniculata (Mart.) Spreng.; Iresine
paniculata var. floridana Uline & W.L. Bray; Iresine parviflora Mart.; Iresine
polymorpha var. alopecuroidea Mart.; Iresine polymorpha var. effusa Mart.; Iresine
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

polymorpha var. verticillata Mart.; Iresine spiculigera Seub.; Iresine spiculigera var.
pauciglandulosa Herzog; Iresine verticillata Spreng.; Trommsdorffia canescens
(Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Mart.; Xerandra celosioides Raf.
Iresine herbstii Hook: Achyranthes verschaffeltii Lem.; Iresine verschaffeltii Lem.
Local Names
Iresine diffusa: Colombia: Calambombo, Cáncer, Cáncer sol, Escancel, Ilusión,

Penicilina, Plumaje, Plumaria, Plumilla, Relicario; Ecuador: Sangrinaria (Spanish);
Peru: Paja Blanca, Sangrinaria (Spanish)
Iresine herbstii: Colombia: Vergüenza; Peru: Colores, Timoras, Zangurache,
Sangurache (Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Iresine diffusa: Plants essentially annual, but often persisting, sometimes low and
erect, but frequently more or less scandent, nearly glabrous, the stems often villous at
the nodes; leaves slender-petiolate, the blades chiefly ovate or deltoid-ovate,
5–14 cm long, acute or acuminate, truncate to cuneate at the base, glabrous or
sometimes sparsely short-villous beneath, very rarely finely pubescent; panicles
usually broad and lax, sometimes narrow, the spikelets alternate, opposite, or
verticillate, 5–25 mm long; flowers usually white, the pistillate with copious, long
wool at the base; sepals 1–1.5 mm long, obtuse (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Iresine herbstii: An erect annual, short-villous at the nodes; leaves long petiolate,
the blades rounded, 3–6.5 cm long, deeply retuse at the apex, rounded to truncate at
the base and decurrent, mottled or colored with purple-red, green, pink, and yellow,
often with lustrous, appressed hairs on the lower surface; panicles usually ample and
rather lax, 10–20 cm long; flowers yellowish, the sepals 1 mm long (Macbride and
Iresine diffusa: The whole plant is used in Colombia as a decoction to treat

rheumatism, and in the form of baths or cataplasms, the leaves are used to relieve
inflammations and skin conditions (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011;
García Barriga 1974). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat vaginal
discharge with blood (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: The whole
fresh plant is used to treat the liver and kidneys, inflammation of the ovaries, and
blood and menstruation symptoms in adolescents (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010; Bussmann et al. 2010a). The species
portrays mild antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2009, 2010b, 2011a, b). It is
Iresine diffusa Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. . . . 993
Fig. 1 Iresine diffusa

(Amaranthaceae), Pisac, Peru.

sold in local markets (Bussmann and Sharon 2007b; Bussmann et al. 2007). The
species is also used to treat psychosomatic problems (Bussmann et al. 2010c).
Iresine herbstii: The leaves are used in Colombia for wound healing; as an
anticancer agent and postpartum tonic; to clean the skin of eczema, sores, and
pimples; and as a good antimicrobial agent. They are also used as anti-inflammatory,
anti-hemorrhagic, and diuretic, against spasms, and to combat incipient migraines.
The leaves and flowers in decoction are used to reduce fever, in kidney problems,
and against erysipelas (Pérez Arbeláez 1996; Toscano González 2006). Peru: Fresh
leaves are used to treat liver and kidney problems, cancer of the blood, blood
circulation problems, intoxication of the blood and heart, and inflammation of the
stomach (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn

2010, 2011; Bussmann et al. 2010a). The species portrays mild antibacterial prop-
erties (Bussmann et al. 2009, 2010b, 2011a, b). It is sold in local markets (Bussmann
and Sharon 2007b; Bussmann et al. 2007). The species is also used to treat psycho-
somatic problems (Bussmann et al. 2010c).
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
Iresine diffusa Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. . . . 995
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629.
Toscano González JY. Uso tradicional de plantas medicinales en la vereda San Isidro, municipio de
San José de Pare-Boyacá: un estudio preliminar usando técnicas cuantitativas. Acta Biol
Colomb. 2006;11(2):137–46.
Jaborosa caulescens Gillies & Hook.
SOLANACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Local Names
Chile: Teqerere
Botany and Ecology
Geophyte, with a thick root, from which branched, vertical, or oblique rhizomes with
short stems are born. Leaves glabrous, with bipinnatisecta sheet, up to about 4 cm
long with the first division until almost the rachis, with its last dentate divisions
mucronadas; petiole equal in length or somewhat larger than the lamina. Small
flowers, calyx of 2.5–4 mm, with few glandular trichomes. Corolla of 6.5–8 mm,
corolino tube 2 times longer than the calyx, in flex lobes, with dense induction of
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Jaborosa sp. (Solanaceae), Machuca, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)
trichomes. Violet, subglobose fruit, 1–1.5 mm in diameter. 2000–4000 m (Peñaloza

et al. 2013) (Fig. 1).
The aerial parts are used as a remedy for stomachache. The infusion of roasted and
ground root is used for the treatment of infantile diarrhea (Peñaloza et al. 2013;
Forage use (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003)
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Jacaranda caucana Pittier
BIGNONIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Jacaranda caucana Pittier: Jacaranda caucana subsp. sandwithiana A.H. Gentry;

Jacaranda filicifolia D. Don ex Seem.
Local Names
Colombia: Gualanday, Acacia, Cacao, Caballito, Riñón de oreja, Guayacán, Palo de

boba, Piñón de oreja, Cornique, Aceituno, Caro; Peru: Arabisca, Yarabisca;
English: Jacaranda
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Glabrous except the nodally axillary precocious panicles, these obscurely

pulverulent unless the corollas, the staminode villous at base and apex, the
ovary tomentose; branches dark with flavescent lenticels; rachis of the many
pinnae more or less continuously alate, the innumerable sessile lateral
leaflets obliquely oblong or ovate-oblong, obtuse or subobtuse, 7–12 mm long,
3–5 mm wide below the middle, 3–5-nerved, pallid beneath, the terminal 1.5–2 cm
long, 3–5 mm wide; rachis of panicles 2–2.5 cm long, pedicels 2–4 mm
long (to 8 mm in fruit), bracts and bractlets 1 mm long; calyx broadly
cupulate, repand (ex char.), 1–1.5 mm long; corolla campanulate-funnelform,
curved at contracted base, globose-inflated below, about 4 cm long;
capsule oblong, impressed-punctate, obtuse or retuse-cuspidate, 5–6 cm
long, 2 nearly 3 cm broad; seeds 15–22 mm broad, 8–10 mm long, equally
or somewhat unequally alate (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2,
3, 4, and 5).
Fig. 1 Jacaranda acutifolia

(Bignoniaceae), Pisac, Peru.
Jacaranda caucana Pittier 1001




It is used in Colombia for the treatment of venereal diseases, varicose veins, eczema,
boils, and other skin conditions like leishmaniasis. The leaves of Gualanday are used
as a blood purifier and as anti-syphilitics. The decoction of the leaves or bark and
applied in the form of hot baths on the part affected or ingested orally is also used in
ulcers and mild inflammations. The dried and powdered leaves are sprinkled on the
ulcers and produce the same effect of iodoform or sulfates, acting as a disinfectant. In
the form of syrup, it is prescribed for the treatment of venereal diseases, gonorrhea,
infections of the urethra, neuralgia, and bone pain. The syrup or decoction of
Gualanday leaves is commonly used to treat furunculosis (Díaz 2003; García Barriga
1975; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social
2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bark, leaves, and flowers are used as analgesic and
anthelmintic and for blood cleansing; leaves are used to treat bone pain, liver
problems, mouth infections, mouth ulcers, rashes, skin diseases, syphilis, and vene-
real diseases (Bussmann et al. 2018). In Peru Jacaranda acutifolia is used for
cough, asthma, phlegm, and bronchitis (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a,
b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010). It is rarely sold in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007).
The plant shows antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2010b, 2011). Mostly
Arabisca is used in combination with other species (Bussmann et al. 2010a).
Jacaranda mimosifolia is used in Madagascar for sinusitis and headache
(Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
Jacaranda caucana Pittier 1003
978-0-9789962-3-9.
medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-
9960231-3-9.
medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN
978-0-9960231-2-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
2015;11:60.
Jarava leptostachya (Griseb.) F. Rojas
POACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Jarava leptostachya (Griseb.) F. Rojas: Stipa andina F.A. Roig, Stipa capilliseta
Hitchc., Stipa leptostachya Griseb., Stipa leptostachya. var. capilliseta (Hitchc.)
Parodi, Stipa leptostachya. var. leptostachya
Local Names
Chile: K’isi, Sikuya, Paja blanca, Ñawara macho, Ñavada, Paja, Paja de chuño, Paja
amarilla, Paja sikuya, Sikuya blanca, Vizcachera
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Perennial plants, caespitose, between 35 and 55 cm high; cylindrical stems, straight;

smooth leaf pods, 2-lobed, membranaceous capitules; linear, convolute foliar lam-
inae, between 18 and 26 cm long, smooth hypophyllous, striated, both sides and
scabruscule margins. Inflorescences between 5 and 17 cm long, contracted. Spindle
spikelets, between 6 and 7.5 mm long; glumes acuminate, membranaceous; inferior
glume 1-nervous; upper 3-nervous glum; fusiform, ovoid, attenuated toward the
apex, scarce; inconspicuous crown, generally straight edge, rarely geniculate, sub-
acute, glabrous or subglobus; acute pale, with little hair; lodge 2, oblong. Fruit
cylindrical, straight, rare geniculate; glabrous or subglobus. 1200–4600 m (González
and Molina 2017).
Local Food Uses
The aerial parts are used as a seasoning to flavor the “mukuna de mukuna” (González
The common name of chuño alludes straw to the use of the species as a support to
place the potatoes in the chuño process. Aerial parts used as construction material
mixed with mud are used for roofing. Forage use (González and Molina 2017;
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Jatropha curcas L.
Jatropha gossypifolia L.
Jatropha multifida L.
EUPHORBIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Jatropha curcas L.: Castiglionia lobata Ruiz & Pav.; Curcas adansonii Endl.;
Curcas curcas (L.) Britton & Millsp.; Curcas drastica Mart.; Curcas indica
A. Rich.; Curcas purgans Medic.; Jatropha acerifolia Salisb.; Jatropha afrocurcas
Pax; Jatropha condor Wall.; Jatropha edulis Cerv.; Jatropha moluccana Wall.;
Jatropha tuberosa Elliot; Jatropha yucatanensis Briq.; Manihot curcas (L.) Crantz;
Ricinus americanus Mill.; Ricinus jarak Thunb.
Jatropha multifida L.: Adenoropium multifidum (L) Pohl
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Jatropha curcas: Bolivia: Piñón (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2016; Macía et al.
2005); Colombia: Piñón, Purga de fraile, Jaquillo, Purga, Piñón de Purga, Coquillo,
Arbol santo, Piñón blanco, Higo de infierno, Tua-Tua, Medsiyen, Tártago, Piñón
botija, Piñón de bndias, Túa-Túa, Mañolo, Piñón (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. en
prep.); Ecuador, Peru: Piñón (Spanish)
Jatropha multifida: Colombia: Emético, Flor de coral, Tártago emético; Ecuador,
Peru: Piñon (Spanish)
Jatropha gossypifolia: Colombia: Carretillo, Higuerilla, Purga de fraile, Túa-túa,
Higuerillo (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. en prep); Ecuador: Piñon, Cinco dedos,
Purgo, Zancudero (Spanish) (de La Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Piñón (Spanish);
English: Purging nut
Botany and Ecology
Jatropha curcas: Trees, 8–15 m tall, monoecious. Stems: green in younger

branches but gray-green in older, erect, somewhat succulent, leaf scars crescent-
shaped; latex copious, clear in younger branches but cloudy in older. Leaves
deciduous in drier, cooler climates but semi-evergreen to evergreen in warmer,
moist regions; stipules caducous but narrowly lanceolate when present on actively
growing shoots; petioles 9–19 cm long and 1.4–3 mm in diameter; blades cordate
to orbicular in outline, shallowly 3–5-lobed or sometimes unlobed, 9–15 cm wide
and long, membranous, base cordate, apex acuminate, margins entire or eophylls
and young leaves with few glands, venation palmate with 3–5( 7) primary veins,
both surfaces glabrous or occasionally sparsely pubescent on abaxial veins. Inflo-
rescences: bisexual, terminal becoming subterminal to lateral with continued
growth, many-flowered, compound, capitate cymes, flowers predominantly stami-
nate, peduncles of main florescences 0.5–1 cm long and those of co-florescences
1.5–5 cm; bracts 3–10 mm long; bracteoles 1.5–2 mm long; pedicels 1–3 mm long.
Staminate flowers with ovate-elliptic sepals, 4–6 2–3 mm, connate at base,
margins entire; apex acute, glabrous on both surfaces; corollas campanulate,
greenish white to greenish yellow, petals 4–5 2–2.5( 3) mm, distinct or
connate, ovate-oblong, apex round and strongly reflexed, tomentose on adaxial
side but glabrous on abaxial; stamens 10, biseriate (5 + 5), filaments of outer
series 3–4.5 mm long and those of inner series 3–5 mm, anthers 1.4–2 mm long.
Pistillate flowers like staminate but slightly larger and much fewer in
number, infrequently with fertile staminodes; sepals 5–7.5 2–2.5 mm, connate;
petals 6–8 2–3.5 mm, glabrous on both surfaces; carpels 3, styles connate,
0.5–1.5 mm long, stigmas 3-lobed, lobes bifurcate; ovary usually unlobed but
sometimes slightly 3-lobed. Capsules: ellipsoid, 2.6–3 2.2–2.8 cm, trilocular,
drupaceous, black at maturity, tardily dehiscent. Seeds. black or black mottled
with some white spots, oblong-ellipsoidal, 1.8–2 1.1–1.3 cm wide, seed coat
smooth, caruncle small to nearly vestigial (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
Jatropha curcas L. . . . 1009
Jatropha gossypifolia: Shrubs, to 3 m tall. Stems: brown turning gray with age,
erect, hirsute, glandular when young, soft and pliable; latex clear and viscous.
Leaves mostly persistent but sometimes semi-deciduous in drier areas, stipules
few- to many-branched and unbranched, stipitate glands, 2.5–2 mm long; petioles
3–14.5 cm long and 1–1.4 mm in diameter, covered with sticky, stipitate glands;
blades cordate to ovate in outline, dark red, brownish, to green, 3- to 5-lobed,
4–8.2 4.2–3.4 cm, membranous, base cordate, margins sometimes doubly serrate,
serrulate-denticulate or glandular-ciliate or rarely entire, apices acuminate, venation
palmate with 5–7 primary veins, surfaces glabrous or sparsely pubescent especially
on veins. Inflorescences terminal and subterminal, few-flowered cymes,
peduncles of main florescences 2.5–0.5 cm long and those of co-florescences
2–7 cm; bracts ovate, 6–16 mm long, margins glandular; pedicels 1–2 mm long.
Staminate flowers with sepals lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, 1.2–2.5 2.5–4 mm,
sometimes connate, margins beset with stipitate glands, apex round, glabrous, or
sparsely pubescent on both surfaces; corollas campanulate, red to purple and some-
times with yellowish green center, petals 3.5–5.5 1.8–3 mm, obovate, connate,
apex round and somewhat reflexed, glabrous, or sparely pubescent on one or both
surfaces; stamens 8, diadelphous-biseriate (5 + 3), filaments in each series,
connate, outer series 1.4–3 mm and inner series 1.8–4 mm long. Pistillate flowers
like staminate but infrequently with staminodes sometimes with a few pollen
grains, sepals 2.5–4 1–1.7 mm; petals 4–6.5 2–3.5 cm; carpels 3, styles
1–2 mm long, connate. Capsules ellipsoidal to nearly spherical,
1–1.2 0.8–1 cm, pubescent, explosively dehiscent. Seeds: gray-brown, mottled
with dark brown spots, oval, 6.5–7 3.8–4.5 mm, caruncle prominent.
Circumtropical and often weedy (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Jatropha multifida: Shrubs or small trees, to 7 m tall. Stems yellow-brown to gray,
erect, sparsely branched, covered with lenticels and round leaf scars; latex cloudy and
viscous. Leaves: semi-evergreen, mostly borne on upper parts of branches; stipules
branched, filiform, 6–15( 25) mm; petioles 11–29 cm long and 2.5–3.5 mm in
diameter; blades variable, ovate-cordate to nearly orbicular in outline,
16–30 10–22 cm, pinnatifid, deeply dissected into 9–11 lobes nearly to base,
segments 1.2–4 cm, distinctly narrow early but wider later, membranous, base rounded,
margins incised, apices acuminate, venation palmate with a single vein in each lobe,
glabrous on both surfaces. Inflorescences terminal, becoming subterminal with contin-
ued growth, many-flowered, capitate cymes; peduncles 12–30 cm, paracladia orange-
red; bracts lanceolate, 2–4.5 mm, margins entire, glabrous; pedicels 3.5–6 mm. Stami-
nate flowers with sepals ovate, 1.5–3 1–1.2 mm, connate, margins entire, apex round,
glabrous on both orange-red, petals 5–7 2.5–3 mm, distinct, apex rounded, glabrous
on both surfaces; stamens 8, monadelphous-uniseriate, filaments distinct, 2.2–2.5 mm.
Pistillate flowers like staminate but significantly fewer in number and somewhat larger;
sepals 2–3.5 1.1–1.3; petals 6–8.2 mm 2–3.2 mm; carpels mostly 3 ( 2), styles
distinct, 1–1.2 mm. Capsules ellipsoidal, 3–3.4 2.7–2.9 cm, bright yellow when
mature, distinctly triangular and carinate, tardily dehiscent. Seeds: yellow to light brown,
mottled with dark brown spots or stripes, spherical, 1.4–1.8 cm in diameter. Probably
indigenous to the West Indies (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 7).
Fig. 1 Jatropha weberbaueri

(Euphorbiaceae), Marañon,
Peru. (Photo R.W: Bussmann

Jatropha curcas: Colombia: Latex is used to treat burns and conjunctivitis; fruits
and seeds are used to treat constipation (Bussmann et al. 2018). The purgative
properties of this plant are extremely strong, and the whole plant contains toxic
properties, so it must be used with extreme care and supervision. The latex is used in
Colombia to heal hemorrhoids and burns, rashes, and some other skin conditions;
when applied on the temple for several days, it cures the inflammations of the eyes.
Fresh leaves cause irritation and redness of the skin due to increased blood flow and




Fig. 7 Jatropha clavuligera

relieve pain in various osteo-muscular conditions. The decoction of the leaves is

used in the treatment of venereal diseases. The oil extracted from the seeds is used as
a purgative by combining it with an egg yolk. The fruit is used as an emetic and
purgative, and the seeds act as a purgative by ingesting them whole as pills. Piñon oil
is used against fluid retention, inflammation of the pleura, and intestinal worms
(Arias Alzate 1962; García Barriga 1975; Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Bolivia: Seeds are dried and used to treat gallstones and alcoholism and as laxative
(Bussmann et al. 2016; Macía et al. 2005). Ecuador: Latex is used to treat wounds;
seeds are used as purgative (Bussmann and Sharon 2007a). The latex serves as a
disinfectant for pimples and wounds (MestizaoManabí). The sap of the fruit is used
as a laxative and to eliminate intestinal worms (Tsa’-chi-Pichincha). The leaves are
used to treat erysipelas and inflammations (unspecified ethnic group – other coast).
The seeds of ripe fruits are purgative (Mestizo-El Oro; unspecified ethnicity – other
coast) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Dried seeds are used as laxative and to getting rid of laziness (Bussmann and
Sharon 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a; Monigatti et al. 2013). Jatropha
shows antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2010a, 2011a), but the plants are very
toxic (Bussmann et al. 2011b). In Nepal, it is used against arthritis (Kunwar et al.
2013). In India the latex is used for cuts and wounds, the seeds as digestive, and the
branches for tooth and gum problems, night blindness, and rheumatic pain (Raj et al.
2018). In Madagascar the plant is used to help expelling the placenta, for asthma,
dental problems, pneumonia (Razafindraibe et al. 2013), and postpartum recovery
(Randrianarivony et al. 2016).
Jatropha gossypifolia: Colombia: The seeds are used for breast care and constipa-
tion and as skin tonic (Bussmann et al. 2018). The decoction of the bark is used in
Colombia against gonorrhea. The leaves prepared in decoction or infusion are used
against colic. The seeds are diuretic and purgative. The Indians of Valledupar, the
Sierra Nevada, and La Guajira (Atlantic Coast) have used the bark of Carretillo since
ancient times, to cure stomach and liver cramps (García Barriga 1975; Pérez
Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: Latex is used to treat wounds; seeds are used as purga-
tive, which causes vomiting and diarrhea (Bussmann and Sharon 2007a). The
infusion of the leaves is used to treat stomach conditions. The infusion of leaves
and seeds is used as a purgative (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha)
(de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Dry seeds are used as laxative and for getting rid of
laziness (Bussmann and Sharon 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a; Monigatti
et al. 2013). Jatropha shows antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2010a, 2011a),
but the plants are very toxic (Bussmann et al. 2011b).
Jatropha multifida: The decoction of the bark is used in Colombia against gonor-
rhea. The leaves prepared in decoction or infusion are used against colic. The seeds
are diuretic and purgative. The Indians of Valledupar, the Sierra Nevada, and La
Guajira (Atlantic Coast) have used the bark of Carretillo since ancient times, to cure
stomach and liver cramps (Bernal et al. 2011; García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez
1996). Ecuador: The latex is used to treat wounds; the seeds are used as purgative
(Bussmann and Sharon 2007a). Peru: Dry seeds are used as laxative and to getting
rid of laziness (Bussmann and Sharon 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a;
Monigatti et al. 2013). Jatropha shows antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2010a,
2011a), but the plants are very toxic (Bussmann et al. 2011b).
Local Food Uses
Jatropha curcas: Ecuador: Dried seeds are edible. They are consumed like peanuts
(Mestizo-Manabí) (de La Torre et al. 2008).
Jatropha curcas: Ecuador: The fruit, dried, ground, and boiled, is used to make
soap (Mestizo-Manabí). The stem is used as a fence post (Kichwa del Oriente-Loja;
Mestizo-El Oro, Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is planted as a live fence
along roads and edges of farms (Tsa’chi-Pichincha; Mestiza-Guayas, Loja,
Galapagos; unspecified ethnic group – Los Ríos) (de La Torre et al. 2008). Peru:
Sometimes used in healing rituals (Bussmann et al. 2010b).
References
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010b;4(9):580–629.

10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
(2):450–64.
018-0208-9.
Randrianarivony NT, Randrianasolo A, Andriamihajarivo T, Ramarosandratana AV, Jeannoda VH,
Rakotoarivony F, Bussmann RW. Useful plants and tradition for pregnancy, child delivery and
for postpartum care used by people living around Analavelona forest located in Southwest
Madagascar. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2016;15(1):68–78.
2013;9:73.
Juglans boliviana (C. DC.) Dode
Juglans neotropica Diels
JUGLANDACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Juglans boliviana (C. DC.) Dode: Juglans nigra var. boliviana C. DC.; Juglans
peruviana Dode
Juglans neotropica Diels: Juglans equatoriensis Linden; Juglans granatensis Lin-
den; Juglans honorei Dode
Local Names
Juglans boliviana: Bolivia: Nogal (Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005; Bussmann et al. 2016a)
Juglans neotropica: Colombia: Cedro negro, Cedro-nogal, Nogal; Ecuador: Tukti
(Kichwa), Nogal, Tocte (Spanish) (de La Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Nogal (Spanish);
English: Neotropical walnut
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Juglans boliviana: Leaflets 6–15 pairs, ovate-lanceolate, unequally rotund-

subcordate at the base, more or less abruptly acuminate, regularly serrate,
scabrous-pubescent on both sides, the rough, branched hairs more numerous
beneath, in youth densely velvety beneath; staminate aments to 20 cm long,
1.5 cm wide; perianth 6–8-lobed, with a 2-lobed involucre; anthers 60–70, pubescent
at the tip; bractlet reduced to a rusty tuft of wool at about the middle of the pedicel;
pistillate flowers 5–8; stigmatic branches slender; fruit subglobose subconic, 4–5 cm
long, densely villous; nut rather remotely and obtusely rugose-costate, depressed at
the base, subconic, scarcely compressed, to 3.5 cm long (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
Juglans neotropica: Tree up to 30 meters high, the stout young branchlets, espe-
cially at tip, and the leaf rachis at flowering time conspicuously rusty-pubescent;
leaflets 7–8( 14) pairs, at first above sparsely, beneath densely velvety-pubescent,
the largest middle leaflets about 12 cm long and 4 cm. wide, gradually long-
acuminate, minutely, and evenly serrate; staminate aments 20–25 cm long, the
flowers partly remote, partly approximate; bracts 2–3.5 mm long, yellowish-
brown-pilose; anthers apically pubescent; pistillate flowers 3–10; calyx urceolate,
rusty-tomentose, 18 mm long, 6–7 mm broad, the narrow, reflexed teeth unequal, the
larger 5 mm, the smaller 2 mm long; perianth segments 4, reflexed, irregularly
dentate, 6 mm. long, 3–4 mm. wide; stigmatic branches broadly lingulate, densely
papillose, 8–9 mm long, 4 mm broad (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Juglans boliviana: Bolivia: Dried leaves and bark are used to treat diabetes and
kidney inflammation (Macía et al. 2005; Bussmann et al. 2016a).
Juglans neotropica: Colombia: The leaves, fruits, and bark are used in Colombia as
cicatrizant, as anti-inflammatory and anti-hemorrhagic, and as a depurative of the
blood, in the treatment of vaginal flows and against infections of the lymph nodes.
The bark of the root is used to correct intestinal constipation and also to correct some
diseases of the liver. The leaves in decoction are used in urethral and vaginal washes.
The leaves and fruits are also used to prevent hair loss and to paint the gray hair
(García Barriga 1974; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Patiño 1963;
The whole plant is used to treat lower cholesterol, as astringent, and for good
luck; the whole plant and leaves are used for blood cleansing; the root is used to treat
constipation; the leaves are used to treat vaginal infections, urinary infections,
indigestion, dysmenorrhea, diabetes, dandruff, and anemia, as skin tonic, for healthy
hair, as fungicide, and as analgesic; leaves and fruits are used to treat alopecia and as
anti-angina remedy; fruits are used to treat mouth ulcers; the bark, leaves and fruits
are used to treat vaginal discharge; bark, leaves, and fruits are used to promote
Juglans boliviana (C. DC.) Dode . . . 1019
Fig. 1 Juglans neotropica

(Juglandaceae), Cochabamba,


sweating; bark and root are used to treat liver problems (Bussmann et al. 2018).
Ecuador: The infusion of cooked leaves and seeds is drunk to treat cough, rheuma-
tism, and gout (unspecified ethnic group – Bolívar). The syrup of the leaves and

seeds is used to treat blood conditions (unspecified ethnicity – Loja). The decoction
of the leaves is useful for treating syphilis, pimples, rashes, wounds, mouth and skin
sores (herpes), inflammation of the eyes and skin, jaundice, arthritis, rheumatism,
and insect bites (Mestizo, unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). It is used to treat
insomnia and phosphorus and calcium deficiencies. The bark is used to prepare a
syrup, along with guayusa (Ilex guayusa) and sugar, to treat breastmilk shortages,
coughs, and lung infections. The leaves, in cooking, are used to eliminate the solitary
(Mestiza-Pichincha). The flower, in infusion, is used to relieve the headache
(unspecified ethnicity – Azuay). The infusion of the bark and leaves is used to
treat rheumatism, cramps, and colds (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura). The infusion of
the leaves is used for the brain and to treat nerves, arthritis, and postpartum
conditions (Kichwa de la Sierra, unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura). The infusion
of the leaves is used to cure the flu, inflammations, wounds, and rheumatism
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified ethnic
group – Chimborazo). With the infusion of the branches, leaves, and seeds, baths are
performed to women who give birth (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo,
Bolívar). The sap is used to treat rheumatism (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The leaves
and fruit, in infusion, are used to treat rheumatic pains, mainly of the legs
(unspecified ethnicity – Cañar). The leaves, infused, pure, or with milk, are used
to treat inflammations, bronchial conditions, and anemia (unspecified ethnicity –
Azuay, Cañar). It is used as a bath to treat cold (unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). It
serves as animal medicine (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar). It
treats stomach conditions (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas) (de la Torre et al.
2008). A bath with the leaves strengthens the muscles of weak children (Kichwa de
la Sierra-Loja). The leaves, in infusion, are used as a stomach stimulant drink
(Mestizo-Pichincha). The infusion of the leaves is used in hot baths (Mestizo-
Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). The leaves, in infusion, are
used to prevent hair loss, stimulate their growth, and lighten their color (Mestizo-
Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). Peru: Fresh leaves are used to treat hair loss (Bussmann and Sharon
Fig. 5 Juglans regia

(Juglandaceae), fruits,
Lagodekhi, Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
2006, 2007, 2015a, b); it is also used for bronchial, cough, and lung problems
(Bussmann and Glenn 2010, 2011; Monigatti et al. 2013). Often sold in local
markets, together with fruits of regular walnut (Juglans nigra) (Bussmann et al.
2007; 2008a; 2009). Walnut extract is rich in tannins and has antibacterial properties
(Bussmann et al. 2008b, 2010a, b, 2011a, b). It is sometimes used for psychosomatic
problems (Bussmann et al. 2010c).
Juglans regia is used in the Himalayas as pesticide and insecticide and for toothache
(Bhat et al. 2013), as well as for wound treatments (Kunwar et al. 2006), allergies, as
astringent, scabies, toothache, bone problems and for tuberculosis (Kunwar et al.
2013; Malik et al. 2015; Sher et al. 2016; Singh et al. 2017).
Local Food Uses
Widely used as food.

Ecuador: The fruit is edible (Mestiza-Loja). With the leaves, aromatic waters are
prepared (unspecified ethnic group – Loja). The seeds are edible and are used to
prepare sweets or candies such as nogada (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Cotopaxi,
Chimborazo, Cañar; Mestiza-Tungurahua, Morona Santiago; unspecified ethnic
group – Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha, Chimborazo, Bolívar, Cañar, Azuay, Loja,
others (Costa and Sierra Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

(Juglandaceae), Tbilisi,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

(Juglandaceae), Tbilisi,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Juglans regia is widely used for food, especially in the Caucasus where it is
ingredient of many dishes (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b) (Figs. 5, 6, and 7).
Juglans neotropica: Ecuador: It has beekeeping use (unspecified ethnicity – Loja)

(from de la Torre et al. 2008). The stem is timber, useful in joinery, in the elaboration
of plows and poles, and in the construction of houses. The wood is very fine, strong,
and water resistant (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar, Loja;
Mestiza-Tungurahua, Loja; unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha, Chimborazo,
Cañar, Azuay, Loja). The leaves, bark, epicarp, and seeds are used as dyes to dye
wool and brown clothes (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar, Loja;
unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo, Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Juglans regia is used in Pakistan top decorate the lips (Sher et al. 2016).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Fighting pain. Traditional Peruvian remedies for the treatment of Asthma,
Rheumatism, Arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011;10(3):397–412.
9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010a;9
(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629.
2014;12:237–313.

016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Kunwar RM, Nepal BK, Kshetri HB, Rai SK, Bussmann RW. Ethnomedicine in Himalaya: a case
study from Dolpa, Humla, Jumla and Mustang districts of Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed.
2006;2:27.
Malik ZA, Bhat J, Ballabha R, Bussmann RW, Bhatt AB. Ethnomedicinal plants traditionally used
2015;172:133–44.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
(2):450–64.
itants of Jakholi Block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed.
2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3.
Junellia digitata (Phil.) Moldenke var.
digitata
Junellia minima (Meyen) Moldenke
Junellia seriphioides (Gillies & Hook. ex
Hook.)
Moldenke
VERBENACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Junellia digitata (Phil.) Moldenke var. digitata: Junellia nubigena (Speg.)

Moldenke, Junellia punctulata Hieron. ex Moldenke, Junellia tridactyla (Phil.)
Moldenke, Verbena digitata Phil., Verbena digitata var. integerrima Botta, Verbena
nubigena Poepp., Verbena nubigena Speg., Verbena spegazzinii (Moldenke) Tronc.,
Verbena tridactyla Phil., Verbena triternata Phil.
Junellia minima (Meyen) Moldenke: Junellia minima (Meyen) Moldenke, Ver-
bena minima Meyen
Junellia seriphioides (Gillies & Hook. ex Hook.) Moldenke: Junellia hystrix
(Phil.) Moldenke, Junellia seriphioides var. glabra Moldenke, Junellia seriphioides
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

var. tomentosa Moldenke, Verbena echinata Phil., Verbena hystrix Briq., Verbena
seriphioides Gillies & Hook. Verbena var. glabra Moldenke, Verbena var. lanigera
Hieron, Verbena seriphioides var. glabra Moldenke, Verbena seriphioides var.
lanigera Hieron., Verbena seriphioides var. tomentosa Moldenke.
Local Names
Junellia digitata: Chile: Altea, Kotakota, Pupusa del campo, Kibutola

Junellia minima: Chile: Pupusa, Yaretilla, Jallao
Junellia seriphioides: Chile: Kaylla, Churikaylla, Berreina, Perlilla, Perdilla,
Roseta, Rosa, Rosas, Rosa del campo, Rosa de la cordillera, Rosakishka, Kshkarosa,
Espina de rosas, Kishka, Vinovino, Comida de llamo, Tola, Cardoncillo, Cola de
gato, Cola de michi, Zarzaparrilla, Azar
Botany and Ecology
Junellia digitata: Sufrútice pygmy herb, stoloniferous, up to 3–5 cm in height,

prostrate stems, ferruginous bark. Leaves opposite, sessile, subcrasas, deeply tripar-
tite, 3–5 5–7 mm, basal part narrow, entire, flat, apex with oblong lobes, rounded
apex, divided, hispid, and with glandular hairs. Apical in florescences, with
5–8 flowers, dense, subglobose. Foliaceae, trífdas or tripartida brácteas. Calyx
tubular, 3–5 mm, 5-dentate, villous, short teeth, triangular, subequal. Corolla red-
dish, hypocrateriform, 5-lobate, 7.5–9 mm, cylindrical tube somewhat widened at
the apex, lobes obovate, sometimes emarginated, 1–1.5 mm. Mericarpos
4, 2.5–3.5 mm, obtuse apex, narrower toward the base, dorsal convex, gently
reticulated. 3500–4700 m (Peñaloza et al. 2013) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Junellia minima: Evergreen, pulviniform, semi-woolly shrub up to 30 cm in diameter;
prostrate stem; fasciculated root. Scatiform leaves, in very tight rosettes, sessile, with
hairy margin. Involve it with a hairy bract the size of the chalice. White flowers,
arranged in peaks, actinomorphs, hermaphrodites; Gamosépalo calyx, pentadentate;
gamopétala corolla, pentalobulated; androceo with 4 didinamous stamens, epipétalos,
cordiform anthers, sub-basifijas and ditésicas, with pilosity in the union of the filaments
with, the corolla; gynoecium with superior ovarian, bicarpelar, unilocular, globular,
apical style, and simple stigma. 2800–4600 m (Peñaloza et al. 2013).
Junellia seriphioides: Shrub 50–80 cm high, with erect, ramified macroblasts, short
brachiblastos of 2–2.5 mm. Leaves dimorphic, those of the whole macroblasts,
trisect, spiny, 5–7 1–1.5 mm, sessile, leaves of the brachyblasts, tetrásticas,
imbricate, sheet of 1 1 mm, edges incurvos forming a furrow covered with hairs
soft. Clusters of flowers, 2–3 flowers. Tubular chalice, 3.5–4 mm, externally villous.
Corolla hipocrateriformis, 10–12 mm, glabra, cylindrical tube, 7–8 mm. Clusters
4.5–5 mm, truncated apex, thickened base. 1300–4200 m (Peñaloza et al. 2013)
(Fig. 3).
Junellia digitata (Phil.) Moldenke var. . . . 1027
Fig. 1 Junellia digitata

(Verbenaceae), Quebrada
Chita, Chile. (Photo Lucas
Burchard Señoret)
Fig. 2 Junellia digitata

(Verbenaceae), Ollague,
Señoret)
Fig. 3 Junellia serphoides

(Verbenaceae), Quebrada
Burchard Señoret)
Junellia digitata: The infusion of the ground root is used for the treatment of
headache and stomach pain (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán
and Castro 2003).
Junellia minima: The infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment of stomach
pain (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Junellia seriphioides: The infusion of the aerial parts is used to treat cold, headache,
stomach pain, and indigestion. The infusion of the flower is good for the treatment of
colds, coughs, bladder, and urine. The infusion of the aerial parts mixed with chaka-
chaka (Krameria lappaceae) is used when the blood is “clear.” Using it as a bath is
good for fever and bone pain. The flower has febrifugal properties (Peñaloza et al.
Local Food Uses
Junellia digitata: The fresh root is edible and has a sweet flavor (Peñaloza et al.
Junellia seriphioides: Host of the edible parasite Ombrophytum subterraneum
(Balanaphoraceae) (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
Junellia digitata: Forage use (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán
and Castro 2003).
Junellia seriphioides: Forage and firewood uses (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers.
CRASSULACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers.: Bryophyllum calycinum Salisb.; Bryophyllum

germinans Blanco; Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Asch. & Schweinf.; Bryophyllum
pinnatum (Lam.) Oken; Calanchoe pinnata Pers.; Cotyledon calycina Roth; Coty-
ledon calyculata Solander; Cotyledon pinnata Lam.; Cotyledon rhizophilla Roxb.;
Crassula pinnata L. f.; Crassuvia floripensia Comm. ex Lam.; Crassuvia
floripendula Comm.; Kalanchoe brevicalyx (Raym.-Hamet & H. Perrier) Boiteau;
Kalanchoe calcicola (H. Perrier) Boiteau; Kalanchoe calycina Salisb.; Kalanchoe
pinnata var. brevicalyx Raym.-Hamet & H. Perrier; Kalanchoe pinnata var.
calcicola H. Perrier; Kalanchoe var. floripendula Pers.; Kalanchoe pinnata var.
genuina Raym.-Hamet; Sedum madagascariensis Clus.; Verea pinnata (Lam.)
Spreng.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Kalanchoe
sp. (Crassulaceae),
Cajamarca, Peru. (Photo R.W:
Zambrana)
Local Names
Colombia: Bruja, Centaura, Colombiana, Espíritu santo, Hoja de soldado, Hoja del
aire, Hojasanta, Patriota, Planta de la vida; English: Kalanchoe
Botany and Ecology
Leaflets 3–5, oval, crenate, 7–13 cm long; calyx 2–3 cm long, inflated, the deltoid
teeth 7–10 mm long; corolla tube to 3.5 cm long, the lobes 12 mm long, triangular
Traditionally used as anti-inflammatory and antibacterial externally for wounds,

insect bites, and burns and internally for coughs, ulcers, and vomiting. This plant
has many medicinal applications in Colombia. Its most common use is in colds,
infections, or blows to the head. The crushed and soaked leaves are applied topically
to remove the headache and prepared in the same way and applied rubbed or as a
Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. 1031
Fig. 2 Kalanchoe
sp. (Crassulaceae),
Cajamarca, Peru. (Photo R.W:
Zambrana)
plaster are indicated to cure erysipelas, tinea and abscesses in legs and arms. To treat
intestinal constipation, it is advisable to grind the leaves of Siempreviva by adding a
little water or a decoction of the same; this same preparation is indicated to
counteract bile attacks. The milled or squeezed leaves are applied successfully to
relieve burns. Against measles it is recommended to place the leaves on the granites.
An infusion of the whole plant is ingested to remedy intense vaginal discharge, to
treat diabetes and in kidney diseases. The species is also used to treat colic,
dysentery, oral infections, mumps, inflammation of the lymph nodes, flu, cough,
skin rashes, diseases of newborns, inflammations, and insolation and to purify the
blood (Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012).
In India the leaf paste is used to treat wounds and burns. The extract serves to treat
bloody diarrhea, parasites, and vomiting (Debbarma et al. 2017). In Africa Kalan-
choe species are used to treat malaria (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a).
In Africa Kalanchoe species are applied to wounds in cattle (Njoroge and Bussmann
2006b).
References
2006b;108:332–9.
Krameria lappacea (Dombey) Burdet &
B.B. Simpson
KRAMERIACEAE
Synonyms
Krameria lappacea (Dombey) Burdet & B.B. Simpson: Krameria canescens

Willd. ex Schult.; Krameria iluca F. Phil.; Krameria linearis Poir.; Krameria
pentapetala Ruiz & Pav.; Krameria triandra Ruiz & Pav.; Krameria triandra var.
humboldtiana Chodat; Landia lappacea Dombey
Local Names
Ecuador: Ratania (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Ratania, Raima;
English: Ratania
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Shrub 70–150 cm tall, upright, or mat-forming and covered in silvery hairs. Older
stems tend to be gnarled. The branches are opposite and rather straight; each pair of
branches and each pair of leaves are regularly spaced. Leaves elliptic with pointed tip
and no leaf stalk and up to 1.5 cm long. Flowers borne on short inflorescences
borne from the bases of leaf pairs or the tops of branches. Each flower surrounded by
2 stiff bracts, with 4–5 lance-shaped and deep red purple sepals, each 1 cm
long. Petals deep red with green marks and very unequal. Stamens 3–4 of two
lengths and pink in color. Fruit 8 mm long and covered in barbs. Occurs in the
central Andes in dry rocky forest situations in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and
Argentina at elevations up to 3200 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Ecuador: The root extract is a powerful astringent (unspecified ethnic group-Azuay,

Peru: Fresh leaves and root are used to treat inflammation of the kidneys, inflam-
mation of the ovaries, inflammation of the intestine, and internal inflammation and
inflammation of the bladder (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007; Bussmann and
Glenn 2010a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013). Krameria has antibacterial properties
Fig. 1 Krameria lappacea

(Krameriaceae), Pisac, Peru.
(Photos R.W: Bussmann and
Krameria lappacea (Dombey) Burdet & B.B. Simpson 1035




(Bussmann et al. 2009, 2010a; Bussmann and Glenn 2010b). Internationally the root
extract is used for dental care.
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
(4):742–53.
Krameria lappacea (Dombey) Burdet & B.B. Simpson 1037
(2):450–64.
Lachemilla pinnata (Ruiz & Pav.) Rothm.
ROSACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Lachemilla pinnata (Ruiz & Pav.) Rothm.: Alchemilla achilleifolia J. Rémy;

Alchemilla alata Ruiz & Pav. ex Steud.; Alchemilla calchaquina Lillo; Alchemilla
pinnata fo. rosulata Pig. ex Rothm.; Alchemilla pinnata J. Rémy; Alchemilla
pinnata Ruiz & Pav.; Aphanes alata Steud.; Aphanes pinnata (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.;
Lachemilla achilleifolia (J. Rémy) Rothm.; Zygalchemilla pinnata (Ruiz &
Pav.) Rydb.
Local Names
Colombia: Orejuela, Plegadera; Bolivia: Uña uña (Spanish), Sillu sillu (Aymara)
(Macía et al. 2005; Justo and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016)
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Plants matted, from a fusiform root; radical leaves pinnate; the leaflets
biparted; the segments oval, entire, obtuse, ciliate, with lanceolate, acute,
brown, membranous, ciliate stipules; cauline leaves many-parted, villous;
flowers involucrate, in small, axillary heads; perianth campanulate, hirsute,
pedicellate, with 8 equal, oval, subobtuse, sericeous teeth; stamens 2.
Conspicuous, brown stipules (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2,
and 3).
The decoction of the whole plant is used in Colombia to treat inflammations of the
small intestine and for diarrhea, dysentery, and intestinal bleeding. It is also used in
washes to cure hemorrhoids (García Barriga 1974).
Bolivia: The whole dry plant is used to treat heartache, gallbladder, liver, for blood
cleansing, nerves, kidney infection, urinary tract infection, prolapse of the uterus,
headache, and constipation (Macía et al. 2005; Justo and Moraes 2015; Bussmann
et al. 2016).
In Peru Lachemilla is used in curing ceremonies to increase strength (Bussmann and

Sharon 2015a, b).
Fig. 1 Lachemilla pinnata

(Rosaceae), Uchumarca, Peru.
(Photos R.W. Bussmann and
Lachemilla pinnata (Ruiz & Pav.) Rothm. 1041


References
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Lactuca sativa L.
ASTERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Lactuca sativa L.: Lactuca scariola var. sativa (L.) Moris
Local Names
Colombia, Ecuador, Peru: Lechuga (Spanish); English: Lettuce
Botany and Ecology
Annual or biennial. Stem 30–70(100) cm high, smooth, more or less sulcate. Leaves
gradually strongly reducing upward, almost horizontal; lower leaves large, rotund-
obovate, or elliptical, narrowed into broad petiole, sometimes flexuous, and often
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

spinose-toothed; middle cauline leaves sessile, with deeply cordate base; upper
cauline leaves variable, often orbicular-reniform, with auriculate or sagittate-
amplexicaul base; leaves on peduncles very small, almost scaly, densely pubescent.
Capitula in corymbose-paniculate inflorescence, more or less cylindrical, (6)10–13
(15) mm long, with 15 florets. Involucral bracts not curved on fruiting, three- or four-
rowed outer bracts ovate-lanceolate, inner oblong-linear, subobtuse, with narrow
light-colored border. Corolla yellow. Achenes narrow or oblong-obovoid, about
4 mm long and 0.8–1 mm wide, gray or (less often) dark brown or brownish,
flattened, not always strictly symmetrical, with large number of longitudinal ribs
on each side, usually with erect hairs in upper part (under a lens!), rest smooth,
apically attenuate into filiform, whitish or light brown beak, almost as long as achene
and terminating in broad disk bearing pappus; pappus hairs numerous, thin, white,
soft, slightly barbed, almost as long as achene. Flowering (May) July–August.
Widely, cultivated in kitchen gardens as a vegetable for salads; sometimes found
in the wild. The origin of Lactuca sativa is unknown. The species has been
considered by many authors as a cultivated variety of Lactuca serriola (Figs. 1, 2,
3, 4, and 5).
In Bolivia, lettuce is used as a relaxant (Quiroga et al. 2012). In Colombian

popular medicine, the decoction of two or three leaves is used as a sedative of the
nervous system and as a general and hypnotic tonic and very useful against
insomnia. The juice extracted from the base of the leaves and the infusion of
the same are used as sedative and hypnotic (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño
2011; Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Protección
Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The flowers and the stem, in
cooking, are used to treat conditions of the kidneys and insomnia (Mestiza-
Pichincha). The infused leaves are used as narcotics (unspecified ethnic group –
Azuay, Cañar). The leaves, in infusion, are used to treat insomnia and toothache
and ear pain (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Fresh
root and stems are used to treat nerves, for blood purification, and to clean toxins
from the blood (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2015a, b).
Local Food Uses
The fresh leaves of lettuce are a frequent ingredient in salads and special dishes.
Ecuador: The leaves are edible (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar) (de la
Torre et al. 2008).
Lactuca sativa L. 1045
Fig. 1 Lactuca sativa (Asteraceae), garden, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Lactuca sativa

(Asteraceae), garden,
R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and
Lactuca sativa L. 1047

R.W. Bussmann and
References
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. Ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia; 1996.
Quiroga R, Meneses L, Bussmann RW. Medicinal ethnobotany in Huacareta (Chuquisaca, Bolivia).
Lampayo medicinalis F. Phil.
VERBENACEAE
Local Names
Bolivia: Lampaya
Botany and Ecology
Low shrub, up to 50 cm tall. Stem scarred, with reddish bark. Smooth, thick leaves
whole, opposite, shortly petiolated, orbicular to ovate, small, 7–8 mm long and
4–5 mm wide. Flowers, tubular, violet, up to 10 mm long. Fruit is a nut surrounded
by the fleshy cup (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
In Bolivia, it is used for problems of the digestive system (gastritis, ulcers, stomach-
ache, stomach infections), metabolism and nutrition (blood cleansing, cramps), and
muscular-skeletal system (bone pain, rheumatism, sore muscles); non-specific
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Lampayo medicinalis

(Verbenaceae), Turi, Chile.
Señoret)
Fig. 2 Lampayo medicinalis (Verbenaceae), Turi, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)
Lampayo medicinalis F. Phil. 1051

Señoret)

Señoret)
symptoms and general illnesses (shudders); pregnancy-, childbirth-, and childbed-

related problems (childbed, uterus inflammation); problems of the reproductive system
and sexual health (menstrual pain, ovary infection) and the respiratory system (cold,
cough); and illnesses of the skin and subcutaneous tissue (skin spots), as well as the
urinary system (cystitis, as diuretic, kidney infection, prostate, urinary infection)
References
Lantana cujabensis Schauer
VERBENACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Lantana cujabensis Schauer: Lantana cujabensis fo. scabrifolia Moldenke; Lan-

tana tenuifolia Rusby
Local Names
Colombia: Carrasquillo, Venturosa (Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Shrub, much-branched, upright, arching, usually grows 2–4 m tall, and forms dense
thickets. It can occasionally grow like vine in which case it can reach up to 15 m in
height. The young stems are usually green and square-shaped (quadrangular) in
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

cross-section. They are rough to the touch, often with prickles, sometimes hairy. In
maturity the stems become rounded and turn gray or brown in color. In some wild
varieties, the stems have large spines. The leaves are simple, with crenate or serrated
margin, opposite, petioles 5–30 mm long. Leaf blades are mostly egg-shaped with
broad ovate base and are 2–12 cm long, 1.5–7 cm wide, and scabrous, and the
underside is sometimes softly hairy. The dense flower clusters with numerous small
tubular flowers, 9–14 mm long, 4–10 mm wide, white, cream, yellow, orange, red,
pink, purple. The fleshy fruit is glossy in appearance and black, purplish-black, or
bluish-black when mature and 3–6 mm in diameter containing 1–2 seeds (1.5 mm
long). Branches spreading, elongate, sub-herbaceous, obtusely 4-angled, unarmed, or
muricate as the finely strigillose peduncles; leaves glandular punctate beneath,
glabrate, or subtomentose; heads hemispheric; bracts scabrous hirtellous; the outer
broadly ovate, acuminate, early involucral; the inner oblong-lanceolate, acute, to about
a third shorter than corolla (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
The roots of Carrasquillo are aromatic and used in Colombia to mitigate cough. The
leaves prepared in decoction are used in nasal catarrhs and for the affections of the
bronchi. The leaves also have stimulating and toning properties. The flowers and leaves
in decoction regulate menstruation and are a tonic for the uterus. This same decoction is
Fig. 1 Lantana
sp. (Verbenaceae), Pisac,
Lantana cujabensis Schauer 1055
Fig. 2 Lantana
sp. (Verbenaceae), Pisac,
used to treat intermittent fevers in order to lower the temperature (García Barriga 1975;
Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In Ecuador Lantana communis is used as purgative (Béjar
et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a, b). In Peru, Lantana scabiosaefolia is
used for colds, colds of the ovaries, menstruation problems, for women after childbirth,
and to avoid colds (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and
Glenn 2010a, b). It has some antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2011a, b).
Lantana camara is used in Kenya for malaria (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a) and
respiratory disorders (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006b). In Madagascar, it is used to
treat malaria, wounds, sexual problems, intestinal parasites, and hypertension
(Rabearivony et al. 2015) and also for diarrhea and stomachache (Rakotoarivelo
et al. 2015), as well as hemorrhages and hypertension (Randriamiharisoa et al.
2015). In India, it is used for cough and colds (Raj et al. 2018). In Pakistan, the
species serves for ringworm, headache, aerodontalgia, malarial fever, rheumatoid
arthritis, cuts and wounds, injuries, cough, and colds (Umair et al. 2019).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010b;17(2):331–46.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
018-0208-9.
the Ambalabe rural commune. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11(68).
2015;11:60.
10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4.
Lathyrus odoratus L.
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Local Names
Colombia: Doncenón, Tacones; Peru: Tacon blanco, Pensamiento blanco (Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Annual herb; (20)50–200 cm tall, pubescent; stems ascending or clinging, some-

times low (var. nanus Hort.), weakly branching, winged, with hairs tubercled at
base; stipules semi-sagittate, half as long as petioles; petioles rather long, 28–
40 mm, narrowly winged; rachis ending in a form strongly branched tendril;
leaflets 1-paired, oblong-oval, obtuse, mucronulate, with one rib, 37–55 mm
long, 12–24 mm wide. Peduncles longer than leaves; flowers 1–3, large, 2–3 cm
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Lathyrus odoratus

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
long, drooping, very fragrant, varying in color from pure white to dark
violet; calyx campanulate, sharply 10-nerved, 5 nerves continuous in teeth,
beset with prickles or tubercles, calyx teeth ovate-lanceolate, acute, nearly as
long as tube; standard short clawed, limb orbicular-elliptic; wings slightly
shorter than standard, claw short and wide, limb suborbicular, auricled at
base; keel shorter than standard, short-clawed, limb suborbicular, auricled at
base, slightly attenuate above into short beak; pods sessile, oblong, or linear,
2.5–5 cm long, 5–10 mm wide, compressed, sometimes slightly curved,
covered with hairs tubercled at base; seeds globose-angular, black-brown, smooth,
4–6. Described originally from Sicily (var. siculus L.). A favorite garden
annual, cultivated for its large showy blooms that give off a strong but very
fragrant odor (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
and 8)
The infusion of the flowers is used in Colombia to calm the nerves (Ministerio de
Lathyrus odoratus L. 1059

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 5 Lathyrus sativus

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
Peru: Flowers, leaves, and stems, fresh or dried, are used to treat heart, nerves, and
anxiety (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a, b).
Often in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007).
Lathyrus odoratus L. 1061

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
9960231-3-9.
medicinal flora of Northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN
978-0-9960231-2-2.
Pharmacol. 2010b;4(9):580–629.
Lavandula angustifolia Mill.
Lavandula latifolia Medik.
LAMIACEAE
Synonyms
Lavandula angustifolia Mill.: Lavandula officinalis Chaix; Lavandula spica L.;

Lavandula vera DC.
Local Names
Colombia: Alhucema, Lavándula espliego (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecua-

dor: Alhucema, Espliego, Lavanda (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru:
Alucema, Alhucema, Labanda (Spanish); English: Lavender
Botany and Ecology
Lavandula angustifolia: Shrub to 50 cm with linear-lanceolate leaves gray tomen-

tose when young, becoming greener with age. Inflorescence stalk usually
unbranched 10–25 cm long with a compact spike 4–5(–8) cm, sometimes with a
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Lavandula
angustifolia (Lamiaceae),
lower flower cluster distant from the main spike. Bracts broadly ovate-rhombic to
obovate; bracteoles present but minute. Calyx 13-nerved, with small circular
appendage. Corolla strongly bilaterally symmetrical, nearly twice the length of
calyx with prominent lobes, shades of blue/mauve, white, rarely violet pink in
color. Native to SW and South Central Europe (Italy, France, and Spain) in moun-
tainous areas usually over 1500 m, but widely cultivated and sometimes naturalized
elsewhere. The natural variation in this species across its range is not fully under-
stood, and there are many names in the literature. While only two subspecies are
listed here, this reflects that these are the only two whose delimitations and identi-
fication are clearly understood. Further work may identify other infraspecific taxa.
This species produces the best-quality oils and is a fine ornamental plant. Its
mountain origins make this the hardiest species in cultivation (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Lavandula latifolia: Shrub 50–70(100) cm. Leaves gray, linear-lanceolate to spat-
ulate in outline. Inflorescence stalk distinctly branched usually forming a trident-
shaped flower spike, up to 25 cm high. Spike often interrupted, 5–8 cm long. Bracts
subtending cymes linear-lanceolate in shape. Bracteoles distinct to 4 mm long. Calyx
13-nerved, with rotund appendage. Corolla strongly bilaterally symmetrical and blue
to mauve in color. Native to SW and South Central Europe, up to 1000–1200 m.
Rarely cultivated both for its oil, which is of low quality, and as an ornamental
(Figs. 4 and 5).
Lavandula angustifolia Mill. . . . 1065
Fig. 2 Lavandula dentata

(Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 3 Lavandula dentata

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Lavandula latifolia

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 5 Lavandula latifolia

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Lavandula angustifolia Mill. . . . 1067
Bolivia: The dried whole plant is used to treat swellings of the stomach and bone
pain; for postpartum care, uterus prolapse, fever, and bad air (mal aire); and as
incense for cleansing (Macía et al. 2005; Bussmann et al. 2016).
Colombia: Leaves and flowers are used to treat headache, indigestion, and rheuma-
tism and as emmenagogue, expectorant, and tranquilizer (Bussmann et al. 2018).
Ecuador: The plant is carminative, cordial, and antihistoric (unspecified ethnic
group – Azuay, Cañar). It is used to treat indeterminate conditions (Mestizo-
Peru: Dried flowers, leaves, stems, and seeds are used to treat cold, gases, heart and
nerves (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010,
2011; Bussmann et al. 2010b). It has antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2009). It
is a component of herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010a). Often sold in local
markets (Bussmann et al. 2007).
Ecuador: It is used as incense (unspecified ethnicity-Others (Ecuador)) (de la Torre

et al. 2008).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
Pharmacol. 2010b;4(9):580–629.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Lepechinia meyenii (Walp.) Epling.
ASTERACEAE
Synonyms
Lepechinia meyenii (Walp.) Epling.: Gnaphalium dombeyanum DC.; G

Gnaphalium dysodes Spreng.; Gnaphalium helichrysoides Wedd.; Gnaphalium
jelskii Hieron.; Gnaphalium lanuginosum Kunth; Gnaphalium nanum Kunth;
Pseudognaphalium dombeyanum (DC.) Anderb.
Local Names
Bolivia: Salvia (Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005; Bussmann et al. 2016); Peru: Salvia,
Salvia real (Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Procumbent-ascending herb from ligneous base, 20–40 cm high; petioles margined,

3–6 mm long; leaves crenate, mostly ovate, obtuse, rounded at base, 2–5 cm long,
1–4 cm wide, rugose and finely hirtellous above, puberulent beneath; flowers in
R. W. Bussmann (*)

foliose, 3–6 flowered, glomerules or often oblong and dense; calyx tube 1.5 mm
long, pubescent and yellow-glandular, the lobes as long, teeth narrowly deltoid,
lower 2 connate more than medially, the tube finally 4 mm long, acute teeth little
accrescent; corolla tube 3.5–4.5 mm long; nectary basal, sub-annulate; stamens
above middle of tube; nutlets about 2 mm long. Leaves canescent beneath. Pungent
odor; flowers bluish (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Bolivia: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat varicose veins, arthritis, bone
pain, and rheumatism and for postpartum care, menstrual regulation, colds, kidney
infection, bad memory, and people affected by cold air, quirwación (pain on the sole of
the feet), and bad air (mal aire) (Macía et al. 2005; Bussmann et al. 2016). Peru: The
whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat bronchitis and heart, nerve, memory, and
menstrual problems (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and
Glenn 2010a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010c). It is often found in markets (Bussmann et al.
2007a, b, 2008a; Revene et al. 2008). The species has antibacterial properties
(Bussmann et al. 2008b, 2010b). It is often an ingredient in herbal mixtures (Bussmann
et al. 2010a).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010a;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
Lepechinia meyenii (Walp.) Epling. 1071

2010b;9(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629.
Lepidium bonariense L.
Lepidium virginicum L.
BRASSICACEAE
Synonyms
Lepidium bonariense L.: Lepidium bonariense var. pseudovirginicum Thell.,

Lepidium mendocinum Phil., Nasturtium bonariense (L.) Kuntze, Thlaspi
multifidum Poir.
Lepidium virginicum L.: Lepidium diandrum Medik.; Lepidium gerolffianum Vatke
ex Thell.; Lepidium horstii Johow ex Skottsb.; Lepidium majus Darracq; Lepidium
micropterum Miq.; Lepidium praecox DC.; Nasturtium majus Kuntze
Local Names
Lepidium bonariense: Chile: Hierba del tapón, Arcilla, Linaza

Lepidium virginicum: Ecuador: La Chicera; Peru: Maipa
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Lepidium bonariense: Annual or sometimes perennial herb, up to 50 cm tall, usually

single-stemmed but branching. Leaves variously pinnatifid or bipinnatifid, pubes-
cent. Flowers in erect racemes, minute, white. The racemes elongating up to 17 cm
when fruiting. Fruits (siluculae) at least 2 mm wide, clearly emarginate at the apex.
Sea level to 3300 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Lepidium virginicum: Annual herb, pubescent like Lepidium ruderale L., small;
stem (8)30–50(60) cm high, strongly branching in upper part; radical leaves lyrate,
with large, obovate, or suborbicular terminal lobe and very tiny lateral lobes, dentate;
cauline leaves lobate or linear; sepals elliptic, deciduous; petals white, obovate-
spatulate; stamens 2–4; pedicels short-pubescent; silicles glabrous, orbicular, or
rounded-oval, 3–4 mm in diameter, with a small wing at apex. Growing as a weed
along railroad tracks and in wastelands (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Lepidium bonariense: The infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment of
diarrhea and fever (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Fig. 1 Lepidium sativum

R.W. Bussmann and
Lepidium bonariense L. . . . 1075

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and
Lepidium virginicum: Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat fright
(children)/espanto (niños) and for protection during childbirth and postpartum
protection (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Peru: The whole fresh plant is used to treat pock marks (facial), sunspots, malnu-
trition blemishes, skin blemishes (facial), and washings (wounds) (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b) and often found in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007,
2008, 2009).
Lepidium bonariense: Colombia: Forage use
References
Lepidium bonariense L. . . . 1077
978-0-9789962-3-9.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008;6:351–61.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Ligaria cuneifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Tiegh.
LORANTHACEAE
Synonyms
Ligaria cuneifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Tiegh.: Ligaria emarginata Tiegh.; Ligaria
lanceolata Tiegh.; Ligaria orbygniana Tiegh.; Loranthus cuneifolius Ruiz & Pav.;
Loranthus montevidensis Spreng.; Phrygilanthus cuneifolius (Ruiz & Pav.) Eichler;
Psittacanthus cuneifolius (Ruiz & Pav.) Engl.; Psittacanthus hortonii Standl. & F.A.
Barkley; Psittacanthus peruanus Engl.
Local Names
Bolivia: Jamillo (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2016)
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Epiphyte, herbaceous, hemiparasitic. Flowers solitary, actinomorphic, perianth

formed by six pieces red-orange corolla. Stamens in two cycles of 3 + 3, superior
ovary with long style and capped stigma. Leaves alternate, thick, fleshy, green,
spatulate, and glabrous. Stems green and woody herbaceous, brown, branched.
Fruits black ovoid berries with one very sticky seed. As epiphyte on trees in dry
forests of the Chaco, Serrano and Spiny forest. The seeds are scattered by the birds
that want the fruits, and then, they cannot separate the seed from its beak, if it is not
against a branch of a tree, where it is stuck (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Bolivia: Leaves and fruits are used to treat blows, bone pain, fractures, sprains,
strong blows, acne, wound swelling, prostate, and fever and for lightning stroke
References
Lilaeopsis macloviana (Gand.) A.W. Hill
APIACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Lilaeopsis macloviana (Gand.) A.W. Hill: Crantzia lineata (Michx.) Nutt.,

Crantzia lineata var. andina Chodat, Crantzia lineata var. natans Chodat,
Crantzia lineata subvar. inundata Wedd., Crantzia macloviana Gand., Lilaeopsis
andina A.W. Hill, Lilaeopsis andina fo. subulata A.W. Hill, Lilaeopsis andina var.
inundata A.W. Hill, Lilaeopsis andina var. microcarpa Perez-Moreau, Lilaeopsis
andina var. multivariata A.W. Hill., Lilaeopsis exigua Pérez-Mor., Lilaeopsis hillii
Pérez-Mor., Lilaeopsis patagonica Pérez-Mor., Lilaeopsis sinuata A.W. Hill
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Lilaeopsis macloviana

(Apiaceae), Matancilla, Chile.
Señoret)
Local Names
Chile: Llach’u, Llach’o, Lankolima, IIru, Istru, iIsu, Irso, Bistro, Norí, Noris, lLma,
Pastito del agua, Veguita, Vega, Chengua, Chinga, T’champa, Wiskayu o iskayu,
Kolchi, Katari, Orqo katari, Katari macho. Rhizome: Erso
Botany and Ecology
Perennial water plant with stolons. Stems characteristically segmented. Sea level to
4700 m (Heim 2014) (Fig. 1).
The subterranean stem or rhizome has febrifugal properties (Heim 2014; Rodriguez
Local Food Uses
The underground stem or rhizome, white, thick, and soft, is consumed dry and is
sweet and fresh; it is also consumed as salads (Heim 2014; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Forage use (Heim 2014; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Lilaeopsis macloviana (Gand.) A.W. Hill 1083
References
Heim E. Flora of Arequipa, Peru: a field guide for nature lovers. Norderstedt: BoD–Books on
Demand; 2014.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Lilium candidum L.
LILIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Lilium candidum L.: Lilium album Houtt.
Local Names
Colombia: Azucena, Lirio, Manoediós, Nardo; Ecuador: Azucena (Spanish) (de la

Torre et al. 2008)
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Perennial herb, up to 1.8 m tall, glossy dark green, scattered leaves. The flowers are
fragrant, trumpet-shaped, pure white up to 8 cm long, in terminal racemes of up to
20 cm (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Colombia: The oil extracted from the Azucena plant is used in Colombia as an anti-
inflammatory and to cure burns, ulcers, skin blemishes, freckles, eczema, and other
imperfections of the skin. The tea prepared with the flowers serves as sudorific and
the tisane, as a diuretic. Pollen is used as a stimulant and antispasmodic (Fonnegra-
Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez
Arbeláez 1996).
Leaves and flowers are used to treat bruises; flowers are used to treat skin spots,
otitis, and cracked breasts; and the bulb is used to treat calluses and abscesses
Fig. 1 Lilium monadelphum
(Liliaceae), Bakuriani,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Lilium candidum L. 1087

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Ecuador: The flower is used to make flower arrangements (Mestiza-Tungurahua)

References
plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2018;14(1):43. https://doi.org/
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Limosella australis R. Br.
SCROPHULARIACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Limosella australis R. Br.: Limosella americana fo. natans Glück, Limosella

americana fo. terrestris Glück, Limosella aquatica L., Limosella aquatica var.
tenuifolia (J.P. Wolff) Hook. f., Limosella lineata Glück, Limosella minuta Dinter
ex. Suess, Limosella subulata E. Ives, Limosella tenuifolia J.P. Wolff
Local Names
Chile: Ch’ampa
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Semiaquatic small perennial herb, often stoloniferous. Leaves erect to ascending,

usually 1–6 cm long, lamina not differentiated or oblanceolate and up to 12 mm long
and 1–3 mm wide, apex attenuate, base tapered. Pedicels slender, erect in flower,
sometimes down-turned and usually 8–25 mm long in fruit. Calyx 1.5–2 mm long,
red-purple below sinuses between the teeth. Corolla c. 2 mm long, white; lobes often
purple externally. Anthers black, with white pollen. Capsule broad-ellipsoid,
2.2–2.8 mm long, 1.8–2 mm diam., dark brown, sometimes down-turned into
mud, with curved caducous style 0.8–1.2 mm long. Sea level to 4500 m.
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Linum usitatissimum L.
LINACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Linum usitatissimum L.: Linum angustifolium Huds.; Linum humile Mill.
Local Names
Bolivia: Linaza (Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005); Colombia: Lino, Linaza (Spanish)
(Bussmann et al. 2018a); Ecuador: Linaza, Lino (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008);
Peru: Linaza (Spanish); English: Flax
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Annual; main (tap) root rather short, whitish, with a few larger rudimentary
branchings but with several thin rootlets; stems 1(3), usually high, 60–120
(150) cm, upright and erect, cylindrical, thin, often simple, branching only in the
upper part (in inflorescence), pale green, with faint waxy bloom; anatomically
characterized by strongly developed bast fibers or, more precisely, bundles disposed
at the periphery of the central cylinder, separated from each other by layers of
parenchym and composed of so-called hard bast, the whole layer easily detached
from the wood (bast fibers are formed by the pericycle and not by the cambium the
activity of which is here suppressed); leaves numerous, relatively not dense, spirally
disposed, 2–3 cm long, 3–4 mm wide, linear or linear-lanceolate, the largest lance-
olate, acute, tapering at base, sessile, slightly glaucescent with rather weakly devel-
oped waxy bloom, smooth, 3-nerved at margin. Inflorescence loose, sometimes
passing into a cyme, with lanceolate bracts; flowers comparatively few, usually
medium-sized or rather small, 1.5–2.4 cm in diameter, on peduncles longer than
calyx, jointed then thickened at apex; sepals 5–6 mm long, herbaceous, persistent in
fruit, ovate or ovate-lanceolate to oblong-ovate, the inner wider, acute or short
acuminate at apex, acutely keeled, (2-5)-usually 3-nerved; with margins white-
scarious, scabrous toward apex, finely ciliate; petals 12–15 mm long, cuneately
obovate, somewhat rounded-tapering at apex or obtuse, entire or slightly crenate,
smooth or somewhat wrinkled, sky blue or blue with darker nerves, rarely white,
pink or reddish-violet, tapering to white claw yellow at base, falling soon; stamens
with linear dark blue filaments, white in the upper part, staminal tube short, annular;
anthers oblong, usually blue, rarely yellow or orange; staminodes triangular, some-
times inconspicuous; ovary ovoid, green; style with cuneate-linear stigmas, dark
blue to violet; capsules 6–8 mm long, 5.7–6.8 mm in diameter, flattened-globose or
globose-ovoid, yellowish, usually without anthocyanin, slightly colored only before
ripening, not splitting; false septa glabrous or rarely ciliate; seeds commonly
10, sometimes less, 3.3–5 mm long, ovoid or oblong-elliptic, much flattened, slightly
unequal-sided, rounded at base, acute at apex, pale brown to dark brown, rarely
greenish-yellow, quite smooth, shiny. Flowering June–July; fields as a spring plant,
sometimes mixed among other crops, rubbish dumps, roadsides, near dwelling
places as an accidentally escaped plant (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Bolivia: Dry seeds are used to treat fever, stomachache, and kidney infections
(Bussmann et al. 2016a; Macía et al. 2005). Colombia: Linseed seeds are used in
Colombia as infusion or in maceration in the treatment of constipation, irritable
bowel, gastrointestinal inflammations, gastritis, and inflammation of the small intes-
tine. These seeds are also used to soothe irritations of the skin, as a laxative, and as an
anti-inflammatory. Externally, they are used in poultices for the treatment of skin
conditions and local inflammations. Flaxseed oil is commonly used as a laxative and
anti-inflammatory and for soothing of skin irritations. By macerating in hot water,
Linum usitatissimum L. 1093
Fig. 1 Linum usitatissimum

(Linaceae), garden, Chicani,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
the mucilage is extracted from the seeds and used to fight cough and irritations of the
intestinal mucosa. Flaxseed meal is used to make poultices used as anti-
inflammatory. The seeds prepared in decoction also serve to relieve inflammations
of the urinary tract. This same decoction is used in gargarismos to lower the
irritations and inflammations of the throat (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño
2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Protección
Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Seeds are used to treat urinary infections,
intestinal inflammation, general malaise, cough, and constipation (Bussmann et al.
2018a). Ecuador: The seeds are taken in an infusion, along with mallow and shullo,
to treat liver and stomach pain (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The seeds, in infusion, are

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
used as an emollient and to treat constipation, hoarseness, toothache, eye irritation,

and liver, kidney, stomach, and intestine conditions. It is part of many medicinal
preparations (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Loja; Mestiza-Pichincha, Azuay;
unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Pichincha, Azuay, Cañar, Loja). It is used to
treat scurvy and as an antihemorrhagic, due to its high content of vitamin K
(unspecified ethnicity – Loja). It serves as a purgative. It is used, in infusion together
with grass, grape flower, “ashkumikuna,” white chulco, and few linseed pepas, to
treat kidney conditions. The infusion, with mallow, sambo leaves, and salt in grain, is
applied to the body to treat blows (Kichwa de la Sierra-Tungurahua) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). Peru: Dry seeds are used to treat inflammation of the kidneys and liver
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010; Monigatti
et al. 2013). They are very frequently found in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a,
b, 2009). Often found in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2008a). Flax extract has low
antibacterial effects (Bussmann et al. 2008b, 2010b, 2011). It is normally used in
mixtures with other species (Bussmann et al. 2010a) and one of the standard
ingredients in emolientes (warm beverages used mostly for breakfast; Bussmann
et al. 2015).
Local Food Uses
Seeds are widely used in food and beverages. It is especially important as traditional
food in the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b, 2018b).

(Linaceae), harvest, garden,
R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and

(Linaceae), pressed seed cake
as animal food, market Telavi,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Ecuador: The seeds, in infusion, are used as a refreshing drink (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Tungurahua; unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008)
(Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).
Ecuador: Soft fibers are extracted from the bark to make textiles (unspecified ethnic
group – Pichincha, others (western region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
2010b;9(4):742–53.
2014;12:237–313.
2015;69:83–8.
016-0110-2.
plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018a;14(1):43. https://doi.org/
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2018b;17(1):7–33.
2013;145(2):450–64.
Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E. Br. ex Britton &
P. Wilson
VERBENACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E. Br. ex Britton & P. Wilson: Lantana alba Mill.; Lantana
geminata (Kunth) Spreng.; Lantana lavandulacea Willd.; Lantana lippioides Hook.
& Arn.; Lantana molissima Desf.; Lippia alba fo. intermedia Moldenke; Lippia
asperifolia A. Rich. ex Marthe; Lippia citrata Cham.; Lippia crenata (Grieseb.)
Kuntze; Lippia geminata Kunth; Lippia geminata var. microphylla Greene; Lippia
globulifera var. geminata (Kunth) Kuntze; Lippia havannensis Turcz-; Lippia
panamensis Turcz.; Lippia rondonensis Moldenke; Verbena globiflora L’Hér.; Ver-
bena odorata (Pers.) Steud.; Zapania lantanoides Lam.; Zapania odorata Pers.;
Zappania globiflora (L’Hér.) Willd.; Zappania odoratissima Scop.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Spanish: Colombia: Curalotodo, Menta americana, Orégano de cerro, Pronto

alivio, Quitadolor, Toronjil americano
Botany and Ecology
Strict, the virgate tetragonal branches as the peduncles and leaves above densely
hirtellous-strigose-puberulent; leaves opposite or ternate, elliptic to roundish-ovate,
narrowed to 3–8 mm long petiole, acute or obtuse, crenate, more or less rugose,
canescent tomentose-villous beneath; peduncles short, axillary, enlarged above;
heads early subglobose, shortly oblong or oblong in fruit, 8–12 mm long; bracts
often broadly ovate-acuminate, strigose, the inner about as long as corolla tube
(4–5 mm), the outer spreading; calyx about 2 mm long, bidentate; corolla some
purple tone or white; drupes dark violet. A meter or two tall, aromatic (Macbride and
Pronto Alivio is used in Colombia as a sedative, digestive, febrifuge, antiflatulent, to

calm colic, against spasms, to promote menstruation, as sudorific, analgesic, and
expectorant. The leaves are used in the treatment of diarrhea, colic, pain in general,
flu, cough, dysentery, liver cramps and various stomach conditions. Externally it is
used applied in compresses for the treatment of hemorrhoids, to lower fevers and
scar. Pronto Relief prepared in the form of tea is used as a stomach tonic and against
spasms; It is also useful as a sedative, in diabetes, as a disinfectant applied in the
form of baths, to avoid excessive sweating, and promote menstruation (Bussmann
et al. 2018; Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez
et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez
Fig. 1 Verbena tayacajana

(Verbenaceae), Pusac, Peru.
Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E. Br. ex Britton & P. Wilson 1101


Arbeláez 1996). In Peru, it is used to treat colds, colics, kidney inflammation,

bronchitis, rheumatism, and gas (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b;
Bussmann and Glenn 2010). It is sold in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). The
species has been shown to have antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2009,
2010).
Lippia javanica is used in Africa to treat colds, flu, and anaplasmosis (Njoroge et al.
2004).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Cardenas R, Chait G, Castro M, Regalado S, Toro-C. R, Malca-
G. G, Perez-A. F, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in northern Peru.
Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
(4):742–53.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
source of traditional medicines in central Kenya: optimizing resource efficiency (R.U.E.) in
Lobivia formosa (Pfeiff.) Dodds
CACTACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Echinopsis formosa (Pfeiff.) Jacobi ex Salm-Dyck, Echinocactus formosus Pfeiff.,

Echinopsis randallii (Cárdenas) Friedrich & G.D. Rowley, Echinopsis
uebelmanniana (Lembcke & Backeb.) A.E. Hoffm., Helianthocereus randalii
(Cárdenas) Backeb.; Lobivia oreopepon Speg., Lobivia kieslingii Rausch; Lobivia
rosarioana Rausch, Soehrensia formosa (Pfeiff.) Backeb., Soehrensia oreopepon
(Speg.) Backeb., Soehrensia uebelmanniana Lembcke & Backeb., Trichocereus
formosus (Pfeiff.) F. Ritter, Trichocereus randallii Cárdenas
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Lobelia oligophylla

(Lobeliaceae), Quebrada
Burchard Señoret)
Local Names
Chile: Koko, Pasakana, Psómor, Cardón pasakanero, Cardón, Cardón de espina,

Kewayllo
Botany and Ecology
Sub-succulent shrub globose or short columnar, simple or branched at the apex or at

the base. Very thick stems, from 1 to 1.5 m in height and 0.2 to 0.9 m in diameter,
with light green epidermis. Ribs 15–40, blunt, with areolas provided with brown felt.
Thorns 10–20 generally yellowish to reddish brown, sometimes whitish, hardly
distinguishable between radial and central, 2.5–8 cm in length. Flowers near the
apex, usually several, in crown, yellow, rare red, bell-shaped, 6–8 cm in length and
diameter. Globose fruits, pink to yellow, very juicy, dehiscent, with small, smooth,
black and bright seeds (Ritter 1980; Hoffmann 1989). 2500–4000 m above sea level
(Hoffmann 1989) (Fig. 1).
The fruit is good as a febrifuge (Hoffmann 1989; Ritter 1980; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Local Food Uses
The fruit, pasakana, is edible, with a flavor similar to melon, although more
acidic (Hoffmann 1989; Ritter 1980; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
Lobivia formosa (Pfeiff.) Dodds 1105
The thorns are used to weave wool and the hairs are used to make brushes (Hoff-
mann 1989; Ritter 1980; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Used to
treat witchcraft and to bring good luck in Bolivia (Bussmann et al. 2016; Macía et al.
2005).
References
Hoffmann A. Cactáceas en la flora silvestre de Chile, 1ª ed. Santiago: Fundación Claudio Gay;
1989. 272 pp.
Ritter F. Kakteen in Südamerika Band 3 Chile. Santiago: Spangenberg; 1980. p. 857–1238.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Lophopappus tarapacanus (Phil.) Cabrera
ASTERACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Lophopappus tarapacanus (Phil.) Cabrera: Gochnatia tarapacana Phil.
Local Names
Chile: Tajana, Tagtaga, chari, Moñe, Leñadura
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Perennial shrub between 0.6 and 3 m tall, very branched. Leaves lanceolate, oblan-
ceolate, spatulate, or elliptical between 8 and 35 mm long, margin smooth or dentate
in the upper half, apex acute or obtuse, thorny at the apex, attenuated base, sessile or
short petiolate. Inflorescences in chapters of between 10 and 20 mm, arranged in
dense or solitary tops; glabrous receptacle; cylindrical or bell-shaped. White flowers,
between 6 and 11 per chapter; ligulate flowers coil at the apex. Fruit: cylindrical
achene between 2.3 and 4.8 mm with bearded vilano from 6 to9 mm. 2200–4700 m
above sea level (González and Molina 2017).
The aerial parts are used for the treatment of stomach pain (González and Molina
The wood is used to make chopsticks to weave wool. It is also used in animal
medicine to treat cattle injuries (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Loricaria ferruginea (Ruiz & Pav.) Wedd.
Loricaria pauciflora Cuatrec.
Loricaria thuyoidea (Lam.) Sch. Bip.
ASTERACEAE
Synonyms
Loricaria ferruginea (Ruiz & Pav.) Wedd: Baccharis ferruginea Pers.; Baccharis
ilinissae Benth.; Molina ferruginea Ruiz & Pav.
Local Names
Loricaria ferruginea: Spanish: Peru: Chinchango, Huallpapa-chaquin, Pata de

gallo, Peru: Palmerilla, Palmita, Pata de gallina, Palmera, Trencilla, Palmilla, Patita
de gallo, Palmia pina, Palmera blanca
Loricaria pauciflora: Peru: Palmilla ancha, Palmilla verde, Palma bendita
Loricaria thuyoidea: Bolivia: Kili k’oa (Aymara); Ecuador: Jata, Tencillo del cerro
(Spanish), Atta (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008)
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Loricaria ferruginea: Shrubs to 80 cm tall, much-branched; stems 7–9 mm wide.

Leaves triangular in lateral view, 7–8 mm long, ca. 2 mm wide, dorsally carinate,
glabrous, vernicose-ferruginous, inner surface lanate. Capitules with solitary, termi-
nal heads. Masculine capitula 6–7 mm high, 4–5 mm wide; involucres campanulate;
phyllaries 15–22, ovate-oblongto oblong-linear, 3.5–5 mm long, 1–2 mm wide, apex
obtuse to rounded, glabrous; florets 17–20, the corollas ca. 4 mm long; pappus bristle
clavellate, ca. 4 mm long; paleae ca. 6, linear, ca. 5 mm long, scarious, apex obtuse.
Feminine capitula 6–7 mm high, 2.5–3 mm wide; involucre cylindrical; phyllaries
15–18, ovate-oblong to oblong-linear, 4–6.5 mm long, 1–2 mm wide, obtuse,
lacerate; florets 12–22, the corollas up to 4 mm long; paleae ca. 12, lanceolate-
linear, ca. 1 mm long, apex acute, lacerate. Achenes 1–1.5 mm long, glabrous;
pappus bristles acute, ca. 5 mm long. Loricaria ferruginea is distributed from central
Ecuador to central Peru, from 3300 to 4800 m above sea level. It is readily
Fig. 1 Loricaria ferruginea

Fig. 2 Loricaria thyrsoidea

Loricaria ferruginea (Ruiz & Pav.) Wedd. . . . 1111


distinguished by its vernicose, ferruginous leaves, terminal capitula, and paleaceous

receptacles (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).
Loricaria pauciflora: Similar to the following species, but with very few flower
heads (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).

Loricaria thyrsoidea Shrubs to 1 m tall, much-branched; primary stems 7–8 cm in

diameter, the foliaceous stems flattened, 5–7 mm wide (including leaves).
Leaves triangular-oblong in lateral view, 5–7 mm long, 1.5–2 mm wide, dorsally
carinate, apex obtuse, dorsal surface glabrous, vernicose, greenish, inner surface
lanate. Capitules thyrsiform, terminal and axillary. Masculine capitula
5–7 mm high, 3–4 mm wide; involucres campanulate; phyllaries 20–22,
obovate-oblong to oblanceolate, 4.5–5.5 mm long, 1–2 mm wide, apex
rounded, lacerate; receptacles epaleaceous; florets 16–20, the corollas 4–4.5 mm
long; pappus bristles clavellate, 4.5 mm long. Feminine capitula 7–8 mm
high, 2–3 mm wide; involucres cylindrical; phyllaries 17–21, oblong to oblong-
linear, 4–5.5 mm long, 1–1.5 mm wide, apex obtuse, lacerate;
receptacles epaleaceous; florets 12–15, the corollas ca. 4 mm long; pappus
bristles acute, ca. 5 mm long. Achenes 1–1.5 mm long, glabrous (Macbride
and Weberbauer 1936–1995). The phytochemistry of Loricaria thyrsoidea
has only been studied recently (Marca-García et al. 2016) (Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
and 7).

Loricaria ferruginea: Peru: Fresh leaves and stems are used to treat menstrual
delay, blood circulation (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). Can be
often found in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008a). Normally used in
mixture with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010a). The species has antibacterial
properties (Bussmann et al. 2008b, 2010b). All species show some toxicity
(Bussmann et al. 2011). New compounds have been described only recently
(Malca García et al. 2016).
Loricaria thuyoidea: Ecuador: Used to treat undetermined conditions (unspecified
ethnicity-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). For cramps, bone pain, and kidney
problems (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Loricaria ferruginea: Peru: For spiritual flowering/florecimiento (Bussmann and

Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010c).

Loricaria pauciflora: Peru: The whole fresh plant is used for good luck in business
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010c).
Loricaria thuyoidea: Bolivia: Against curses, cleansing rituals, offerings (“Mesas”)
(Bussmann et al. 2016, 2018; Macía et al. 2005). Ecuador: From the plant an extract
is made in alcohol with “ishpinku,” used to wash or spit on a person suffering from
“bad air” (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). It is also used to make Christmas arrangements
(Mestiza-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Used to treat mal aire/bad air (Béjar
et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Malca Garcia GR, Hennig L, Rodríguez Rodrígues EF, Bussmann RW. Coumarins of Loricaria
ferruginea (Ruiz. & Pav.) Wedd. (Asteraceae). Rev Bras. 2016;26(4). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
bip.2016.02.006.
Lupinus altimontanus C.P. Sm.
Lupinus mutabilis Sweet
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Lupinus mutabilis Sweet: Lupinus cruckshankianus Hook.; Lupinus mutabilis

Lindl.
Local Names
Lupinus altimontanus: Bolivia: K’ela (Aymara) (Bussmann et al. 2016); Ecuador:

Vijado Serrano
Lupinus mutabilis: Spanish: Colombia: Chocho, Chochos, Tarwi, Tauli, Tauri,
Ullus; Ecuador: Tawri (Kichwa), Chocho, Flor de chocho, Lupino, Lupino perla
(Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Chocho, Tarhui
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Lupinus altimontanus: Sufruticose perennial shrubby herb, 30–80 cm high, with

pubescent or woolly branches. Leaves alternate, finger-like with 5–8 lanceolate and
acute folioles in the apex, long petiole; stipules developed, acute and adhered to base
of the petiole. Inflorescences in terminal and axillary clusters, with deciduous bracts
and small bracts. Violet flowers with whitish spots, 5 different sized petals. Fruits
compressed pods, ascending and rostral, slightly pubescent with dicotyledonous
seeds (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Lupinus mutabilis: Shrubby herb, grows up to 2 m tall with almost no branching.
About 11–18 leaves on the main stem. Shoots 7–10 cm long, with 7–11 obovate-
oblong, acuminate and blunted leaflets. Stipules small, growing together at the basis
with a pulpy cushion of petioles. The flowers are in racemes, semiverticillate or
alternate. Inflorescence 8–20 cm long, flowers clustered in 9–10 verticils with up to
5 flowers per verticil. The calyx has almost equal labia; the lower one integral, the
upper bilabiate. Bracts bristly, the small floral bracts styliform. Corolla with aromatic
smell, blue, white, pink, or violet, from 1.8 to 2.0 cm. Pods pubescent,
non-shattering, 5–6 seeded. The preferred seeds for cultivation are white oval cuboid
(Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).
Fig. 1 Lupinus mutabilis (Fabaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Lupinus altimontanus C.P. Sm. . . . 1119
Fig. 2 Lupinus mutabilis

(Fabaceae), Uchumarca, Peru.
Lupinus altimontanus: Bolivia: Flowers, leaves, and stems used as abortive

when fetus dies, and during childbirth as postpartum washing, It is also used for
cold, kidney infection, cancer, and against curses (Bussmann et al. 2016). Ecua-
dor: For white vaginal discharge and inflammation (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a,
2007a).
Lupinus mutabilis: Ecuador: The cooked fruit is used to treat rheumatism and
fever (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura). Used to level cholesterol. Roasted seeds have
vermifuge effects (Mestiza-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Dried seeds
used to treat malnutrition and as nutritional supplement (Bussmann and Sharon
2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). Frequently sold in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007).
Shows limited antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2011a). The raw extracts are
toxic (Bussmann et al. 2011b).

Local Food Uses
Lupinus mutabilis: Colombia: The seeds are consumed for their nutritional value
(Bernal et al. 2011; Patiño 1964). Ecuador: The fruit is edible (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Pichincha). The seeds are edible because they are a great source of protein; they are
traditionally prepared together with roasted corn. In addition, they are used as coffee
substitutes and to extract flour to fortify bread and edible oil of excellent
quality (Kichwa de la Sierra-Pichincha, Cotopaxi; unspecified ethnic group –
Pichincha, Tungurahua, Azuay, Others (Ecuador, Andean Region)) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). Bolivia/Peru: Widely eaten. However, the seeds need to be soaked in
running water for an extended period of time to remove the toxic glycosides

Fig. 5 Lupinus peruvianus

Fig. 6 Lupinus oreophilus

(Fabaceae), Quebrada Chita,
Señoret)
Fig. 7 Lupinus oreophilus

(Fabaceae), El Taito Chita,
Señoret)
Fig. 8 Lupinus subinflatus

(Fabaceae), Quebrada Chita,
Señoret)
Lupinus mutabilis: Ecuador: The stem is used as cattle fodder (Kichwa de la

Sierra-Cotopaxi). The seeds are used, outside the country, as a source of protein
for chickens, cattle, sheeps, and pigs (unspecified ethnicity – no locality) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). The husk of the seeds serves as raw material for pressed boards
(unspecified ethnic group – other (Ecuador)). The ground seeds are used to prepare
a paste and wash the face with it, in order to soften and clean it (Mestiza-Pichincha)
(de la Torre et al. 2008). The roots excrete substances that inhibit the development of
nematodes and potato worms (Unspecified Ethnicity-Other (Northern Region))
References
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.

Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.
Lycopersicon hirsutum Dunal
Lycopersicon peruvianum (L.) Mill.
SOLANACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.: Scubulon humboldtii (Willd.) Raf.; Solanum

esculentum Dunal; Solanum humboldtii Will.
Lycopersicon hirsutum Dunal: Lycopersicon agrimoniifolium Ruiz & Pav. ex
Dunal; Lycopersicon hirsutum fo. glabratum C.H. Mull.; Lycopersicon hirsutum
Dunal; Solanum agrimoniifolium (Ruiz & Pav.) J.F. Macbr.; Solanum habrochaites
S. Knapp & D.M. Spooner
Lycopersicon peruvianum (L.) Mill.: Lycopersicon glandulosum C.H. Mull.;
Lycopersicon peruvianum (L.) Mill.; Solanum peruvianum L.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Lycopersicum esculentum: Spanish: Tomate, Tomate común, Tomate de riñón,

Tomate grande; English: Tomato
Lycopersicum hirsutum: Peru: Ambulluco de muerto
Lycopersicum peruvianum: Peru: Tomate de monte
Botany and Ecology
Lycopersicum esculentum: Annual. Plant villous, especially young parts, glandular,

with strong, pleasant odor. Stem erect at first, later decumbent. Leaves ovate or
lanceolate, usually over 20 cm in length, interruptedly pinnatisect, usually with
alternating large and small segments with dense bluish gray pubescence underneath,
without false stipules. Large segments (5)7(9), stalked, ovate or lanceolate, entire,
lobed, or pinnatipartite, with sessile or stalked glandules; small segments sessile or
stalked, elliptical 51 or lanceolate, entire, sometimes absent. Inflorescence shorter
than leaves, 3–20-flowered. Calyx 5–8(10) partite, with acute subulate lobes, enlarg-
ing 2–3 times in fruits. Corolla lemon yellow, up to 2.5 cm across, 5–8(10) partite;
corolla lobes recurved, sparsely pubescent on outside along midvein. Stamens 5–8
(10); anther tube irregular, splitting into groups of 2–3 stamens during flowering.
Style very slightly exserted. Young fruit densely velutinous and glandular, sub-
glabrous and glossy when mature. Uniformly sericeous, light brown in color. Widely
cultivated in tropical and temperate zones; easily naturalized.
The original wild form of Lycopersicu esculentum is its small-fruited subspecies
galeni – the cherry tomato. In Europe, cultivated tomatoes became common in the
sixteenth century in the southern part under the name “Peruvian apple” especially in
Spain and Italy, where it soon became popular. In the northern European countries,
however, tomatoes were received unfavorably and was for a long time grown only as
ornamental plant.
Lycopersicum hirsutum: Puberulent, the prostrate ascending stems rarely somewhat
pilose or glandular, leaves narrowly ovate with usually a pair of small divisions
alternating with larger ones, the latter 3-paired, unequally cordate or rounded,
subentire, dark green above, paler beneath, the smaller ovate to rotund sometimes
wanting; racemes rarely furcate, 12 to many flowered, up to a 10 cm long, glandular-
puberulent, the two-ranked filiform pedicels very regularly spaced, 3–15 mm long,
articulate about 3 mm below the flower; calyx lobes 5, lanceolate-acuminate,
2.5–4 mm long, glandular-pubescent both sides; corolla bright lemon-yellow or
slightly orange, 12–16 mm across, deeply 5-parted, the narrowly lanceolate lobes
long-attenuate, strongly reflected at anthesis, dorsally puberulent anthers subsessile,
column 5–7 mm long, the connate portion slightly shorter than the anther sacs; style
slightly exserted, ovary glandular or puberulent, usually becoming glabrous; berry
2-celled, 1–1.5 cm in diameter, ordinarily glabrous, lustrous red or orange-red, the
raceme elongating sometimes 20 cm, the accrescent calyx finally 6 or 7 mm long,
Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. . . . 1127
seeds thick, obovate, 3 mm long, 1.5–2 mm broad, glabrous except at tip (Macbride
Lycopersicum peruvianum: Perennial herb. Plant with short, straight or crisped
hairs, sometimes canescent, very sparsely glandular, with pleasant odor. Stem weak,
prostrate. Leaves variable, 4–9 cm long, 2–4 cm broad, with false stipules, more
densely pubescent underneath with whitish hairs; larger segments (5)7–9(11),
stalked, elliptic-ovate, obliquely rounded near base, acute or obtuse, subentire,
sinuate-dentate, or crispate. Smaller segments subsessile, ovate, 1–5 mm long, entire
or sinuate. Inflorescence once–twice dichotomously branched, terminal, longer than
stem, (12)15–24(30) flowered, with 8–10 cm long common peduncle and 5–9 cm
long racemose cymes, nodes with ovate or reniform, sinuate, sessile bracts, 5–15 cm
broad, on peduncles sometimes underdeveloped; pedicels distichous 5–12 mm.
Flowers initially drooping, later erect. Calyx 5-lobed, up to 1.2 cm across, with
6 mm long linear-lanceolate lobes, in fruit 2–3 times as large, narrowly rounded at
apex, pubescent outside. Corolla bright orange-yellow up to 3.5 mm across,
10–13 mm long, 5-partite to middle, with triangular, crispate, acuminate, spreading
lobes and broad band of hairs outside in middle. Anther tube 6–9 mm long, with
obliquely bent tip. Style exserted by 1–2 mm, with capitate stigma. Fruit globose,
sometimes slightly compressed at sides, 1–2 cm in diameter, bilocular, densely
puberulent throughout, not glandular, greenish or subsequently whitish, with purple
spots and, in middle of carpels, unequal oblong purple stripes. Seeds numerous,
surrounded by bright green pulp, oblanceolate, thickened, light brown, sometimes
narrowly winged at end, finely pitted. Wild in the coastal desert zone of Peru and
north of Chile. Often as a weed (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Lycopersicum esculentum: Tomato is used in Colombia externally in the treatment

of candidiasis (fungal infection) and scabies. Internally it is used in the treatment of
stomach pains and angina pectoris. The fruit is often consumed in salads and other
culinary recipes. In medicine, leaves prepared in the form of a poultice or decoction
and applied in bathrooms are used as an antiseptic and to treat sores and wounds. The
leaves in decoction are also prescribed in cases of anemia and used in the form of
buches are very used to desinflamar the gums, to harden the teeth, and for the dental
pains in general. A bit of the fruit placed on swellings, abscesses, and boils makes
them burst. Jelly of the fruit prepared without sugar is used topically to cure
periodontitis (García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez
Arbeláez 1996). In Peru it is used to prevent arthritis (Bussmann and Sharon 2006,
2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2007; Bussmann and Glenn 2011). Tomatos are sold in
markets everywhere (Bussmann et al. 2007). Sometimes used in mixtures with other
plants (Bussmann et al. 2010a).
In Madagascar tomato leaves are used to treat diarrhea (Rakotoarivelo et al. 2015).
Lycopersicum hirsutum: Peru: The species shows antibacterial activity (Bussmann
et al. 2008, 2009, 2010b, 2011; Bussmann and Glenn 2011).
Fig. 1 Lycopersicum
esculentum (Solanaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Lycopersicum
R.W. Bussmann and
Lycopersicum peruvianum: Peru: Remedy for internal inflammations and urinary

infections (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2007; Bussmann
and Glenn 2011). The species show antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008,
2009, 2010b, 2011) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Local Food Uses
Lycopersicum esculentum: Widely introduced and used as food. An especially

important ingredient for salads in the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016,
2018) (Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8)
Fig. 3 Lycopersicum esculentum (Solanaceae), Huanchaco, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Lycopersicum esculentum (Solanaceae), harvest, garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo

Lycopersicum hirsutum: Peru: To treat susto/freight (Bussmann and Sharon 2006,

2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2007, 2010c).
Fig. 5 Lycopersicum
harvest, garden, Chicani,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 6 Lycopersicum esculentum (Solanaceae), market, Tbilisi, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann
Fig. 7 Lycopersicum
tomato salad, Kakheti,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 8 Lycopersicum
pickled green tomatos,
Pankisi george, Georgia.
References
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
G. G, Perez-A. F, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in northern Peru.
Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010b;9(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629.
2014;12:237–313.
Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Unequal brothers – Plant and fungal use in Guria and Racha,
Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowledge 2018;17(1):7–33.
016-0110-2.
Maihueniopsis boliviana (Salm-Dyck)
R. Kiesling ssp. ignescens (Vaupel) Faúndez
& R. Kiesling
Maihueniopsis camachoi (Espinosa) F. Ritter
CACTACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Maihueniopsis boliviana (Salm-Dyck) R. Kiesling ssp. ignescens (Vaupel)

Faúndez & R. Kiesling: Cumulopuntia boliviana (Salm-Dyck) F. Ritter ssp.
ignescens (Vaupel) D.R. Hunt; Cumulopuntia ignescens (Vaupel) F. Ritter,
Cumulopuntia hystrix F. Ritter, Cumulopuntia ticnamarensis F. Ritter,
Cumulopuntia tortispina F. Ritter, Opuntia ignescens Vaupel, Tephrocactus
ignescens (Vaupel) Backeb.
Maihueniopsis camachoi (Espinosa) F. Ritter: Opuntia camachoi Espinosa,
Maihuenopsis camachoi (Espinosa) F. Ritter, Tephrocactus camachoi (Espinosa)
Backeb., Tephrocactus chilensis Backeb.
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Local Names
Maihueniopsis boliviana: Chile: Piskayu, Sankayu, Waripiskayu, Anqopiskayu,

Tuna, Tunilla, Ayrampu
Maihueniopsis camachoi: Chile: Kume, Q’ome, Q’omer, Aguijilla, Quisco,
Puskayo, Puskayu, Piskayo blanco, Piskayo amarillo, Piskayo, Piskayo chuño,
Jalajala, Kiuta, Coco del diablo, Pegapega, Espina voladora, Espina, Espina hembra,
Espina de agria, Espina del suri, Espina de tunas, Tuna del campo, Tuna del burro,
Tuna, Tunilla, Maksa, Fruit: Agria
Botany and Ecology
Maihueniopsis boliviana: Cactus growing in relatively dense cushions, with abun-

dant branches, between 30 and 60 cm in diameter; thickened and hard root; stems
between 4 and 9 cm long. New Areolas with deciduous leaves, in an aleznada form;
only the upper areoles of the stems have thorns of number, size (up to 26 cm) and
very variable thickness, in addition to a few glochids, lower areolas with abundant
glochids. Flowers open between 3.5 and 5.5 cm in length, light yellow, with smooth
floral tube, green and with some spines on the edge. Dry fruit without flesh, yellow to
reddish, between 2.5 and 4 cm long, with long spines and almost spherical seeds of
brown color. 3300–4500 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017).
Maihueniopsis camachoi: Forming dense cushions, with nontubercular, conical
segments, 3–4 cm long. Areolas sunken, yellowish up to 2 mm diameter. Thorns
extend up to below the segments, from 5 to 10 cm long, gray, brown, and yellow.
Flowers up to 5.8 cm long, yellow with purple stigma; floral tube with small brown
spines near the edge. Fruits mucilaginous, conical, wider than the segments, with a
very sunken apex, without thorns, greenish, becoming light yellow. Seeds lenticular,
from 2.5 to 3 mm long, with a narrow incision. 3600–3900 m above sea level
(González and Molina 2017) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Maihueniopsis boliviana: The fruit mixed with anise water is used as a treatment for
scarlet fever in children (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Maihueniopsis camachoi: The juice of the pulp with water is used for the treatment
of affections to the bladder and liver, relieves fever, and serves for sore throat. It is
also used to heal wounds and to combat eye diseases. The flower is used as a
treatment against cancer. The juice is used to treat Puna disease. The infusion of
fresh fruit mixed with wailawén (Haplopapus rigidus) is used as a treatment for cold,
fever, cough, and constipation (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Maihueniopsis boliviana (Salm-Dyck) R. Kiesling ssp. ignescens. . . 1135
Fig. 1 Maihueniopsis
camachoi (Cactaceae),
Talabre, Chile. (Photo Lucas
Burchard Señoret)
camachoi (Cactaceae),
Talabre, Chile. (Photo Lucas
Burchard Señoret)
glomerata (Cactaceae),
Socaire, Chile. (Photo Lucas
Burchard Señoret)
Local Food Uses
Maihueniopsis boliviana: The fruit is edible and have acidic taste and hard seeds
(inedible) (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
Maihueniopsis camachoi: The fresh fruit is edible, and due to its acidity, it is
consumed with sugar. Also with the pulp of the fruit a juice with boiled water is
prepared (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Maihueniopsis boliviana: The fruit is used as forage (González and Molina 2017;
Maihueniopsis camachoi: The fruits and roots are used as forage. El fruto se usa
como mordiente en el poceso del teñido de la lana (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán
and Castro 2003).
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Malva parviflora L.
Malva sylvestris L.
MALVACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Malva sylvestris L.: Malva erecta J. Presl & C. Presl; Malva grossheimii Iljin; Malva
sylvestris var. mauritiana (L.) Boiss.
Local Names
Malva parviflora: Bolivia: Malva (Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and
Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016a); Colombia: Malva, Malva de campo, Malva
de castilla, Quesillo, Quesitos; Ecuador: Malva alta (Spanish) (de la Torre et al.
2008). Peru: Malva rosa, Malva real English: Mallow
Herbario Nacionál de Bolivia, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés,
La Paz, Bolivia
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Malva sylvestris: Colombia: Malva común, Malva, Malva pequeña (Spanish)

(Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Malva blanca, Malva, malva alta (Spanish) (de la
Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Malva (chica), Malva blanca (Spanish); English: Mallow
Botany and Ecology
Malva parviflora: Perennial herb. The plant stands 8–45 cm tall, grayish-downy. It
has a thick taproot. The stems are numerous, ascending or procumbent, very rarely
erect, often woody at base, branched except at ends, terete, usually turning dark
purple in lower part, rarely green throughout, densely clothed from base with stellate
down. The leaves are long-petioled, petiole mostly many times length of blade. The
leaf blade about 30 mm broad and 25 mm long. The flowers mostly 3 or 4 in axils,
rarely solitary. The fruit somewhat nodding, terete, joined near the flower, several
times the length of the flower, but shorter than subtending leaf. The lobes ovate-
triangular, somewhat accrescent and closing above the fruit. The corolla is pink and
two or three times the length of the calyx. The petals are ovate, notched at the apex,
claw-long-fringed at the base. The seeds are dark brown, very finely wrinkled,
reniform, and whitish at the hilum. The plant can be found in the gardens, roads,
fences, and waste places generally (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Fig. 1 Malva neglecta

(Lalvaceae), Bakuriani,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Malva parviflora L. . . . 1139

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Malva sylvestris: Biennial, rarely perennial or annual. The plant is 30–120 cm high.
The stem is erect, rarely ascending, mostly branched, covered with scattered, rather
long, simple, 2-pronged hairs. They are usually interspersed with smaller stellate
hairs, forming a densely hairy coat, or conversely the stem is almost smooth, or very
rarely is almost naked on the stem, calyx, and pedicels. The petioles are very long,
those of lower and middle leaves greatly exceeding blade, mostly glabrous or only
along groove, above densely hairy, more rarely sparsely hairy throughout. The leaf
blade is orbicular, cordate, or rarely in upper leaves truncate at base, 5–7 lobed,
occasionally in lower and middle leaves lobeless, lobes semicircular or broadly
ovate, not extending 1/3 the diameter of the blade, rarely resembling the fig leaf or
current leaf. The young leaves are covered by hairs on both sides. They become
smoother as they age. The stipules are oblong to lanceolate, acute, pale green,
parallel-nerved, margin long-ciliate. The flowers are several, rarely solitary. There
are small stellate hairs interspersed with the longer 2-pronged hairs on the flower.
The corolla is pink, drying lilac, 3–4 times the length of the calyx. The petals are
20–25 mm long. They are oblong to obovate, deeply notched. The seeds are
reniform, with broad flat back, 1.5–2 mm long and broad, reddish-brown. They
ripen to a dark brown, thin, fine, and uniformly wrinkly. The plant is found in shrub
thickets, open woods, parks, gardens, waste places, orchards, cereal fields, field
borders, waysides, and along fences (Figs. 4 and 5).
Local Medicinal Use
Malva parviflora: Bolivia: Branches and leaves are used to treat stomach infection,
fever, urinary infections, for wound healing, and cold (Macía et al. 2005; Justo
Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016a). Colombia: The stems and
leaves are prepared in Colombia as infusion for diseases of the kidneys, internal
Fig. 4 Malva sylvestris (Lalvaceae), Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 5 Malva sylvestris

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
tumors, and fevers (Bernal et al. 2011; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011;
Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Vera Marín and Sánchez
Sáenz 2015). Fresh leaves are used to treat fever (Bussmann et al. in prep.).
Ecuador: The whole plant, infused and mixed with “cashamarucha,” is used to
treat inflammation of the liver (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). Peru: Liver problems, inflammation, cough, bronchitis, coughing with
blood (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a,
b, c). Often sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008, 2009; Revene
et al. 2008) and an extraordinarily important ingredient in many medicinal prepara-
tions (Bussmann et al. 2010a). The species show antibacterial activity (Bussmann
et al. 2010c, 2011a) and no toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b). Used also as laxative,
for stomach pain, and the disinfection of wounds (Monigatti et al. 2013). In
Pakistan, it is used as paste to treat toothache (Sher et al. 2016), for constipation,
as abortifacient, for sore throat, cough, febricity, and scorpion bites (Umair et al.
2019) and as emollient (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018). In Ethiopia, it is used for wound
care (Luizza et al. 2013).
Malva sylvestris: Colombia: Common mallow is used in Colombia for its anti-
inflammatory, expectorant, and laxative properties. It is used in the treatment of
bronchitis, constipation, abscesses, cough, burns, and inflammation of the
oropharyngeal cavity. Externally it is used to reduce edema. The root or branches

in cooking is used to relieve colds, coughs, lung catarrh, and acute inflammatory
diseases; It is both soothing and very useful against diarrhea. This same cooking
applied in the form of compresses is applied to relieve inflammations, abscesses,
and ulcers. The flower of Malva is very used to treat the diseases of the respira-
tory organs, they have anti-inflammatory, pectoral, and sudorific properties. To
reduce the swelling of the face, warm compresses of water and mauve plasters are
applied. The mucilage found in all parts of this plant acts as a desirritant of the
mucous membranes of the intestine applied in the form of washes and also taken
in small portions. The decoction of the plant is used as a mild laxative to treat
constipation in young children (Arias Alzate 1962; García Barriga 1975; Giraldo
Quintero et al. 2015; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de
Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The whole plant is used to treat
constipation, intestinal inflammations, cough, treat lung diseases, flu, diarrhea,
and colics (Bussmann et al. 2018). Used also as laxative, for stomach pain, and
the disinfection of wounds (Monigatti et al. 2013). In Pakistan, it is used as paste
to treat toothache (Sher et al. 2016), for constipation, as abortifacient, for sore
throat, cough, febricity, and scorpion bites (Umair et al. 2019), and as emollient
(Ur-Rahman et al. 2018). In Ethiopia, it is used for wound care (Luizza et al.
2013).
Ecuador: The whole fresh plant used as laxative (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann
and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The leaves and flowers, in plasters or infusion, are
used to reduce fever, drunkenness, to wash wounds, and treat fractured areas
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Leaves
and stems, fresh or dried, are used to treat heart, nerves, tachycardia, epilepsy
(initial stages), vaginal and intestinal cleansing (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010d). Often sold in local markets
(Bussmann et al. 2007a, 2008, 2009; Revene et al. 2008), and an extraordinarily
important ingredient in many medicinal preparations (Bussmann et al. 2010a).
The species shows antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2010c, 2011a), and no
toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b).
Malva parviflora: Bolivia: For “susto” (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and
Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016a).
Malva sylvestris: Ecuador: The leaves are food for animals, especially pigs
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo, Cañar; unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la
Torre et al. 2008). Peru: To treat fright/susto, bad air/mal aire (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010b).
Malva leaves are an important ingredient for herb pies (pkhali) in the Caucasus
(Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b).
References
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
Rev Peru Biol. 2010a;17(2):331–46.
ailments. Arnaldoa. 2010b;17(2):243–54.
female health. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010c;6:30.
Peruvian ethnomedicine. Arnaldoa. 2010d;17(2):255–70.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008;6:351–61.
Pharmacol. 2010b;4(9):580–629.

2014;12:237–313.
016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Res Appl. 2013;11:315–39.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
2013;145(2):450–64.
10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4.
Vera Marín B, Sánchez Sáenz M. Registro de algunas plantas medicinales cultivadas en San
Cristóbal, municipio de Medellín (Antioquia – Colombia). Rev Fac Nac Agron.
2015;68(2):7647–58.
Mangifera indica L.
ANONACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Mangifera indica L.: Mangifera austroyunnanensis H.H. Hu; Mangifera indica var.
armeniaca Bello; Mangifera indica var. intermedia Bello; Mangifera indica var.
leiosperma Bello; Mangifera indica var. macrocarpa Bello; Mangifera indica var.
viridis Bello; Rhus laurina Nutt.
Local Names
Spainish: Mango, Manga; English: Mango
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Large evergreen tree up to 20 m tall, with a dark green, umbrella-shaped crown.

Trunk stout, up to 90 cm in diameter; bark brown, smoothish, with many thin
fissures; thick, becoming darker, rough and scaly or furrowed; branchlets rather
stout, pale green and hairless. Inner bark light brown and bitter. A whitish latex
exudes from cut twigs and a resin from cuts in the trunk. Leaves alternate, simple,
leathery, oblong-lanceolate, 16–30 3–7 cm, on flowering branches, up to 50 cm on
sterile branches, curved upward from the midrib and sometimes with edges a little
wavy. Young leaves red, aging to shiny dark green above, lighter below, with yellow
or white venation; petioles 4.5 cm long, striate and swollen at the base. Inflorescence
16 cm or more in length, a much-branched panicle bearing many very small (4 mm)
greenish-white or pinkish flowers. Flowers radially symmetrical, usually have
5 spreading petals, 3–5 mm long, 1–1.5 mm broad, streaked with red, imbricate,
with the median petal prolonged like a crest at the base, finely hairy and fragrant,
partly male and partly bisexual; stalk short; 5 stamens, 1 fertile, the other 4 shorter
and sterile, borne in a disc. The flower has a conspicuous 5-lobed disc between the
petals and stamens. Calyx yellow-green, very short, deeply 5-lobed; 5 sepals, each
2–2.5 mm long 1–1.5 mm broad, green with whitish margin, or yellowish-green,
hairy outside. Fruit an irregularly egg-shaped and slightly compressed fleshy drupe,
8–12 (max. 30) cm long, attached at the broadest end on a pendulous stalk. The skin
smooth, greenish-yellow, sometimes tinged with red. The underlying yellow-orange
flesh varies in quality from soft, sweet, juicy, and fiber-free in high-quality selected
(clonal) varieties to turpentine flavored and fibrous in wild seedlings. The single,
compressed-ovoid seed is encased in the white fibrous inner layer of the fruit
Fig. 1 Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Mangifera indica L. 1149
Fig. 2 Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae), Pusac, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Fig. 3 Mangifera indica

(Anacardiaceae), Pusac, Peru.
Mango leaves are used in Colombia to treat tooth pain and to cause vomiting. The
fruit, when it is green, is used as a laxative. Roasted seeds in powder are used against
intestinal worms. The root of the Mango in decoction is also as an effective
anthelmintic. The fruit is also used to treat conditions of the bronchi and lungs
(Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The bark
is used to treat fever and malaria; leaves are used to treat afts, inflammations, mouth
infections, strengthen the gums, and for toothache (Bussmann et al. 2018). Peru:
Dried leaves are used for bronchitis, colds, and inflammation (chest) (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010, 2011). Normally it is
mixed with other herbs (Bussmann et al. 2010).
In Kenya also, it is used to treat respiratory disorders (Njoroge and Bussmann
2006). In Madagascar, mango is used to treat dental cavities, hemorrhoids, and
diarrhea (Rabearivony et al. 2015), as well as evacuation of the placenta,
leucorrhoea, and gonorrhea (Razafindraibe et al. 2013). In India for indigestion,
dysentery, cough and cold, as anthelminthic, and against infection, hypertension,
heat stroke, and digestion (Raj et al. 2018), as well as stomachache and diarrhea,
especially in children (Singh et al. 2017).
Local Food Uses
Widely used as food (Figs. 4, 5, and 6).

(Anacardiaceae), production
of mango jam, Pusac, Peru.

(Anacardiaceae), production
of mango jam, Pusac, Peru.
Mangifera indica L. 1151

(Anacardiaceae), market,
Lima, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:54.

018-0208-9.
2013;9:73.
itants of Jakholi Block, Rudraprayag district, Western Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed.
2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3.
Manihot esculenta Crantz
EUPHORBIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Manihot esculenta Crantz: Janipha aipi (Pohl) J. Presl.; Janipha manihot (L.)
Kunth; Jatropha aipi (Pohl) Möller; Jatropha diffusa (Pohl.) Steud.; Jatropha
digitiformis (Pohl) Steud.; Jatropha dulcis J.F. Gmel.; Jatropha flabellifolia (Pohl)
Steud.; Jatropha glauca A. Rich.; Jatropha janipha Lour.; Jatropha loureirii (Pohl)
Steud.; Jatropha manihot L.; Jatropha manihot Vell.; Jatropha mitis Rottb.;
Jatropha mitis Sessé & Moc.; Jatropha paniculata Ruiz & Pav. ex Pax; Jatropha
silvestris Vell.; Jatropha stipulata Vell.; Mandioca aipi (Pohl) Link; Mandioca
dulcis Parodi; Mandioca utilissima (Pohl) Link; Manihot aipi Pohl.; Manihot aipi
var. lanceolata Pohl; Manihot aipi var. latifolia Pohl; Manihot aipi var. lutescens
Pohl; Manihot diffusa Pohl; Manihot digitiformis Pohl; Manihot dulcis (J.F. Gmel)
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Pax; Manihot dulcis Baill.; Manihot dulcis var. aipi (Pohl) pax; Manihot dulcis var.
diffusa (Pohl) Pax; Manihot dulcis var. flabellifolia (Pohl) Pax; Manihot edule
A. Rich.; Manihot edulis A. Rich.; Manihot esculenta subsp. alboerecta Cif.;
Manihot esculenta subsp. diffusa Cif.; Manihot esculenta subsp. flabellifolia
(Pohl) Cif.; Manihot esculenta var. argentea Cif.; Manihot esculenta var. coalescens
Cif.; Manihot esculenta var. communis Cif.; Manihot esculenta var. debilis Cif.;
Manihot esculenta var. digitifolia Cif.; Manihot esculenta var. domingensis Cif.;
Manihot esculenta var. fertilis Cif.; Manihot esculenta var. flavicaulis Cif.; Manihot
esculenta var. fuscescens Cif.; Manihot esculenta var. grandifolia Cif.; Manihot
esculenta var. hispaniolensis Cif.; Manihot esculenta var. jamaicensis Cif.; Manihot
esculenta var. luteola Cif.; Manihot esculenta var. mutabilis Cif.; Manihot esculenta
var. nodosa Cif.; Manihot esculenta var. pohlii Cif.; Manihot esculenta var.
ramosissima Cif.; Manihot esculenta var. rufescens Cif.; Manihot esculenta var.
sprucei Cif.; Manihot esculenta var. zimmermannii Cif.; Manihot flabelliformis
Pohl; Manihot flexuosa Pax & K. Hoffm.; Manihot loureirii Pohl; Manihot manihot
(L.) Cockerell; Manihot melanobasis Müll. Arg.; Manihot palmata var. aipi
(Polh) Müll. Arg.; Manihot palmata var. digitiformis (Pohl) Müll. Arg.;
Manihot palmata var. flabellifolia (Pohl) Müll. Arg.; Manihot sprucei Pax; Manihot
utilissima Pohl; Manihot utilissima var. castellana Pohl; Manihot utilissima var.
sutinga Pohl
Local Names
Colombia: Yuca (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Fibangujchu,

Llubangujchu (Chafi’ki), Api lumu, Auka lumu, Awa llakta lumu, Pikay lumu,
Chakishka lumu, Charapa lumu, Chukillka lumu, Killu lumu, Kuraray lumu, Lauta
lumu, Lumu, Machana lumu, Muntu lumu, Muyu lumu, Ñachak lumu, Ñawisapa,
Payamino lumu, Puka lumu, Purutu lumu, Sacha lumu, Sani lumu, Sara mamaka,
Sasi lumu, Sasinda lumu, Sawata lumu, Shiwa lumu, Siku lumu, Tinwirima, Tsatsa
lumu, Uray lumu, Urpi lumu, Ushpa lumu, Wataraku lumu, Yana kaspi lumu, Yana
lumu, Yurak lumu (Kichwa), Cunku lumu (Kichwa-Shuar Chicham), Arajuno
lumu, Macas lumu, Playa lumu, Tena lumu, Verde chakishka lumu, Verde kaspi
lumu, Verde lumu, Verde purutu lumu (Spanish-Kichwa), Canja’si a’mba, Chiripi
a’mba, Cu’a a’mba, Oman’do a’mba, Quiopa a’mba, Rande a’mba, Totoa a’mba
(A’ingae), A’so, Airo bai a’so, Bikori a’so, Bo a’so, Gõsa a’so, Makii a’so, Makoro
a’so, Matika a’so, Meha a’so, Nea a’so, Së’ño a’so, Si’re a’so, Sima a’so, Siri a’so,
Suño a’so, Weki a’so, Yara a’so (Pai coca), Kene, Kewe, Namentawe (Wao
tededo), Apach mama, Chamir mama, Etsainiu mama, Ikianchim mama, Jnini,
Jurnan mama, Kaak mama, Kankusar mama, Kashai mama, Kunkuin Mama, Mica
mama, Nananki mama, Natsa mama, Nunkamir mama, Patukmai mama, Shiiram
mama, Shímpis mama, Súpich mama, Tsama mama, Tsápatar mama, Tsátsur
mama, Ushpar mama, Wampaimias mama, Wanka mama, Yampitsar mama,
Yankipik mama, Yapá mama, Yurúmak (Shuar chicham), Cazabe, Yuca, Yuca
blanca, Yuca colorada, Yuca de tronco blanco, Yuca dulce, Yuca grande, Yuca
Manihot esculenta Crantz 1155
pequeña, Yuca roja (Spanish), Manioc (English), Aypi, cudve, Moñica, Poñi
(unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Yuca (Spanish); English:
Cassava, Manihot
Botany and Ecology
Slender-stemmed glaucous-pruinose shrub, 2–3 m high, with elongate tubers; peti-

oles finally longer than the leaf blades, these glabrous or minutely puberulent on the
nerves beneath and, except for the uppermost, deeply 3–7-parted with spathulate or
linear-lanceolate acutely acuminate divisions 8–17 cm long, 1–5 cm wide, gradually
attenuate to base where confluent into a disk about 2 cm broad; stipules 5–7 mm
long, lanceolate, setaceous-acuminate, entire or 1–2 lacinulate, puberulent; pedun-
cles usually as long as the petioles, slender, equaling the panicle branches; bracts
linear-lanceolate, entire, articulately deciduous above the base; male pedicels
4–7 mm long, the deflexed-spreading female attaining 2 or more cm; calyx retuse
at base, campanulate, glabrous without, puberulent within above, more than medi-
ally 5-parted, about 10 mm long; disk and filaments glabrous; anthers 1.25–2 mm
long, apically hispidulous; ovary glabrous, 6-wing-angulate; capsules 1.5 cm long,
globose-ellipsoid, rugulose-asperous, the 6 wings undulate-crenulate; seeds marble-
spotted. Said to be native to Brazil but long cultivated in nearly all tropical regions
for its starchy tubers (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Colombia: The leaves prepared in poultices are used to treat skin conditions (García
Barriga 1975; Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The whole plant is used to treat
diarrhea; the root is used to treat skin diseases (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador:
Infusions are prepared with the root that women drink to increase the volume of breast
Fig. 1 Manihot peruviana

(Euphorbiaceae), fruiting,
Pusac, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Manihot esculenta (Euphorbiaceae), ready for planting, Alto Ivon, Bolivia. (Photo
milk (Kichwa from the East-Napo). The starch is used to treat pimples and wounds and
as talcum powder, to treat erysipelas, scalds, and rashes. Grated root, in plaster, is
applied to treat bug bites, bumps, wounds, and swelling. The ground leaves and the
root, in the form of plaster, are applied to treat tumors. The tender leaves are used to
treat dislocated coccyx of children, stop wound hemorrhages, heal skin infections,
treat diarrhea and stomach ache and headache (Kichwa of the East-Napo). Juice or
infusion of the leaves (buds) is given to women to drink to treat conditions during
pregnancy, childbirth, and postpartum (especially when bleeding occurs). The juice of
the crushed and squeezed leaves in a glass of water is drunk twice a month to treat
heavy menstruation (Eastern Kichwa, unspecified Ethnicity – Napo). The leaves are
used as antispasmodics and antiseptics and to treat swelling and infections in the legs,
arms, and urinary tract (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Others (Costa Region))
(de la Torre et al. 2008). The rubbed leaves on children’s bodies are used to treat “bad
air” (Kichwa of the East-Napo). The leaves are used in rituals (Sequoia-Sucumbios).
The seeds are used for children to be good warriors. With the root and leaves of “yaas,”
a solution is prepared with which the child affected by the “bad air” is bathed (Shuar-
Napo, Orellana) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The fresh tuber is used to treat vaginal
infections and vaginal discharge (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b;
Bussmann and Glenn 2011).
In Madagascar, Manihot is widely introduced, but only eaten in emergencies. It is,
however, used medicinally against intestinal parasites (Rabearivony et al. 2015),
diarrhea (Rakotoarivelo et al. 2015), and gonorrhea, spasms, diarrhea, and boils
(Razafindraibe et al. 2013).
Local Food Uses
Yuca is of great importance in the diet of the indigenous populations of both the
Amazon and Orinoquia, but also very widely planted and eaten in the inter-mountain
regions, where many of its wild relatives are found (Monigatti et al. 2013). Ecuador:
The root, fried, cooked, or roasted, is edible; It is used to prepare chicha (local beer),
which is drunk to quench thirst and not feel tired, or fermented drink for the holidays.
With the root, soups are prepared accompanied by ripe Musa x paradisiaca with
monkey meat or river fish, mash, maitos, tamales, cakes, bread (sweetened with
Fig. 3 Manihot esculenta

(Euphorbiaceae), leaves
harvested for food,
Analavelona, Madagascar.

(Euphorbiaceae), harvested
roots, Pusac, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

roots, Pusac, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

roots, market, Antananarivo,
Madagascar. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Ipomoea sp.) and game (cake similar to Mexican corn tortillas). It is also used to
extract starch and flour. It is one of the staple foods of the diet in America and one of
the most important crops in the world (Chachi, Afroecuatoriana-Esmeraldas;
Tsa’chi-Pichincha; Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja; Mestiza-Guayas, El Oro, Pichincha;
Cofán, Redwood, Siona- Succumbios; Kichwa of the East-Sucumbios, Napo,
Orellana, Pastaza, Others (Amazon); Wao-Napo, Orellana, Pastaza; Shuar-Napo,
Pastaza, Morona Santiago; Unspecified ethnic group – Esmeraldas, Guayas,
Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua, Bolívar, Azuay, Cañar, Napo, Others
Fig. 7 Manihot esculenta (Euphorbiaceae), variety diversity, Alto Ivon, Bolivia. (Photo

(Euphorbiaceae), variety
diversity, Alto Ivon, Bolivia.
(Costa Region, Andean Region, Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, South America)). The
tender leaves (buds) are edible, they are used to prepare salads, soups, and black
pudding, also to accompany meats (Tsa’chi-Pichincha; Secoya-Sucumbíos; Kichwa
del Oriente-Napo) (de la Torre et al. 2008) (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14,
and 15).
Ecuador: The root is food for chickens and pigs, also for wild animals such as howler
monkeys (Alouatta spp.) (Tsa’chi-Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha, Others
(Coast Region); East Kichwa-Napo; Wao-Napo, Orellana) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The
starch is used in the preparation of paste (Kichwa of the East-Napo). It is used to obtain
alcohol (unspecified Ethnicity – Others (Coast Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

(Euphorbiaceae), preparation
of Chibe (Manihot flour), Alto
R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and

of Manihot bread with Chibe
(Maihot flour), Alto Ivon,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and

(Euphorbiaceae), fried
Manihot roots, Alto Ivon,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

of Masato (Manihot beer),
Alto Ivon, Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

of Masato (Manihot beer),
Alto Ivon, Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
(2):450–64.

2013;9:73.
Marrubium vulgare L.
LAMIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Marrubium vulgare L.: Marrubium hamatum Kunth; Marrubium vulgare var.

lanatum Benth.
Local Names
Colombia: Marrubio, Marrubio blanco (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador:

Urku chini (Kichwa), Ajenco, Amor seco, Amorosa, Espino suave, Ortiga blanca,
Ortiga del muerro, Ortiguilla, Poleo (Spanish), Pumín (unspecified language) (de la
Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Cordón de muerto, Chanca de comida, Chancaz de muerto
(Spanish)
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Perennial herb, 30–60 cm tall, whitish-lanate; stems simple or branching, covered

with long appressed hairs; basal and cauline leaves orbicular-ovate, coarsely crenate-
dentate; the terminal similar but smaller, rugose, pale green with scattered long hairs
above, grayish beneath with long bristly hairs, prominently veined, short-petioled;
lower verticillate very distant, the upper approximate; bracts subulate, recurved,
densely covered with long hairs, shorter than or equaling calyx-tube; calyx with
10 divergent subulate hamate teeth, of these 5 longer, 1/3 to 1/2 as long as the long-
hairy tube; corolla white; the upper lip as long as or slightly shorter than the lower,
2-cleft at apex, the lower lip with broadly reniform middle lobe and small lateral
lobes; nutlets oblong-llipsoid, spotted, finely tuberculate. Roadsides, cultivated
fields, wastelands.
Colombia: Widely used as antispasmodic, for diabetes, headache and neural

disorders, bladder or uterus pain, as digestive, anti-inflammatory, and diuretic.
The aerial parts of the plant are used in Colombia as a digestive tonic, against
excessive sweating, to treat dry cough, whet the appetite, as an antiflatulent and
reliever of colic, and as an expectorant. Externally, it is used in the treatment of
wounds, ulcers, and skin lesions. The decoction of the whole plant is used against
lung conditions and in the treatment of liver diseases (Díaz 2003; García Barriga
1975; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Socia
2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996.). The whole plant is used to treat tuberculosis,
stomach ache, and gangrene; leaves and inflorescence are used to treat obesity;
stems, leaves, and inflorescence are used as expectorant; stems and leaves are used
to treat constipation, bronchial diseases; leaves and inflorescence are used to treat
fever, as emmenagogue, and to treat cough (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The
infusion of the plant is used to treat bile problems, cramps, and abdominal pain.
The leaves, in infusion, are used to treat the cold (unspecified ethnic group –
Chimborazo). Vaporizations are used to remove pimples and blackheads
(unspecified ethnicity – Tungurahua). It is expectorant and diuretic (Mestizo-
Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Social: It is believed that in the places
where the plant is located there are no harmful animals or bad odors (unspecified
ethnic group – Tungurahua). It is used as a stimulant and to clean “bad air,” “bad
wind,” and “fright” in people (Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group –
Chimborazo, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat inflammation of the body
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a). Sometimes
sold in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). Marrubium has antibacterial activity
(Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010b, 2011a, b). It is often part of herbal mixtures
(Bussmann et al. 2010a).
Marrubium vulgare L. 1167
Peru: Used to treat mal de susto (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b;
Bussmann et al. 2010a, c).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Carepa, Chigorodó y Mutatá, Antioquia, Colombia. Tesis de Grado. Universidad Nacional

Turbo, Antioquia. 2017. 136 pp.
Matricaria chamomilla L.
Matricaria discoidea DC.
ASTERACEAE

Synonyms
Matricaria chamomilla L.: Chamaemelum chamomilla (L.) E.H.L. Krause;

Chamomilla chamomilla (L.) Rydb.; Chamomilla courrantiana (DC.) K. Koch;
Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert; Chamomilla vulgaris Gray; Chrysanthemum
chamomilla (L.) Bernh.; Chrysanthemum suaveolens (L.) Cav.; Matricaria
chamomilla fo. courrantiana (DC.) Fiori; Matricaria chamomilla fo. kochiana
(Sch. Bip.) Fiori; Matricaria chamomilla var. coronata Boiss.; Matricaria
chamomilla var. recutita (L.) Fiori; Matricaria coronata (Boiss.) J. Gray ex
W.D.J. Koch; Matricaria courrantiana DC.; Matricaria kochiana Sch. Bip.;
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero

Matricaria recutita L.; Matricaria recutita var. coronata (Boiss.) Fertig; Matricaria
recutita var. kochiana (Sch. Bip.) Greuter; Matricaria suaveolens L.
Matricaria discoidea DC.: Akylopsis suaveolens (Pursh) Lehm.; Chamomilla
discoidea (DC.) J. Gay. ex A. Braun; Chamomilla suaveolens (Pursh) Rydb.,
Lepidanthus suaveolens (Pursh) Nutt.; Matricaria suaveolens (Pursh) Nutt.; Santo-
lina suaveolens Pursh, Tanacetum suaveolens (Pursh) Hook.
Local Names
Matricaria chamomilla: Bolivia: Manzanilla (Spanish); Colombia: Manzanilla

Romana, Manzanilla Dulce, Manzanilla Chiquita, Manzanilla Común, Camomilla,
Manzanilla, Manzanilla Matricaria (Spanish); Ecuador: Manzanilla, Manzanilla de
castilla, Manzanilla oficinal (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Manzanillon,
Agua de la Banda, Manzanilla Blanca, Manzanilla Amarga, Manzanilla (Spanish);
English: Chamomille
Matricaria discoidea: Chile: Manzanilla
Botany and Ecology
Matricaria chamomilla: Annual 30–60 cm tall, branching occasionally to fre-

quently. The stems are light green, purplish green, or purple with fine longitudinal
veins; they are glabrous and terete (round in cross-section). The alternate leaves are
up to 8 cm long and 4 cm wide, green to dark green and double- or triple-pinnate.
Flowerheads occur rather sparingly along the stems; they are sessile or have short
petioles. The leaf segments are linear-filiform and glabrous. Each upper stem usually
terminates in 1–2 daisy-like flowerheads. Each flowerhead spans about 2–5 cm
across and consists of 10–20 white ray florets that surround numerous yellow disk
florets. The ray florets are oblong and petal like; they spread outward or droop
downward, depending on the maturity of the flowerhead. The tubular disk florets are
arranged densely together on a receptacle that is globoid, subgloboid, or conical: the
shape of this receptacle depends on the maturity of the flowerhead. There are no
chaffy scales on the receptacle, and it is hollow inside. At the base of each
flowerhead, there are 1–2 series of floral bracts; these bracts are light green,
lanceolate, and membranous along their margins. Each flowerhead has a naked
peduncle (or flower stalk) at its base of varying length. The crushed flowerheads
have a fruity fragrance, resembling pineapple or apple; sometimes the crushed leaves
are fragrant as well. The blooming period usually occurs during the summer and lasts
1–2 months; some plants may bloom a little earlier or later than this, however. Each
disk or ray floret is replaced by a small oblongoid achene. Each achene is nearly
terete and has several fine ribs. The root system is mostly fibrous. This plant spreads
by reseeding itself. Sea level to 1000 m (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Matricaria discoidea: Annual plant about 7–30 cm tall, branching frequently and
having the appearance of a miniature bush. Fern-like leaves up to 5 cm long and 2 cm
Matricaria chamomilla L. . . . 1171
Fig. 1 Matricaria
chamomilla (Asteraceae),
(Photo R.W: Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Matricaria
across alternate along the hairless stems. These simple, double, or triple compound
leaves are pinnately divided into linear lobes. Flowerheads develop from the axils of
the upper leaves on stalks about 1–3 cm long. The flowerhead of each stalk is about
4 mm across, and consists of numerous greenish yellow disk florets with no ray
florets. Each disk floret has 4 tiny lobes at its apex. The base of the flowerhead has
several overlapping green bracts that are lanceolate or ovate with papery upper
margins. The top of the flowerhead is shaped like a dome or blunt cone. Both the
Fig. 3 Matricaria
foliage and flowerheads have a pineapple-like odor when they are bruised or
crushed. The blooming period occurs during the summer and lasts about 1–2 months.
Each disk floret is replaced by an oblong achene that is broader at the top than the
bottom. The achenes are without awns or tufts of hairs. The root system consists of a
branching taproot. This plant spreads by reseeding itself. Sea level to 1000 m.
Phytochemistry
Matricaria chamomilla: Carbohydrates (D-galacturonic and pectinic acids, D-galactose,

D-glucose, L-rhamnose, L-arabinose, D-xylose), essential oils (bizabolol, a-bizabolol,
a-bizabelene, bizabololoxide, farnesene, azulene, farnesolide, prohamazulene, cadinene,
guaiazulene, spartulenol, trans-pinocarveol, pinocarvone, pinene, caren, a-kubeben,
a-murolen, kalamen, hamavioline, xantoxyline), nitrogen-containing compounds (cho-
line), phenylcarboxylic acids (p-coumaric, hydroxybenzoic, vanilline, lilac, coffee,
ferulic, coumaric, chlorogenic), tannins, coumarins (umbelliferone, herniarine), flavo-
noids (apigenine, luteoline, gossissetine, polycladine, patulethine, yaceidine, chryso-
plenol D, eupatholithine, spinacetine, axillarine, eupalinine, chrysoplenetin, chrysoeryol,
isoramnetine, cosmosyne, quercetine, patulintrin, rutine, apigenine, quercimeritrine,
apion, hyperoside, patulintrine, isoramnetine, chrysoeryol, kaempferol, patulein), hetero-
cyclic oxygen-containing compounds (matrixarine), fatty acids (palmitic, palmitoleinic,
stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, caproic, enanthic, caprylic, caprylic, myristic, penta-
decanoic, methylheptadecanoic, nonadecanoic), coumarins (umbolliferon, herniarin),
cyclitols (phytine).
Matricaria chamomilla: Bolivia: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat
stomach ache, stomach infection, rheumatism, childbed problems, for postpartum
care, postpartum washing, uterus inflammation, uterus prolapse, cold, cough,
sinusitis, sore throat, eye irritation, skin cleansing, wounds, kidney infection,
gum inflammation, and as general anti-inflammatory (Bussmann et al. 2016a;
Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Macía et al. 2005). Also for flu, colds, and
stomach pain (Quiroga et al. 2012). Colombia: Chamomile is used in Colombia
to relieve menstrual pain, stomach pain, diarrhea, colic, gastric ulcer, indigestion,
headache, hemorrhoids, and flatulence. It has anti-inflammatory, fungicidal, bac-
tericidal, anti-spasm, and expectorant properties. The infusion of the plant is used
to relieve stomach discomfort, as an aromatic plant, anti-inflammatory, reducing
fevers, as a heart tonic, and to treat diarrhea. Inflorescences in decoction are widely
used as sudorific and to promote menstruation. This same decoction is used in the
form of cloths or baths to calm the irritations of the eyes, conjunctivitis, fatigue,
and as a mild antiseptic (Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011;
Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015;
Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social
2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In Chile, the infusion of flowers is used as a digestive,
antispasmodic and febrifuge (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
The whole plant is used to treat inflammations, conjunctivitis, headache, skin
allergies, alopecia, arthritis, menstrual colic, stomach ache, indigestion, infections,
diarrhea, flatulence, fever, stress, nerves, and as analgesic, as emenagogue, as
cardiac stimulant, as tonic, and as tranquilizer (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador:
For stomach aches, colds, fever, and as skin wash (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann
and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The infusion of the plant (leaves, flowers, and
branches) is used to treat stomach pain, intestinal cramps, and indigestion (Kichwa
of the Sierra-Imbabura; Mestiza-Pichincha, Tungurahua; unspecified ethnic group
– Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua). The infusion of the plant is used for eye
washes and to treat colds, colic, and stomach pain. The infusion, mixed with alelí,
is taken to treat kidney pain. Steam baths are carried out with the plant to eliminate
pimples (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). The infusion of the plant is used
to treat the flu, bronchitis in children, bumps, injuries, diarrhea, “cold colic,” and
eye irritations. The flowers are used to relieve the “cold of the head.” Flowers and
branches are used to treat infections and swelling (Kichwa de la Sierra –
Imbabura). The infusion is used to relieve pain in the abdomen, head, kidneys,
and bladder (unspecified ethnicity – Loja). The infusion is used to treat inflam-
mations, insomnia, colic, and colds (Kichwa de la Sierra, Imbabura unspecified
ethnic group). The whole plant, in infusion, is used to treat skin conditions (such as
pimples) and inflammation in the vaginal lips (unspecified ethnic group –

Imbabura). The plant has stimulant carminative and stomach virtues (unspecified
ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). It serves as a diuretic, anti-inflammatory, and
antispasmodic. It is used to treat colic, diarrhea, infected wounds, deafness, and
eye irritation (Mestiza, Unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). It is used to relieve
colic (unspecified ethnicity – Cañar). Used to treat spasms and coughs from colds
(Kichwa de la Sierra – Tungurahua) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Used for stomach pain, colic, as calmative, for nerves, headache, anger, cold,
flu, cough, eye problems, and as laxative (Monigatti et al. 2013). Used also to treat
insomnia, inflammation of wounds, colic, stomachache, bronchitis, inflammation of
the vagina, injuries, wounds, infection of wounds, for vaginal cleansing blood
purification, and menstrual colics (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b;
Bussmann and Glenn 2010, 2011). Similar applications for chamolille are observed
in many regions, but especially in Eurasia, where the species is part of many official
pharmacopoeiae. One of the use centers is the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2014,
2016b). Chamomille is one of the ten most widely sold medicinal plants in Peruvian
markets (Bussmann and Sharon 2007b, 2009, 2010; Bussmann et al. 2007a, b,
2008a, 2009; Revene et al. 2008). It has clear antibacterial activity (Bussmann
et al. 2008b, 2010a, b, 2011a, b). Often Matricaria is used as important ingredient
in herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010c). Chamomille is often one of the base
ingredients of emolientes – healthy warm beverages taken mostly for breakfast
Matricaria discoidea: The infusion of flowers is used as a digestive, antispasmodic,
and febrifuge (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Local Food Uses
Matricaria chamomilla: Ecuador: The entire plant, in infusion, is used as aromatic

water (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo, Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Matricaria chamomilla: Ecuador: The infusion is used as shampoo (Uunspecified

ethnicity – Imbabura). It is used to gargle (unspecified ethnic group – Loja) (de la
Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The whole fresh plant used to provide good travels, to make
people more sociable, good relations with others, freight/susto, and pain of love
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010d).
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Markets, healers, vendors, collectors, – the sustainability of medicinal
2010. 288p. p 184–207.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010d;4(9):580–629.
2014;12:237–313.
2015;69:83–8.
016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
(2):450–64.
Revene Z, Bussmann RW, Sharon D. From sierra to coast: tracing the supply of medicinal plants in
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Mauria heterophylla Kunth
ANACARDIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Mauria heterophylla Kunth: Bursera amplifolia Rusby; Mauria biringo Tul.;

Mauria biringo var. granatensis Engl.; Mauria biringo var. weberbaueri Loes.;
Mauria dugandii F.A. Barkley; Mauria glauca Donn. Sm.; Mauria hetetrophylla
var. contracta Loes.; Mauria heterophylla var. humboldtii Engl.; Mauria hetero-
phylla var. puberula (Tul.) Engl.; Mauria ovalifolia Turcz.; Mauria puberula Tul.;
Mauria suaveolens Poepp. & Endl.; Schinus maurioides Rusby; Sorindeia
glaberrima Engl.; Sorindeia heterophylla (Kunth) Marchand; Sorindeia ovalifolia
(Turcz.) Marchand; Sorindeia puberula (Tul.) Marchand; Sorindeia venulosa
(Marchand) Engl.
La Paz, Bolivia
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Spanish, Colombia: Zhicna; Peru: Shimir, Tres Hojas, Trinidad, Chacur, Ahimir,
Feregreco
Botany and Ecology
Small to medium trees, up to 18 m high with 35 cm in diameter; branches and leaves

with a characteristic smell of mango, new leaves of reddish to garnet color. Leaves
unifoliate or imparipinnate, alternate spiral, grouped at the end of the branches,
without stipules; petiole 2.0–4.0 cm, rachis 2.5–4.0 cm. Leaflets 1–5 per leaf,
opposite on the rachis, elliptical, 4.0–14.0 cm by 2.0–5.0 cm, base acute to obtuse,
apex acuminate or sometimes rounded, entire border, subcoriaceous consistency;
pinecone nerve, secondary veins arched and divided before the margin; beam dark
lustrous green, underside pale green, glabrous. Inflorescences in dense axillary
panicles, 3–18 cm long. Small, yellowish, aromatic flowers, chalice with 5 small
sepals, united at the base; corolla with 5 triangular petals, yellowish. Fruit a small
oblong drupe, with one seed (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3,
and 4).
The latex of the tree produces in some people anaphylactic phenomena that are
reflected in the form of rashes, itchy skin, and sometimes sores, so its use must be
done under supervision. The indigenous Kogui of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
in Colombia use this plant in the treatment of boils and for the removal of warts
(Carbonó-Delahoz and Dib-Diazgranados 2013; Echeverry Echeverry 2011). Peru:
Inflammation of uterus and ovaries, cysts, fibroids, vaginal cleansing, skin infec-
tions, wounds, stomach inflammation, and diarrhea (Bussmann and Sharon 2006,
2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010; Monigatti et al. 2013).
Peru: Fresh leaves used for daño, fright/susto and skin irritation from daño
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a). For sale in
local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008a, 2009; Revene et al. 2008). The species
has antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008b, 2010b, 2011a). Always used in
mixtures with other species (Bussmann et al. 2010c). Mauria shows clear toxicity
Mauria heterophylla Kunth 1181
Fig. 1 Mauria heterophylla

(Anacardiaceae), Uchumarca,



References
9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008b;6:351–61.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
(4):742–53.
Mauria heterophylla Kunth 1183

Carbonó-Delahoz E, Dib-Diazgranados JC. Plantas medicinales usadas por los Cogui en el río
Palomino, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Colombia). Caldasia. 2013;35(2):333–50.
Echeverry Echeverry R. Plantas nativas en el jardín botánico Alejandro Von Humboldt de la
Universidad de Tolima-Ibagué. Ibagué: Universidad de Tolima; 2011. 328 pp.
(2):450–64.
Maytenus krukovii A.C. Sm.
Maytenus laevis Reissek
EBENACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Maytenus laevis Reissek: Maytenus jauanensis Steyer
Local Names
Maytenus krukovii: Ecuador, Peru: Chukchuwasu, Kuri kaspi (Kichwa), Coengia

ajupa’cco (A’ingae), Bimo, omentadaiwe (Wao tededo) (de la Torre et al. 2008),
Chuchuguasi, Chuchuhuasha, Chuchuaso
Maytenus laevis: Bolivia: Chuchuhuasi (A) (Bussmann et al. 2016);
Colombia: Chuchuguaza/Chuchuhuaza (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador:
Chuchuasi
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Usually glabrous or essentially glabrous shrubs or small trees with

persisting coriaceous often distichous alternate petioled leaves, the minute stipules
deciduous, and small polygamous axillary white or yellowish flowers. Calyx
5-parted, the petals spreading. Stamens 5, filaments subulate, anthers ovate-
cordate, inserted below the orbicular undulate-margined disk in which the 2–4-
celled ovary is immersed and confluent; ovules solitary or geminate, erect. Style
none or short, the stigma 2–4 lobate. Fruit capsular, coriaceous, 1–3 celled,
loculicidally 2–3 valvate, the seed arillate (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
Maytenus krukovii: In the Amazon of Colombia, it is used by various indigenous

tribes as a general tonic for the treatment of rheumatism. The indigenous Sionas of
the Putumayo River prepare a decoction with the bark and take it to cure rheuma-
tism and arthritis, and also serves as a restorative (Díaz 2003; García Barriga 1975;
Ministerio de Protección Social 2008). Ecuador: Scraped bark is used to treat flu
and body aches (Wao-Napo). The cortex is used to treat rheumatism (Cofán-
Sucumbíos). Infusion of the cortex is used to treat arthritis and respiratory condi-
tions (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo, Imbabura). The bark, in infusion, is
used to treat minor bleeding after birth; menstrual cramps; stomach, kidney, and
body aches; rheumatism; and anemia (Kichwa of the East-Succumbios, Napo)
(de la Torre et al. 2008). The bark, in infusion, is used to treat “fright” (unspecified
ethnicity-Imbabura). The leaves are used to see hallucinations better: the infusion
is drunk before the site (drink made from Banisteriopsis caapi) (Cofán-
Sucumbíos) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Maytenus laevis: Bolivia: Bark used to treat prostate problems (Bussmann et al.
2016).
Colombia: Bark and leaves used to treat anemia, rheumatism, tumors, as diuretic
and for sexual potency (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: Bark used to treat kidneys
problems (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007). Similar uses are
known from Peru, where Maytenus bark is among the herbal remedies distributed in
the social security system (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and
Sharon 2007).
The fruits of Maytenus hetrophylla are eaten in Kenya, and the bark is
used for strengthening soups (Bussmann 2006). Maytenus
senegalensis is used to treat malaria (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a) and
topically for throat infections (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006b) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, and 7).
Maytenus krukovii A.C. Sm. . . . 1187
Fig. 1 Maytenus
sp. (Ebenaceae), Bale
mountains, Ethiopia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann)
Fig. 2 Maytenus
R.W. Bussmann)
Fig. 3 Maytenus
R.W. Bussmann)
Fig. 4 Maytenus
R.W. Bussmann)
Fig. 5 Maytenus
R.W. Bussmann)
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: Liquors (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo) are prepared with the
bark. Food additive: The bark is applied to give flavor and color to the brandy
(it gives a red-wine tone) (Cofán-Sucumbíos) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Maytenus krukovii A.C. Sm. . . . 1189
Fig. 6 Maytenus
R.W. Bussmann)
Fig. 7 Maytenus
R.W. Bussmann)
References
9789962-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
Bussmann RW, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. Astonishing diversity – the medicinal
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Medicago sativa L.
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Medicago sativa L.: Medica sativa Lam.; Medicago afghanica Vassilcz.; Medicago
agropyretorum Vassilcz.; Medicago alaschanica Vassilcz.; Medicago asiatica
subsp. sinensis Sinskaya; Medicago beipinensis Vassilcz.; Medicago grandiflora
Vassilcz.; Medicago kopetdaghi Vassilcz.; Medicago ladak Vassilcz.; Medicago
mesopotamica Vassilcz.; Medicago orientalis Vassilcz.; Medicago pekinense
Vassilcz.; Medicago polia Vassilcz.; Medicago praesativa Sinskaya.; Medicago
praesativa var. spontanea Sinskaya; Medicago rivularis Vassilcz.; Medicago
roborovskii Vassilcz.; Medicago sativa fo. alba Benke; Medicago sativa grex
afghanica Board.; Medicago sativa var. grandiflora Grossh.; Medicago sativa var.
tibetana Alef.; Medicago sogdiana Vassilcz.; Medicago tibetana (Alef.) Vassilcz.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Spanish: Alfalfa; Bolivia: Alfa alfa (Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and
Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016); Colombia: Alfalfa; Ecuador: Alfalfa, Mielga,
Mielgo (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Alfalfa; English: Alfalfa
Botany and Ecology
Perennial herb; rhizome stout, penetrating deep into the soil; stems 4-angled, glabrous
or in the upper part hairy, profusely branched in the upper part, 40–80 cm long,
forming an upright or expanded bushy plant or decumbent; stipules limited to
one-third or half their length, the free portion triangular-lanceolate, taper-pointed, at
base entire or mostly with 1 or 2 teeth, glabrous or sparingly appressed-hairy, with
longitudinal veins; leaflets oblong-oval, ovate or linear, tapering toward the base,
crenate above the middle, mostly refuse and mucronate, (5)10–25(45) mm long and
3–10 mm broad, glabrate or appressed-hairy, paler green beneath; corolla 6–15 mm
long, ranging in color from pale yellow to blue and blackish violet; calyx tubular
infundibular, the linear-subulate teeth longer than the tube, mostly appressed-hairy;
pedicels slender, shorter than or equaling the calyx tube; bracteoles whitish, linear-
subulate, long-acuminate, mostly equaling the pedicel; inflorescence an abbreviated
raceme, oval or round in outline, rarely somewhat elongated, 1–2.5 cm long, 1–2 cm
broad, 5–30(40) flowered; peduncle slender, rather firm, always exceeding the sub-
tending leaf, glabrous or appressed-hairy as are rachis and pedicels; pod spiraling
through 2–4 tightly closed coils, 3–9 mm in diameter, prominently reticulate-veined,
glabrous or appressed-pubescent; seeds irregularly ovaloid or irregularly cordate,
castaneous. Dry meadows, grassy slopes, taluses, steppes, wood margins, scrub,
riverine pebbles, pastures, and as weed in and around fields.
Bolivia: The whole plant is used to treat anemia, iron deficiency, kidney infection,
and gallbladder infection, to strengthen the bones, to improve sexual potency, and as
a galactagogue and diuretic (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015;
Bussmann et al. 2016). Colombia: In Colombia the juice extracted from the root of
alfalfa and mixed with panela (raw sugar) water and two egg whites is used as an
antidote in intoxicated with strychnine. All the plant prepared in decoction is
considered nutritious and is used to promote milk production in lactating women.
Dried and reduced to powder is considered a great food (Díaz 2003; García Barriga
1974; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The whole plant is used to
treat obesity, liver problems, high blood pressure, and hemorrhage; seeds are used to
treat rickets, gum pain, dental health, and cavities and as restorative; the root is used
to treat urinary infection and for blood cleansing (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador:
The juice of the leaves is drunk on an empty stomach with honey, to treat brain
Medicago sativa L. 1193
weakness. The flower is used to accelerate labor contractions; it is boiled in water

with a flower of capulí (Prunus serotina), pumpkin seeds (Cucurbita maxima),
mamey (Pouteria sp.), and bones (Kichwa de la Sierra-Tungurahua). The pure
juice is drunk on an empty stomach to clean the liver, kidneys, bladder, and urethral
canal. The juice of the leaves and the stem is used to treat bleeding (unspecified
ethnicity – Tungurahua). The juice of tender alfalfa is supplied to the animal as a
purgative (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). It is used to improve eyesight
and to treat hemorrhages (as a restorative), rheumatism, menstrual cramps, brain and
spine pain, and liver and kidney conditions. The juice of the fresh leaves and the fruit
is used to treat anemia (Mestiza, unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The juice of the
crushed leaves, mixed with orange, is used to treat bleeding and anemia (unspecified
ethnicity – Carchi). The juice of the leaves is used as a purgative and, in plasters,
beverages or concoctions; it is useful for lowering fever. The juice extracted from the
leaves is supplied to the cattle to soothe the belly pains of the beasts that have
consumed the same alfalfa in excess. It is digestive and stomach stimulant. Taken
regularly it helps treat peptic ulcers (Kichwa de la Sierra – Cotopaxi, Chimborazo).
Leaf juice is used to maintain good mood in people. The infusion of the flower is
drunk to treat cough in children (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). The juice
serves as a tonic, diuretic, and coagulant, to prevent high blood pressure, and to treat
colds and conditions of the brain, liver, and blood (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi,
Chimborazo; Mestiza-Loja; unspecified ethnicity – Cañar, Chimborazo, Bolívar,
Loja). It is an abundant source of vitamins and proteins (unspecified ethnicity –
Loja). The plant is useful as a diuretic (unspecified ethnicity – Manabi). It is used to
increase milk production in cows. The leaves are liquefied with orange or orange
juice and raw egg to stimulate circulation and appetite. The seeds are used to
strengthen the lungs (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The leaves and flowers
are used to treat bleeding of the body and irritation of the liver and kidneys (Kichwa
de la Sierra – Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The juice or tea of the leaves, stem,
and fruits is used to purify the blood; it is drunk on an empty stomach (Mestiza-
Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua) (de la
Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Fresh flowers and leaves are used to treat bronchitis (Bussmann and Sharon
2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010). It is also used as a tonic and for
nosebleeds, anemia, and hemorrhages (Monigatti et al. 2013) and sold in local
markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2009). Its antibacterial activity has been confirmed
(Bussmann et al. 2011a, b). Sometimes alfalfa is added to emolientes (Bussmann
et al. 2015).
Local Food Uses
Colombia: Leaves are used for food (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The leaves
(buds) and flowers are edible; they are used to prepare salads and milkshakes
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha,
Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Ecuador: The stem and leaves are used as fodder for guinea pigs, rabbits, horses,
cattle, and other quadrupeds (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Chimborazo; Mestiza-
Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity – Carchi, Pichincha, Tungurahua, Cotopaxi, Chim-
borazo, Cañar, Azuay) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It has beekeeping use (unspecified
ethnicity – Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant serves as fertilizer for the
earth because its roots fix nitrogen from the atmosphere (like all legumes); it is also
used as a climatic protector and to prevent soil erosion (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Cotopaxi, Chimborazo; unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimbo-
razo, Cañar, Azuay) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
amongst patients at Clinica Anticona in El Porvenir, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007;5:185–99.
2015;69:83–8.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Medicago sativa L. 1195
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
(2):450–64.
Melilotus albus Medik.
Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam.
LAMIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Melilotus albus Medik.: Melilotus albus Desr.; Melilotus leucanthus Koch ex DC.
Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam.: Brachylobus officinalis (L.) Dulac.; Melilotus
arvensis Wallr.; Melilotus graveolens Bunge.; Melilotus officinalis fo. suaveolens
(Ledeb.) H. Ohashi & Tateishi; Melilotus pallidus Besser ex Ser.; Melilotus
suaveolens Ledeb.; Sertula officinalis (L.) Kuntze; Trifolium officinale L.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Melilotus albus: Spanish: Colombia: Trébol de olor, Trébol dulce; Ecuador: Sacha
alealea (Kichwa), Alfalfilla (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Alfalfilla
(Spanish)
English: White sweetclover
Melilotus officinalis: Spanish: Colombia: Carretón de olor; English: Yellow
sweetclover
Botany and Ecology
Melilotus albus: Biennial, rarely annual; stems erect, 0.5–1.5 m long, sometimes
slightly reddish in lower part, short-hairy above; stipules subulate, entire, very
rarely the lower dentate; obtuse, dentate nearly from base, with 8–12 dentations on
each margin, sparingly short-hairy beneath, the lower obovate-rhombic or cuneate,
the upper oblong-lanceolate; raceme loose, 4–6 cm long, greatly elongating in
fruit; flowers white, 4–7 mm long, on pedicel 1–1.5 mm long; calyx 2 mm long,
the lanceolate acuminate teeth half as long as tube; standard slightly longer than
wings, these as long as tube; standard slightly longer than wings, these as long as
keel; ovary sessile, lanceolate, 3- or 4-ovuled; style one and a half times as long as
ovary; pod turning dark, 3–3.5 mm long, 2–2.5 mm broad, and ca. 2 mm thick,
somewhat blunted at the top, more or less distinctly reticulate-rugose by rather few
slender veins; seeds 1 or 2, rarely 3, yellow, smooth, or minutely tuberculate.
Flowering June–September. Ural, Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on river flood-
plains, coastal sands, moist meadows, fallow lands, especially clayey and solonetz
soils, sometimes as weed.
Melilotus officinalis: Biennial; stems erect, 0.5–1 m long, sometimes longer, hairy
in upper part; stipules lanceolate, acuminate, entire, the lowermost sometimes with
1 or 2 dentations; leaflets of lower leaves obovate to orbicular, obtuse, the upper
lanceolate, unequally dentate, with 10–13 teeth on each margin, puberulent
beneath; raceme 4–10 cm long, 30–70-flowered; pedicels up to 1.5 mm long;
flowers yellow, nodding, 5–7 mm long; calyx ca. 2 mm long, the triangular-
lanceolate teeth half-length of calyx, the keel somewhat shorter; ovary lanceolate,
glabrous; distinctly stipitate, commonly 6(rarely 4 or 8)-ovuled; style slightly
curved, about one and a half times as long as ovary; pod 3–4 mm long, 2 mm
wide, and ca. 1.5 mm thick, ovaloid, obtuse at the top, with persistent style, short
stipitate, grayish, glabrous, transversely wrinkled; seed 1 (rarely 2), greenish
yellow. Flowering May–June, fruiting June–July. Ural, Caucasus, Middle Asia,
Altai meadows, sometimes on solonetzic soils, cultivated fields, fallows, and
roadsides (Figs. 1 and 2).
Melilotus albus Medik. . . . 1199
Fig. 1 Melilotus officinalis

Turkey. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Melilotus officinalis

Turkey. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Phytochemistry
Phenolic carboxylic acids (melilot, coumaric, o-kumaric), coumarins (dicumarol,

melilotin, melilotic acid, melilotocide), pterocarpans (medikarpine), flavonoids,
vitamins (C, E, carotene), fatty acids, alkaloids.
Melilotus albus: In Colombia, the pulverized leaves, flowers, and dried tender
stems are used to prepare anti-inflammatories. Prepared in the form of infusion
serves as a nerve tranquilizer and to relieve tumors. It has anticoagulant properties
and is used to relieve the symptoms of patients with coronary thrombosis (García
Barriga 1974). Ecuador: The plant, in infusion, is used to treat cancer (unspecified
ethnic group – Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Dried seeds used to gain weight, for fever, tuberculosis, colds, infections, and
respiratory infections (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and
Glenn 2010a, b; Bussmann et al. 2011a). The species shows antibacterial activity
(Bussmann et al. 2009, 2010, 2011b).
Melilotus officinalis: In Colombia, the pulverized leaves, flowers, and dried tender
stems are used to prepare anti-inflammatories. Prepared in the form of infusion
serves as a nerve tranquilizer and to relieve tumors. It has anticoagulant properties
and is used to relieve the symptoms of patients with coronary thrombosis (García
Barriga 1974).
Melilotus albus: Ecuador: It is used as animal fodder (unspecified ethnicity –

Azuay) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010a;17(2):331–46.
9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
Melilotus albus Medik. . . . 1201
9960231-3-9.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
2010;9(4):742–53.
Melissa offcinalis L.
LAMIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Melissa offcinalis L.: Melissa bicornis Klokov
Local Names
Bolivia: Toronjil (Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005; Justo and Moraes 2015; Bussmann
et al. 2016); Colombia: Melissa, Toronjil (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecua-
dor: Toronjil (spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Toronjil, Melissa (Spanish);
English: Lemon balm
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Perennial, 30–125 cm high, with soft short hairs all over; stems erect, branched,
quadrangular; leaves petiolate, ovate, up to 6 cm long, 3 cm broad, the upper
cuneate, the lower cordate at base, crenate-toothed, subglabrous, sometimes with
glandular hairs or punctate glands beneath; verticillate 3–5–10 flowered, distant, in
the axils of upper leaves; bracts elliptical or oblong, petiolate, not exceeding the
flowers; calyx campanulate, hairy, the upper lip broad, flat, submarginate, with
3 short acuminate teeth, the 2 lower teeth triangular-lanceolate; fruiting calyx
5-angled; corolla whitish or pinkish, 13–15 mm long, one-and-a-half times to
twice as long as calyx, glabrate; upper lip almost flat; stamens 4, the lower longer,
curved, and connivent under the upper lip; nutlets ovoid, strongly narrowed toward
base, brownish, smooth, 1.5–2 mm long. Flowering June–September. Ural, Cauca-
sus, Middle Asia, forest fringes, in wet shady ravines, near settlements, as weed, up
to the middle mountain belt (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Phtochemistry
Essential oils (geranial, citronellal, caryophyllene, limonene, linalool, linaloolene,

rosene, isogeranial, pulegol, isopulegol, methylsalicylate, safranal, terpineol,
lavandulylvalerate, farnesene, linalyl acetate, fellandre), vitamins (C, B1, B2, caro-
tene), phenulcarboxylic acids (rosemary, coffee, chlorogenic, protocatechal, ferulic),
flavonoids (luteoline, ramranazine), coumarins, triterpneoids (ursolic acid), fatty
acids (palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic).
Bolivia: Stems and leaves, fresh or dried, are used to treat heartache, epilepsia,
nerves, nausea, and as relaxant (Macía et al. 2005; Justo and Moraes 2015;
Bussmann et al. 2016), also for heart problems, colds, nerves, stomach problems,
diarrhea, and headache (Quiroga et al. 2012). Colombia: The Lemon balm is a
cardiac tonic, with sedative and calming properties of the nerves (tranquilizer). The
plant is used to calm the nerves, relieve spasmodic and menstrual pains, reduce fever,
and especially as antiflatulent and against colic; It is also used in the treatment of
intestinal conditions, dyspepsia, stomach pain, and nausea. Externally it is used in
cases of bad breath and insect bites. The leaves and stems in infusion are used as
antispasmodic, against excessive sweating, as a digestive, and in general in nervous
disorders. The hot infusions of Toronjil are also used to facilitate digestion and
menstruation (Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño. 2011; Fonnegra-
Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Martínez
Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008). Stems
and leaves are used as sedative, for nerves, and heart diseases; the leaves serve as
Melissa offcinalis L. 1205
Fig. 1 Melissa officinalis

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Melissa officinalis

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
tranquilizer, for spasms, indigestion, flatulence, and digestive problems (Bussmann

et al. 2018).
Ecuador: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat nerves, nervous system,
sadness, depression, and heart pain (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a,
2007a). The crushed leaves are applied as a poultice to treat insect bites and animal
bites, to reduce the inflammation of tumors, and to accelerate the healing of wounds
and prevent them from becoming infected. Tea prepared with the leaves is used as a
sedative and to calm the nerves, to treat fever, flu, cough, and to regulate menstru-
ation (Shuar-Napo). The infusion of the plant (especially leaves and branches) is
used for the hangover, stomach pain, and with salt and lemon, for the colerín
(Kichwa of the Sierra-Imbabura; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Chimborazo,
Cañar). The leaves and flowers, in infusion, are used to treat inflammation and eye
pain, fainting, decay and nervous conditions such as depression (Mestizo-Pichincha;
unspecified ethnic group – Carchi, Imbabura, Chimborazo, Loja). The leaves and
branches, in infusion, are used to treat palpitations, weaknesses, and heart pain
(Kichwa of the Sierra-Imbabura; unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura, Pichchin, Chim-
borazo). Used as antispasmodic (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). It is used
as a digestive and calming (unspecified ethnic group – Other (Coast Region)). It
serves as a general health tonic (unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). It is used to treat
flatulence and headache (unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Social: The juice of the leaves is used to treat grief (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura).
The plant is used to cure fright (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay) (de la Torre et al.
2008). Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to calm ill-mannered children,
pain of love, nerves, insomnia, heart, nervous system, and tachycardia (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a; Monigatti et al. 2013).
It is sometimes sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008a, 2009; Revene
et al. 2008) and has shown antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008b). Sometimes
it is used as ingredient in herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010b, 2011a, b) and may
be added to emollients (Bussmann et al. 2015).
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: With the branches, aromatic waters are prepared (Mestiza-Azuay;

unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Melissa offcinalis L. 1207
9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
2015;69:83–8.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Alcaldía de Medellín; 2012. p. 305.
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
Menta x piperita L.
Mentha spicata L.
Mentha suaveolens Ehrh.
LAMIACEAE

Synonyms
Menta x piperita L.: Mentha citrata Ehrh.

Mentha spicata L.: Mentha crispa L.; Mentha crispa Schrad. ex. Willd.; Mentha
pudina Buch.-Ham. ex Benth.; Mentha spicata var. undulata (Willd.) Lebeau;
Mentha spicata var. viridis L.; Mentha viridis (L.) L.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero

Local Names
Mentha spicata: Bolivia: Hierba buena (Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana
and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016a); Colombia: Sígueme sígueme,
Querendona, Yerbabuena (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Hierba
buena, Hierba buena de dulce, Menta (Spanish) (de La Torre et al. 2008); Peru:
Hierba buena, Hierba buena silvestre, Menta (Spanish); English: Mint
Mentha x piperita: Bolivia: Menta (Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and
Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016a); Colombia: Hierbabuena, Menta, Yerbabuena
(Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Hierba buena, Menta, Menta toronjil,
Sanguinaria (Spanish); Peru: Poleo (Spanish); English: Peppermint
Mentha suaveolens: Chile: Menta, Yerba buena pelúa, Menta koka
Botany and Ecology
Mentha spicata: Perennial; stems erect, 40–90 cm long, glabrous or nearly so,
green; sterile shoots only underground; leaves subsessile to sessile or short-petioled,
glabrous or nearly so, ovate-oblong or oblong-lanceolate, sharply and unevenly
serrate or dentate, acuminate, faintly netted-veined; inflorescences slender, cylindri-
cal, spike-like, compact, interrupted; verticillate distant or the upper approximate;
floral leaves resembling the bracts, not exceeding the calyx; calyx glabrous, slightly
constricted at throat in fruit, the teeth triangular, equal, slightly connivent. Grows on
river banks, meadows, and in fields (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Mentha x piperita: Perennial; rhizome horizontal; stems 30–100 cm long, assurgent
at base, erect, branched, often reddish, glabrous or with sparse short setiform hairs
mostly on the angles; leaves with petiole 6–8 mm long, ovate-oblong to sub-
lanceolate, 3–8 cm long, 1.5–2 cm broad, glabrous or with short setiform hairs on
the veins beneath, dark green, densely punctate-glandular beneath, sharply dentate
with long uneven teeth, rounded at base, acuminate; floral leaves resembling the
cauline, smaller; inflorescences at ends of stems and branches, capitate-spicate, short
and broad, interrupted at base; bracts narrow, setaceous, ciliate, glabrous at base, the
lower longer than verticillate, the upper shorter; calyx tubular, glabrous, violet-
tinged, punctate-glandular, the teeth erect, not connivent in fruit, ciliate, one-third
the length of the tube; corolla glabrous, the tube whitish, about as long as calyx, the
limb pink or lilac; stamens shorter than corolla, style exserted; nutlets obovoid,
ca. 0.75 mm long, 0.5 mm broad, dark brown, glandular at apex. Often cultivated, in
gardens, sometimes naturalized (Figs. 5, 6, and 7).
Mentha suaveolens: Perennial plant, woody in lower part, stoloniferous, with
rooting nodes; the stems, of 40–100 cm, of quadrangular section, with marked
edges, that can be little or very branched; they have a very variable hairiness in the
density, formed by simple or branched hairs. The leaves, of 30–45 20–40 mm, are
sessile or shortly petiolate, strongly rough and with marked nerves, elliptic to ovate,
wider at the base, sometimes orbicular, apex cuspidate or acute, base on auriculated
occasions, serrated or serrated margin, with 10–20 teeth folded on the underside,
Menta x piperita L. . . . 1211
Fig. 1 Mentha longifolia

(Lamiaceae), Racha, Georgia.
which makes them appear crenate; the underside is whitish due to the presence of
branched cottony hairs that form a tangle. The flowers appear together in bracteate
inflorescences of verticilastro type, which gather to form dense and terminal spikes
of 2.7–10 0.6–1.2 cm, which have some verticilastro separated below. The calyx,
of 1–2.5 mm, is formed by a tube with scattered hairs, green although sometimes
colored in the upper part, which opens to the outside by 5 teeth of up to 1.2 mm,
subequal. The corolla, 3–3.8 mm, pink or white, is formed by a tube that at the end
has two small lips barely marked, the upper one not lobed, and the lower one with
3 small equal lobes of up to 1.5 mm. The androceo is formed by 4 exerted stamens,
with purple anthers of ellipsoidal form; the gynoecium consists of an ovary superbly
divided into 4 from which a style with a bifid stigma emerges. The fruit is a nulage of
0.57–0.75 mm, from ellipsoid to subtrone, dark brown. Sea level to 2500 m.
Phytochemistry
Mentha spicata: Carbohydrates (stachyose), essential oils (menton, isenton, cam-

phene, pinene, myrcene, limonene, pulegon, carvone, piperite, piperitenone, allo-
cymene, cymene, piperitene, citral, linalool, menthol, terpineol, linalyl, menthyl,
isomenton, neomenthol, neoisanthal, carvacrol, thymol, phenol), triterpene sapo-
nins, cardenolides, vitamins (C, E, K, carotene), coumarins, flavonoids (quercetine,
Fig. 2 Mentha longifolia

(Lamiaceae), garden,
Ecuador. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
gesperidine, isoroyfoline, metoside, pipertosidide, luteoline, apigenin, acacetine,

rhiodictyol), triterpenoids (ursolic and oleanolic acid, uviol, erythrodiol), steroids,
phenylcarboxylic acids (rosemary, chlorogenic, coffee), flavonoids (luteoline,
apigenine, acacetin, diosmIn rutinoside, hesperetin, eriodictyol), anthocyanins, tan-
nins, fatty acids (oleic, palmitic, stearic, linoleic, linolenic).
Mentha x piperita: Essential oils (pinene, limonen, caryophyllene, cadinene,
sabinene, sabinenhydrate, terpene, camphene, terpinolene, tuyen, fellandren, caren,
cymol, santen, thujone, pulegon, piperitone, menthone, menton, isomenton,
piperithenone, isopulegon, carvomenton, carvone, entofuralactone, mentofuran,
2-isopropylcyclopentanone, menthylcyclohexane, linalool, linalyl acetate, octanol,
nonadien, cineole, citronellol, nerol, geraniol, furfural), phenylcarboxylic acids
(coffee, ferulic, p-coumaric), anthocyanins, fatty acids.
Mentha x piperita: Bolivia: Fresh stems and leaves are used to treat gastritis/ulcers,
swellings of the stomach, for blood cleansing (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and
Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016a), for stomach gas, stomach pain, and as
digestive (Quiroga et al. 2012). Colombia: Yerbabuena is used in Colombia as a
colic and antiflatulant painkiller, for the treatment of stomach pain, nausea, fever,
Fig. 3 Mentha spicata

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Mentha spicata

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 5 Mentha x piperita

Ecuador. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Ecuador. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
and headache. The leaves and flowers are used as antispasmodic, against excessive
sweating, and to promote digestion. The leaves are prepared in decoction and are
consumed to promote a good functioning of the stomach, avoid colics and gases, and
in general as a good digestive. In the form of plasters or poultices are used to combat
abdominal pain, toothache, and pain in general. The leaves are given to children for
smelling or placed under the pillow to relieve worm attacks, although it is not a
vermifuge (Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño. 2011; Fonnegra-
Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Ministerio
de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The whole plant, stems, and
leaves are used to remedy menstrual colics, flatulence, and digestive problems;
The whole plant is used to treat nerves and for diarrhea; stems and leaves serve as
tranquilizer; leaves help to treat vomit, as vermifuge, for toothache, strengthens the
digestive system, for stomach ache, as sedative, for indigestion, hemorrhage, asthma,
and as analgesic (Bussmann et al. 2018) Ecuador: The whole plant, fresh, is used to
treat stomachache (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The
infusion is used to treat animals with stomach pains (unspecified ethnic group –
Azuay, Cañar). The infusion is used, in baths and combined with frame, rue, and
nettle, to treat colds; In addition, the infusion is used to treat blood pressure
(Unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). The leaves, in infusion, serve as stomach,
carminative, and antispasmodic (unspecified ethnic group – Cañar, Azuay, Others
(Costa Region)). It is used to facilitate the evacuation of urine and to treat insect
bites, digestive conditions (gas, intestinal cramps, vomiting), strong cough, insom-
nia, influenza, and chest and heart pain (Mestizo, unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha).
Used to treat indeterminate conditions (unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used for colic, stomach pain
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b),
also for colds, respiratory infections, cough, bronchitis, nausea, and stomach pain
(Monigatti et al. 2013). Mint species show limited antibacterial activity (Bussmann
et al. 2008a, 2009a, b, 2010a, b, 2011a, b). Often part of medicinal herb mixtures
(Bussmann et al. 2010c). One of the most commonly sold medicinal species in Peru
(Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008b, 2010c). Peppermint is a common ingredient in

emollients (warm herbal beverages taken for breakfast Bussmann et al. 2015).
Mentha spicata: Bolivia: Stems and leaves, fresh or dried, are used to treat stom-
achache, for blood cleansing, and as anthelmintic and laxative (Macía et al. 2005;
Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016a). Colombia: It is used in
Colombia as a colic and antiflatulent painkiller, for the treatment of stomach pain,
nausea, fever, and headache. The leaves and flowers are used as antispasmodic,
against excessive sweating, and to promote digestion. The leaves are prepared in
decoction and are consumed to promote a good functioning of the stomach, avoid
colics and gases, and in general as a good digestive. In the form of plasters or
poultices are used to combat abdominal pain, toothache, and pain in general. The
leaves are given to children for smelling or placed under the pillow to relieve worm
attacks, although it is not a vermifuge. (García Barriga 1975; Martínez Correa and
Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
The whole plant is used for good luck; leaves used to treat toothache, stomach
problems, spasms, liver, inflammation, indigestion, gallbladder, flatulence, dizzi-
ness, cramps, burns, as stimulant, as muscle relaxant, as analgesic, as vermifuge, and
as tranquilizer (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to
treat stomachache (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The
infusion of the plant or leaves is used to relieve pain in the lower abdomen, cramps,
stomach pain (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Chimborazo, Loja). It is used to
aid digestion and treat stomach conditions. With the infusion heals animals with
belly pains (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). It is used as a tranquilizer of the
nervous system, to eliminate gases and treat headache (Unspecified ethnicity– Loja).
It is used, in infusion, as anthelminthic and to treat prostate problems (unspecified
ethnic group – Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: The whole plant is used fresh against parasites, colic, stomachache, gastritis,
indigestion, colic of the stomach, tapeworms, intestinal worms, headache, aphrodi-
siac, gases, and bad breath (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b;
Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b). Mint species show limited antibacterial activity
(Bussmann et al. 2008a, 2009a, b, 2010a, b, 2011a, b). Often part of medicinal herb
mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010c). One of the most commonly sold medicinal
species in Peru (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008b, 2010b).
Mentha spicata is used in Nepal as diuretic (Kunwar et al. 2013). Mentha arvensis
in India is used for indigestion and nausea (Kumar et al. 2011). Mentha longifolia
serves for the same purpose in Pakistan (Sher et al. 2016).
Mentha suaveolens: The infusion of the aerial parts is used for stomach pain
Local Food Uses
Mentha x piperita: Ecuador: It is used to prepare an infusion as aromatic water

(Mestizo-Imbabura; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Bolívar, Loja) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). With the leaves, meat and other dishes (unspecified Ethnicity – Others
(Costa Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008) are seasoned. Especially in the Eurasia used
as tea (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b).
Mentha spicata: Ecuador: The infusion of the leaves is used as aromatic water
(unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha, Loja). The leaves are used as a condiment in
the locro (soup) with tripe (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). It serves as a
condiment in the preparation of black pudding (unspecified ethnic group –
Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Mentha piperita: Ecuador: It is used to treat “evil eye” (unspecified ethnic group –
Guayas) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Mentha spicata: Colombia: For good luck (Bussmann et al. 2018). It is used to
wash beef and sheep tripe (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha) (de la Torre et al.
2008). It is used for good luck baths (Mestizo-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2002. 340p.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
9960231-3-9.
medicinal flora of Northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b. ISBN
978-0-9960231-2-2.
Appl. 2008b;6:351–61.
Malca-G G, Perez-A F, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in Northern
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Castro M, Cardenas R, Chait G, Regalado S, Del Toro-C R, Malca-G G,
Perez-A F, Glenn A. Phyto-chemical analysis of Peruvian medicinal plants. Arnaldoa. 2009b;16
(1):105–10.
(4):742–53.
2014;12:237–313.
2015;69:83–8.
016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Carepa, Chigorodó y Mutatá, Antioquia, Colombia. Tesis de Grado. Turbo, Antioquia:
Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia UNAD. Escuela de Ciencias Agrícolas, Pecuarias
y del Medio Ambiente; 2017. 136 pp.
(2):450–64.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Micromeria gilliesii Benth
LAMIACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Micromeria gilliesii Benth: Bystropogon minutus Briq., Clinopodium gilliesii

(Benth.) Kuntze, Micromeria eugenioides (Griseb.) Hieron., Micromeria gilliesii
Benth., Oreosphacus parvifolia Phil., Satureja eugenioides Griseb., Satureja
parvifolia (Phil.) Epling, Satureja oligantha Briq., Satureja gilliesii (Benth.) Briq.,
Xenopoma eugenioides Griseb.
Local Names
Chile: Muña, Miuña, Muina, Muiña, Muñamuña, Ilyinkuma
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Erect subshrub, between 0.6 and 2 m high; young stems quadrangular, reddish, little
pubescent, and glabrescent. Leaves imbricated, subsessile; blade between 3 and
12 mm long, oblong to narrowly oblong-elliptical, obtuse to rounded at the apex,
broadly cuneate base, entire margin, both surfaces slightly pubescent. Inflorescences
in axillary heads with 1–3 flowers. Flower with calyx 2 mm long, little tubular-
campanulate, ribbed; white corolla, 5-lobed. Fruit: small walnut, oblong-ovoid
narrowed to an obtuse apex, glabrous. 1200–4500 m above sea level (González
and Molina 2017).
Andean medicinal species, highly valued and aromatic. The infusion of the aerial
parts is used for the treatment of stomach pain and colds (González and Molina
2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). In Bolivia, species of the
genus are used for cultural illnesses (larpha), digestive system (stomach cleansing
and stomach ache), metabolism and nutrition (blood cleansing), pregnancy, child-
birth, and child-bed (postpartum washing) (Bussmann et al. 2016).
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Minthostachys mollis Grieseb.
LAMIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Minthostachys mollis Grieseb.: Bystropogon canus Benth.; Bystropogon

mandonianus Briq.; Bystropogon mollis Kunth; Bystropogon tomentosus Benth.;
Minthostachys mandoniana (Briq.) Engl.; Minthostachys tomentosa (Benth.) Epling
Local Names
Colombia: Tusilago chambamba, Poleo grande (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018);

Ecuador: Poleo (Spanish), Churana panka, Mishki yaku, Tipu, Yurak tipu
(Kichwa), Menta, Poleo, Tipo, Tipo blanco (Spanish), Muña, Pumín (unspecified
language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Muña, Chancas de comida (Spanish)
R. W. Bussmann (*)
e-mail: Rainer.Bussmann@savingknowledge.org; rbussmann@gmail.com; Rainer.
Bussmann@iliauni.edu.ge
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Shrublet, 80–120 cm tall, with divaricate branches turning glabrate, internodes to 4 cm

long; petioles 1 cm long; leaves ovate, rounded at base, more or less acuminate, mostly
2.5 cm long, 17 mm wide, the few teeth small, green, but appressed pubescent above,
the indument beneath dense, canescent, the 4–5 lateral nerves inconspicuous; verticils
more or less villous, the uppermost subspicate, many-flowered; pedicels to 2 mm long;
calyx finally 4 mm long, tube 2.5 mm long, teeth lanceolate-subulate, 1.5 mm long;
corolla well-exserted, the tube 5 mm long (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8).
Colombia: The infusion of Muña leaves is taken in Colombia to treat stomach pains,
intestinal gas, diarrhea, cough, flu, and toothache (Bernal et al. 2011). Fresh leaves
are used to treat throat inflammation, headache, as expectorant; inflorescence used to
Fig. 1 Minthostachys mollis


Minthostachys mollis Grieseb. 1225


treat cough and asthma (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: Fresh leaves are used to
treat cold and flu (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The
essence or volatile oil of the leaves is used to treat nasal congestion, asthma,
bronchitis, hoarseness, cold and cough (Mesizo-Tungurahua, Pichincha, Cotopaxi).
The infusion of the plant, especially the flower, is used to treat the flu and cough

(Mestiza-Pichincha; Unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Chimborazzo,

Bolívar, Loja). The infusion is a good stomach stimulant; it is used as an emmen-
agogue (which favors menstrual flow) and to treat dizziness and headaches
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi; Mestizo-Tungurahua, Pichincha, Cotopaxi;
Unspecified ethnicity-Pichincha). The infusion is used to treat stomach conditions
such as stomachache (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas; Kichwa de la Sierra-
Imbabura). The leaves are prepared in laundry to treat pneumonia (Kichwa de la
Sierra-Imbabura). The leaves and the flower are used to treat the headache
(unspecified ethnic group –Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The infusion is
taken to cure the “bad wind” (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura) (de la Torre et al.
2008).
Peru: Leaves and stems are used fresh for colic, gases, parasites in the stomach,
stomach ache, heart, nerves, diarrhea (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b,
2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013). One of the most commonly sold medicinal
plant in Northern Peruvian markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008, 2009;
Revene et al. 2008). Often used in mixture with other species (Bussmann et al.
2010a). Minthostachys has shown antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2010b,
2011a, b).

Local Food Uses
Ecuador: The leaves are used to prepare aromatic waters (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Cotopaxi; Mestiza, Unspecified Ethnicity – Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The
leaves serve as a context (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo, Others (Andean
Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Ecuador: Bees visit the flowers of this species (unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de La
Torre et al. 2008). The leaves are used to extract essences to make ointments and, dry
and pulverized, they are used as dentifrice (Mestizo-Tungurahua, Pichincha, Coto-
paxi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Fumigation with the dried plant and mint purify the air
and drive away rats and other animals (Mestizo-Tungurahua, Pichincha, Cotopaxi)
(de la Torre et al. 2008) and scare away fleas and other bugs (Mestizo-Tungurahua,
Pichincha, Cotopaxi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Used in Peru to treat bad air/mal aire
and freight/susto (Monigatti et al. 2013).


References
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008;6:351–61.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
(2):450–64.
Momordica charantia L.
CUCURBITACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Momordica charantia L.: Cucumis argyri H. Lév.; Momordica charantia

fo. abbreviata (Ser.) W.J. de Wilde; Momordica charantia var. abbreviata Ser.;
Momordica charantia var. longirostrata Cogn.; Momordica chinensis Spreng.;
Momordica elegans Salisb.; Momordica indica L.; Momordica muricata Willd.;
Momordica operculata Vell.; Momordica sinensis Spreng.; Sicyos faurei H. Lév.
La Paz, Bolivia
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Colombia: Balsamina, Bocado de culebra, Subicogé Maravilla, Subicogén,

Balsamina, Bejuco de coje, Cundeamor, Sibicoje, Sibicogén, Subicoje, Subicojén,
Soro, Pepinillo, Lagartilla, Bálsamo Mazano, Balsamira, Jurula, Sorosí, Kokoulí,
Pomme coulí, Asorosi, Calaica (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Lu
kinto (Tsafi’ki), Achojcha de monte, Achojchilla, Achojchillo colorado, Betilla,
Largatilla, Sorosí (Spanish), Bitter gourd (English) (de La Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Balsamina
Botany and Ecology
Herbaceous plant of short life, climber. Stem very long, covered with hairs. Leaves
alternating, thin, with 5 to 7 lobes, these with the apex obtuse or acute, with the
margin sometimes serrated, sometimes with long hairs. Inflorescence with male
flowers solitary or grouped on a peduncle that, towards the middle or at the base,
presents ovate and cordate bracts at the base; the solitary female flowers. Sepals
5 little evident; corolla with a very short tube and a very broad limb divided into
5 segments, yellow; in male flowers 3 stamens; the female flowers with inferior
ovary, stigmas 3. Fruit ovoid, with the surface covered by warts or tubers, yellow-
gold, opening explosively. Seeds elliptical, flat (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
Colombia: Momordica is used in Colombia as antidiabetic, antiparasitic, promoter

of menstruation, anthelmintic, antifungal, antirheumatic, against arterial hyperten-
sion, malaria, intestinal gas, colic, to activate the production of bile, and lower fever.
It is also used in cases of stones of any type, yellowish skin, intense vaginal
discharge, and pneumonia. The infusion of the whole plant is used in the treatment
of scabies and itching of the skin. The fruit is traditionally used as a laxative, to
promote menstruation, against intestinal worms and for the treatment of anorexia,
asthma, bronchitis, diabetes, painful menstruation, and rheumatism. The cooked
fruits are used as an emetic. Mature fruits are also used in the treatment of stomach
ulcers and applied externally as a poultice are useful for wound healing. Prepared in
the form of jelly or syrup, it is used against fever and malaria (Ministerio de
Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The whole plant is used to treat
hemorrhoids, hyperglycemia, and diabetes; stems and leaves are used to treat
constipation, indigestion, as emmenagogue and vermifuge; stems, leaves, flowers,
and fruits used for good luck, witchcraft, and to treat venereal diseases; fruits used to
treat fever, hemorrhage, malaria, and as vomitive (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador:
The leaves, in infusion, are used to treat people suffering from diabetes (Mestiza-
Manabí; unspecified ethnicity – Others (Costa Region)) (de La Torre et al. 2008).
Momordica charantia L. 1233
The species is sometimes sold in markets in Peru, but not used frequently
In India, Momordica serves as anthelmintic, purgative, for diabetes, eczema, as
laxative, to treat malaria, edema, rheumatism, and sores (Verma et al. 2007). In
Madagascar, the leaves are used to treat malaria (Rakotoarivelo et al. 2015).
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: The fruit is edible, and the seeds are sucked (Secoya-Sucumbíos; Mestiza-
Manabí, Guayas; Unspecified ethnic group – Others (Costa Region)) (de La Torre
et al. 2008).
In Africa, the species is used to improve the quality of drinking water (Njoroge
and Bussmann 2006).
Ecuador: The fruit is food for iguanas and birds (Tsa’chi-Pichincha; unspecified
ethnic group – Guayas). The plant is used as animal fodder (Mestizo, unspecified
Ethnicity – Manabi) (de La Torre et al. 2008).
References
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
2006;108:332–9.
Morus alba L.
MORACEAE
Synonyms
Morus alba L.: Morus alba var. tatarica (L.) Ser.; Morus atropurpurea Roxb.;
Morus australis Poir.; Morus indica L.; Morus intermedia Perr.; Morus multicaulis
Perr.; Morus tatarica L.
Local Names
Spanish: Morera; English: Mulberry
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Tree, 15–20 m tall, branches grayish-brown; leaves ovate, truncate or rounded or

subcordate at base, acute at apex, on young shoots mostly undivided, on fruiting and
annotinous branches lobed or sinuate, crenate-dentate with rounded teeth, thin, soft,
mostly glabrous; fruiting perianth light-colored, glabrous outside; stigma papillose,
not villous; fruit white (var. vulgaris Bureau) or purple-black (var. tatarica
Seringe ¼ Morus tatarica Pall.). Flowering April–June. Often cultivated, along
rivers and lakes, forests, up to 1500 m above sea level (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Fig. 1 Morus alba

(Moraceae), Tbilisi, Georgia.
Fig. 2 Morus alba

Morus alba L. 1237
Fig. 3 Morus alba

Phytochemistry
Triterpenoids (betulic acid), steroids (sitosterol), vitamins (B1, B2, C, E), flavonoids
(malberrine, cyclomalberrine), phenols (resorcine), tannins, flavonoids (kaempferol,
quercetine, rutin), steroids (sistosterol), organic acids (oxalic, tartaric, lemon, amber,
apple), fatty acids (enanthic, myristic, palmitosine, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic).
Peru: Leaves and stems, fresh or dried, used to treat diabetes (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011). Mulberry is sold
widely in Northern Peru (Bussmann et al. 2007). The leaves have antibacterial
activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2011). The latex is used to treat toothache (Monigatti
et al. 2013). In Madagascar used for urine retention, stomachache (Rabearivony
et al. 2015), and anorexia (Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015). In India applied
for jaundice (Raj et al. 2018). The species is also used in Pakistan for cough,
constipation, hepatic ulcers, tonsils, snake bite, hypoglycemia, sore throat, asthma,
flu, aerodontalgia, constipation, as vermifuge, and as carminative (Umair et al.
2019).
Local Food Uses
Widely used as food (Figs. 4, 5, and 6).

Fig. 4 Morus alba

(Moraceae), harvest, Adjara,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 5 Morus alba

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Morus alba L. 1239
Fig. 6 Morus alba

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B, Somogy S, Guardado G,
Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Proving that Traditional Knowledge works -
The Antibacterial activity of Northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl.
2011;9:67–96.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
(2):450–64.

018-0208-9.
2015;11:60.
10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4.
Moschopsis monocephala (Phil.) Reiche
CALYCERACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Moschopsis monocephala (Phil.) Reiche: Boopis monocephala Phil.
Local Names
Chile: Comida del suri, Botón, Pasto de vicua, Wajilla, Waje, Baji, Patiperro, Mano
de perro, Anukaylla, Tanitani
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Moschopsis
monocephala (Calyceraceae),
Botany and Ecology
Annual herb, subacaule. Leaves leathery, spatulate-orbicular, cretate-spinulous mar-

gin, 3–4 1–2 cm. Solitary, sessile head, 25–30 mm in diameter. Upper leaves
surrounding the capitules, without forming a defined, whole involucre,
10–12 8 mm. Involucral bracts linear, free, uninerved, 8–10 mm. Calyx
2–3 mm, obtuse lobes. Corolla 5–6 mm, narrow tube at the base, pentadentate
limb. Style filiform, excerted, cylindrical-prismatic 3–4 mm, acute lobes.
4000–5000 m anove sea level (Peñaloza et al. 2013) (Fig. 1).
Infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment of heart and kidney diseases. The
infusion of the root is used to relieve the pain of bones and to cure cough (Peñaloza
Forage use (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Moschopsis monocephala (Phil.) Reiche 1243
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Muehlenbeckia volcanica (Benth.) Endl.
POLYGONACEAE
Synonyms
Muehlenbeckia volcanica (Benth.) Endl.: Calacinum volcanicum (Benth.)

J.F. Macbr.; Muehlenbeckia rupestris var. nivalis Wedd.; Muehlenbeckia rupestris
Wedd.; Muehlenbeckia vulcanica Meisn.; Polygonum rupestre (Wedd.) Kuntze;
Polygonum volcanicum Benth.; Sarcogonum volcanicum (Benth.) Rusby
Local Names
Bolivia: Muñak’a (Aymara) (Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al.
2016); Ecuador: Warmi mullintimi (Kichwa), Mollantin (unspecified language)
(de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Mullaca.
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Plants depressed and forming small, dense mats, or sometimes ascending, the
branches usually 30 cm. long or less, woody, glabrous throughout; ocreae small
and soon deciduous; leaves subsessile, fleshy-coriaceous, mostly rhombic-elliptic,
acute or obtuse, cuneate attenuate at the base, mostly 7–14 mm. long;
flowers small, green, fasciculate in the upper leaf axils, short-pedicellate;
achene enclosed in the perianth (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Bolivia: The whole plant is used to treat gallbladder, for slimming, prolapse
of the uterus, fever, rheumatism, and as laxative (Justo Chipana
and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016). Ecuador: The infusion of the
leaves is taken to treat inflammations. The fruit is used to treat the holland
(disease caused by a virus) (unspecified ethnic group – Carchi) (de la Torre et al.
2008).
Fig. 1 Muehlenbeckia volcanica (Polygionaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Muehlenbeckia volcanica (Benth.) Endl. 1247
Fig. 2 Muehlenbeckia
volcanica (Polygionaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 3 Muehlenbeckia volcanica (Polygionaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Peru: Muehlenbeckia thamnifolia is said to treat arthritis, bone pain, rheumatism,

as sleep aid, and to treat cancer (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b;
Bussmann and Glenn 2010, 2011a). Often part of herbal mixtures (Bussmann
et al. 2010). Shows antibacterial properties (Bussmann and Glenn 2011b).
R.W. Bussmann and
R.W. Bussmann and
Muehlenbeckia volcanica (Benth.) Endl. 1249
R.W. Bussmann and
References
9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Mutisia acuminata Ruiz & Pav.
Mutisia hamata Reiche
Mutisia lanigera Wedd.
Mutisia orbygniana Wedd.
ASTERACEAE
Synonyms
Mutisia acuminata Ruiz & Pav.: Mutisia acuminata var. paucijuga (Grieseb.)
Cabrera; Mutisia candolleana Gardner; Mutisia hirsuta Meyen; Mutisia
peduncularis Cav.; Mutisia vicifolia Cav.; Mutisia vicifolia fo. intermedia Cuatrec.;
Mutisia vicifolia var. candolleana (Gardner) Wedd.; Mutisia vicifolia var. hirsuta
(Meyen) Wedd.; Mutisia vicifolia var. paucijuga Grieseb.
Mutisia hamata Reiche: Mutisia microphylla Phil., Mutisia microphylla Willd. ex
DC.; Mutisia philippi R.E. Fr.
Local Names
Mutisia acuminata: Bolivia: Chinchircoma (Bussmann et al. 2018).

Mutisia hamata: Chile: Chinchirkuma, Chinchirkoma, Chuchurkoma,
Chinchirkoma hembra, Chinchirkoma de cerro, Pinawa, Copihue, Clavel del
campo, Chinkachinka, Orkjo-orqjo
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Mutisia lanigera: Chile: Chinchirkuma, Chinchirkoma, Chinchinrkoma macho,

Chinkachinka, Wichakaña
Mutisia orbignyana: Bolivia: Muthu muthu, Kutu kutu (Bussmann et al. 2018)
Botany and Ecology
Mutisia acuminata: Shrub, 0–150 cm high, densely branched, branches pubescent.

Leaves opposite, sessile; blades ellipticlanceolate, 6–28 mm long, 3–8.5 mm wide,
coriaceous, apically mucronate, the adaxial surfaces lustrous, the abaxial surfaces
sericeous, uninerved, the margins entire, incrassate. Capitulae as solitary, terminal
heads. Capitula with involucres campanulate, 28–45 mm high, 15–30 mm wide;
phyllaries 6–7-seriate, orange-yellowish, the outer triangular-ovate, 4–6 mm long,
ca. 4 mm wide, the inner linear-lanceolate, 27–33 mm long, 2–2.5 mm wide,
sericeous, spinulose, abaxial surfaces pubescent; florets 2045, the corollas yellow,
17–23 mm long, the tube 5–7 mm long, 1.6–2 mm wide, pubescent, the lobes
11.5–16 mm long, acute, abaxial surfaces pubescent; anthers 10.5–15 mm long;
styles 25–33 mm long, red-orange. Achenes 3–4 mm long, 1.8–2.2 mm wide,
densely pubescent, brunneous; pappus of 17–18 bristles, brunneous, 14–18 mm
long. Endemic to the jalca formations of northern Peru from 3200–4600 m (Mac-
bride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Mutisia hamata: Small vine, but it can reach up to 2 m in diameter; Slender, pubescent,
wavy, and climbing stems. Pinnatisect leaves between 4 and 6 cm long, alternate,
glabrous on the bundle and tomentose on the underside, formed by 8–10 pairs of
segments, opposite or semiopuestos, linear, arched, or mucronados. Terminal inflores-
cences in solitary chapters; Involves flared up to 3 cm long, with 5–6 sets of bracts.
Marginal flowers, 10–13 per capitule, long reddish-colored ligules; central, yellow,
bilabiate flowers. Fruit: cylindrical achene; long light-colored vilane. 2500–4500 m
above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 5, 6, and 7).
Mutisia lanigera: Sufruticose prostrate herb, branched, glabrous branches. Leaves
simple, sessile, lanceolate, 35–60 mm long, margins of the toothed basal portion,
with between 6 and 8 pairs of teeth, glabrous, apically rounded. Terminal inflores-
cences in solitary chapters; peduncles 5–15 mm long, lanuginous; bell-shaped
involvements, 25–40 mm long; filarias 5–7-serial, the external ones ovate,
3–6 mm long, apically recurved, the internal lanceolate to oblong, 25–28 mm
long, lanuginous. Dimorphic florets; corollas orange, pistillate, ligulate; elliptical,
tridentate ligule, 12–15 mm long. Fruit: cylindrical achene, glabrous; vilano up to
20 mm long. 3500–4500 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Mutisia orbygniana: Shrub, erect, 1–2 m high, densely branched, branches gla-
brous. Leaves simple, sessile; blades linear-lanceolate, 35–70 mm long, 4–8 mm
wide, acute, attenuate at base, glabrous, the margins entire. Capitulae with solitary,
terminal heads, subsessile. Capitula discoid; involucres turbinate, 25–30 mm high,
7–10 mm wide; phyllaries 4–5-seriate, reddish, glabrous, the outer ovate, 5–10 mm
long, apically linear, the inner oblong-lanceolate, 30–35 mm long, 3.5–4.5 mm wide,
mucronate; florets 5–8, isomorphic, orange, the corolla bilabiate, the tube 10–12 mm
Mutisia acuminata Ruiz & Pav. . . . 1253
Fig. 1 Mutisia acuminata

long, the outer lip 4-dentate, apically lanuginose, the inner lip linear. Achenes
cylindric, costate, glabrous, 4–5 mm long; pappus 17–18 mm long. Known from
southern Peru to Bolivia and northern Argentina from 3400 to 4000 m (Macbride
Mutisia acuminata: Bolivia: Fresh stems and leaves are used to treat bone pain,
epilepsy, headache, dizziness, nausea, kidneys inflammation, prostate, and as
anthelminthic (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo and Moraes 2015; Macía et al. 2005).
Mutisia hamata: Chile: Used to stop hemorrhages caused by childbirth and men-
struation. Remedy for cough (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Mutisia lanigera: Chile: It is a good remedy for pain, taking the leaf as tea
Mutisia orbignyana: Bolivia: Anti-inflammatory, hemorrhoids, goiter, rheumatism,
fractures, damage to the vertebral column (Muthu kata), abortion due to fetal death,
strong blows, against curses, black mesa (offering), and lightning stroke (Bussmann
et al. 2016; Justo and Moraes 2015; Macía et al. 2005).


Local Food Uses
Mutisia lanigera: The nectar is eaten (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al.

Fig. 5 Mutisia hamata (Asteraceae), Rio Grande, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)
Mutisia hamata: It is good forage for the lambs (González and Molina 2017;
Mutisia lanigera: Ceremonial use (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al.
Fig. 6 Mutisia hamata

(Asteraceae), Rio Grande,
Señoret)
Fig. 7 Mutisia hamata (Asteraceae), Rio Grande, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)
Fig. 8 Mutisia
sp. (Asteraceae), Colca, Peru.
References
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Ecología en Bolivia; 2015;50(2):66–90.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Myrcianthes discolor (Kunth) McVaugh
Myrcianthes fragrans (Kunth) McVaugh
Myrcianthes hallii (O. Berg.) McVaugh
MYRTACEAE
Synonyms
Myrcianthes discolor (Kunth) McVaugh: Eugenia discolor (Kunth) DC;

Myrcianthes gracillipes Kausel; Myrtus bicolor Kunth; Myrtus discolor Kunth
Myrcianthes fragrans (Kunth) McVaugh: Amyrsia compressa (Kunth) Kausel;
Amyrsia limbata (Kunth) Kausel; Anamomis fragrans (Sw.) Grieseb.; Anamonis
punctata (Vahl) Grieseb.; Eugenia aromatica O. Berg.; Eugenia balbisiana (DC.)
O. Berg.; Eugenia compressa (Kunth) DC.; Eugenia fajardensis (Krug & Urbn.)
Urb.; Eugenia fragrans (Sw.) Willd.; Eugenia fragrans var. brachyrhiza Kryg.
(Urb.); Eugenia fragrans var. fajardensis Krug & Urb.; Eugenia limbata (Kunth)
DC.; Eugenia lopziana Ant. Molina; Eugenia opunctata Vahl.; Eugenia rondonensis
Steyerm.; Eugenia steyermarkii Standl.; Eugenia triflora Sessé & Moc.; Eugenia
turumiquirensis Steyerm.; Myrica balbosiana DC.; Myrica seleriana Donn. Sm.;
Myrcianthes compressa (Kunth) McVaugh; Myrcianthes fragrans (Sw.) Mc. Vaugh
var. fragrans; Myrcianthes fragrans var. hispidula McVaugh; Myrcianthes limbata
(Kunth) McVaugh; Myrtus compressa Kunth; Myrtus fragrans Ruiz ex O. Berg;
Myrtus fragrans Sw.; Myrtus limbarta Kunth;
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Myrcianthes hallii (O. Berg.) McVaugh: Amyrsia hallii (O. Berg) Kausel; Eugenia
hallii O. Berg
Local Names
Peru: Lanche, Mirto
Botany and Ecology
Myrcianthes discolor: Shrub up to 2 m high, completely glabrous except the very

youngest leaves which are sparingly strigose, the ciliate petals and calyx-lobes, the
bristly stamen-ring and the appressed-pubescent inner surface of the calyx-lobes;
leaves mostly elliptic, varying to ovate or obovate, 1.5–3.5 cm wide, 3–5 cm long,
1.5–2 times as long as wide; blades at tip acute or blunt or less often broadly short-
acuminate, at base rounded or subcuneate, the margins shortly decurrent on the stout
petiole 3–5 mm long; midvein impressed above, prominent beneath; lateral veins
10 pairs or fewer, somewhat raised on both surfaces, often obscure above in mature
leaves; marginal vein continuous, 1–2 mm from the margin, about equaling the
laterals and somewhat arched between them; leaves often brown in drying, the upper
surface smooth and markedly lustrous, sometimes sparingly impressed-punctate, the
lower surface paler and dull, somewhat gland-dotted; inflorescence a simple axillary
dichasium, consistently 3-flowered, drying green or brownish, rarely purplish;
peduncle slender, 1.5–3 ( 5) cm long, flattened distally, 1.5 ( 1.8) mm wide at
summit; terminal flower ebracteolate and sessile, the lateral ones bracteolate and on
slender divaricate bracteate pedicels (3–) 5–9 mm long; bracts and bracteoles
subulate or linear, 2–2.5 mm long, deciduous at anthesis or before, leaving promi-
nent auricle like scars; calyx-lobes 4, broadly rounded, strongly concave, about
2.5 mm wide, 2 mm long; disk flat, 3–3.5 mm wide, the center glabrous; style
glabrous, or sparingly hairy when young, 6–8 mm long; stamens about 90–100,
6–8 mm long; petals white, turning rose in age, broadly elliptic, ciliate,
4–4.5 mm long.
Myrcianthes fragrans: A tree or shrub with compressed branchlets, nearly glabrous,
the young shoots finely pale-strigose, the peduncles finely bristly-pubescent, the
petals and calyx-lobes ciliate; leaves obovate, up to 3 cm wide and 5 cm long, obtuse
or rounded at the tip, the base cuneate and the margins decurrent on the channeled
petiole 3–4 mm long; midvein impressed above, prominent beneath; lateral veins
10–12 pairs, rather inconspicuous, slightly elevated on both sides, more prominent
beneath; marginal vein about equaling the laterals and slightly arched between them,
1–1.5 mm from the margin; blades lustrous, smooth, and almost without apparent
glands above, dull and paler, and usually gland-dotted beneath; inflorescence an
axillary 3-flowered dichasium, the peduncle about 2.5 cm long, compressed, slender,
Myrcianthes discolor (Kunth) McVaugh. . . 1261
less than 1 mm wide near the summit, the lateral branches 1.5–3 mm long; bracts and
bracteoles fallen before anthesis; buds 3.5–4 mm long, glabrous, turbinate; [flowers
said to be the same size as those of M. discolor, therefore the style 6–8 mm long, the
disk 3–3.5 mm wide]; calyx glabrous, glandular-punctate (Kunth), the lobes
unequal, concave, suborbicular, about 2.5–3 mm wide; stamens about 175 (according
to Kunth); petals (Kunth) suborbicular, concave, glabrous, much longer than the
calyx; ovary (Kunth) bilocular, with about 15 centrally attached ovules in each
locule. A doubtful species, apparently collected by Bonpland only, which seems
closely related to Myrcianthes discolor but differs in having the leaves obovate and
cuneate and the peduncle minutely bristly.
Myrcianthes hallii: Shrub or tree to 8 m high, nearly glabrous; the branchlets, young
leaves, and inflorescence sometimes sparingly pale-strigose; hypanthium densely
pale-strigose; leaves sometimes approximate, ovate, or broadly elliptic, 0.8–2 cm
wide, 1.3–2.7 cm long, 1.3–1.8 times as long as wide; blades broadly and bluntly
short-acuminate to rounded or merely acute at tip, the base rounded and shortly
cuneate, the margins decurrent on the stout petiole 1.5–3 mm long; midvein
impressed above, slightly raised beneath; lateral veins 5–8 pairs, slightly raised on
both surfaces, or usually obscure; marginal vein obscure, about 1 mm from the
margin, arching between the laterals; leaves often browning in drying, the upper
surface smooth and markedly lustrous, the lower dull; glands apparent in young
leaves, but at maturity inconspicuous, often apparent beneath, the upper surface
sparingly impressed-punctate or smooth; inflorescence an axillary dichasium, regu-
larly 3-flowered, sometimes 1-flowered; peduncle (5–) 10–20 mm long, flattened
near the summit and there 1.5–2 mm wide; terminal flower ebracteolate and sessile,
the lateral ones bracteolate and on bracteate divaricate pedicels (1–) 2.5–4 mm long;
bracts and bracteoles usually deciduous before anthesis, leaving prominent auricle-
like scars at abscission, the bracteoles lanceolate, 2 mm long, acute; calyx-lobes
4, glabrous or nearly so without, appressed-pubescent within, ciliate, broadly
rounded to bluntly triangular, 3 mm long, 2.5–3 mm wide; disk 3 mm wide, with
depressed glabrous center, somewhat 4-angled, the staminal ring somewhat hairy;
style glabrous, 7–8.5 mm long; stamens about 50, up to 8–9 mm long; petals white,
elliptic, 5–6 mm long; ovary bilocular, the ovules 6–11 in each locule, attached
above the middle of the central axis and tending to be pendent; fruit purple, smooth
or nearly so, globose or oblate, about 1 cm in diameter, about 2-seeded; cotyledons
distinct, plano-convex; plumule present, small; radicle stout, accumbent, 2 mm long
All species are used in Peru as strengthening food, memory enhancer, cerebral
food, vitamins for the brain, for colds, inflammation, rheumatic pain, and
stomach and menstrual regulation (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b;
Fig. 1 Myrcianthes discolor

(Myrtaceae), Uchumarca,
Bussmann and Glenn 2011a, b). Often for sale in local markets (Bussmann et al.
2007). Antibacterial activity has been confirmed (Bussmann et al. 2009, 2010,
2011).
References
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds - the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Malca-G G, Perez-A F, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in Northern
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
2010;9(4):742–53.
Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc.
HALORAGACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc.: Enydria aquatica Vell., Myriophyllum

brasiliense Cambess., Myriophyllum proserpinacoides Gillies ex Hook. & Arn.
Local Names
Chile: Lima, Lima trencilla, Trencilima, Lima zarcillo, Wakalima, Llach’u, Lorom,
Aguasana, Tuputupum k’uchi
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
It is a herbaceous aquatic plant that can grow 2–5 m in length. The bluish-green
stems are stout. The numerous leaves of this plant are pinnately dissected and
arranged in whorls of four to six around the stem. They have both emergent and
submerged leaves. The emergent leaves can be up to 30 cm out of the water. They
measure 2–5 cm long and have 6–18 divisions per leaf. The submerged leaves are
1.5–3.5 cm long and have 20–30 divisions per leaf. The flowers are located axillary
to slightly modified leaves on the emergent inflorescences. They are positioned
between two bracts and measure 1.5 mm long. The flowers do not have petals but
have white sepals. Sea level to 2500 m (Crow and Hellquist 2000) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 1 Myriophyllum
aquaticum (Haloragaceae),
Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.
W: Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Myriophyllum
aquaticum (Haloragaceae),
Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.
W: Bussmann and
Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc. 1265
Local Food Uses
The stem is eaten as a salad (Crow and Hellquist 2000; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Forage use (Crow and Hellquist 2000; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
References
Crow GE, Hellquist CB. Aquatic and wetland plants of Northeastern North America, vol. 1. Mad-
ison: University of Wisconsin Press; 2000.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Myristica fragrans Houtt.
MYRISTICACEAE
Synonyms
Myristica fragrans Houtt.: Myristica aromatica Lam.; Myristica aromatica Sw.;

Myristica moschata Thunb.; Myristica officinalis L. f.; Myristica officinalis Mart.
Local Names
Bolivia: Nuez moscada (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2016); Ecuador: Nuez moscada
(Spanish); Peru: Nuez moscada, Ajonjoli (Spanish); English: Nutmeg
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Evergreen tree grows to 9–12(–20) m in tall with spreading branches. Flowers

cream-colored, up to 1 cm long. Fruits yellow, fleshy, 6–9 cm long, somewhat
similar in appearance to apricots. The ripe fruit splits to expose a single glossy
purple-brown ~2.5 cm nut enclosed by a scarlet aril. The seed, after its coat is
removed, is sold as nutmeg. The aril is sold as mace. Both nutmeg and mace were
well-known in Europe by the end of the twelfth century. One of the compounds in
nutmeg, myristicin, is structurally similar to kavain, the main psychoactive constit-
uent of kava (Piper methysticum), and in some Apiaceae like carrot (Daucus carota),
dill (Anethum graveolens), celery (Apium graveolens), and parsley (Petroselinum
crispum) and also in Piperaceae, e.g., black pepper (Piper nigrum).
Bolivia: Dry seeds are used to treat nerves (Bussmann et al. 2016). Ecuador: Dry
seeds are used to treat wounds (disinfection) (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and
Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Peru: Dry seeds used to treat nervous system, cough, colic, asthma, gases, as
vitamins, bronchitis, fertility, sexual potency, bone pain, and epilepsy (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b, c, 2011). Often
as admixture to other species (Bussmann et al. 2010a). Nutmeg is sold in markets
everywhere (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2016).
Local Food Uses
Nutmeg (often powdered) is used to flavor milk dishes, cakes, and punches; mace is
used in savory dishes, pickles, and ketchups.
Bolivia: Dry seeds are used to treat bad air (“mal aire”) (Bussmann et al. 2016).
Ecuador: Dry seeds are used to treat bad air/mal aire and sorcery (Béjar et al. 2001;
Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: Dry seeds are used to treat bad air/mal
aire (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010b).
References
Myristica fragrans Houtt. 1269
Rev Peru Biol. 2010b;17(2):331–46.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010b;4(9):580–629.
Myrosmodes nervosa (Kraenzl.) Novoa,
C. Vargas & Cisternas
ORCHIDACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Myrosmodes nervosa (Kraenzl.) Novoa, C. Vargas & Cisternas: Aa nervosa

(Kraenzl.) Schltr., Altensteinia nervosa Kraenzl.
Local Names
Chile: Wakapsike, Kolopsike, Pukupsike, Kolokolo, Lokoloko, Psikepsike
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Myrosmodes
sp. (Orchidaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Botany and Ecology
Plant with fleshy, fasciculate roots. Leaves forming a basal rosette, fleshy, spatulate
with the apex acute, base petiolate, blades 1–3 1–2 cm, whitish petiolate of
2–3.5 cm long 3–5 mm wide. Inflorescence lateral and andromonoecious with
short and accrescent peduncle, 8–12 cm long, covered by imbricating, hyaline, small
bracts. Floral bracts similar in length to the flowers but wider, covering them
completely. Flowers non-resupinate with male flowers developing first at the apical
part of the inflorescence and later hermaphroditic ones toward the base. Dorsal sepal
deltoid-panduriform, rounded, 4.5 mm long, 1.4 mm wide at the middle, 1.9 mm at
the base. Lateral sepals connate in their lower one-third, broadly linear and wider
toward the apex, obtuse, 5.6 1.8 mm. Petals narrowly linear, slightly narrower at
the middle, 4.4 0.4 mm. Lip broadly ovate, concave, greenish on the upper half
and white-hyaline in the rest, 6 4.3 mm, its apex densely covered by moniliform
hairs and with a triangular apical lobe 1.2 mm long; disc of the lip provided with
dendritic veining and presence of obscure basal calli on the dorsal side of the apex.
Column light green, hyaline at edges, 3.4 1.6 mm, stigma rectangular,
1.5 1.3 mm, almost half as long as the length of the column; rostellum shortly
notched, brown. Pollinia four. Ovary 8.3 3.4 mm. Sea level to 500 m (Novoa et al.
2015) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Myrosmodes nervosa (Kraenzl.) Novoa, C. Vargas & Cisternas 1273
Fig. 2 Myrosmodes
sp. (Orchidaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Local Food Uses
The aerial parts are eaten as a salad (Novoa et al. 2015; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
References
Novoa P, Vargas C, Cisternas MA. Myrosmodes nervosa (Orchidaceae, Cranichidinae, subgenus
Myrosmodes): nueva combinación de Myrosmodes para Chile. Gayana Bot. 2015;72(1):152–4.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms: Myrospermum toluiferum (A. Rich.) DC.;

Myroxylon balsamum var. punctatum (Klotzsch) Harms; Myroxylon punctatum
Klotzsch; Myroxylon toluiferum A. Rich.; Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms;
Toluifera balsamum L.
Local Names
Bolivia: Kina kina (Quechua) (Bussmann et al. 2016; Macía et al. 2005); Colombia:
Bálsamo de tolú, Bálsamo toluitano, Bálsamo, Bálsamo del Perú, Arbol del bálsamo,
Bálsamo, Estoraque, Guararo, Pidoquera, Tache, Tolú, Cereipo, Roble maría,
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Bálsamo de Tolú (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Bálsamo kara (Spanish-

Kichwa), Sesepëquësoquë (Pai coca), Yemenga tanoe (Wao tededo), Chikawinia
(Shuar chicham), Chikiáiniua, Kíp (Achuar chicham), Bálsamo, Bálsamo del Perú,
Corteza de bálsamo (Spanish), Isturaki (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al.
2008); Peru: Quina quina, Kina kina; English: Peru balsam
Botany and Ecology
Tree growing to 34 m tall and 1 m in diameter. Bark generally gray and spotted with
rough yellow areas. Leaves oddly pinnate, with 3–11 leaflets, 6–9 cm long and
3–4 cm wide with scattered translucent, glandular oil dots or lines. Flowers whitish,
corolla 5-petaled. Pods winged 8–13 cm long and 2.5 cm broad containing one seed
at the tip (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Bolivia: Exudate is used to treat earache (Macía et al. 2005). Colombia: Balsam
extract is used as expectorant in cough mixtures and as an inhalant for catarrh and
bronchitis. Peru balsam is used extensively as a local protectant, rubefacient, para-
siticide in certain skin diseases, and antiseptic and applied externally as an ointment
or in alcoholic solutions. It is sometimes used internally as an expectorant. The
Balsam de Tolú is used in Colombia as an expectorant and soothing in diseases of the
chest. It cures chronic bronchitis and is also used to treat venereal diseases (García
Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996; Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Exu-
date is used to treat bronchial diseases, to promote sweating, and as stimulant
(Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The bark is used to treat undetermined conditions
(Redwood-Succumbs) and fever, flu, headache, and cancer (Kichwa del Oriente-
Sucumbíos, Napo, Otros (Ecuadorian Amazon Region that borders the border of
Colombia and Peru)). The bark, in infusion, is used to treat stomach pain and fever
(Achuar-Pastaza). It treats indeterminate conditions (Mestiza-Manabí; unspecified
ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Burnt bark is used to ward off evil spirits
(unspecified ethnicity – Manabi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Seeds, dried, are
used for nervous system problems, epilepsy, and bronchitis (Bussmann and Glenn
2010; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b). Balsamo is for sale in many
local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). The antibacterial activity of the species has
been shown (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010b, 2011a, b). It is often used in mixtures
with other species (Bussmann et al. 2010a) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Local Food Uses
Balsam gum is used mainly as flavoring of cough syrups, soft drinks, confectionar-
ies, ice cream, and chewing gums.
Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms 1277
Fig. 1 Myroxylon balsamum

(Fabaceae), San Isidro, Lima,



Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms 1279

Balsam wood is used for flooring, furniture, cabinetwork, turnery, and railroad ties. It
is often grown as ornamental.
Ecuador: The leaves and fruits are food for animals (Wao-Orellana) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). From this plant the so-called balsam of Peru is extracted, a very aromatic
substance (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cañar). The stem is timber and is used in the
development of furniture and as poles, boards, and stringers in the construction of
houses (Mestiza-Guayas, El Oro, Morona Santiago; Kichwa de la Sierra-Cañar;
Cofán, Secoya, Kichwa del Oriente-Sucumbíos; Wao-Orellana; unspecified ethnic
group – Manabí, Orellana) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is used in agroforestry
trials (unspecified ethnic group – Orellana) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Seeds,
dried, are used for bad air/mal aire (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b;
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
2010b;9(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Nasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton
BRASSICACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Nasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton: Baeumerta nasturtium (Moench) G. Gaertn.,

B. Mey. & Scherb.; Baeumerta nasturtium-aquaticum (L.) Hayek; Cardamine
fontana Lam.; Cardamine nasturtium (Moench) Kuntze; Cardamine nasturtium-
aquaticum (L.) Borbás; Cardamine nasturtium Moench; Nasturtium fontanum
Asch.; Nasturtium nasturtium (Moench) Cockerell; Nasturtium nasturtium-
aquaticum (L.) H. Karst.; Nasturtium officinale var. rotundifolium A.P. Khokhr.;
Nasturtium siifolium Rchb.; Radicula nasturtium (Moench) Decne; Radicula nas-
turtium-aquaticum (L.) Britten & Rendle; Radicula officinalis (W.T. Aiton)
H. Groves; Rorippa nasturtium (Moench) Beck; Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum
(L.) Hayek; Rorippa officinalis (W.T. Aiton) P. Royen; Sisymbrium nasturtium
(Moench) Willd.; Sisymbrium nasturtium-aquaticum L.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Bolivia: Berro (Spanish); Colombia: Berros, Mastuerzo (Bussmann et al. 2018);

Ecuador: Berro, Berro negro, Ortiga negra (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008);
English: Watercress
Botany and Ecology
Perennial, glabrous herb, stems stout, hollow, ascending, and rooting, 10–60 cm
high; leaves pinnatisect, broad-petioled, with 2–7 pairs of oblong or ovate, more or
less emarginate-crenate lateral lobes, asymmetrical at the base, and a larger apical
lobe, round-ovate, undulate-dentate. Sepals 2–3 mm long; petals white, 4–5(6) mm
long; filaments violet; fruit linear, often slightly curved and compressed, (10)
15–20 mm long, 1.8–2.5 mm broad with a short fleshy style, and capitate slightly
2-lobed stigma; fruiting pedicels 10–20 mm long, horizontally spreading; seeds
biseriate, small, slightly alveolate, reddish brown, pleuro-rhizal. Watercress is native
to Europe and Western Asia and possibly also the highland regions of Ethiopia. It has
been introduced into many other tropical and temperate regions (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Bolivia: Fresh leaves are used to treat liver problems and anemia (Bussmann et al.
2016).
Colombia: In Colombia its medicinal use must be raw so that it does not lose its
diuretic, digestive, and tonic properties (Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga
1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The whole plant is used to treat anemia; fruits are used
for indigestion and liver problems and as diuretic (Bussmann et al. 2018).
Ecuador: Juice from the crushed plant or decoction of the leaves is used to treat
kidney conditions. The juice of the plant, with lemon, treats gallbladder and lung
conditions, acts as an expectorant, and in addition avoids dropsy (unspecified
ethnicity – Cañar). The juice of the plant is used to eliminate excess bile and to
stop bleeding and treats skin diseases (pimples), facial scars, and lung, kidney
(kidney stones), throat, liver, and chest conditions (Mestizo, ethnic group not
specified – Pichincha). It is used to treat iron deficiencies (Mestizo-Pichincha).
The juice of the plant is used to promote digestion and to treat liver conditions
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Bolívar). In infusion it is used to treat bleeding and liver and
kidney conditions (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). It is used medicinally,
and it contains a high amount of adrenaline (sic) (unspecified ethnic group – Loja)
(de la Torre et al. 2008). The juice of the plant, with lemon, is used to purify the
blood, liver, and gallbladder (Mestizo-Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity – Cañar). It
serves as a stimulant (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It is
used also to treat lung problems (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a,
2007a).
Nasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton 1283
Fig. 1 Nasturtium officinale

(Brassicaceae), Chicani,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Local Food Uses
Young shoots with leaves are used as a garnish and eaten raw in salads. Watercress is
also eaten as a cooked vegetable or made into watercress soups.
Bolivia: Fresh leaves are used in salads. Colombia: Fruits are used for food
(Bussmann et al. en prep.). Ecuador: The leaves and branches are edible; with
them salads and soups are prepared (Kichwa de la Sierra-Bolívar; unspecified
ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Chimborazo, Cañar, Loja; others (Andean
region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008). In Peru the species is used to remedy
liver problems, urine retention, bronchitis, kidney problems, inflammation of the
liver, inflammation of the kidneys, and anemia (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010; Monigatti et al. 2013). Berro has a
slight antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008a, 2010b, 2011a, b) and is often
sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008b; Revene et al. 2008) and
sometimes as admixture to other herbal preparations (Bussmann et al. 2010a).
In Pakistan it is used as antipyretic and to lower blood pressure (Sher et al. 2016).
Its use against hypertension has also been observed in Madagascar (Rabearivony
et al. 2015).
Nasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton 1285
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008b;6:351–61.
(4):742–53.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.

(2):450–64.
Neuontobotrys tarapacanus (Phil.)
Al-Shehbaz
BRASSICACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Neuontobotrys tarapacanus (Phil.) Al-Shehbaz: Arabis tarapacana Phil.,

Cardamine deserticola Phil., Neuontobotrys deserticola (Phil.) Al-Shehbaz,
Sisymbrium amplexicaule Desf., Sisymbrium amplexicaule Phil., Sisymbrium
intricatissimum (Phil.) Reiche, Sisymbrium intricatissimum var. berningeri
O.E. Schulz, Sisymbrium intricatissimum var. brachycarpum O.E. Schulz,
Sisymbrium philippianum I.M. Johnst., Sisymbrium tarapacanum Phil.
Local Names
Chile: Kamatokamata, Pasto de cabra
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Subshrubs, woody at base, rarely perennial herbs. Trichomes often a mixture of

simple, stalked forked, and dendritic, rarely absent or one type present. Stems erect
to ascending, few to many, woody at base, often many branched above. Basal leaves
absent; cauline leaves numerous, sessile, often fleshy and becoming leathery upon
drying, petiolate or sessile and auriculate or not at base, rarely sagittate or
amplexicaul, entire or coarsely dentate, rarely pinnatisect, reticulately veined.
Racemes several to many flowered, lax, ebracteate, corymbose, elongated consider-
ably in fruit; fruiting pedicels slender, strongly recurved or reflexed, rarely divaricate
or ascending and straight, persistent. Sepals oblong, free, deciduous, erect to ascend-
ing, subequal, margin not membranous; petals yellow drying reddish, rarely white or
pink, oblanceolate-linear, apex obtuse; claw slightly narrower than blade, glabrous;
stamens 6, erect, slightly tetradynamous; filaments glabrous, free, dilated at the base;
anthers linear or linear-oblong, apiculate or not at the apex; nectar glands confluent,
subtending bases of all stamens; ovules 20–70 per ovary. Fruit dehiscent siliques,
often short linear to linear-oblong, terete, unsegmented; valves thickened, leathery,
with a prominent midvein and obscure to distinct lateral veins, glabrous or pubes-
cent, smooth or rarely torulose; replum rounded; septum complete, veinless; style
obsolete or distinct and to 2.5 mm long; stigma capitate, entire, narrower or very
rarely wider than the style. Seeds uniseriate, wingless or rarely distally winged,
oblong to ovoid, plump, not mucilaginous when wetted; cotyledons incumbent.
1700–4600 m (Al-Shehbaz 2006).
The infusion of aerial parts is used for the treatment of rheumatism and inflammation
(Al-Shehbaz 2006; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Forage use (Al-Shehbaz 2006; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
References
Al-Shehbaz IA. The genus Sisymbrium in South America, with synopses of the genera
Chilocardamum, Mostacillastrum, Neuontobotrys, and Polypsecadium (Brassicaceae). Darwin.
2006:341–58.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Neurolaena lobata (L.) Cass.
ASTERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Neurolaena lobata (L.) Cass.: Calea lobata (L.) Sw.; Calea suriani Cass.; Conyza
lobata L.; Conyza symphytifolia Mill.; Critonia chrysocephalum (Klatt) R.M. King.
& H. Rob.; Eupatorium chrysocephalum Klatt; Eupatorium valverdeanum Klatt;
Neurolaena fulva B.L. Turner; Neurolaena integrifolia Cass.; Neurolaena lobata
var. indivisa Donn. Sm.; Neurolaena suriani (Cass.) Cass.; Pluchea symphytifolia
(Mill.) Gillis
La Paz, Bolivia
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Colombia: Capitana, Contra, Contragavilana, Gavilana, Inaciabi, Indio viejo, Mano

del lagarto, Mano de tigre, Salvia gavilana, Tres puntas, Varejón blanco, Venadillo,
Wareara, Yerba de cáncer, Salvia gavilana, Gavilana, Venadillo (Chocó), Varejón
blanco, Mano de tigre, Capitana, Mano de lagarto, Tres puntas, Inaciabi, Wareara,
Contra; Ecuador: Na kantsa, Wa kantsa (tsafi’ki), O’tsi seje’pa, De’a ico (Pai coca),
Amargón, Capitana, Gavilana, Hierbita, Lagartijilla, Palo brujo, Samba, Tabaquillo,
Tres dedos (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008)
Botany and Ecology
Robust annual or short-lived perennial herb, 0.5–4.0 m high, stems moderately to

densely short-pubescent. Leaves short-petioled to subsessile, blades 10–20 cm long,
2–15 cm wide, lanceolate to oblong-ovate, acuminate at each end, coarsely dentate
to serrate and usually 1–3-lobed, the uppermost leaves rarely entire, pinnately veined
and strongly reticulate, scabrous above, densely short-pubescent beneath, numerous,
involucre up to 57 mm long, 46 mm wide, bracts mostly oblong in 3–4 series,
rounded or broadly obtuse at the apex, puberulent, receptacle convex to hemispheric,
about as wide (1.5 mm) as tall. Corolla yellow, 4–5 mm long, tube 23 mm long, the
throat enlarged, subcylindric, 1.5–2.0 mm long, variously pubescent especially
along the upper-half, with peculiar, terminally forked, very short, twin-celled,
hairs; pappus of 30–40, whitish bristles, 3–5 mm long. Wide-ranging weedy species
mostly of lower, montane habitats. Occurring throughout much of northwestern
South America, through Central America into Southern Mexico, and throughout
most of the Caribbean Islands (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
In the Eastern Plains of Colombia, used as decoction or poultice to treat snakebites;

it is considered as an antiophidic. Its most common use is as an antidote for snake
bites in the form of poultices of the fresh plant on the wound or bite as well as by
taking the juice or decoction of the leaves. It is also used to treat cancer (García
Barriga 1975).
Ecuador: The stem, leaves, and flowers, infused with honey, are used as stomach
stimulants and to treat flu, kidney conditions, and headache. The infusion of the
leaves is drunk to treat bile vomiting and liver disorders (Mestiza-Pichincha). The
juice of the ground plant or the infusion of the leaves is used to treat malaria (Awa,
Afroecuatoriana-Esmeraldas; Mestiza-Pichincha). The whole plant is used to treat
skin pimples. Small wounds or cuts, throat inflammation, diabetes, and pneumonia
are treated with the macerated leaves. Macerated leaves are used to combat fungal
rash (Tsa’chi-Pichincha). The plant is used to bathe animals with “eutecado” disease
(sic). It serves as a febrifuge (unspecified ethnicity – Manabi). The leaves are used as
Neurolaena lobata (L.) Cass. 1291
a remedy for carate (white spots on the skin): they are crushed and rubbed on the
affected part (Redwood-Succumbs). The leaves treat indeterminate conditions
(Awa-Esmeraldas) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The juice is used to purify the blood
(Mestiza-Pichincha). The leaves are used as tobacco (unspecified ethnic group –
Manabi) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Other Uses
Ecuador: The leaves are used as animal fodder (unspecified ethnicity – Manabi).
The leaves serve as a human deodorant (unspecified ethnicity – Manabi) (de la Torre
et al. 2008).
References
Niphidium crassifolium (L.) Lellinger
Phlebodium decumanum (Willd.) J. Sm.
POLYPODIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Niphidium crassifolium (L.) Lellinger: Anaxetum crassifolium (L.) Schott;

Pessopteris crassifolia (L.) Underw. & Maxon; Pleopeltis crassifolia (L.)
T. Moore.; Polypodium crassifolium L.
Phlebodium decumanum (Willd.) J. Sm.: Chrysopteris decumana (Willd.) Fée;
Chrysopteris dictyocallis Fée; Phlebodium multiseriale Moore & Houlston; Poly-
podium decumanum Willd; Polypodium leucatomos Poir.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero
e-mail: Carolina.Romero@mobot.org; romero.carito@gmail.com

Local Names
Niphidium crassifolium: Colombia: Maiku jat; Ecuador: I’shan ta’pe (Tsafi’ki),

Atsak (Kichwa), Warmi calaguala (Spanish-Kichwa), Calaguala, Calaguala hembra
(castSpanishellano), Batacallo (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru:
Lengua de ciervo, Lengua de servio, Calaguala, Lengua de ciervo (Spanish)
Phlebodium decumanum: Colombia, Ecuador: Calaguala
Botany and Ecology
Niphidium crassifolium: Rhizomes short-creeping, 7–10 mm in diameter, rhizome

scales 5–7 1.5–2 mm, clathrate, margins membranous, pale, entire; fronds
35–125 cm long, clumped; stipes absent to 30 cm long; blades narrowly elliptic to
oblanceolate, bases gradually narrowed, apices acuminate, 4.5–11( 14) cm wide,
glabrous, coriaceous, rachises with a few scattered scales 2–3 mm long; main lateral
veins prominent to blade margins, minor veins netted, cross-veins obscure; sori
large, round, mostly ca. 3(2–5) mm diameter, solitary in major areoles, forming
single rows of 6–10 sori between main veins; sporangia setose, with several short
hairs per sporangium, paraphyses usually common among sporangia (Macbride and
Phlebodium decumanum: Long crawling rhizome, robust, slightly branched about
6 mm diameter, thick scaly; reddish-brown scales, unclatrate, pseudopelled, sub-
cordate, attenuated and accumulated, ciliated, rhizomatic scales proper
8.5–13 2.5 mm and scales 11–18 (20) 2–3.5 mm phyllopodiae. Fronds
heteroblastic, sometimes pruinous, up to 1 m long; 10 mm diameter philopod,
covered with scales, petiole 50–58 cm long, brown, sublustrous, glabrous; sheet
pinnatipartide, ovate contour, chartaceous, glabrous; segments in variable number,
oblong-linear, arranged obliquely towards the apex, which is acute, sometimes
contracted base, basal segments of 22 1.6 cm, middle segments of 27 3 cm.
Venation reticulated, with a row of ribs 10–12 times longer than wide, larger areoles
more wide than long, arranged in 2(3) rows, by exception only in 1 row, minor
marginal areolae, with 1–2 veins; adaxially canaliculated coast, cupula semiterete.
Epiphyte hydatodes, usually with white CaCO3 inserts. Sori circular, reddish-brown,
2(3) serial sori.
Niphidium crassifolium: In Colombia, hot plasters of the inner bark of the rhizomes
are applied on snake bites as anti-ophidic and are also used as hemostatic and anti-
inflammatory in the treatment of wounds. In decoction, the rhizome acts as a diuretic
and also against intestinal parasites. The fresh leaves (fronds) to which the epidermis
has previously been removed and then have been macerated are used to treat
abscesses; additionally, leaf infusion is used to relieve lung diseases and jaundice
Niphidium crassifolium (L.) Lellinger . . . 1295
Fig. 1 Niphidium
crassifolium (Polypodiaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Polypodium
pycnocarpum
(Polypodiaceae), Uchumarca,
Fig. 3 Polypodium
pycnocarpum
(Polypodiaceae), Uchumarca,
(Bernal et al. 2011). Ecuador: It is used in baths to reduce fever (Tsa’chi-Pichincha).

With the infusion of the rhizome, liver and kidney conditions are treated (Kichwa of
the Sierra-Imbabura; Mestizo – unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha; Kichwa of the
East-Pastaza). The plant is used to treat cancer (Mestizo-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al.
2008).
Peru: Fresh stems are used to treat inflammation of the kidneys, prostate, bladder,
internal inflammation, inflammation, liver, and ulcers (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010, 2011). Niphidium has shown anti-
bacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008a, 2010b, 2011b, c) and is widely sold in
many markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008b, 2009). Sometimes the species is used
together with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010c).
Phlebodium decumanum. In Colombia, the liquid extracted from the leaves
(fronds) is used to treat the symptoms of syphilis and the infusion of the same
relieves the pains of the bones (Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In the Eastern Plains of
Colombia, the decoction was used for poultices to cure the bites of snake, and it is
considered as an antiophidic. Its most common use is as an antidote for snake bites in
the form of poultices of the fresh plant on the wound or bite as well as taking the
juice or decoction of the leaves. It is also used to treat cancer (García Barriga 1975).
Ecuador: Fresh root is used to treat kidney infection (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann
Local Food Uses
Polypodium roots are sweet and are often eaten, e.g., in the Caucasus (Bussmann
et al. 2016, 2018).
Niphidium crassifolium: Ecuador: The plant is used as fodder, especially for

guinea pigs (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It is used in
refreshing baths (Tsa’chi-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
Niphidium crassifolium (L.) Lellinger . . . 1297
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008b;6:351–61.
(4):742–53.
northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011b;9:67–96.
in Northern Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011c;137:121–40.
016-0110-2.
Nostoc sp.
NOSTOCACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Local Names
Bolivia, Peru: Yuyo; Chile: Chungullo, Chungulle, Chungullu, Murmunta, Laita,

Luche, Ucha, Chukula, Yullucha, Acholla, Yoyo
Botany and Ecology
Blue-green algae 20–60 mm which forms colonies of membranous texture, leathery,

olive green to greenish or yellowish brown, enveloped by a firm outer layer. They are
formed by numerous trichomes embedded in a mucilaginous matrix. The filaments
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

are formed by a cellular trichome surrounded by a sheath; the pod is only visible on
the outside of the filaments of the colony, yellowish and thick brown, often
lamellated.
Local Food Uses
Nostoc sp. is fried and cooked for salads, stews, casseroles (broth with “chuño”
potatoes) or stews with noodles and rice (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003). It is widely eaten in Bolivia and Peru (Bussmann et al. 2007).
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Nototriche clandestina (Phil.) A.W. Hill
Nototriche estipulata A.W. Hill ex B.L. Burtt
Nototriche parviflora A.W. Hill
MALVACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Local Names
Nototriche clandestina: Bolivia, Chile: Altea

Nototriche estipulata: Chile: Oqelatalata, Oqelata, Tanitani, Tej’etej’e, Psike de
cordillera
Nototriche parviflora: Chile: Layo
Botany and Ecology
Nototriche clandestina: Perennial herb. Leaves densely grouped, yellow-tomentose.

Petiole about 9 mm. Stipules unequally joined up to the middle of the petiole, sheath
of 2 mm, free part of 4–7 mm, floppy, back and margins with woolly hairs.
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Spatulated, whole, rare, somewhat lobed or crenate, 3–4 3–5 mm, fleshy, both
sides densely covered by stellate hairs. Axillary flowers, located at the base of the
petiole. Tomentose chalice, with triangular-ovate lobes, 7–11 mm, velours, glabrous
interior. White corolla, approximately 1 cm. Fruit consisting of around 10 mericarps,
up to 8 mm, with two edges, covered with long starry hairs, 3000–5100 m above sea
level (Peñaloza et al. 2013) (Fig. 1).
Nototriche estipulata: Perennial herb with stems up to 15 cm long, thick, dense
leaves at apex. Leaves without stipules, or stipules deciduous, petioles about 1 cm
long, margin and back with stellate hairs. Leaf 2–3 4–6 mm, lobes 6–9, short,
glabrous apex, dark brown, fleshy, both star-hairy faces. Flowers in petiole of 2 mm
on the base, subsessile. Chalice 8 mm long, hairy star, tube 5–6 mm long, lobes
2–3 mm long, fleshy apex. Star-shaped corolla, tube 4.5 mm long, petals sub-
oblicuos, obovate 3–4 1.5–2 mm. Staminal tube 1.5 mm long. Immature carpels,
rostrados, face and back with long sericeous hairs, 3000–4700 m above sea level
(Peñaloza et al. 2013).
Nototriche parviflora: Perennial herb. Leaves dense, imbricate, gray-green, petiolate,
reniform, 5 mm wide, trifid, segments lobate, sparsely tomentose, flowers 3–4 mm long,
petals obovate, 4100–5000 m above sea level (Peñaloza et al. 2013) (Fig. 2).
Nototriche clandestina: The root is used for the treatment of cough and stomach
pain (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). In
Bolivia, it is used for respiratory disorders (Bussmann et al. 2016).
Nototriche parviflora: The infusion of the aerial parts is used to relieve cough
Fig. 1 Nototriche
sp. (Malvaceae), Uchumarca,
cerro Kumulka, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Nototriche clandestina (Phil.) A.W. Hill. . . 1303
Fig. 2 Nototriche stipulata

(Malvaceae), Tocorpuri,
Señoret)
Local Food Uses
Nototriche clandestina: The root is edible, and it is sweet (Peñaloza et al. 2013;
Nototriche estipulata: The root is sweet and edible (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez
Nototriche parviflora: The root is sweet and edible (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán
and Castro 2003).
Nototriche clandestina: The plant is used as forage (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez
Nototriche estipulata: The plant is used as forage (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Ocimum basilicum L.
LAMIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Ocimum basilicum L.: Ocimum basilicum var. thyrsifolium (L.) Benth.; Ocimum
thyrsifolium L.
Local Names
Bolivia: Albaca (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2016a); Colombia: Albahaca, Albahaca

cimarrona, Albahaca blanca, Basilik, Fon bazin, Albahaca / Albahaca morada
(Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Albaca (Spanish), Yanchiki panka (Kichwa),
Aapar (Shuar chicham), Albahaca, Albahaca de comer, Albahaca de sal, Albahaca
negra, Pimpinela (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Albaca mistura, Albaca
Negra, Albaca, Albaca morada, Albahaca (coast) (Spanish); English: Basil
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Ocimum basilicum

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
Botany and Ecology
Annual herb; stem 20–60 cm long, 4-angled, glabrous at base, somewhat pubescent
above, green, reddish-tinged; leaves petiolate, ovate or oblong, cuneate at base,
slightly dentate, sparsely pubescent, often glabrous; calyx persistent, short-haired
outside, 5 mm long, 7 mm broad, in fruit 12 mm broad, 5-toothed, inflated-campan-
ulate, the uppermost tooth larger than others, rounded, concave, minutely point-
tipped, the others (especially the lower two) with a longer point, all often ciliate, with
longer setiform hairs inside at base; corolla deciduous, whitish-pink, 6–8 mm long,
greatly exceeding the calyx, the lower lip declined, entire, almost flat, the upper lip
with 4 fimbriate lobes; stamens 4, one pair exerted and declined; anthers ovoid-
reniform, with coalescent locules; nutlets dark brown, punctate, 2 mm long.
Flowering July–August. Widely cultivated (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Bolivia: Leaves and flowers are used for spiritual flowering (Bussmann et al. 2016).
Colombia: Administered orally, the cooking and infusion of this plant are used in
Colombia for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. The seeds are used as
Ocimum basilicum L. 1307

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 4 Ocimum basilicum (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann &
antiflatulent, against colics, spasms, and to promote digestion. It is also used in the
form of inhalations to treat catarrhal and bronchial affections; in infusion acts as a
sedative and diuretic. Extracting the juice of fresh leaves or making tamponcitos
with them and placing them in the ears, cure the earaches, suppurations, and
inflammations of the same. Basil in the form of infusion is given to children before
bedtime when they suffer from “bladder weakness” during sleep and thus prevent
bed-wetting. Inflammations of the small intestine can be improved by taking infu-
sions of this plant (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975;
Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Mini-
sterio de Protección Socia 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The whole plant is used to
treat bronchitis, respiratory tract, intestinal infections, indigestion, colitis;
bed-wetting, as analgesic, as tranquilizer, as diuretic, and for good luck; leaves are
used to treat flu, flatulence, urethral infections, rheumatism, nerves, high cholesterol,
hepatic stimulant, heart diseases, ear inflammation, arteriosclerosis, for strengthen-
ing vision, and as vermifuge; leaves and seeds used to treat otitis; leaves and flowers
used to treat urinary infection, headache, as emmenagogue, and as stimulant; fruits
used to treat conjunctivitis; seeds used to treat throat inflammations (Bussmann et al.
2018).
Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used during childbirth (Béjar et al. 2001;
Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The infusion of 5–10 leaves in a liter of
water is drunk to treat diarrhea (Kichwa del Oriente-Napo; unspecified ethnic
group – Morona Santiago). The infusion of the leaves and flowers, fresh or dried,
is used to treat rheumatism, nervous disorders, ear and stomach pain, and diarrhea
(Shuar-Napo). The infusion is used to treat chest pains, cloth, pimples, flatulence,
nervous and kidney conditions, and burning in the urinary tract (unspecified
ethnicity – Loja). Seeds and leaf juice are used to treat the “cloud” of the eyes.
The leaves and flowers, in cooking, are used to treat tumors, fever, colds, sore
throat, and headache and nervous conditions of the liver, stomach, and kidneys
(Mestizo, Unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). It serves as an antispasmodic,
stomach and carminative (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). It is used to
treat indeterminate conditions (Mestizo-Tungurahua) (from de la Torre et al.
2008). Peru: Basil is used to remedy insomnia, low blood pressure, to promote
dilation of the uterus, hasten delivery, colic, gases, preventing infections related to
birth, refreshing the womb, reducing inflammation after birth, and for cataracts and
eye problems (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and
Glenn 2010, 2011; Monigatti et al. 2013). Ocimum basilicum has antibacterial
activity (Bussmann et al. 2010a, 2011a, b). It is sold everywhere in local markets
and are widely produced (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2009). Sometimes admixture
to other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010b). In Kenya, the species serves for respira-
tory disorders (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a).
The genus Ocimum contains a number of other medicinally important species.
Ocimum gratissimum serves in Nepal to treat asthma and rheumatism and serves
as diuretic (Kunwar et al. 2012, 2015). In Kenya, the species is used for respiratory
problems (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a), and as antimalarial (Njoroge and
Bussmann 2006b), and in Madagascar for cough (Rabearivony et al. 2015), asthma,
dental problems, diarrhea, and placental apposition (Razafindraibe et al. 2013), as
digestive, for chest complaints, as antiseptic and antivomitive (Randriamiharisoa
et al. 2015) and postpartum recovery (Randrianarivony et al. 2016). Ocimum
obovatum serves in Ethiopia to relieve hypertension (Luizza et al. 2013). Ocimum
sanctum is one of the most important medicinal plants in Asia and widely known as
Tulsi. In India, it is used for colds, bronchitis, as expectorant, diaphoretic, anti-
conceptive, for gastric problems, hepatic illnesses, and for malaria (Joshi et al. 2010),
allergies, as hemostatic, for cuts and wounds, piles, leprosy, asthma, diabetes and
sinusitis, and as general anti-inflammatory (Raj et al. 2018).
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: The leaves are consumed fresh in salads and soups (unspecified
ethnicity – Pichincha; Kichwa of the East-Napo). It is used to prepare chicha
(unspecified ethnicity – Loja). The leaves are used as a food seasoning (Mestizo-
Pichincha; Shuar-Napo; unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha, Others (Coast Region)).
The plant is sown together with cassava (Manihot esculenta) to produce more of the
plant (Kichwa of East-Napo). It is used to treat “evil eye” (unspecified ethnic group-
Guayas) (de la Torre et al. 2008). While Basil is not very frequently used as food in
the Andes, it is a very important food component in Eurasia, especially the Caucasus
Ecuador: The plant is placed on the altars of religious festivals (unspecified ethnic
group – Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The whole plant is used fresh
for daño, fright/susto, bad air/mal aire, good luck (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010c). Ocimum suave is smoked in Kenya
(Bussmann 2006).
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629.
northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011b;9:67–96.
2014;12:237–313.
016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
in Kumaun Himalaya. Med Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(special issue 1):43–6.
species in far-West Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:589–600.
medicines in Farwest Nepal. J Ethnopharnacol. 2015;163:210–9.
Res Appl. 2013;11:315–39.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
(2):450–64.
Central Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006a;2:54.
Ethnomed. 2006b;2:8.
018-0208-9.
2015;11:60.
Randrianarivony NT, Randrianasolo A, Andriamihajarivo T, Ramarosandratana AV, Jeannoda VH,
Rakotoarivony F, Bussmann RW. Useful plants and tradition for pregnancy, child delivery and
for postpartum care used by people living around Analavelona forest located in Southwest
Madagascar. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2016;15(1):68–78.
2013;9:73.
Ombrophytum subterraneum (Aspl.)
B. Hansen
BALANOPHORACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Ombrophytum subterraneum (Aspl.) B. Hansen: Juelia lilloana Sleumer, Juelia

meyeri Sleumer, Juelia subterranea Aspl., Ombrophytum peruvianum Poepp.
& Endl.
Local Names
Bolivia: Amañoque; Chile: Amañoco, Sicha, Chullapasa, Amk’añoqa, Ankañoko,

Piña
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Fleshy, parasitic and subterranean herb, between (10–)15–26 cm long, whitish to

slightly pink. Volvae between 1 and 5 cm long, 2–3 lobate, wrapping the lower part
of the inflorescence. Cylindrical inflorescence, nailed or slightly spheroidal; lower
part sterile, female half and male superior; male inflorescences between 3 and 8 mm
long with approximately 50 flowers, feminine inflorescences of (3–)11( 22) cm
long with approximately 100 flowers. Flowers without perianth, with 2 stamens and
violet anthers. Small fruit of 1 seed of 1 mm approximately, 5000–4000 m above sea
level (González and Molina 2017).
Sicha is cut into slices and mixed with cinnamon is used to treat diseases of the
vesicle. Dried and ground Sicha is used, they are used to relieve inflammation and
fever. It is used to dissolve gallstones (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al.
Local Food Uses
Sic ha is very tasty and eaten like a fruit due to its sweet taste (González and Molina
2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). It is often eaten in the
Bolivian highlands.
Sicha parts “chulla” or “chullapasa” are used to make flour for ceremonial use. The
“chullapsa,” is offered to the fields, water, and cattle during annual planting and
harvest ceremonies. This offering at the end of the ceremony should be burned
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.
CACTACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.: Cactus chinensis Roxb.; Cactus ficus-indica L.;
Cactus opuntia L.; Opuntia arcei Cárdenas; Opuntia chinensis (Roxb.) K. Koch;
Opuntia compressa J.F. Macbr.; Opuntia cordobensis Speg.; Opuntia ficus-
barbarica A. Berger; Opuntia megacantha Salm-Dyck; Opuntia paraguayensis
K. Schum.; Opuntia tuna-blanca Speg.; Opuntia vulgaris Mill.; Platyopuntia
cordobensis (Speg.) F. Ritter
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Bolivia: Penca, Tuna (Spanish); Colombia: Tuna, Chumbera, Higo chumbo, Nopal,
Tuna (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Tuna, Tuna amarilla, Tuna blanca
(Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008), Gorondilla; Peru: Tuna (Spanish); English:
Prickly pear
Botany and Ecology
Shrub or tree up to 5 m tall, forming sturdy trunk with age. Joints flattened, narrowly
elliptic to ovate, varying in size, 30–60 cm long and 6–12 cm broad, attenuate below,
often acute above, fairly thick, glaucous-green; areoles small to large, raised and
woolly, with 3–6 radiating, unequally long, grayish white spines up to 3( 10) cm
long, straight or occasionally slightly curved, or spineless (in older plants and some
cultivars). Leaves, if developed, are minute, subulate and early deciduous. Flowers
about 7 cm long; hypanthium broadly cylindrical, contracted below, with numerous
raised areoles spirally arranged, densely wooly and filled with glochidia, occasion-
ally also bearing small spines and minute leaves; petaloid segments yellow or
orange. Fruits ellipsoid, about 7 cm long, reddish, succulent, edible. Seeds about
5 mm long (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Bolivia: The plant is used to treat heat stroke, sunburn, yellow fever, renal problems,
and gastritis (Quiroga et al. 2012). Colombia: The leaves prepared in infusion are
used in Colombia as anti-inflammatory. In the form of a poultice, they relieve skin
irritations or make swellings disappear. The leaves of the Tuna have the property of
clarifying turbid waters. The fruits are used as diuretics (Arias Alzate 1962;
Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; Patiño 1963; Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Fig. 1 Opuntia quitensis

(Cactaceae), Pusac, Peru.
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. 1317


Fig. 4 Opuntia ficus-indica

(Cactaceae), Zugdidi,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fresh stems are used to treat inflammation, high cholesterol, obesity, spurs on feet,
and as water purifier; fruits are used as diuretic (Bussmann et al. 2018). Bolivia:
Fresh stem is used to treat gallbladder, liver, diabetes, back pain, fractures, strong
blows, fever, hair care, inflammation, lung pain, wound swelling, burns, kidney
infection, and for good luck, “limpia” (cleansing ritual) (Bussmann et al. 2016;
Macía et al. 2005). Peru: Fresh fruits are used to treat diabetes, reproductive
problems, and hair loss (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann
and Glenn 2010, 2011; Bussmann et al. 2010a), as well as colic, gastritis, and
constipation (Monigatti et al. 2013). The fruits are sold in many markets (Bussmann
et al. 2007; Bussmann and Sharon 2010). Opuntia shows some limited antibacterial
properties (Bussmann et al. 2010b, 2011a, b). In India, Opuntia is used to treat
tuberculosis (Raj et al. 2018).
Opuntia pubescens is used in Ecuador to remove obstacles from the urinary tract
Local Food Uses
The prickly pear fruits range in flavor from sour to very sweet. The fruit is eaten
throughout Latin America, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East. There is com-
mercial tuna production in Italy, Spain, Sicily, Tunisia, Mexico, and South America,
especially Chile. The tender young pads (Nopalitos) are eaten as a vegetable
particularly during the lent season. Colombia: Fresh stems are used as food
(Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The fruit is edible and is used to prepare juices
(unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
The plant is alternatively used as dairy cattle fodder. The most extensive use of
cactus occurs in Brazil where O. ficus-indica has been grown as a fodder for more
than 80 years. Ecuador: The stem is food of cochineal (unspecified ethnic group –
Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is grown on crop edges and properties
References
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. 1319
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
2010. p. 184–207. 288p.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
alimenticias. Cali.: Imprenta Departamental; 1964. 220 pp.
RW. Indigenous uses of ethno-medicinal plants among forest dependent communities of Northern
Bengal, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0208-9.
Oreocereus leucotrichus (Phil.) Wagenkn. ex
F. Ritter
CACTACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Oreocereus leucotrichus (Phil.) Wagenkn. ex F. Ritter: Arequipa leucotricha

(Phil.) Britton & Rose, Borzicactus hendriksenianus (Backeb.) Kimnach,
Borzicactus leucotrichus (Phil.) Kimnach., Echinocactus leucotrichus Phil.,
Morawetzia varicolor (Backeb.) Kníze; Oreocereus hendriksenianus Backeb.,
Oreocereus hendriksenianus (Backeb.) Backeb., Oreocereus knizei Hwewitt &
Donald
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Oreocereus
leucotrichus (Cactaceae),
Caspana, Chile. (Photo Lucas
Burchard Señoret)
Local Names
Chile: Pichaja, Cactus blanco, Cardón blanco, Quisco, Chastudo, Chastudo peludo,
Tunilla
Botany and Ecology
Shrubby, 1–2 m high, branched from the base, with arms up to 12 cm in

diameter, gray to green. Ribs 10–18, blunt, wider at the level of the areolas.
Areolae large, with numerous hairs white, brown or almost black. Thorns light
yellow to brown to red-orange; 1–4 plants of up to 8 cm long, from 5 to 12 radial,
shorter. Flowers diurnal, emerging from the apex, from 8 to 9.5 cm long, from
scarlet to purple red. Hypanthium straight or slightly curved, with
densely hairy areolas. Something oblique perianth and obtuse tepals. Fruits glo-
bose to void, from 4 to 6 cm in diameter, green to yellow, thin-walled,
2400–3500 m above sea level (Señoret Espinosa and Acosta Ramos 2018)
(Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Local Food Uses
The fruit is edible, and due to its acidity, it is eaten with salt (Señoret Espinosa and
Acosta Ramos 2018; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Oreocereus leucotrichus (Phil.) Wagenkn. ex F. Ritter 1323
Fig. 2 Oreocereus
Burchard Señoret)
Fig. 3 Oreocereus
Toconce, Chile. (Photo Lucas
Burchard Señoret)
The children play with the white wool that covers this cactus, burning it like a
powder wick (Señoret Espinosa and Acosta Ramos 2018; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Señoret Espinosa F, Acosta Ramos JP. Cactáceas Nativas De Chile. Guía de Campo. Santiago:
CIREN; 2018.
Oriastrum revolutum (Phil.) A.M.R. Davies
Oriastrum sphaeroidale Reiche
CACTACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Oriastrum revolutum (Phil.) A.M.R. Davies.: Chaetanthera revoluta (Phil.)

Cabrera, Egania revoluta Phil.
Oriastrum sphaeroidale Reiche.: Chaetanthera pluvinata var. polymalla (Phil.)
Hicken; Cnaetanthera sphaeroidalis (Reiche) Hicken, Chaetanthera sphaeroidale
Reiche; Oriastrum polymallum Phil.
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Local Names
Oriastrum revolutum: Chile: Keúche, Tieuchi, Comida de perdiz

Oriastrum sphaeroidale: Chile: Flor de la puna
Botany and Ecology
Oriastrum revolutum: Perennial gynodioecious dwarf herb, forming cushions

4–5 cm above ground. Stems to 5 cm, with basal bud cluster; pubescent. Leaves
2–3(4) 0.6–0.7 mm, linear with dilated apex to scale-like, densely decussate,
connate; indumentum dense, long lanate (1.2–1.5 mm) on margins, lower dorsal and
upper ventral surfaces, indumentum sparse on upper dorsal surface; apices with long
(0.6 mm) reflexed mucro; margins ventrally thickened at apex; midrib prominent.
Capitula sessile or shortly pedunculate, densely leafy on peduncle, cylindrical.
Capitula bisexual and female on same plant. Some plants are entirely one or the
other. Involucral bracts imbricate, arranged in three types, initially foliaceous then
reduced to entirely membranous. Outer involucral bracts as leaves but with short
membranous alae to less than one-half the height of the bract. Middle involucral
bracts membranous. Inner involucral bracts entirely membranous, 3500–4600 m
above sea level (Davies 2009).
Oriastrum sphaeroidale: Very small plant, 2–3 cm high, forming woolly cushions,
fluffy root, glomeruli of buds from which sprout very short, branching stems,
covered with leaves that wrap the chapters. Leaves linear, whole, 10–11 1 mm,
obtuse apex, central vein and thickened edges, with long woolly hairs, apex dyed
red. One to several chapters, sessile, hidden by the leaves. Involucre flared,
8–9 5–6 mm, bracts in 3–4 series, membranous margin, external foliaceous,
linear, semi-acute, woolly, widened base, 9 1.5–2 mm, internal lanceolate, gla-
brous, fleecy linear appendix, 8–8.5 2 mm. Capitules of female plants with more
or less isomorphic flowers, 3.5 mm tube, 1.5 mm outer lip, tridentate apex, bifid,
shorter inner lip. Heads of hermaphroditic plants with dimorphic flowers, the female
marginal, tube of 2–2.5 mm, external labuliform lip, tridentate, 1–1.8 mm; hermaph-
rodite disc flowers, tube about 4 mm. Anthers lanceolate, glabrous, 4 mm; white
pappus, around 5 mm, 3200–5000 m above sea level (Davies 2009).
Oriastrum revolutum: The infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment of
heart diseases (Davies 2009; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Oriastrum sphaeroidale: The infusion of aerial parts is used for the treatment of
Puna disease (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
Oriastrum revolutum (Phil.) A.M.R. Davies. . . 1327
References
Davies AMR. A systematic revision of Chaetanthera Ruiz & Pav., and the reinstatement of
Oriastrum Poepp. & Endl. Asteraceae: Multisieae; 2009.
Llullaillaco. Peñazola-García: Región de Antofagasta; 2013.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Origanum majorana L.
Origanum vulgare L.
LAMIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Origanum vulgare L.: Micromeria formosana C. Marquand; Origanum creticum

Lour.; Origanum dilatatum Klokov; Origanum glaucum Rech. f. & Edelb.; Origa-
num gracile C. Koch.; Origanum kopetdaghense Boris.; Origanum normale
D. Don.; Origanum puberulum Klokov; Origanum tyttanthum Gontsch.; Origanum
vulgare subsp. gracile (C. Koch) Letsw.; Origanum vulgare subsp. viride (Boiss.)
Hayek; Origanum vulgare L. subsp. vulgare; Origanum vulgare var. formosanum
Hayata; Origanum vulgare var. glaucum (Rech. f. & Edelb.) Hedge & Lamond;
Origanum vulgare var. puberulum Beck; Origanum vulgare var. viride Boiss.;
Origanum watsonii Schlagint. in T.A. Schmidt
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Origanum vulgare: Colombia: Orégano de España, Mejorana silvestre, Oregano

(Bussmann et al. En prep); Ecuador: Mejorana, Orégano, Orégano de Castilla,
Orégano de sal, Orégano grande, Tomillo (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008);
Peru: Oregano; English: Oregano
Origanum majorana: Colombia: Mejorana (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018);
Ecuador: Kullka (Kichwa), Mejorana (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru:
Mejorana (Spanish); English: Wild marjoram, Greek oregano
Botany and Ecology
Origanum majorana: Herb, 30–60 cm tall with descending, multibranched stems.

Leaves oval, hairy, opposite, 2.5 cm. Flowers tiny, less than 3 mm long, in burr-like
heads 1.3 cm long. Sweet marjoram is a bushy half-hardy perennial subshrub that is
often grown as an annual.
Origanum vulgare: Perennial, scabrous or subglabrous; rhizome oblique;
stems 30–60(90) cm high, erect, often branching at base, sometimes purple-tinged
and pubescent; leaves petiolate, oblong or oblong-ovate, acute, 2–4 cm long,
remotely small-toothed, light green beneath, sparsely glandular mostly
beneath, almost euglandular above; inflorescences corymbose-paniculate, spread-
ing, many-flowered, to 15 cm long and to 10 cm broad, composed of cylindrical-
oblong or oblong-lanceolate spicules, these elongating in fruit; bracts longer than
calyx, ovate-elliptical or oblong, acute, usually dark purple (like calyx and
many upper leaves) more rarely green; calyx ca. 3 mm long, glabrous or with
sparse hairs, the teeth triangular-lanceolate, two-fifths to one-half the length of the
tube, the ring of hairs in throat nearly equaling the teeth; corolla
5–10 mm long, light purple or lilac-rose, sometimes white, the tube exserted;
two stamens exserted, the other two shorter; style exserted; nutlets
orbicular, brown in maturity, naked, ca. 0.5 mm long, obtusely 3-angled.
Flowering June–September. Ural, Caucasus Alta, Middle Asia, in meadows,
rocky areas, sunny grass-covered slopes, glades, and steppe meadows (Figs. 1,
2, 3, 4, and 5).
Phytochemistry
Essential oils (pinen, seinine, tuyen, sabinen, chimen, cyanoneol, cumene), tri-
terpenoids (ursolic acid), alkaloids, vitamins (C, B1, B2), phenyl carboxylic acids
(rosmarinic), flavonoids (luteoline), and steroids.
Origanum majorana L. . . . 1331
Fig. 1 Origanum vulgare

Bolivia (R.W. Bussmann and

Origanum majorana: Colombia: The stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits are used in
Colombia as infusion as antiflatulent or to relieve colic, as antispasmodic, sedative,
facilitating digestion, and to relieve headaches. In infusion, it is also used to heal


sores and wounds, and it is also considered a facilitator of menstruation and

stimulant; in the form of baths, it is used to treat inflammations of the ganglia
(Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975; Martínez Correa
and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez
1996). The whole fresh and dry plant is used to treat swollen glands, strengthen the
digestive system, stomach problems, indigestion, flatulence, bronchial diseases,
expectorant, for sores, pustules, nerves, migraine, spasms, as circulatory stimulant,
as emmenagogue, as tranquilizer, and as stimulant (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador:
The infusion of the plant is used to treat colic (Mestizo-Tungurahua; unspecified
ethnicity – Pichincha) (from de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Fresh leaves and stems are used to treat colics, heart, nerves, menstruation
problems, anxiety, depression, and for pain of love (Bussmann and Sharon 2006,
2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a). It is often
found in local markets (Bussmann and Sharon 2007). Antibacterial activity has been
shown (Bussmann et al. 2008a). No toxicity has been reported (Bussmann et al.
2011a).

Origanum vulgare: Bolivia: The plant is used for stomach pain and menstrual pain
(Quiroga et al. 2012). Colombia: Orally it is used in Colombia as a digestive,
expectorant, antispasmodic, antiflatulent, to whet the appetite, to relieve cramping,
as a diuretic, anti-inflammatory, to treat sores and wounds, and in the treatment of
respiratory conditions. Externally it is used to treat lesions and in case of inflamma-
tion of the lymph nodes. The decoction of the whole plant is used to cure diabetes
(Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975; Martínez Correa
1996). Leaves and flowers are used to treat inflammations (Bussmann et al. 2018).
Ecuador: The decoction of the leaves, sweetened with honey, is used as a tonic,
soothing and appetite stimulant, and, in infusion, to treat inflammations. The infu-
sion of the flower, fresh or dried, is used to treat colic, headache, and stomachache,
motor diseases, and nervous conditions (Shuar-Napo). Infusion with tamarind water
(Tamarindus indica), salt, and lemon is used to regulate bile; with flaxseed, it is used
to treat diarrhea; together with chamomile (Matricaria recutita), corn hair, and oil, it
is used to treat “water colic” (sic), and with congona, corn hair, onion root, lemon,
orange, and grain salt, it is used to treat dry colic and colerin (unspecified ethnicity –
Pichincha). The infusion of the leaves is used as a tonic (unspecified ethnic group –
Imbabura, Others (Coast Region)). The infusion of the leaves is drunk to treat
digestive conditions (empacho, stomachache) (Mestizo-Pichincha; unspecified eth-
nic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Chimborazo, Pastaza). It is used to regulate
menstrual flow, to deflate the throat and ganglia, and to treat asthma (Mestizo,
unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). It is also used to treat indeterminate conditions

(Mestizo-Tungurahua; unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al.
2008). It is used in the fields for cleaning of luck (ethnicity not specified – Other
(Coast Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Leaves and stems, fresh or dried, are used to treat colic, menstrual cramps,
menstruation problems, stomachache, gases, and lower stomach cramps related to
PMS, regulation of menstruation (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b;
Bussmann and Glenn 2010b; Monigatti et al. 2013). It is often found in local
markets, and it is widely grown (Bussmann and Sharon 2009; Bussmann et al.
2007a, b, 2008b, 2009). Limited antibacterial activity has been shown (Bussmann
et al. 2010b, b). Highly concentrated Oregano extracts do exhibit toxicity (Bussmann
et al. 2011b). It is often part of herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010c).
In India, it is used for bronchitis, colds, cough, tooth problems, and swellings (Bhat
et al. 2013; Thakur et al. 2014).
Local Food Uses
Origanum majorana: Ecuador: It is used to prepare aromatic waters, coladas, and

chicha (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Both species are widely used in Eurasia as spice, and especially in the Caucasus
also as medicinal tea (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016)
Origanum majorana: Ecuador: The infusion is used for hot baths (unspecified
ethnic group – Chimborazo) (from de la Torre et al. 2008).
Origanum vulgare: Ecuador: The leaves serve as a condiment for foods such as
soups and meats (Mestiza-Manabí, Pichincha, Azuay; Shuar-Napo; unspecified
ethnic group – Manabí, Chimborazo, Bolívar, Cañar, Azuay, Others (Coast Region))
(from de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007a;3:37.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
2014;12:237–313.
016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.

del altiplano del oriente antioqueño, Colombia. Actu Biol. 2011;33(95):219–50.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
(2):450–64.
Thakur KS, Kumar M, Bawa R, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotanical study of herbaceous flora along an
altitudinal gradient in Bharmour Forest Division, District Chamba of Himachal Pradesh, India.
Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2014; https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/946870.
Oscillatoria tenuis C. Agardh ex Gomont
OSCILLATORIACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Local Names
Chile: Laqho, Lqholaqho, Unulaqho, Lamalama
Botany and Ecology
Algae with trichomes blue-green to brownish-green, occasionally purple when old,

highly motile, not or slightly constricted at the cross-walls, sometimes narrowing
toward the often bent ends, central section of trichomes (19)22–80 μm wide. Apical
cells rounded and sometimes yellowish (together with several adjacent cells). Gran-
ulation never located at the cross-walls, but fine to large granules may be present in
the cells. Cells much shorter than wide, new cell walls forming perpendicularly to
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

the trichome axis, often before the previous division is finished. Cell wall colorless
and thick, necridic cells present, sheath observed only in culture under stress
conditions. No calyptra observed (Pietrasiak 2018).
Oscillatoria tenuis is used to relieve fever (Pietrasiak 2018; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
References
Pietrasiak N. Seeking the true Oscillatoria: a quest for a reliable phylogenetic and taxonomic
reference point. Preslia (Prague). 2018;90:151–69.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Otholobium glandulosum (L.) J.W. Grimes
Otholobium mexicanum (L.f.) J.W. Grimes
Otholobium pubescens (Poir.) J.W. Grimes
FABACEAE
Synonyms
Otholobium glandulosum (L.) J.W. Grimes: Hoita glandulosa (L.) Rydb.; Lotodes
glandulosum (L.) Kuntze; Psoralea glandulosa L.
Otholobium mexicanum (L.f.) J.W. Grimes: Indigofera mexicana L.f.; Lotodes
divaricatum (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Kuntze; Psoralea divaricata Humb. &
Bonpl. ex Willd.; Psoralea maleolens J.F. Macbr.; Psoralea mexicana (L.f.) Vail;
Psoralea mexicana var. maleolens (J.F. Macbr.) J.F. Macbr.; Psoralea mexicana var.
trianae (Vail) J.F. Macbr.; Psoralea mutisii Kunth; Psoralea trianae Vail
Otholobium pubescens (Poir.) J.W. Grimes: Hoita hirsuta Rusby; Hoita versicolor
Rusby; Psoralea featherstonei J.F. Macbr.; Psoralea lasiostachys var. potens
(J.F. Macbr.) J.F. Macbr.; Psoralea lasiostachys Vogel; Psoralea marginata
Meyen; Psoralea potens J.F. Macbr.; Psoralea pubescens Poir.; Psoralea pubescens
var. leiostachys (Vogel) J.F. Macbr.; Psoralea remotiflora J.F. Macbr.; Psoralea
yurensis Rusby
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Local Names
Otholobium glandulosum/Otholobium mexicanum: Peru: Culein, Culen

Otholobium pubescens: Bolivia: Wallak’aya (Aymara) (Macía et al. 2005; Justo
Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016).
Botany and Ecology
Otholobium mexicanum: Shrub or small tree, abundantly leafy, 1–3 m high, often
much branched, the upper virgate branchlets as the axillary peduncles more or less
densely hispid with black or dark-colored spreading trichomes; calyces 5 mm long,
equaled by the broad more or less promptly caducous bracts, sometimes shortly
pedicelled, always densely pilose, the trichomes mostly or all black; flowers blue,
about 7 mm long; otherwise similar to P. divaricata which could be treated as a
variety. The common form in Peru is var. maleolens Macbr., comb. nov.
(P. maleolens Macbr.), smooth or the peduncles and branchlet tips minutely,
strigillose, the branchlets and leaves beneath more or less ashy tomentose or pilose,
and the trichomes appressed or rarely spreading. In extreme or typical states, the
varieties are distinct but they seem to merge in a large series of specimens; rarely the
calyces are densely glandular.
Otholobium pubescens: A robust shrubby herb up to 4 m tall sometimes with
prostrate stems that root at the nodes. The older stems tend to be striped with
gland dots and reddish in color. The leaves are alternate and compound and at the
base of each are stipules which are clawed and lance-shaped, up to 1.6 cm long. The
leaves have 3 leaflets borne on a stalk up to 5 cm long which is grooved and
glandular. The leaflets are elliptic to lance-shaped and covered in gland dots, each
less than 9 cm long. The undersides are paler with fewer glands. The flowers are
borne densely on a spike covered in hairs. The blue sepals have unequal triangular
tips and elongate upon fruiting. The banner is egg-shaped and 7 mm long, the wings
Fig. 1 Otholobium
mexicanum (Fabaceae),
Kuelap, Peru. (Photos
R.W. Bussmann and
Otholobium glandulosum (L.) J.W. Grimes. . . 1341
Fig. 2 Otholobium
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 3 Otholobium
R.W. Bussmann and
are a similar length and the claw is rather small. The legume is round and 5 mm long
and covered with hair and contains dark reddish-brown seeds. Occurs in montane
shrubland, cloud forests and paramos, and encountered along roads from Colombia
Ecuador and into northern Peru at 2000–3300 m above sea level (Macbride and
Fig. 4 Otholobium
R.W. Bussmann and
Otholobium glandulosum/Otholobium mexicanum: Peru: The plant is used to treat

diarrhea, stomach cold, and diabetes (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b).
It is found in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008a, b, 2009; Revene et al.
2008). The plant has antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008b, 2010a, b, 2011a,
b), and it is often an ingredient in herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010c).
Otholobium pubescens: Bolivia: The whole fresh plant is used to treat anemia, as an
abortive, to accelerate childbirth, against frailty, for strengthening, kidney infection,
prostate, against curses, menstrual problems, uterus problems, larpha, “regla
blanca,” and varicose veins (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015;
Bussmann et al. 2016, 2018). Peru: It is used for cold, constipation, laxative, and
stomach purification (Monigatti et al. 2013).
References
Otholobium glandulosum (L.) J.W. Grimes. . . 1343
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Justo Chipana M, Moraes-R M. Plantas medicinales comercializadas por las chifleras de La Paz y El
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Oxalis tuberosa Molina
OXALIDACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Oxalis tuberosa Molina: Acetosella crassicaulis (Zucc.) Kuntze; Acetosella crenata

(Jacq.) Kuntze; Acetosella tuberosa (Molina) Kuntze; Oxalis aracatcha hort. ex
Zcc.; Oxalis chicligastensis R. Knuth; Oxalis crassicaulis Zucc.; Oxalis crenata
Jacq.; Oxalis melilotoides var. argentina Grieseb.; Xanthoxalis crassicaulis (Zucc.)
Small; Xanthoxalis tuberosa (Molina) Holub
Local Names
Bolivia: Isaño negro (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2016); Colombia: Ibias, Ocas
(Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Chullku (Kichwa), Agrillo, Oca, Oca
de la chacra (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Oca Rosada (Spanish);
English: Oca
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Annual herbaceous plant, erect in the first stages of its development, decumbent or
prostrate towards maturity. Tubers claviform-ellipsoid and cylindrical, with buds on
the whole surface, white, yellow, red, and purple. Leaves trifoliate, with petioles
2–9 cm long. Inflorescences with four or five flowers. The calyx formed by five
pointed, green sepals, the corolla with yellow petals with five purple-stripes, ten
stamens in two groups of five; pistil s shorter or longer than the stamens. Propagation
almost exclusively by the tubers. The flower structure has an efficient mechanism
which facilitates cross-pollination. Oca is grown from 3000 to 4000 m from Colom-
bia to Chile. The greatest concentration is found between 3500 and 3800 m. Oxalis
tuberosa is a crop native to the Andes. Together with the potato, the domestication of
this and other Andean tubers originated in the central region of Peru (lat. 10 S) and
northern Bolivia (lat. 20 S). Its cultivation was introduced into Mexico about 200 or
300 years ago. Oca was introduced into Europe in the last century but did not
become established as a permanent crop. Oca is first sun-dried to make it sweeter
and then parboiled, roasted, or prepared as pachamanca (meat roasted in a hole in the
ground). The dried, frozen tuber is called khaya (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Bolivia: Fresh or dried tuber is used to treat prostate problems (Bussmann et al.
2016). Colombia: The decoction of tubers is used in Colombia for inflammatory and
bilious diseases. Frequent tuber consumption helps relieve rheumatic conditions.
The stems and leaves, in decoction, are used as a diuretic (García Barriga 1975;
Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Stems and leaves are used as a diuretic; stems,
tubers, and leaves are used to treat gallbladder, gastritis, and rheumatism (Bussmann
et al. 2018); Peru: Fresh or dried tuber is used to treat sexual potency (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010).
Local Food Uses
Oxalis tuberosa is widely used as food, both fresh and dried.

Colombia: Stems and roots are used as food (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The
tuber is edible, and it is used to prepare locros, soups with corn and legume fruits,
stews, and sweets. It was one of the main foods in pre-Columbian times, comparable
in importance to potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) (Kichwa de la Sierra-Carchi, Coto-
paxi, Loja; unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha, Tungurahua, Azuay, Cañar, Others
(Andean Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The tuber is used as a condiment
(unspecified ethnicity – Other (Costa and Sierra Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Fresh tuber is used for food (Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 9).
Oxalis tuberosa Molina 1347
Fig. 1 Oxalis tuberosa

(Oxalidaceae), garden,
R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and
Ecuador: The leaves are used as animal fodder (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi)

(de la Torre et al. 2008). It is grown in association with melloco (Ullucus tuberosus)
(unspecified ethnic group – Loja).

(Oxalidaceae), harvest,

(Oxalidaceae), harvest garden,
R.W. Bussmann and

(Oxalidaceae), drying,
R.W. Bussmann and

(Oxalidaceae), cooked dried
Oca, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Oxychloe andina Phil.
JUNCACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Oxychloe andina Phil.: Andesia bisexualis (Kuntze) Hauman; Distichia andina

(Phil.) Benth. & Hook.; Disticha macrocarpa Wedd. ex Buchenau
Local Names
Chile: Champón, Cojín de los pantanos, Espina de bofedal y maizal, Puku,

Pukupuku, Pak’opak’o, Pako, Pakopako, Pako macho, Orqopak’o, Pak’u, Pak’ojare,
Espina del bofedal, Maizal. Fruit: Pukutongo, Pukotongo, Pokotongo, Pak’otonko
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Oxychloe biflora

(Juncaceae), Chile. (Photo
Botany and Ecology
Perennial herbs, forming loose, large, spiny cushions, several meters in diameter and
50 cm in height. Individual plants of 5–30 cm, more or less regularly bifurcated,
covered with wilted leaves and pods, arranged in spiral, brown or straw, persistent.
Leaves of 5–8 cm, sheath of almost the same length as the lamina, scarious margin,
with 2 rounded atria; 1.2 mm linear blade, sharp and spiny apex. Unisexual, axillary,
subapical flowers, pedicels of 1–3 cm, with 2 triangular bractlets, scarious, greater than
5 mm. Tepals 6–8 mm, scarious, straw or chestnut. Flowers staminate with narrow
lanceolate tepals; stamens 6. Flowers pistillate with broad lanceolate tepals; ovary
ellipsoid, about 2 mm; papillose stigmas. Capsule oblong, obtuse, 8–11 4–5 mm,
chestnuts, 3-septate or 3-locular. Irregular seeds, 1–1.3 0.8–1 mm, light brown,
irregular surface, 3200–4500 m above sea level (Peñaloza et al. 2013) (Fig. 1).
Local Food Uses
Edible red fruits are eaten fresh, cooked, or toasted (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez
References
Llullaillaco. Chile, Región de Antofagasta: Peñazola-García; 2013.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Papaver somniferum L.
PAPAVERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Local Names
Colombia: Flor de amapola, Adormidera (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecua-

dor: Amapola roja, Amapola blanca, Adormidera, Opio (Spanish) (de la Torre et al.
2008); English: Opium poppy
Botany and Ecology
Annual, biennial, or perennial herbs, usually with stems, rarely stemless. Leaves
usually 1- or 2–3 pinnatisect. Usually hairy-bristly or glabrous. Milky juice white or
yellow or orange. Flowers singly on long pedicels or (in stemless species) on stalks,
ebracteate, in some species inflorescence paniculate; stamens usually numerous,
with slender or clavately expanded filaments above; anthers orbicular to linear,
rarely with capitate appendage on connective; pistil of 3–22 mostly 4–10 carpels;
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Papaver somniferum

(Papaveraceae), garden,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

(Papaveraceae), garden,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
capsule short-cylindrical, clavate, oblong or obovate or globular, sessile or abruptly

tapering into a short pedicel, 1-celled; placentas developed as slender, radial, lam-
inae; capsule covered by a pyramidal convex or flat disk, rays opposite placentas
usually united by a scarious or coriaceous membrane into a continuous disk.
Capsules dehiscing by pores immediately below disk. Seeds small, alveolate-
reticulate, without appendage. Opium poppy is a widely used medicinal and magic
plant (Bussmann 2016). In most of Latin America, the plant is, however, illegal, and
thus not widely used (Figs. 1 and 2).
Colombia: In Colombia it is used as a sedative, hypo-analgesic, antispasmodic,

sleep-inducing, pain reliever, diarrhea painkiller, colic, bowel hemorrhage, tetanus,
in respiratory and narcotic diseases. The leaves are used in poultices to calm the pain.
Papaver somniferum L. 1357

(Papaveraceae), poppy seeds
strudel (cake), Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
The petals in infusion are used against stomach pains and against diarrhea and
dysentery. Amapola infusions are also used to promote sweating, such as anti-
inflammatories and expectorants, to combat lung catarrhs, angina pectoris,
whooping cough, and eruptive fevers (García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
The whole plant is used to treat spasms, respiratory tract, inflammation, as expecto-
rant, dysmenorrhea, conjunctivitis and to promote sweating; leaves and fruits are
used as analgesic; fruits used to treat sunstroke, as sedative; flowers used to treat
stomachache and diarrhea (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: Fresh flowers are used
to treat vaginal discharge with blood, menstrual regulation, and to purify the blood
(Bussmann et al. 2006; 2007). From the fruits, a moderately narcotic milk (opium) is
extracted, which is used to combat or soothe the pain (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay,
Cañar). The infusion of a petal, in hot milk, is effective in treating insomnia
(unspecified ethnicity – Cotopaxi). Treats undetermined conditions (unspecified
ethnicity – Loja). Calms labor pains (unspecified ethnicity – Guayas) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). Opium is extracted from the fruits, which is used as a narcotic
(unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). It is consumed as a hallucinogen
(Kichwa de la Sierra – Bolívar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Local Food Uses
The seeds are used in cakes and other foods (Bussmann 2017; Mehdiyeva et al.
2017) (Fig. 3).
References
Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing XXVII;
2017. 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
de longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba; 2007. ISBN 978-0-9789962-2-2.
Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Papaver orientale L.; Papaver
somniferum L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer
International Publishing; 2017.
Parastrephia lucida (Meyen) Cabrera
Parastrephia quadrangularis (Meyen)
Cabrera
Parastrephia teretiuscula (Kuntze) Cabrera
ASTERACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Parastrephia lucida (Meyen) Cabrera: Baccharis lucida Meyen, Baccharis

phyliciformis Meyen, Diplostephium tovarii Cuatrec., Dolichogyne glabra Phil.,
Dolichogyne rigida Wedd., Dolichogyne rupestris Wedd., Parastrephia ericoides
Nutt., Polycladus abietinus Phil., Lepidophyllum abietinum (Phil.) Reiche,
Lepidophyllum lucidum (Meyen) Cabrera, Lepidophyllum phyliciforme (Meyen)
Hieron. ex R.E. Fr., Lepidophyllum phyliciforme var. resinosum (Walp.)
S.F. Blake, Lepidophyllum rigidum (Wedd.) Benth. & Hook., Parastrephia ericoides
Nutt.; Parastrephia phyliciformis (Meyen) Cabrera, Polyclados abietinus Phil.;
Vernonia phyliciformis (Meyen) Walp., Vernonia phyliciformis var. resinosa Walp.
Parastrephia quadrangularis (Meyen) Cabrera: Baccharis quadrangularis
Meyen, Dolichogyne lepidophylla Wedd.; Lepidophyllum cupressinum (Phil.)
Kuntze, Lepidophyllum meyenii A. Gray, Lepidophyllum quadrangulare (Meyen)
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Benth. & Hook. f., Lepidophyllum tola Cabrera; Parastrephia lepidophylla (Wedd.)
Cabrera; Polycladus cupressinus Phil.
Parastrephia teretiuscula (Kuntze) Cabrera: Lepidophyllum teretiusculum Kuntze
Local Names
Parastrephia lucida: Chile: Umatúla, Umatola, Umatula, Tola, tola uma, Umalawa,
Tola, Tolatola, Tola amrga, Koatola, Tola de agua, Mayut’ola, Unutola, Unut’ola,
Unullanta, Tola amarilla, Tolilla, Tola de la cordillera, Tola macho, Leña de agua,
Leña del cerro.
Parastrephia quadrangularis: Bolivia: Pullca (Bussmann et al. 2016); Chile:
Chacha, Chacha hembra, Chacha chica, Chacha fina, Chachakoa, Chakatola, Koa,
Koa macho, Koba, Kba hembra, Santiago koya, Pulika, Leña pulika, Tola pulika,
Tola amarilla, Tola amarilla chica, Tola amarga, Tola, Tolilla, Tola de la cordillera,
Chirit’ola, Leña de cerro, Kulkut’ula, Kulkutaya, Kulkotea, Chijrwaya macho,
Siput’ula macho, Suput’ula, Tola supu, Suket’ola.
Parastrephia teretiuscula: Chile: Chacha, Chacha pelada, Chacha macho,
Chachakoma, Chachapulika, Pulika macho, Pulika, Kulkut’ula, Kulkut’ula macho,
Pukut’ola, Kobatola, Tarakoba, Koba, Santiago koya.
Botany and Ecology
Parastrephia lucida: Shrub between 0.5 and 1.2 m tall, very branched and resinous,
branched from the base. Sessile leaves between 3 and 7 mm long, revolute, linear
fleshy leaf, rounded apex, smooth edge, glandular, and pubescent underside. Termi-
nal inflorescences, solitary chapters, flared involvement. Marginal flowers scarce,
yellow, with short ligules; yellow central flowers, 13–28. Fruit velvety pubescent,
turbinate, up to 4 mm long, vilanum with an external series of rough, yellow bristles.
Parastrephia quadrangularis: Creeping shrub 15–20 cm high, densely branched,
resinous. Twigs 2–2.5 mm in diameter, albo-tomentose, densely broad. Leaves
spiraled, imbricate, applied against the stem, succulent, oblong, 2.5–3 1 mm,
obtuse apex, base slightly widened, entire. Lonely chapters at the ends of the twigs.
Involucro cylindrical-flared, 6–8 mm in diameter. Bracts of the involucre in 2–3
series, oblong, semiagudas, somewhat tomentose on the back. Hermaphrodite disc
flowers, tubular. Sericeous-hairy Aquenios. Pappus whitish. 3000–4900 m above sea
level (González and Molina 2017).
Parastrephia teretiuscula: Creeping shrub between 15 and 20 cm high. Leaves
fleshy, oblong, 2.5–3 mm long, scaly, attached to the stem, and covered by a woolly
pilosity. Tubular flowers, hermaphrodites. Inflorescence in solitary chapters.
Parastrephia lucida (Meyen) Cabrera . . . 1361
Parastrephia lucida: The aerial parts are used to relieve fever and to cure bone
fractures and ailments, and due to its resinous characteristics, it is used as patches or
cataplasms mixed with yareta (Azorella compacta) and urine. The infusion of the
aerial parts mixed with lemon, sugar, and three cloves of garlic is used to treat lung
diseases and to alleviate toothache. It also serves for problems with the gallbladder
Parastrephia quadrangularis: The aerial parts are used to make patches to treat
wounds, cracks, and inflammation of bones, as well as colics and toothaches and
vesicles. The steam baths or “vahos” with this plant mixed with pimiento (Schinus
molle), copa-copa (Artemisia copa), tolilla (Fabiana denudata), bailahuen
(Haplopappus rigidus), pingo-pingo (Ephedra breana), and malvas (species of the
Malvaceae family) are used to treat rheumatism (Peñazola-García et al. 2013;
Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). In Bolivia used for muscular-
skeletal system problems (fractures), nervous system, and mental health (nerves)
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Parastrephia teretiuscula: Used as incense and vapors to treat “air sickness,”
“empacho,” stomach aches, and cramps. The ground plant is used to make patches
or poultices for bone fractures mixed with urine, guano de waycho, and snake meat
Local Food Uses
Parastrephia lucida: Host of the edible parasite Ombrophytum subterraneum

(Balanaphoraceae) (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán
and Castro 2003).
Fig. 1 Parastrephia
quadrangularis (Asteraceae),
Burchard Señoret)
Fig. 2 Parastrephia quadrangularis (Asteraceae), Machuca, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard

Señoret)
Fig. 3 Parastrephia
Burchard Señoret)
Parastrephia lucida (Meyen) Cabrera . . . 1363
Fig. 4 Parastrephia
Burchard Señoret)
Fig. 5 Parastrephia
Burchard Señoret)
Parastrephia lucida: Used to dye textiles green. Forage and firewood use.
The branches are used to sweep. Used in ethnoveterinary to treat broken bones in
animals (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
This plant is used as incense in the ceremonies of animal festivities,
“enfloramiento del ganado,” “cantales,” “limpieza de acequias” are burned due to
its aromatic characteristics. Parastrephia quadrangularis: This plant mixed with
urine has an ethnoveterinary use to treat fractures of animals and against Puna
disease in animals. It is used as green and yellow dye. Forage use (Peñazola-García
Fig. 6 Parastrephia
Burchard Señoret)
Parastrephia teretiuscula: It is used as incense for livestock during the “floramenito

de ganado”. Firewood use. The flower is used as green and yellow textile dye and the
aerial parts only yellow dye (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
References
González JS, Molina JJ. Flora nativa de la región de Arica y Parinacota. Arica, Chile: Ediciones
Peñazola-García A, Pardo V, Marticorena A, Cavieres L, Frugone F. Flora y vegetación del parque
nacional Llullaillaco. Peñazola- García: Región de Antofagasta; 2013.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Paronychia microphylla Phil.
CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Local Names
Chile: Retaña, Té de burro, Kimsakucho
Botany and Ecology
Small woody shrub, about 15 cm high, somewhat villous; leaves elliptic, mucronulate,
hirsute, only 5 mm long, exceeded by the stipules; petals very hirsute without, obtuse,
mucronulate. 2200–3500 m above sea level (Macbride and Dahlgren 1936) (Figs. 1, 2,
3, and 4).
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Paronychia
libertadiana
(Caryophyllaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Paronychia
libertadiana
(Caryophyllaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 3 Paronychia
libertadiana
(Caryophyllaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Paronychia microphylla Phil. 1367
Fig. 4 Paronychia
libertadiana
(Caryophyllaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
The infusion of aerial parts is used for stomach pain (Macbride and Dahlgren 1936;
Forage use (Macbride and Dahlgren 1936; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and
Castro 2003).
References
Macbride JF, Dahlgren BE. Flora of Peru, vol. 21. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History;
1936.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Passiflora caerulea L.
Passiflora edulis L.
Passiflora ligularis Juss.
Passiflora mollissima (Kunth) L.H. Bailey
Passiflora punctata L.
Passiflora quadrangularis L.
PASSIFLORACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Passiflora caerulea L.: Granadilla caerulea (L.) Medik.; Passiflora caerulea Lour.;
Passiflora caerulea var. angustifolia G. Don.; Passiflora caerulea var. glauca Mast.;
Passiflora caerulea var. glaucophylla Loudon; Passiflora caerulea var. imbricata Mast.;
Passiflora caerulea var. regnellii Mast.; Passiflora loureiroi G. Don.; Passiflora selloi
Dehnh.
Passiflora edulis L.: Passiflora edulis var. pomifera (M. Roem.) Mast.; Passiflora
edulis var. rubricaulis (Jacq.) Mars.; Passiflora edulis var. verrucifera (Lindl.) Mast.
Passiflora gratissima A. St.-Hil.; Passiflora incarnata L.; Passiflora iodocarpa
Barb. Rodr.; Passiflora middletoniana Paxton; Passiflora minima Blanco; Passiflora
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

pallidiflora Bertil.; Passiflora picroderma Barb. Rodr.; Passiflora pomifera

M. Roem.; Passiflora rigidula J. Jacq.; Passiflora rubricaulis Jacq.; Passiflora
siaden Vell.; Passiflora vernicosa Barb. Rodr.; Passiflora verrucifera Lindl.
Passiflora ligularis Juss.: Passiflora ligularis var. geminiflora DC.; Passiflora lowei
Heer; Passiflora serratistipulata DC.
Passiflora mollissima (Kunth) L.H. Bailey: Murucuia mollissima (Kunth) Spreng.;
Passiflora tomentosa Lam.; Passiflora tomentosa var. mollissima (Kunth) Triana &
Planch.; Passiflora tripartida var. mollissima (Kunth) Holm-Niels. & P. Jørg.;
Tacsonia mixta subsp. tomentosa (Cav.) Mast.; Tacsonia mollissima Kunth;
Tacsonia mollissima var. glabrescens Mast.
Passiflora punctata L.: Cieca discolor (Link & Otto) M. Roem.; Cieca misera
(Kunth) M. Roem.; Decaloba punctata (L.) M. Roem.; Passiflora discolor Link &
Otto; Passiflora laticaulis Killip; Passiflora longilobis Hoehne; Passiflora
maximiliana Bory; Passiflora microcarpa Mast.; Passiflora retusa Hook. & Arn.;
Passiflora translinearis Rusby; Passiflora vespertilio L.
Passiflora quadrangularis L.: Granadilla quadrangularis (L.) Medik.; Passiflora
macrocarpa Linden ex Mast. Passiflora macroceps Mast.; Passiflora
quadrangularis var. sulcata (Jacq.) DC.; Passiflora tetragona M. Roem.
Local Names
Passiflora caerulea: Peru: Pasionara (Spanish)

Passiflora edulis: Colombia: Curuba morada, Curubo, Gulupa, Pachita amarilla,
Pasiflora, Maracuyá, Maracuyá de monte, Maracuyá silvestre; Ecuador: Munchi
(Shuar chicham), Granadilla, Granadilla de Quijos, Maracuyá (Spanish) (de la Torre
et al. 2008); Peru: Maracuya (Spanish).
Passiflora ligularis: Colombia: Granadilla (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador:
Granadilla, Granadilla de mate, Hoja de granadilla (Spanish) (de la Torre et al.
2008), Grenadilla; Peru: Hoja de Granadilla, Granadilla (Spanish).
Passiflora mollissima: Colombia: Curuba de castilla, Curubo; Bolivia: Tumbo
(Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005; Bussmann et al. 2016).
Passiflora punctata: Ecuador: Granadilla, Granadilla de ratón, Granadilla del
campo (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Tumbillo (Spanish).
Passiflora quadrangularis: Ecuador: Bandee tsururu, Bandee tsururu chuwa
(Chafi’-ki), Na wa kinto (Tsafi’ki), Tasiri (Pai coca), Badea, Granadilla, Tumbo
(Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Hojas de Tumbo (Spanish).
Botany and Ecology
Passiflora caerulea: Vine, glabrous and often glaucous throughout; stipules semi-
ovate; petioles 2–6 glandular, the glands stipitate; blades palmate 5 (rarely 3, 7, or 9)-
lobed nearly to the base, the lobes linear-oblong to broadly ovate-oblong, up to
10 cm long, usually obtuse, entire; bracts broadly ovate, 1.5–2.5 cm long, borne
close to the flower base; flowers up to 10 cm wide, white or pinkish; calyx tube
Passiflora caerulea L. . . . 1371
cup-shaped, the sepals and petals oblong; corona filaments in 4 series, those of the
2 outer ones radiate, from a half to as long as the petals, blue at the apex, white at the
middle, purple at the base, the inner filaments much shorter; operculum filamentose
part way; fruit ovoid or subglobose, about 4 cm in diameter; seeds coarsely reticulate
Passiflora edulis: A perennial climber 5–6 m long, glabrous. The leaves simple and
alternate on the stem, each having 3 lobes and teeth along the margin, about 8 cm
long and 6 cm wide. The lobes egg-shaped and some leaves bear a tendril at the base.
Flowers borne singly from the base of a leaf, each 10–12 cm wide, with succulent
sepals and greenish-white petals. The corona of filaments and petals are purple in the
center and fade to white around the outside. The style and stamen form a column.
The style divided into 3 arms with 2 lobes. The five stamens have large anther heads,
and each is somewhat rectangular. The fruits are smooth, round, and green and often
with small white blotches or freckles. Within the fruit, there are many seeds. A
species cultivated for its fruit, it is introduced to many tropical sites in Asia and
South America. In riparian forests, roadsides, and dry forest fragments at elevations
ca. 1500 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Passiflora ligularis: Plant glabrous throughout; stipules ovate-lanceolate or oblong-
lanceolate, up to 2.5 cm long; petioles up to 10 cm long, bearing 4–6 scattered,
liguliform or filiform glands 3–10 mm long; blades broadly ovate, 8–15 cm long,
6–13 cm wide, abruptly acuminate, deeply cordate, entire; bracts ovate-lanceolate,
connate toward the base; flowers 6–9 cm wide; sepals ovate-oblong, white within;
petals oblong, white or pinkish white; corona 5–7-ranked, the 2 outer rows of
filaments equaling the petals, radiate, blue at the apex, banded with white and
reddish purple; fruit ovoid, 6–8 cm long, 4–5 cm in diameter, the pericarp
parchment-like, the pulp white, edible; seeds narrowly obcordate, reticulate (Mac-
Passiflora mollissima: Vine, stem terete, densely and softly yellow-villous; stipules
subreniform, 7–9 mm long; petioles bearing 8–12 sessile glands; blades 5–10 cm
long, 6–12 cm wide, 3-lobed about two-thirds their length (lobes ovate or ovate-
oblong, acute, the sinuses acute), sharply serrate-dentate, softly pubescent above,
grayish- or yellowish-tomentose beneath; peduncles 2–6 cm long; bracts 2.5–3 cm
long, united, one third to one-half their length; calyx tube 6.5–8 cm long, olive-
green, often red-tinged without, white within, glabrous; sepals oblong, 2.5–3.5 cm
long; petals pink; corona reduced to a purple band with a few tubercles or crenula-
tions; ovary sericeo-tomentose; fruit oblong-ovoid, 6–7 cm long, 3–3.5 cm in
diameter, yellowish, softly pubescent; seeds reticulate (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).
Passiflora punctata: Vine, glabrous throughout; stipules linear-falcate; petioles
glandless; blades transversely oblong in general outline, 2–5 cm along the
mid-nerve, 3–7 cm along lateral nerves, 6–12 cm wide, truncate, and very shallowly
3-lobed at the apex or rather conspicuously bilobed, thin-membranous, glaucescent
beneath; peduncles 5–8 cm long, very slender; bracts setaceous; flowers 2.5–4 cm
wide; sepals oblong-lanceolate, light yellow-green; petals similar, greenish white;
corona 2-ranked, the outer filaments liguliform, falcate, dilated near the middle,
yellow-green at the apex, purple to magenta at the center, white at the base, the inner
Fig. 1 Passiflora edulis

(Passifloraceae), Pusac, Peru.
Fig. 2 Passiflora edulis

(Passifloraceae), Pusac, Peru.
filaments filiform, capitellate; operculum plicate; fruit ellipsoidal; seeds transversely

6-sulcate (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). Passiflora quadrangularis:
Vine, glabrous throughout; stem stout, quadrangular, the angles winged; stipules
ovate or ovate-lanceolate, 2–3.5 cm long; petioles 6-glandular, the glands subsessile;
blades broadly ovate or ovate-oblong, 10–20 cm long, 8–15 cm wide, abruptly
acuminate, entire, penninerved, the principal lateral nerves 10–12 to a side,
Fig. 3 Passiflora tripartida

var. mollissima
(Passifloraceae), garden,
Chivani, Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &

var. mollissima
R.W. Bussmann &
approximate; bracts cordate-ovate, 3–5.5 cm long; flowers up to 12 cm wide; sepals

ovate or ovate-oblong, white, violet, or pinkish within; petals slightly narrower than
the sepals, white, deeply pink-tinged; corona 5-ranked, the 2 outer ranks subequal,
the filaments up to 6 cm long, radiate, multicolored, the other ranks of the corona
much shorter, mostly purple and white; fruit oblong-ovoid, 20–30 cm long, 12–15 m
in diameter, terete or longitudinally 3-grooved; seeds obcordate or suborbicular, up

var. mollissima
R.W. Bussmann &

var. mollissima
R.W. Bussmann &

var. mollissima
R.W. Bussmann &

var. mollissima
R.W. Bussmann &
to 1 cm long (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
16, and 17).
Passiflora caerulea: Peru: Fresh flowers, leaves, and stems are used to treat nerves,
insomnia, and anxiety (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b; Bussmann and Sharon
2015a, b). Often sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007).
Passiflora edulis: In Colombia, the leaves and flowers of Gulupa are used in the
preparation of infusions to treat nervous and sleep disorders. The fruits are used in
the preparation of various drinks and foods. Flowers and fruits are used as sedatives
and antispasmodics (Bernal et al. 2011; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño. 2011;
Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Patiño 1963; Pérez Arbeláez
1996).

var. mollissima
R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 10 Passiflora
quadrangularis
R.W. Bussmann &
Ecuador: The fruit is used as a purgative to eliminate all kinds of parasites

(unspecified ethnic group-Carchi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The dried leaves sprayed
with gasoline are stored as a drug (Tsa’chi-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Fresh flowers and fruit pulp are used to treat high blood pressure (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006b, 2007b; Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b). Often sold in local
markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). Passiflora edulis serves as a cure for diarrhea in
Fig. 11 Passiflora
quadrangularis
R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 12 Passiflora trisecta

R.W. Bussmann &

R.W. Bussmann &

R.W. Bussmann &
Madagascar (Rakotoarivelo et al. 2015), as well as for tension and parasites

Passiflora ligularis: Colombia: The juice extracted from fresh leaves mixed with
water and sugar serves to lower fevers of all kinds. The fruits and flowers are used as
sedatives and antispasmodics (Fonnegra-Gómez & Villa-Londoño. 2011; García
Barriga 1975; Patiño 1963; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Roots are used to treat bruises;
leaves are used to treat fever, back pain; leaves, buds, and fruits are used as
vermifuge; flowers are used to treat epilepsy (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador:

R.W. Bussmann &

R.W. Bussmann &
The infusion of the leaves is used to treat pimples and kidney conditions (unspecified
ethnic group – Chimborazo). The plant is used to lower fever. It is effective to treat
the empacho, intestinal inflammations, and urinary tract (Mestizo-Pichincha). The
infusion of the root, leaves, and flowers is taken to treat nerve problems (unspecified
ethnicity – Azuay). Perforated and macerated leaves, in any liquor, are used to treat
pains and liver conditions (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The leaves are used to
stop bleeding from the body (Kichwa from the Sierra – Imbabura). In compresses, it
treats various disorders in children (unspecified ethnic group- – Imbabura) (de la
Torre et al. 2008). Used also for menstrual cramps and infections (Béjar et al. 2001;
Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: Fresh leaves and new shoots are used to
treat liver problems, blood circulation, inflammation, inflammation of the kidneys;
fresh peel of the fruit is used to treat diarrhea (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b;
Bussmann and Glenn 2010a; Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b). Often sold in local
markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). The species has antibacterial activity (Bussmann
et al. 2008, 2010a). Passiflora ligularis is also used as antimalarial in Kenya
(Njoroge and Bussmann 2006).

(Passifloraceae), v. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
Passiflora mollissima: The leaves of passion fruit are used in Colombia as hallu-
cinogens. Fruits and flowers are used as a sedative and antispasmodic (Fonnegra-
Gómez & Villa-Londoño. 2011; García Barriga 1975; Patiño 1963; Pérez Arbeláez
1996). Bolivia: Fresh or dried flowers are used to treat diabetes (Macía et al. 2005;
Bussmann et al. 2016).
Passiflora punctata: Peru: Fresh fruits are used for digestion (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006b, 2007b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010b; Bussmann and Sharon
2015a, b). Sometimes sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007).
Passiflora quadrangularis: Like other species of Passiflora, fruits and flowers are
used in Colombia as sedative and antispasmodic. The root of this species is used to
eliminate the tapeworm and as an emetic and is known as a poisonous narcotic
(García Barriga 1975; Patiño 1963; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The root is
emetic and the fruit is used to make refrigerating drinks (unspecified ethnic group –
Azuay, Cañar). With the young leaves, a drink used to treat scurvy (Tsa’chi-
Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008) is prepared. The root is narcotic (unspecified
ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar). Peru: Fresh leaves are used to treat liver problems,
menstrual pain, and stomachache (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b; Bussmann
and Glenn 2010b, c; Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b). Often sold in local markets
All species are used in Peru as part of herbal medicinal mixtures (Bussmann et al.
2010b).
Local Food Uses
Passiflora caerulea: Widely eaten. Ecuador: The aryl is edible, it is used to prepare
jellies, juices, and cocktails (Tsa’chi-Pichincha; Kichwa of the East-Sucumbíos;
Shuar-Napo, Morona Santiago; Mestiza-Pichincha, Tungurahua; Unspecified ethnic
group – Esmeraldas, Guayas, Carchi, Loja, Others (Tropical and subtropical region
of Ecuador)) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Aryl is used to flavor chili sauces (Unspecified
Ethnicity-Others (Ecuador)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Passiflora edulis: Widely eaten, and in Peru often added to emollients (Bussmann
et al. 2015).
Passiflora ligularis: Ecuador: The aryl is edible, it is used to prepare juices (Mestizo-
Imbabura, Tungurahua, Azuay, Loja, Unspecified ethnic group – El Oro, Pichincha,
Chimborazo, Azuay, Cañar, Loja, Zamora Chinchipe) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Passiflora mollissima: The fruits are eaten and used for juices in Bolivia.
Passiflora punctata: Ecuador: The aryl is edible (unspecified ethnic group – El
Oro, Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Passiflora quadrangularis: Ecuador: The aryl is edible; it is used to prepare juices
and soft drinks (Chachi, Afroecuatoriana-Esmeraldas; Tsa’chi-Pichincha; Secoya-
Sucumbíos; Mestizo-Imbabura, Loja, Costa Region; unspecified ethnic group –
Tungurahua, Cañar, Azuay, Loja, Sucumbíos, Others (Costa, Andean, tropical and
subtropical region of Ecuador)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Passiflora ligularis: Ecuador: Bees visit the flowers of this species (unspecified
ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Passiflora quadrangularis: Ecuador: The fruit is food of monkeys (unspecified
ethnic group – Orellana) (from de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2001. 340 p
Nacional para la Conservación de Plantas. Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo
Territorial. Bogotá: Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt;
2011. 232 pp
longevidad – La flora medicinal de Vilcabamba. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007a. (ISBN 978-0-
9789962-2-2)
de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. (ISBN
978-0-9789962-3-9)
medicinal flora of northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. (ISBN
978-0-9960231-2-2)
9960231-3-9)
traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Trad Med. 2010a;9
(4):742–53.
medicine in northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6(10)
2015;69:83–8.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
de la Torre, L., H. Navarrete, P. Muriel M., M.J. Macía & H. Balslev (eds.). (2008). Enciclopedia de
las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador. Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la
Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador & Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias
Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus. Quito/Aarhus.
Alcaldía de Medellín; 2012. 305 pp
Instituto de Ciencias Naturales. Universidad Nacional; 1975. 538 pp
Ethnomed. 2006;2:8.
Imprenta Departamental; 1963. 378 pp
Pérez Arbeláez, E. 1996. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5tha. Ed. Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA,
Jardín Botánico de Bogotá José Celestino Mutis. Bogotá. 831 pp.
the Ambalabe rural commune. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11(68)
2013;9:73.
Pelargonium odoratissimum (L.) L’Hér.
Pelargonium roseum Willd.
Pelargonium zonale (L.) L’Hér.
GERANIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Pelargonium odoratissimum (L.) L’Hér.: Geranium odoratissimum L.

Pelargonium zonale (L.) L’Hér.: Geranium zonale L.
Local Names
Pelargonium odoratissimum: Ecuador: Malva olorosa; Peru: Malva de oro, Malva

de olor, Malva olorosa, Geranio de olor
Pelargonium roseum: Ecuador: Malva rosa; Esencia de rosa, Malva rosa (Spanish)
(de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Geranio
Pelargonium zonale: Ecuador: Geranio, Geranio rojo (Spanish) (de la Torre et al.
2008)
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Pelargonium odoratissimum: Perennial and relatively flat-growing shrublet with a

short thick main stem with extensive herbaceous flowering branches which are
60 cm long. The plant rarely grows beyond 30 cm tall. The main stem is coarse
and scaly due to persistent bases of old stipules. Roots somewhat tuberous. Leaves,
30–40 mm in diameter, roundish to ovate-cordate with crenulate margins, apple
green, and covered with fine short hairs making them pleasant to touch, with strong
apple-mint scent. Flowers pale pink and relatively small (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995; Fig. 1).
Pelargonium roseum: Herb, leaves on long, pubescent petioles, sinuato-pinnatifid,
obtuse, tomentose, the segments bluntly toothed; scape long, simple; umbel densely
many-flowered, the bracts subulate, bearded; calyx tube tomentose, 3–5 times as
long as the lanceolate segments; upper petals emarginate, much longer than the
lower. Flowers are very numerous and bright rosy-red (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
Pelargonium zonale: Many-stemmed, aromatic, erect or decumbent, shrub or sub-
shrub with a partly subterranean tuber, up to 1.5 m high and 0.5–2 m in diameter.
Stems vimineous, angular, sulcate or cylindrical, not distinctly jointed, herbaceous
when young, becoming woody and brown with age, glabrous or sparsely hirtellous.
Fig. 1 Pelargonium
odoratissimum (Geraniaceae),
Loja, Ecuador. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Pelargonium odoratissimum (L.) L’Hér. . . . 1387
Fig. 2 Pelargonium
odoratum (Geraniaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Leaves borne in clusters of 3–4 on short branchlets, light or dark green; lamina
reniform, 5(–7)-palmatilobate to 5(–7)-palmatipartite, sometimes zoned, base cor-
dately incised, apices of lobes rounded to truncate, margins irregularly crenate to
deeply dentate, 10–17 10–20 mm, sparsely hirtellous with many pyriform-headed
glandular hairs in between; petiole 10–25 mm long and slender, stipules subulate,
1–2.5 mm long, membranous or recurved persistent spines. Inflorescence: pseudo-
umbels with 2–5 flowers; peduncle 15–20 mm long, borne on short branchlets;
involucral bracts usually 4, reflexed, membranous when dry. Pedicel 5–10 mm long,
with glandular hairs. Hypanthium 10–30 mm long, with indumentum as on pedicel.
Sepals lanceolate, indumentum abaxial as on hypanthium, green, 5–10 1.5–3 mm.
Petals 5, light purple to purple or white, with dark purple streaks; posterior two
obovate-spathulate with long claws, 10–20 5–8 mm, reflexed; anterior three
spathulate with narrow claws, ca. 10–13 2–4 mm wide (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995; Figs. 2, 3, and 4).
Pelargonium odoratissimum: The juice extracted from the leaves is used in Colom-
bia to stop external bleeding. The decoction of the leaves is used against dysentery
and diarrhea (García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The whole
fresh plant is used to treat diarrhea, stomach pain, and inflammation and as hemo-
static (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: The whole
plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat arthritis, heart, nerves, blood, inflammation of
the ovaries, and inflammation of the womb (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b,
2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010, 2011). It is often sold in medicinal plant
markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). The plant shows antibacterial activity (Bussmann
et al. 2008, 2010a, b; 2011). Mostly it is used as admixture with other plants
(Bussmann et al. 2010c).
Pelargonium roseum: Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat
stomach pain.
Fig. 3 Pelargonium
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Pelargonium
R.W. Bussmann and
The leaves and stem are used to kill fleas (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar).
It is used, in infusion, to treat stomach pain (Mestizo-Azuay) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010,
2011). It is often sold in medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). The plant
shows antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2010a, b, 2011). Mostly it is used as
admixture with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010c).
Pelargonium odoratissimum (L.) L’Hér. . . . 1389
Pelargonium zonale: The juice extracted from the leaves is used in Colombia to
stop external bleeding. The decoction of the leaves is used against dysentery and
diarrhea (García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The whole fresh
plant is used to cure wounds (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann et al. 2006a, 2007a).
It is used to help close facial pores and to treat nosebleeds and urine retention
(Mestizo-Pichincha). It is used to disinfect wounds and relieve blows (Kichwa de la
Sierra-Tungurahua; unspecified ethnicity-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Pelargonium odoratissimum: Peru: For mal de susto (Bussmann and Sharon

2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010d)
Pelargonium zonale: Ecuador: Used for baths (ethnicity not specified – Loja) (de la
Torre et al. 2008)
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
2010b;9(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010d;4(9):580–629.
García Barriga H. Flora Medicinal de Colombia. Botánica Médica. Bogotá: Tomo Segundo.
Instituto de Ciencias Naturales. Universidad Nacional; 1975. 538 pp.
Peperomia alata Ruiz & Pav.
Peperomia blanda (Jacq.) Kunth
Peperomia fraseri C. DC.
Peperomia galioides Kunth
Peperomia hartwegiana Miq.
Peperomia inaequalifolia Ruiz & Pav.
Peperomia quadrifolia (L.) Kunth
PIPERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Peperomia alata Ruiz & Pav. Peperomia alata var. angustifolia C. DC.; Peperomia
alata var. pterocaulis (Miq.) C. DC.; Peperomia alexandri Trel.; Peperomia
crispipetiola Trel.; Peperomia dyscrita Trel.; Peperomia laevis C. DC.; Peperomia
martagonifolia var. contempta Trel.; Peperomia maxonii C. DC.; Peperomia micro-
reticulata Steyerm.; Peperomia nilssonii Yunck.; Peperomia niveo-punctulata Trel.;
Peperomia pterocaulis fo. filispica Trel.; Peperomia pterocaulis fo. stipiticarpa Trel.;
Peperomia pterocaulis Miq.; Peperomia pterocaulis var. filispica Trel.; Peperomia
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

pterocaulis var. palmamochana Trel.; Peperomia turquinana Trel.; Peperomia

versicolor Trel.; Peperomia vueltasana Trel.; Piper alatum (Ruiz & Pav.) Vahl
Peperomia blanda (Jacq.) Kunth: Micropiper langsdorfii Miq.; Peperomia arabica
Decne.; Peperomia arabica var. floribunda Miq.; Peperomia bequaertii De Wild.;
Peperomia blanda var. cobana C. DC.; ex L.J. Schroed.; Peperomia blanda var.
dissimilis (Kunth) C. DC.; Peperomia blanda var. floribunda (Miq.) H. Hübner;
Peperomia blanda var. langsdorffii (Miq.) Henschen; Peperomia blanda var.
leptostachya (Hook. & Arn.) Düll; Peperomia blanda var. reticulata C. DC.; Pep-
eromia blanda var. sericea Yunck.; Peperomia ciliata Kunth; Peperomia decipiens
C. DC.; Peperomia dissimilis Kunth; Peperomia ellipticifolia C. DC.; Peperomia
esquirolii H. Lév.; Peperomia fauriei H. Lév.; Peperomia formosana C. DC.; Pep-
eromia glanduligera var. villosissima Yunck.; Peperomia glanduligera Yunck.;
Peperomia japonica Makino; Peperomia langsdorffii var. dissimilis Dahlst.; Peper-
omia laticaulis C. DC.; Peperomia leptostachya fo. cambodiana C. DC.; Peperomia
leptostachya Hook. & Arn.; Peperomia leptostachya var. cambodiana (C. DC.)
Merr.; Peperomia macaroana Trel. ex V.M. Badillo; Peperomia murispica Trel. ex
V.M. Badillo; Peperomia pseudodindygulensis C. DC.; Peperomia quitensis Miq.;
Peperomia salvaje C. DC.; Peperomia sindygulensis Miq.; Peperomia sui T.T. Lin &
S.Y. Yu; Piper blandum Jacq.; Piper ciliatum (Kunth) Poir.; Piper sissimile (Kunth)
Poir.; Troxirum blandum (Jacq.) Raf.
Peperomia fraseri C. DC.: Peperomia fraseri var. peltata Yunck.; Peperomia
fraseri var. resediflora (Linden & André) C. DC.; Peperomia resedaeflora Linden
& André; Peperomia treleasei Standl. & Steyerm.
Peperomia galioides Kunth: Peperomia agapatensis C. DC.; Peperomia
amphoterophylla Trel.; Peperomia amphoterophylla var. glutineofructa Trel.; Pep-
eromia apoda Trel.; Peperomia brachyiula Trel.; Peperomia dendroides Trel.;
Peperomia dendromorphis Trel.; Peperomia flagelliformis Hook. f. ex Miq.; Peper-
omia galiifolia Trel.; Peperomia galioides var. aproca Henschen; Peperomia
galioides var. longifolia C. DC.; Peperomia galioides var. longifolia C. DC. ex
Donn. Sm.; Peperomia galioides var. minutiflora C. DC.; Peperomia galioides var.
nigropunctulata C. DC.; Peperomia galioides var. umbrosa Henschen; Peperomia
gallitoensis Trel.; Peperomia garrapatilla Trel.; Peperomia granata Trel.; Pepero-
mia guayabillosana Trel.; Peperomia inaequalifolia var. galioides (Kunth) Pino;
Peperomia jamesonii Regel; Peperomia longispica Trel.; Peperomia medianiana
Trel.; Peperomia melanosticta Sodiro; Peperomia mollugo Willd.; Peperomia
muscicola C. DC.; Peperomia muscisedens C. DC.; Peperomia novella Trel.; Pep-
eromia oblongifolia C. DC.; Peperomia okarana Trel.; Peperomia redondoana
Trel.; Peperomia suaveolens Desf. ex Ham.; Peperomia subcorymbosae Sodiro;
Piper galioides (Kunth) Poir.
Peperomia hartwegiana Miq.: Peperomia cerastioides Sodiro; Peperomia cinerea
Sodiro; Peperomia dolichostachya Sodiro; Peperomia kunthiana C. DC.; Peperomia
kunthiana var. puberula Sodiro; Peperomia psilostachya var. subobovatilimba
C. DC.; Peperomia subconcaca Trel.
Peperomia inaequalifolia Ruiz & Pav.: Peperomia congona Sodiro; Piper
aromaticum Willd.; Piper inaequalifolium (Ruiz & Pav.) Vahl
Peperomia alata Ruiz & Pav. . . . 1393
Peperomia quadrifolia (L.) Kunth: Peperomia circulifolia Trel.; Peperomia

circulifolia var. euciliata Trel.; Peperomia var. flava Trel.; Peperomia conocarpa
Trel.; Peperomia edulis Miq.; Peperomia irazuana C. DC.; Peperomia luxii C. DC.;
Peperomia pseudotetraphylla Trel.; Peperomia pseudotetraphylla var. sodgei Trel.;
Peperomia pseudotetraphylla var. juvenalis Trel.; Peperomia rioalbae Trel.; Peper-
omia santa-rosana C. DC.; Peperomia standleyi Trel.; Peperomia stenocaulis
C. DC.; Peperomia subquadrifolia Trel.; Peperomia subrenifolia Trel. & Yunck.;
Peperomia sumichrastii C. DC.; Peperomia tenuicaulis C. DC.; Peperomia
quadrifolium L.; Troxirum quadrifolium (L.) Raf.
Local Names
Peperomia alata: Ecuador: Congona serrana (Spanish)

Peperomia blanda: Ecuador: Congona (Spanish)
Peperomia fraseri: Colombia: Vinang grande; Peru: Hierba de la plata, Dollar
(Spanish)
Peperomia galioides: Colombia: Andaquí de loma, Siempreviva; Ecuador: Mishki
congona de la sacha, Sacha congona, sacha tigrecillo (Spanish-Kichwa), Congona
del monte, Congona silvestre, Menta, Tigrecillo (Spanish), Dikraychillo (unspecified
language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Congonilla (Spanish)
Peperomia hartwegiana: Colombia: Bálsamo; Ecuador: Maywa monte (Spanish-
Kichwa), Congona, Congona del cerro (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru:
Hierba de la plata, Hierba del tesoro (Spanish)
Peperomia inaequalifolia: Colombia: Canelón, Cobalonga; Ecuador: Pataku yuyu
(Kichwa), Congona, Congonilla (Spanish), Cuncuna (corrupted Spanish) (de la
Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Congona, Kongona (Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Peperomia alata: A moderate-sized, glabrous, assurgent herb; stem winged, angled

below the petiole margins; leaves alternate, lance-elliptic, subacuminate, 4–7 cm
long, 2–2.5 cm wide, acute-based, 5-nerved with the inner nerves somewhat con-
fluent; petiole 5–10 mm long, clasping-decurrent; spikes terminal and from the upper
axils, 70 mm long, 2 mm thick; peduncle 10 m. long; bracts round-peltate (Macbride
and Weberbauer 1936–1995; Figs. 1 and 2).
Peperomia blanda: Terrestrial, epiphytic, or epilithic herb, erect or ascending from
rooting base. Stem villous, often fuscous, green or reddish, 10–20( 60) cm long.
Leaves opposite or in whorls of 3–7 (sometimes dimorphic), basely attached; petiole
0.2–1( 1.8) cm long, pubescent; blade slightly fleshy, elliptic, narrowly elliptic, or
obovate, often rhombic, 2–8 0.8–4 cm, margin ciliate, apex acute or somewhat
acuminate, base acute, pubescent usually on both sides; palmately 3( 5)-veined.
Inflorescence terminal or axillary, single or few together; peduncle 0.7–3.2 cm long,
pubescent or crisp-pubescent; spike 2.5–15 cm long, green, densely to laxly
Fig. 1 Peperomia sp. (Piperaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Fig. 2 Peperomia sp. (Piperaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Fig. 3 Peperomia
sp. (Piperaceae), Uchumarca,
Fig. 4 Peperomia
Fig. 5 Peperomia
Fig. 6 Peperomia galioides (Piperaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
flowered; floral bracts rounded, glandular. Fruits subbasely attached, globose to

ovoid, more or less verruculose, brown, apex oblique with subapical stigma (Mac-
bride and Weberbauer 1936–1995; Figs. 3 and 4).
Peperomia fraseri: Perennial, up to 30 cm tall epiphyte. Leaves pseudoverticillate,
ovate 30 mm long, 20 mm wide, with rounded base, acute apex. Flowers small and
unisexual, white, grouped in axillary 3-cm-long spikes (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995; Fig. 5).
Peperomia galioides: Puberulent, suffrutescent, erect, branching herb. Leaves com-
monly four at a node, oblong or somewhat enlarged upward, obtuse, subacute at the
base, 8–15 mm long, 3–4 mm wide, obscurely pinnate-nerved, yellowish beneath;
petiole scarcely 1 mm long; spikes terminal, 50 mm long, 1 mm thick; peduncle
10–15 mm long; bracts round-peltate; berries round, pointed; stigma apical (Mac-
bride and Weberbauer 1936–1995; Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10).
Peperomia hartwegiana: Erect epiphytic herb up to 15 cm tall that grows in small
colonies and favors rocks. The stems are often finely pubescent, maroon-tinged, and
sometimes prostrate. The leaves are arranged densely in ranked whorls and most
crowded at the tops of branches. Leaf is very succulent and roundish-oval in shape,
less than 1 cm long. Often the bottom is purplish-red, and the top green. The
cylindrical spikes borne singly or in twos at the top of the branch up to 6 cm long
and 3 mm across and sometimes tinged in maroon. Occurs in cloud forests, grass
Fig. 7 Peperomia galioides

(Piperaceae), Uchumarca,
Fig. 8 Peperomia galioides

(Piperaceae), Uchumarca,
paramos, and high montane forests of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru at
elevations between 2500 and 3500 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995;
Figs. 11, 12, 13 and 14).
Peperomia inaequalifolia: Large, aromatic, subcespitose, or suffrutescent herb,
leaves 4 at a node, oblong-spatulate, obtuse, cuneate at the base, 5 cm long,
1.5 cm wide, reduced below to scarcely 3.5 cm long, 1 cm wide, 3-nerved; petiole
5 mm long; spikes terminal and axillary, elongate. Epiphytic herb up to 20 cm tall,
sometimes growing prostrate. Stems with whorls of 2–4 leaves at each node, most
crowded at the branch tips. The stems are thick and hairless. The leaf is egg-shaped
with a notch at the broad tip and up to 1.5 cm long and borne from a thick but short
leaf stalk. Leaves often green above and maroon below. The cylindrical spikes borne
singly from the tip of a branch, up to 6 cm long. Flowers densely clustered, each
surrounded by minute bracts. The fruits minute, with a short stalk. Occurs wide-
spread in the neotropics in moist evergreen forests up to 3000 (Macbride and
Peperomia alata: Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat the heart and
nerves (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Peperomia fraseri: In the Valley of Sibundoy (Department of Putumayo, Colom-
bia), the leaves of this Peperomia are used as an amulet to call good luck (Rodríguez-
Echeverry 2010).
Peperomia galioides: In Colombia the whole plant is prepared as an infusion to
treat headaches and fevers (Bernal et al. 2011). Ecuador: The juice of the
leaves (bud) is used to treat nervous conditions (unspecified ethnic group –
Loja). The infusion of the plant is used by women in washings after delivery
(unspecified ethnicity – Azuay). The plant, crushed or infused, is used to treat “bad
heart” and mumps (unspecified ethnicity – Cañar). Hot stem juice is placed in the
ear to treat deafness and earache (unspecified ethnicity – Chimborazo, Cañar). The
infusion calms colic (Kichwa de la Sierra-Pichincha). It is used to treat stomach
pain. The juice of the whole plant, applied in the ribs, lowers the fever (unspecified
ethnic group – Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It is used to cure “bad air”; the
body is rubbed with this plant along with rue (Ruta graveolens), laurel (Myrica
sp.), and radian (Baccharis sp.) (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The infusion of this
plant is used against the “bad wind” and the “evil eye” and to cleanse the body of
the “horror” (Kichwa of the Sierra-Bolívar; Mestizo-Imbabura; unspecified ethnic
group – Imbabura). It is used in good luck baths and healers blow the ground
leaves, with cinnamon and brandy, in witchcraft rituals (Mestizo, unspecified
ethnicity – Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peperomia hartwegiana: In Colombia the decoction of the whole plant calms
vomit. The sap is used in Colombia to treat stomach pain and lower fever (Ariza
Cortés et al. 2009). Ecuador: The cooking of the plant is used to calm vomiting
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The sap of this plant, along with that of other species, is
taken to lower fever and treat stomach pain (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja; unspecified
ethnic group – Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It is used to treat “bad air”
(unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peperomia inaequalifolia: The crushed leaves are used in Colombia as a topical
scar and as a toothpaste against gingivitis. The leaves prepared in infusion are used
as a tranquilizer and analgesic to treat headaches. Additionally, the leaves roasted in
the fire and from which the liquid is extracted by maceration are applied in drops
against otitis and conjunctivitis. It is also prescribed in cases of malaria (Blair
Trujillo and Madrigal 2005; Bernal et al. 2011). Ecuador: Leaf juice and warm
Fig. 11 Peperomia
hartwegiana (Piperaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 12 Peperomia
R.W. Bussmann and
stem fluid are used to treat earache and deafness (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura;
Mestiza-Pichincha, Tungurahua; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Chimborazo,
others (Coast Region)). The infusion of the leaves is drunk to treat heart conditions
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Bolívar). It is used as a cardiac stimulant and to treat headache
Fig. 13 Peperomia
R.W. Bussmann and
(unspecified ethnicity – Cotopaxi). It is used to combat sterility and treat

menstrual cramps and postpartum conditions (Mestizo-Pichincha). It treats
kidney and liver conditions (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). It is an herb used by sorcerers to treat “bad wind” (Kichwa de
la Sierra-Imbabura; unspecified ethnic group – others (Ecuador)) (de la Torre et al.
2008). Peru: The whole fresh plant is used to treat the heart, heart
palpitation, emotional pain, epilepsy, and anxiety (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b).
Local Food Uses
Peperomia galioides: Ecuador: The fruit is edible (unspecified ethnicity – Loja)

(from de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peperomia inaequalifolia: Ecuador: The plant is used to prepare chicha and aro-
matic waters (Mestizo-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Loja) (de la
Torre et al. 2008). The leaves are used as a condiment (Mestizo-Tungurahua) (de la
Torre et al. 2008).
Fig. 14 Peperomia
R.W. Bussmann and
Peperomia alata: Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat evil wind (mal
viento) (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Peperomia blanda: Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat the heart and
nerves and for evil wind (mal viento). It doesn’t work as well as Congona serrana
(Peperomia alata) (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Peperomia fraseri: Peru: Fresh flowers and leaves are used to treat the heart, nerves,
and anxiety; for fragrance, good luck, and love; as aphrodisiac; for good luck in
business and good travels (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b).
Peperomia galioides: Peru: Fresh leaves and stems are used to treat the heart,
nervousness, depression, nostalgic anxiety, emotional trauma, and bad air (mal
aire) and to bind the boyfriend or husband (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b,
2015a, b).
Peperomia hartwegiana: Peru: Fresh flowers, stems, and leaves are used for good
business, protection, good fortune, and good health (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b).
Peperomia inaequalifolia: Ecuador: The leaves are used as shampoo (unspecified
ethnic group – Imbabura). It is used for baths (Mestiza-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al.
2008). Peru: The whole fresh plant is used to treat anxiety, forget love or trauma,
forget problems, forget pain of love, and forget bad relationships (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b).
All species are often found in local plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b).
References
Ariza Cortés W, Huertas García C, Hernández Ortiz A, Geltvez Bernal J, González Rodríguez J,
López Gutiérrez L. Caracterización y usos tradicionales de productos forestales no maderables
(PFNM) en el corredor de conservación Guantiva – La Rusia – Iguaque. Rev Colomb Forestal.
2009;13(1):117–40.
2011. 232 pp.
Blair Trujillo S, Madrigal B. Plantas antimaláricas de Tumaco. Medellín: Costa Pacífica
Colombiana. Editorial Universidad de Antioquia; 2005. 348 pp.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Rodríguez-Echeverry JJ. Uso y manejo tradicional de plantas medicinales y mágicas en el Valle de
Sibundoy, Alto Putumayo, y su relación con procesos locales de construcción ambiental. Rev
Acad Colomb Cienc. 2010;XXXIV(132):309–26.
Persea americana Mill.
LAURACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Persea americana Mill.: Laurus persea L.; Persea americana var. angustifolia
Miranda; Persea americana var. drymifolia (Schltdl. & Cham.) S.F. Blake; Persea
americana var. nubigena (L.O. Williams) L.E. Kopp; Persea drymifolia Schltdl. &
Cham.; Persea edulis Raf.; Persea floccosa Mez.; Persea gigantea L.O. Williams;
Persea gratissima C.F. Gaertn.; Persea gratissima var. macrophylla Meisn.; Persea
gratissima var. oblonga Meisn.; Persea gratissima var. praecox Nees; Persea
gratissima var. var. vulgaris Meisn.; Persea leiogyna S.F. Blake; Persea nubigena
L.O. Williams; Persea paucitriplinervia Lundell; Persea persea (L.) Cockerell;
Persea steyermarkii C.K. Allen
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Colombia: Aguacate, Curo, Avocado, Buité, Begó, Guacachá, Palta, Caí, Parata,
Parite, Parte, Zaboka, Aguacate/Hoja de aguacate (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador:
Palta (Spanish), Alan (Tsafi’ki), Palta, Palta yura, Palta muyu (Kichwa), A’tsa
(A’ingae), Aquëjora, Jo’yajora (Pai coca), Iniák, Kai (Shuar chicham), Aguacate,
Aguacate guatemalteco, Aguacate nacional, Aguacate seda, Aguacate silvestre,
Aguacatillo (Spanish), Avocado (English), Avocado silvestre (Spanish) (de la
Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Palta (Spanish); English: Avocado
Botany and Ecology
Tree, up to 25 m, with glabrate, broadly elliptic leaves, the lateral nerves rugose-
reticulate beneath, mostly 10–20 cm long and half as wide (Macbride and
Weberbauer 1936–1995; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Colombia: Avocado oil is used in Colombia to fortify hair and as an ointment to

soothe pain and to soften tissues in patients with gout. The leaves in decoction are
used against joint rheumatism and in arthritis. They also have antiflatulent, diuretic
properties, relieve colic, and promote menstruation. The fruit is of great nutritional
value. The edible part of the fruit is used as antiflatulent and against colic and
promotes menstruation; the peel is used against intestinal worms and against dys-
entery; the infusion of the peel applied in washings helps in the treatment of
gonorrhea. To eliminate abscesses, boils, etc., a piece of the shell previously
moistened with water is placed directly on the skin in the affected area to accelerate
its maturation and disappearance. The seeds are pulverized and prepared in decoc-
tion are used as antidiarrheals; have anti-inflammatory, healing, and anti-
hemorrhagic properties; and are also considered aphrodisiac, although the said
seeds are said to have sterilizing properties (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño
2011; Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1974; Patiño 1963; Pérez
Arbeláez 1996). The whole plant is used to treat alopecia; fruits are used to treat
vaginal infections and hemorrhoids, for healthy hair, as analgesic, and as vermifuge;
seeds are used to treat dysentery, diarrhea, and sexual potency, to sterilize, and as
astringent; leaves are used to treat vaginal discharge, urethral infections, rheuma-
tism, obesity, heart diseases, headache, and flu, bronchial diseases, and arthritis and
as diuretic, circulatory stimulant, and stimulant; leave buds are used as fungicide;
leaves and fruits are used to treat skin diseases and flatulence and as emmenagogue;
bark and leaves are used to treat indigestion (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador:
Fresh seeds are used to treat abdominal pain and toothache (Béjar et al. 2001;
Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The bath is used to recover from the effects
of childbirth (Mestiza-Pichincha). Grated stem and bark are used to treat toothache
Persea americana Mill. 1407
Fig. 1 Persea americana

(Lauraceae), Pisac, Peru.

(East Kichwa-Orellana). Cooked leaves are used to treat epilepsy, tuberculosis,

colds, and colds with hoarseness and cough. Fresh leaves are chewed to treat tooth
decay, mouth conditions, and gum disease (Mestizo-Pichincha). The cooked leaves
are used to treat diarrhea (Siona-Sucumbíos; Kichwa del Oriente-Orellana). The
leaves, in infusion, serve as vitamins (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). The
leaves are used to cure infections (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The tender


leaves are used to treat cold in the legs (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay). The leaves
and fruit are used to treat fever (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura). The leaves, infused
or vaporized, mixed with Musa acuminata, are used to treat diarrhea and body aches.
The vaporizations of the leaves, together with ground leaves of Gustavia
mascareniensis, relieve pain and inflammation of the body (Kichwa of the East-
Napo). The leaves, in infusion, serve as a diuretic; the bark serves as an astringent
and the fruit, as a disinfectant (unspecified ethnic group – other (Coast Region)). Hot
seeds are used to treat pimples on the skin (Redwood-Succumbs). The seeds, soaked

in water, are used to treat snake bites (Shuar-Napo, Zamora Chinchipe). Roasted seeds
are used to treat diarrhea (Mestiza, unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). It is used to treat
rheumatism, bone, and headaches (Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity – Loja). It
treats undetermined conditions (unspecified ethnicity – Tungurahua). Environmental:
The plant is used to shade crops (Mestiza-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The seeds,
ground or cooked, are consumed as a contraceptive. After some time, the woman will
stop menstruating and will not get pregnant for 3–6 months. To make the effect
stronger, it is mixed with “cruz caspi” (Brownea sp.) and “urupichanga.” It produces
permanent sterilization if taken for 1 year (unspecified ethnic group – other (Coast
Region); Tsa’chi, Mestiza-Pichincha; Kichwa of the East-Napo, Orellana). The seeds,
soaked in water, are used as an abortifacient (Shuar-Napo) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Leaves, fresh or dried, are used to lose weight; fresh flowers are used to treat
diarrhea and kidney stones, as contraceptive, and for sterilization for women only;
fresh seeds are used for treat cough (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b;
Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013). It is sold everywhere in fruit
and medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2009). Avocado has limited
antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010a, 2011a, b). Sometimes the species
has been confused with the ceremonial “Ulluchu” plant used in Moche culture
(Bussmann and Sharon 2009). Ground avocado seeds are sometimes part of medicinal
herb mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010b).
It is used in Madagascar for cough, diarrhea, and apposition of the placenta
Local Food Uses
Widely eaten everywhere. Ecuador: The ripe fruit is edible and much appreciated. It
serves to accompany all types of stews (Tsa’chi-Pichincha; Mestizo-Guayas,
Esmeraldas, Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua, Azuay, Loja; Cofán, Secoya,
Siona-Sucumbíos; Kichwa del Oriente-Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Zamora Chinchipe;
Wao-Orellana; Shuar-Napo, Zamora Chinchipe; unspecified ethnic group –
Galapagos, Esmeraldas, Guayas, Azuay, Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua, Chim-
borazo, Cotopaxi, Loja, Napo, Pastaza, Zamora Chinchipe, others (Andean Region,
Costa Region, and Sierra)). With the leaves aromatic waters are prepared (Mestizo-
Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Ecuador: The plant is used as animal fodder (Mestizo-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
The flower is visited by bees (unspecified ethnic group – Loja) (de la Torre et al.
2008). The fruit is applied to the hair to avoid dandruff and make it silky (unspecified
ethnic group – other (Coast Region)). The stem is used as timber; it is used in
construction as boards and posts and to make furniture (Mestizo-Loja; Shuar-
Zamora Chinchipe; unspecified ethnic group – Galapagos, Zamora Chinchipe).
The leaves are used in hot baths (Tsa’chi-Pichincha). With the leaves, in infusion,
dandruff and hair loss (unspecified ethnicity-Imbabura, Pichincha) (de la Torre et al.
2008) are treated.
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
2009;5:8.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
2010a;9(4):742–53.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
2013;9:73.
Petiveria alliacea L.
PETIVERIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Petiveria alliacea L.: Petiveria foetida Salisb.; Petiveria alliacea var. grandifolia
Moq.; Petiveria alliacea var. octandra (L.) Moq.; Petiveria foetida Salisb.; Petiveria
hexandra Sessé & Moc.; Petiveria ochroleuca Moq.; Petiveria octandra L.;
Petiveria paraguayensis D. Parodi
Local Names
Bolivia: Anamo; Colombia: Anamú, Mucuracá, Mapurite, Hierba hedionda,

Jazmillo, Mapurito, Raíz de pipí, Namú, Urgat, Zorrillo, Fimercarra, Samut Apal,
Koujourouk, Apacín, Ave, Ipacina, Guinea Hen, Mikura, Pisajachu, Sunikila,
Anamú (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Condición panka (Spanish-Kichwa),
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Co’arahuëëco (Pai coca), Condición, Monte zorillo, Zorrillo (Spanish) (de La Torre
et al. 2008); Peru: Mocura, Mucura
Botany and Ecology
Slender herb with usually somewhat woody base; petioles to 6 mm long;

leaves oblong-elliptic, nearly glabrous, about 10 cm long, and half as broad;
racemes erect, axillary, and terminal, exceeding the leaves; pedicels rarely 1 mm
long; fruit to 8 mm long, with 4 or rarely 5 setae (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
Bolivia: It is used to treat colds, fever, swellings, rheumatism, and bone and
muscle pains (Bussmann et al. 2016; Quiroga et al. 2012). Colombia: Anamú is
used in Colombia for the treatment of flu states, menstrual pains, and inflamma-
tions and bacterial infections. The leaves are used as an antispasmodic and
analgesic; to lower blood sugar; as an abortifacient, sudorific, diuretic, sedative,
anthelmintic, menstrual promoter, and anticancer; against strong and dry cough;
for healing; as antimalarial; to lower fevers; as antirheumatic and insecticide; and
in the treatment of venereal diseases, uterine and gastrointestinal disorders, and
skin conditions. The decoction of the leaves is used as a sudorific and to alleviate
bone pain. The decoction of the entire aerial part of the plant is used in the form of
swish to avoid tooth decay and the fall of the teeth and also for the strengthening of
the gums. The swishes made with the decoction of the Anamú are also used to heal
the sores and the mistreatment caused by the tooth boxes. The decoction of the
aerial part of the plant is also consumed to calm the pains of childbirth (Díaz 2003;
Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García
2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The whole
plant promotes sweating and is used to treat tumors, arthritis, spasms, respiratory
tract infection, seizures, inflammation, gum pain, cavities, toothache, rheumatism,
pustules, sores, childbed problems, and cancer and as diuretic, analgesic, and
vermifuge (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The plant treats indeterminate
conditions (Sequoia-Sucumbíos). The leaves and flowers, cooked, are used to
treat cough (Kichwa from the East-Napo, Orellana). The vapor of leaves in hot
water is effective, are effective in treating the flu and lowering the fever (Kichwa
of the East-Napo). Boiled twigs and leaf juice are taken to treat discomfort in cold
children (Kichwa of the East-Orellana). It is used to treat scorpion stings, rheu-
matic pain, as well as hepatitis and jaundice (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas,
others (Coast Region)). It is used as a vermifuge (unspecified ethnicity – others
(Coast Region)) (de La Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The species shows some anti-
bacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2010, 2011a, b).
Petiveria alliacea L. 1415
Ecuador: It is used for baths (Mestizo-Guayas). Social: It is used as an abortive

(unspecified ethnicity – others (Coast Region)) (de La Torre et al. 2008). It is used for
curing ceremonies to fend off spirits (Bussmann and Sharon 2006a). Peru: The
whole fresh plant is used for spiritual flowering (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013).
References
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Martínez Correa CA, Martínez PAM. Determinación de la etnobotánica de las plantas medicinales
comercializadas en las plazas de mercados de los municipios de Turbo, Apartadó, Carepa,
Chigorodó y Mutatá, Antioquia, Colombia. Tesis de Grado. Turbo, Antioquia: Universidad
Nacional Abierta y a Distancia UNAD. Escuela de Ciencias Agrícolas, Pecuarias y del Medio
Ambiente; 2017. 136 pp.
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss
APIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss: Apium crispum Mill.; Apium petroselinum L.;
Carum petroselinum (L.) Benth. & Hook. f.; Petroselinum hortense Hoffm.;
Petroselinum petroselinum (L.) H. Karst.; Petroselinum sativum Hoffm.;
Petroselinum vulgare Lag.; Wydleria portoricensis DC.
Local Names
Colombia: Perejil, Alpichala, Perejil liso, Perejil crespo (Spanish); Ecuador and
Peru: Perejil (Spanish); English: Parsley
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Biennial; entire plant glabrous; root fusiform, sometimes much thickened; stem
30–100 cm high, branching from middle, branches opposite or whorled, usually
exceeding central umbel; leaves dark green, shiny above; radical and lower cauline
leaves long-petioled, 2–3-pinnate, with obovate trifid or cuneate deeply dentate
lobes, the teeth obtuse, with small whitish mucronate; upper leaves ternate, with
lanceolate-linear, entire or trifid lobes. Umbels of 10–20 nearly equal glabrous rays;
involucre 1–2-leaved, involucels of 6–8 linear or linear-subulate leaflets subtending
the rays for half their length; petals ca. 0.75 mm long; fruit grayish-brown, broadly
ovoid, 2.5–3 mm long, 2 mm wide. Flowering June–July. Widely cultivated in
gardens and locally escaped.
In Colombia parsley is considered a diuretic, facilitator of menstruation, sedative,

anti-inflammatory, and antiparasitic. It is used in the treatment of chronic bronchitis,
bronchial asthma, and indigestion and also for the treatment of liver, kidney, and
urinary tract diseases. Chewing the whole plant for a while will cure infections of the
palate and mouth. Parsley cooking gives the hair a silky smoothness; in decoction it
has been used against fluid retention, as antiflatulent, and to relieve colic. The juice
of the fresh plant cures the duodenal ulcer. Roots and fruits are used to treat
menstrual disorders, urinary bladder infections, fluid retention, kidney stones, and
indigestion. The decoction of the root is used as a diuretic and in heart diseases.
Poultices made with green seeds and crushed leaves are used as an anti-
inflammatory. The seeds are also used in gastrointestinal conditions and in nerve
pain. The fruits are also useful for treating fluid retention (Fonnegra-Gómez and
Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Martínez
Arbeláez 1996). Root is also used to treat heart diseases; root, leaves, and fruits are
used to treat dysmenorrhea and as emmenagogue; fruits are used to treat flatulence
(Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: Fresh leaves are used to treat infections and nose
bleeds and to forget love and trauma (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon
2006a, 2007a). The infusion of the plant is used to treat bleeding and problems of the
heart and nerves (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). The infusion of the
branches is taken as diuretic (Mestiza-Pichincha). The whole plant, infused and
combined with Melissa and Pimpinella sp., is used to treat nerves and heart aches
(unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). With the plant, macerated in alcohol, inflamed
wounds are treated (Kichwa de la Sierra, unspecified ethnic group – Loja). The root
is carminative, diuretic, and appetizer. The leaves are used to treat indeterminate
conditions (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar). The crushed leaves are placed as a
stopper to stop nosebleeds (Mestiza, unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). It is used to
treat liver and kidney pain (Mestiza Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The
whole fresh plant is used to treat heart problems, high blood pressure, infections, and
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss 1419
nose bleeds, to regulate the menstrual cycle, and to forget love trauma, anger, and
nervous system problems (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2009; 2015a, b;
Bussmann and Glenn 2010; Monigatti et al. 2013). Parsley has some antibacterial
activity (Bussmann et al. 2009a, b, 2010a, b, 2011). It is often used in mixture with
other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010c; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7).
Local Food Uses
Colombia: Root and leaves are used as condiment (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecua-
dor: Fresh leaves are used as condiment (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon
2006a, 2007a). Raw leaves are consumed in salads (unspecified ethnicity –
Pichincha). The leaves are used as a condiment for soups, potatoes, beans, eggs,
etc. (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha,
Cañar, Azuay). The juice or infusion of the leaves is drunk to calm pain (Kichwa de
la Sierra-Imbabura; unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: The whole fresh plant is used as condiment (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b).
Parsley is a very commonly grown plant and everywhere found in local markets
(Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008, 2016; Revene et al. 2008).
Fig. 1 Petroselinum crispum

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Petroselinum crispum (Apiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008;6:351–61.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103.
(1):105–10.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
(4):742–53.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.

Carepa, Chigorodó y Mutatá, Antioquia, Colombia. Tesis de Grado. Turbo, Antioquia:
Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia UNAD. Escuela de Ciencias Agrícolas, Pecuarias
y del Medio Ambiente; 2017. 136 pp.
(2):450–64.
Peumus boldus Molina
MONIMIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Peumus boldus Molina: Boldea boldus (Molina) Looser; Boldea fragrans Endl.
Local Names
Bolivia: Boldo (Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005; Bussmann et al. 2016); Colombia:
Boldo (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Boldo (Spanish) (de la Torre
et al. 2008); Peru: Boldo
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Tree to 20 m high, with trunk to 1 m in diameter at the base; crown rounded, many-
branched, leafy; bark brownish gray, almost smooth to slightly ridged and cracked on
the trunk; twigs pubescent. Leaves opposite; petiole 3–5 mm long, pubescent with
short soft matted hairs or subglabrous; blade broadly elliptical to ovate, (2–)3–6
(–8) cm long, (1–)1.5–3.5(–4.5) cm broad, leathery; base rounded; apex broadly
rounded-obtuse; margins entire, revolute; upper surface dark green, with deeply
sunken nerves, numerous glandular hairs; lower surface lighter in color, with promi-
nent nerves, bearing stellate hairs. Dioecious. Inflorescence a raceme, axillary or
terminal, several-flowered. Perianth 5–7 mm in diameter, of 10–12 tepals in 2–3
whorls, the outer membranous and pubescent, the inner petaloid and yellowish-
white; stamens numerous, in several whorls; carpels separate, 2–7. Fruit a drupe,
usually 2–5 developing per flower, 1-seeded (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Boldo is native to Chile, but has been introduced to all neighboring countries as important
medicinal species.
Bolivia: Leaves, fresh or dried, are used to treat gallbladder, liver, uterus, and kidney
infection and bloody vaginal discharge (Macía et al. 2005, Bussmann et al. 2016).
Colombia: In Colombia boldo tea prepared with the leaves is used in liver condi-
tions and for indigestion and upset stomach. It is also used to activate the production
of bile and as a liver tonic (Díaz 2003; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017;
Ministerio de Protección Social 2008). Leaves are used to treat toothache, syphilis,
rashes, migraine, liver problems, lack of appetite, kidney infection, indigestion,
headache, gallbladder infection, flatulence, and dropsy, to strengthen vision, for
liver cleaning and blood cleansing, and as tranquilizer; bark and leaves are used to
treat constipation and as diuretic (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The infusion of
the rhizome and the leaves is used to treat kidney, liver, and purgative conditions
(unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Chimborazo) (de La Torre et al. 2008). Peru:
It is used to treat inflammation of the liver and kidneys (Bussmann and Sharon 2006,
2007, 2009, 2015a, b). This introduced species is widely sold in markets (Bussmann
et al. 2007a, b, 2009, 2010) and among the plants distributed to patients in the
Peruvian social security system. It has antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008,
2010a, b, c, 2011a, b) and is often an ingredient in complex herbal preparations
(Bussmann et al. 2010c). Sometimes boldo is added to emollients (Bussmann et al.
2015).
References
Peumus boldus Molina 1427
978-0-9789962-3-9.
2010. p. 184–207. 288 p.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Northern-Peruvian Medicinal Plants – a low cost laboratory approach to assess biological
2015;69:83–8.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.

Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
Phoradendron nervosum Oliv.
SANTALACEAE
Synonyms
Phoradendron nervosum Oliv.: Phoradendron granaticola Trel.; Phoradendron

granaticola var. taeniicaule (Rizzini) Rizzini; Phoradendron huehuetecum Standl. &
Steyerm.; Phoradendron mandonii Eichler; Phoradendron pachanum Trel.;
Phoradendron pifoense Trel.; Phoradendron roseanum Trel.; Phoradendron semi-
teres Trel.; Phoradendron taeniicaule Rizzini; Phoradendron trianae Eichler;
Phoradendron tuberosum Urb.; Phoradendron turbinispicum Trel.; Phoradendron
verleysenii Trel.; Phoradendron verleysenii var. chimboensis Trel.; Phoradendron
verleysenii var. fraseri Trel.
Local Names
Bolivia: Sulta que sulta (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2016); Ecuador: Suelda, Suelda
con suleda (Spanish) (de La Torre et al. 2008)
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Dendrophthora
sp. (Santalaceae), Uchumarca,
Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 2 Dendrophthora
sp. (Santalaceae), Uchumarca,
Botany and Ecology
A parasitic mistletoe 40–60 cm tall with segmented stems that are somewhat
flattened or keeled. A single pair of large, scale-like leaves borne 3–5 mm above
the base. The stem leaves are simple and in opposite pairs, each leaf is 5–20 cm long,
Phoradendron nervosum Oliv. 1431
Fig. 3 Phoradendron
nervosum (Santalaceae),
R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 4 Phoradendron
R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 5 Phoradendron
R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 6 Phoradendron
R.W. Bussmann &
and 5–7 major veins are visible. Male and female flowers on the same yellow-green,
segmented inflorescence, 6 cm long and borne on a short stalk. Each segment with
3–5 flowers or rarely as many as 27 arranged in 3 series; 2-parted stamens. Fruit
3 mm long, round, embedded in the stalk, orange to red, with tiny, closed petals still
attached. From Mexico and into Central America and as far south as Bolivia in the
Andes at elevations up to 3000 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Bolivia: Stems, leaves, and fruits are used to treat bone pain, fractures, internal
blows, rheumatism, sprains, strong blows, fever, childbed infections, uterus disease,
uterus prolapse, wound swelling, kidney infection, prostate disease, and quirwación
(pain on the sole of the feet) (Bussmann et al. 2016). Ecuador and Peru: The
species is widely used for fractures, sprains, and bruises (Bussmann and Sharon
2006a, b; Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013). It shows mild
antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2010, 2011a) and has low toxicity (Bussmann
et al. 2011b).
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: The fruit is edible (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha) (from La Torre et al.
2008).
References
Phoradendron nervosum Oliv. 1433
medicinal flora of Northern Peru. St. Louis: William L, Brown Center, MBG; 2015a.. ISBN
978-0-9960231-2-2
medicinal del Norte de Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015b.. ISBN 978-0-
9960231-3-9
de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel P, Macía MJ, Balslev H (editors). Enciclopedia de las Plantas
Útiles del Ecuador. Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la Pontificia
Universidad Católica del Ecuador & Herbario AAU del Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas
de la Universidad de Aarhus. Quito & Aarhus, Denmark. 2008
(2):450–64.
Phyllanthus niruri L.
Phyllantus stipulatus (Raf.) G.L. Webster
Phyllanthus urinaria L.
PHYLLANTHACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Phyllanthus niruri L.: Diasperus niruri (L.) Kuntze; Phyllanthus asperulatus

Hutch.; Phyllanthus filiformis Pavon ex Baillon; Phyllanthus lathyroides
fo. decoratus Standl. & Steyerm.; Phyllanthus lathyroides Kunth; Phyllanthus
microphyllus Mart.; Phyllanthus niruri subsp. lathyroides (Kunth) G.L. Webster;
Phyllanthus niruri var. genuinus Müll. Arg.
Phyllanthus stipulatus (Raf.) G.L. Webster: Moeroris stipulata Raf.; Phyllanthus
aquaticus C. Wight; Phyllanthus diffusus Kunth; Phyllanthus hoffmannseggii
Müll. Arg.
Phyllanthus urinaria L.: Diasperus urinaria (L.) Kuntze; Phyllanthus alatus
Blume; Phyllanthus cantoniensis Hornem.; Phyllanthus chamaepeuce Ridl.;
Phyllanthus croizatii Steyerm.; Phyllanthus lepidocarpus Siebold & Zucc.;
Phyllanthus leprocarpus Wight; Phyllanthus nozeranii Rossignol & Haicour
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Phyllanthus niruri: Bolivia: Chanka piedra (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2016);

Colombia: Viernes santo, Barbasquillo, Barbasco, Quiebrapiedra, Chanca Piedra,
Flor Escondida, Huevo abajo, Paracelsa (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. en prep.);
Ecuador: Chanca Piedra (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Chanca Piedra
(Spanish)
Phyllanthus stipulatus: Colombia: Barbasquillo; Ecuador: Chanca piedra (Span-
ish), Kasunu tape (Chafi’ki), Na tso’tso ta’pe (Tsafi’ki), Hui’ya soquë (Pai coca)
(de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Chanca piedra (Spanish)
Phyllanthus urinaria: Ecuador: Chanca Piedra (Spanish), Nentokabo (Wao
tededo) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Chanca piedra (Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Phyllanthus niruri: Perennial, erect, and weedy herb up to 75 cm tall. Branchlets

appear as compound leaves. Leaves oval to elliptic, with rounded base and rounded
tip, up to 1.5 cm long, underside whitish. Flowers singly or several from short stalks.
Male and female flowers separate on the same plant. Male flowers white, 2 mm wide
with 3 fused stamens, female flowers green, 7 mm wide, borne on longer stalks. The
fruits are small and hard, 2-parted, yellowish green. In disturbed areas such as
roadsides of humid, montane forests or riparian areas of the neotropics, between
400 and 2900 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Phyllanthus stipulatus: Annual or perennial herb; branchlet axes terete; cymules
unisexual, staminate flowers proximal on branchlet; sepals 5 or 6; seeds longitudi-
nally ribbed or striate (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Phyllanthus urinaria: Erect to prostrate, slender, glabrous herb, 10–35 cm high. The
stems branch often, reddish. Leaves papery, alternate, about 4–10 2–5 mm, oblong
to nearly linear and sometimes slightly falcate, bright to dark green above and gray-
green to reddish tinged below. Monoecious, female flowers along the first to the
middle part of the leaf, male flowers from the middle to the tip. Flowers very small,
yellowish white. Fruits green, red, or greenish-red, about 3 mm in diameter, tripartite;
surface has raised scales (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
All species are used interchangeably for kidney and urinary problems, intestinal
infections, diabetes, and cystitis and as anti-inflammatory.
Phyllanthus niruri: Bolivia: The dry whole plant is used to treat gallbladder
infection, kidney stones, and kidney infection (Bussmann et al. 2016).
Colombia: The whole plant is used in Colombia as insecticide in animals by
applying it externally on the nuches and the skin infested with lice. In popular
medicine it is used as a diuretic and purgative and also in the treatment of diabetes
Phyllanthus niruri L. . . . 1437
Fig. 1 Phyllanthus urinaria

(Phyllanthaceae),
R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 2 Phyllanthus urinaria

(Phyllanthaceae),
R.W. Bussmann &
(García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The whole plant is used to treat botfly
infections, constipation, and lice infestation (Bussmann et al. 2018) Ecuador: The
fresh whole plant is used to treat kidney stones and stomachache (Béjar et al. 2001;
Fig. 3 Phyllanthus sepialis

(Phyllanthaceae), Pisac, Peru.
Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The plant is used to treat kidney stones
(unspecified ethnic group – Los Ríos) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat liver inflammation, clean blood
from toxins, inflammation, bladder stones, liver, kidneys, blood and inflammation of
the gall bladder (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Monigatti et al.
2013). All species show distinct antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008a,
2010a, 2011). Sometimes it is found in mixtures with other plants (Bussmann
et al. 2010b). Chanca Piedra is sold either fresh or as dried preparation, sometimes
as tincture, and in medicinal plant markets everywhere (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b,
2008b, 2009, 2016; Bussmann and Sharon 2009). Phyllanthus is a common ingre-
dient in emollients – healthy hot beverages often consumed for breakfast (Bussmann
et al. 2015). Also it is used in India for allergies, boils, diarrhea, urinary disorders,
indigestion, and gastric problems (Verma et al. 2007).
Phyllanthus stipulatus: The whole plant is used in Colombia as insecticide in
animals by applying it externally on the nuches and the skin infested with lice. In
popular medicine it is used as a diuretic and purgative and also in the treatment of
diabetes (Bernal et al. 2011; García Barriga 1975). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant
is used to treat kidney stones and stomachache (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and
Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The infusion is used to prevent and treat prostate cancer
(Sequoia-Sucumbíos). It is applied in baths to harden bones in children (Tsa’chi-

Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is used to clean the “bad air” and when
children cry a lot and cannot sleep. It is applied to the eyes (Tsa’chi-Pichincha;
Chachi-Esmeraldas) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
the gall bladder (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, Bussmann and Sharon 2015a,
Bussmann and Sharon 2015b; Monigatti et al. 2013). All species show distinct
antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008a, 2010a, 2011). Sometimes it is found
in mixtures with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010b). Chanca Piedra is sold either
fresh or as dried preparation, sometimes as tincture, and in medicinal plant markets
everywhere (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008b, 2009, 2016; Bussmann and Sharon
2009). Phyllanthus is a common ingredient in emollients – healthy hot beverages
often consumed for breakfast (Bussmann et al. 2015).
Phyllanthus urinaria: Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat kidney stones
and stomachache (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The plant
is used to treat indeterminate conditions (Wao-Orellana) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
the gall bladder (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Monigatti et al.
2013). All species show distinct antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008a,
2010a, 2011). Sometimes it is found in mixtures with other plants (Bussmann
et al. 2010b). Chanca Piedra is sold either fresh or as dried preparation, sometimes
as tincture, and in medicinal plant markets everywhere (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b,
2008b, 2009, 2016; Bussmann and Sharon 2009). Phyllanthus is a common ingre-
dient in emollients – healthy hot beverages often consumed for breakfast (Bussmann
et al. 2015).
Ecuador: The plant is sown as living fence (Kichwa del Oriente-Napo) (de la Torre
et al. 2008).
References
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008b;6:351–61.
(4):742–53.
2015;69:83–8.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
(2):450–64.
of Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2007;3:35.
Phytolacca bogotensis Kunth
Phytolacca icosandra L.
PHYTOLACCACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Phytolacca bogotensis Kunth: Phytolacca australis Phil.; Phytolacca bogotensis

var. australis (Phil.) Hauman; Phytolacca micrantha H. Walter; Phytolacca
parviflora Hauman
Phytolacca icosandra L.: Phytolacca altamiranii Ram. Goyena; Phytolacca
icosandra var. angustitepala H. Walter; Phytolacca icosandra var. sessiliflora
(O. Hoffm.) H. Walter; Phytolacca longespica Moq.; Phytolacca malabarica
Crantz.; Phytolacca mexicana Crantz; Phytolacca nova-hispania Millesp.;
Phytolacca octandra L.; Phytolacca octandra var. angustifolia Moq.; Phytolacca
purpurascens A. Braun & Bouché; Phytolacca rivinoides Kunth & C.D. Bouché;
Phytolacca triquetra Moench
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Phytolacca bogotensis: Spanish: Colombia: Cargamanta, Guaba; English: Poke

salad
Phytolacca icosandra: Colombia: Altasara, Amole, Bella sombra, Caricillo,
Congora, Conguerá, Guaba, Cargamanta, Cargamanto, Jaboncillo, Saúco, Yerba de
culebra; English: Poke salad
Botany and Ecology
Phytolacca bogotensis: A smooth, green, shrubby herb, the stout branches scarcely
or little angled; petioles to 4 cm. long, grooved and angled; leaf blades oblong-
elliptic or broadly lanceolate, acute at both ends or acuminate, the base decurrent,
usually chartaceous and white punctate, to about 10 cm. long and 4 cm. broad;
racemes suberect, many-flowered, to only 4.5 cm. long and 13 mm. thick, the
peduncles to 1 cm. long; flowers perfect, the pedicels 3 mm. long; stamens (8–12)
and sepals subequal; ovary 8–10-carpellate, the carpels completely joined; fruit
baccate (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Phytolacca icosandra: Shrub, very similar to P. bogotensis, but generally recogniz-
able by the spicate or racemose inflorescence, which is usually terminal and much
longer than the leaves; flowers subsessile or rarely on pedicels 2.5 mm. long;
stamens 16–22; carpels 8–10, all connate (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Phytolacca bogotensis: The dried root is used in Colombia as an anti-inflammatory

and anti-rheumatic. It is also considered vermifuge and to help in the treatment of
scabies. Leaves prepared in the form of poultices are used to relieve tumors, and
macerating them in alcohol relieves the symptoms of rheumatism. The macerated
leaves prepared in poultices are also placed in direct contact with the affected area of
the skin to heal the ulcers of the varicose veins in the legs. Roots, stems, and leaves
are used as a purgative (Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1974; Mini-
sterio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Peru: It is used to treat
scurvy, malaria, dengue, and yellow fever Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007,
2015a, b). It can be found in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). Phytolacca has
limited antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010a, 2011a, b). It is part of
many herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010b).
Phytolacca icosandra: The roots, stems, and leaves are used as purgatives. The root
is used against intestinal worms and to cure scabies. The leaves macerated and
applied in poultices and in direct contact with the affected area heal the ulcers of the
varicose veins in the legs; similarly, they are used to relieve tumors, and macerating
them in alcohol relieves rheumatism (García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Phytolacca bogotensis Kunth. . . 1445
Fig. 1 Phytolacca icosandra

(Phytolaccaceae),
Leymebamba, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 2 Phytolacca americana

(Phytolaccaceae), Zugdidi,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
Phytolacca bogotensis: Peru: It is used against freight/susto (Bussmann and Sharon

2006, 2007, 2015a, b).

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
Phytolacca bogotensis Kunth. . . 1447

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
References
healing culture. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 2006;2:47.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
markets in Trujillo and Chiclayo, Northern Peru. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine.
2007;3:37.
can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian Journal of Traditional
Medicine. 2010a;9(4):742–53.
medicine in Northern Peru. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 2010b;6:10.
Northern Peruvian medicinal plants. Ethnobotany Research and Application. 2011a;9:67–96.
in Northern Peru. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2011b;137:121–40.
Pimpinella anisum L.
APIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Pimpinella anisum L.: Anisum vulgare L.; Apium anisum (L.) Crantz; Carum
anisum (L.) Baill.; Selinum anisum (L.) E.H.L. Krause; Seseli gilliesii Hook. &
Arn.; Sison anisum (L.) Spreng.; Tragium anisum (L.) Link.
Local Names
Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Anis (Spanish); Peru: Anis criollo, Anis (Spanish);
English: Anise
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Annual herb, usually entire plant covered with thin short spreading hairs; root thin,
fusiform; stem 20–50 cm high, straight, cylindrical, furrowed, branching above;
lower cauline leaves petioled, rounded-reniform, entire, incised-dentate or lobed, of
3 rounded-cordate leaflets, the lateral on short, the terminal on longer petiolules;
subsequent leaves with obcuneate, often 2-lobed lateral and 3-lobed terminal leaf-
lets; upper leaves sessile on narrow sheath, bi- or tripinnate, with linear-lanceolate
lobules; uppermost leaves 3-partite or entire. Umbels 2.5–6 cm across, of 7–15 rays
with short spreading hairs; involucre absent or 1-leaved; leaflets of involucels
filiform, 1 to few; petals white, ca. 1.5 mm long, with ciliate margin, dorsally with
short-bristly hairs, with inward curved tip; fruit broadly cordate-ovoid or ovoid or
obpyriform, 3–5 mm long, slightly compressed laterally, with faintly protruding
dorsal ribs; canals 4–8 under valleculae, forming a nearly continuous ring, 2–4
canals toward commissure; stylopodium conical, styles recurved, half as long as
fruit. Known only in cultivation, locally escaped in moderately warm regions of the
globe (Figs. 1 and 2).
In Colombia anise is often used as a cardiac tonic to activate circulation and

facilitate breathing. Anise oil has antiseptic properties and is used as an insect
repellent. The leaves are used to relieve cough and headache and in the treatment
of intestinal disorders, flatulence, and dyspepsia. The fruits in infusion are used as
antiflatulent, against colic, and to calm stomach discomfort. Preparations in
decoction are used as diuretics and to encourage the production of breast milk
(Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Martínez Correa and Montes
Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Bolivia: Dried seeds are used to treat stomachache and diarrhea (Bussmann
et al. 2016; Macía et al. 2005) and as anti-inflammatory (Quiroga et al. 2012).
Colombia: Fruits are used as cardiac stimulant and galactagogue and to help
breathing; fruits and seeds are used to treat flatulence and indigestion and as
diuretic; seeds are used to treat sunstroke (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The
whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat colds and chills (Béjar et al. 2001;
Bussmann and Sharon 2006a; Bussmann and Sharon 2007a). The decoction of the
plant is taken to treat colic (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The seeds are
carminative and tonic and are used to treat cough (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay,
Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Dried seeds are used to treat gases, stomach
pain, and colics (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010;
Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b). It is sold in local medicinal plant markets
(Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008, 2009a). Pimpinella has some antibacterial activity
(Bussmann et al. 2008, 2009b, c). Sometimes it is an ingredient in medicinal plant
mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010).
Pimpinella anisum L. 1451
Fig. 1 Pimpinella
sp. (Apiaceae), Bakuriani,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 2 Pimpinella
sp. (Apiaceae), leaves.
R.W. Bussmann &
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: The seeds have an aromatic essential oil that is used to make candies,
spirits, and aromatic waters (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre
et al. 2008).
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009b;16(1):93–103.
Perez AF, Glenn A. Phyto-chemical analysis of Peruvian medicinal plants. Arnaldoa. 2009c;16
(1):105–10.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Pimpinella anisum L. 1453
Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus. Quito/Aarhus
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
Ministerio de Protección Social. Vademécum Colombiano de Plantas Medicinales. Imprenta
Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá; 2008. 311 pp.
Quiroga R, Meneses L, Bussmann RW. Medicinal ethnobotany in Huacareta (Chuquisaca, Bolivia).
Piper acutifolium Ruiz & Pav.
Piper aduncum L.
Piper aequale Vahl.
PIPERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Piper acutifolium Ruiz & Pav.: Artanthe acutifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Miq.; Piper
mandonii C. DC.; Steffensia acutifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Kunth
Piper aduncum L.: Artanthe adunca (L.) Miq.; Artanthe celtidifolia (Kunth) Miq.;
Artanthe galleottii Miq.; Piper aduncifolium Trel.; Piper aduncum var. brachyarthrum
(Trel.) Yunck.; Piper aduncum var. cordulatum (C. Dc.) Yunck.; Piper aduncum var.
laevifolium C. DC.; Piper anguillispicum Trel.; Piper angustifolium Lam.; Piper
angustifolium Ruiz & Pav.; Piper cardenasii Trel.; Piper celtidifolium Kunth; Piper
cuatrecasii Trel.; Piper cumbriciola Trel.; Piper disparispicum Trel.; Piper
elongatifolium Trel.; Piper elongatum Vahl; Piper elongatum var. brachyarthrum
Trel.; Piper elongatum Vahl. var. elongatum; Piper elongatum var. laevifolium
(C. DC.) Trel; Piper elongatum var. pampayacusum Trel.; Piper fatoanum C. DC.;
Piper flavescens (C. DC.) Trel.; Piper guanaianum C. DC.; Piper herzogii C. DC.;
Piper illudens Trel.; Piper interstitum fo. porcecitense Trel.; Piper interstitum Trel.;
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Piper kuntzei C. DC.; Piper lineatum var. hirtipetiolatum Trel.; Piper multinervium
M. Martens & Galeotti; Piper multinervium Trel.; Piper multinervium var. amplum
Trel.; Piper multinervium var. cayoense Trel.; Piper multinervium var. flavicans Trel.;
Piper multinervium var. hirsuticaule Trel.; Piper multinervium var. kantelolense Trel.;
Piper multinervium var. paralense Trel.; Piper multinervium var. percutum Trel.; Piper
multinervium var. productipes Trel.; Piper multinervium var. protractifolium Trel.;
Piper multinervium var. puberulipedunculum Trel.; Piper multinervium var.
pubescenticaule Trel.; Piper multinervium var. skutchii Trel.; Piper multinervium
var. tamashense Trel.; Piper multinervium var. telanum Trel.; Piper nonconformans
Trel.; Piper oblanceolatum var. fragilicaule Trel.; Piper pseudovelutinum var.
flavescens C. DC.; Piper purpurascens D. Dietr., Piper reciprocum Trel.; Piper
stevensonii Trel.; Piper submolle Trel.; Steffensia adunca (L.) Kunth; Steffensia
elongata (Vahl.) Kunth
Piper aequale Vahl.: Artanthe aequalis (Vahl.) Miq.; Artanthe caripensis (Kunth)
Miq.; Piper aequale var. ellipticolanceolatum C. DC.; Piper aequale var. sub-
stenocarpum C. DC.; Piper amphioxys Trel.; Piper asymmetricum C. DC.; Piper
atrichopus Trel.; Piper cabagranum C. DC.; Piper caeruleifolium Trel.; Piper
caledonianum C. DC.; Piper caripense Kunth; Piper catacryptum Trel.; Piper
cheyennense Trel. & Standl.; Piper chiriquinum C. DC.; Piper coarctatum Trel.;
Piper colemanense Trel.; Piper concinnifolium Trel.; Piper concinnum var. trinitense
C. DC.; Piper costaricense C. DC.; Piper crispans Trel.; Piper donnell-smithii
C. DC.; Piper dunlapii Trel.; Piper eldoradense Trel.; Piper ellipticolanceolatum
(C. DC.) Trel.; Piper epilosipes Trel.; Piper epilosipes var. heterophyllum Trel.;
Piper frioense Standl. & Steyerm.; Piper funckii C. DC.; Piper heptaneurum Trel.;
Piper ibaguense Trel.; Piper incisicuspe Trel.; Piper jericoense Trel. & Yunck.;
Piper johnstonii C. DC.; Piper micranthera C. DC.; Piper mombachanum C. DC.;
Piper oppressum Trel.; Piper pablense Trel.; Piper paso-anchoense Trel.; Piper
percome Trel.; Piper perlasense Yunck.; Piper playablancanum Trel.; Piper
rubripes Trel.; Piper seductum Trel.; Piper subdurum Trel.; Piper substenocarpum
C. DC.; Piper tacamahaca Trel.; Piper tenuispicum C. DC.; Piper zedijodi Trel. ex
L.O. Williams; Piper zediogodiense Trel. ex L.O. Williams; Schilleria aequalis
(Vahl.) Kunth
Local Names
Piper acutifolium: Bolivia: Matico (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2016)

Piper aduncum: Colombia: Cordoncillo, Hierba del Soldado, Matico, Monte del
Soldado, Hierba de Canotillo, Tapa Hueco, Pipilongo, Chavica, Sabanagrande,
Cordoncillo blanco, Cordoncillo (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador:
Cordoncillo, Matico (Spanish), Muku chaklla, siksi, willma panka (kichwa),
nempokawe (wao tededo), kunkuin nupa, tunchi, únkuch, úntuntup (shuar chicham),
cordoncillo, hierba de canotillo, hierba del soldado, matico, matico de monte,
nudillo, verrugosa hembra (Spanish) (de La Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Yerba del
Soldado, Tilonga, Matico, Mogo-Mogo (Spanish)
Piper acutifolium Ruiz & Pav. . . . 1457
Piper aequale: Ecuador: Aya pahu panka, Muku chaklla (Kichwa), Uiba María
panka (Spanish-Kichwa) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Modoquero, Mogoquero
(Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Piper acutifolium: Shrub, twigs yellow-villous; leaves lance-ovate, gradually

acute, inequilaterally cordate at the base with the longer side auriculately cordate,
bullulate, hairy on both sides and becoming scabrous above from the bases of
fallen hairs, 21–28 cm long, 8–13 cm wide, subpinnately nerved from the lower
half, the nerves about 5–7; petiole barely 10 mm long, hairy; spikes 3–4 mm thick,
80 mm long, straight; peduncle 15 mm long, thinly hairy; bracts rounded-
subpeltate, honey-colored with a yellow ciliate border (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
Piper aduncum: Resinous-aromatic shrub about 2 m tall, very nodose; flowering
internodes short and moderately stout, sparsely hamate hirsute, glabrescent and
somewhat pale-granular in age; leaves lance-oblong, long-attenuate rather than
acuminate, slightly unequally cordulate at the base with the sinus sometimes closed
by overlapping of the shorter lobe, 15–22 cm long, 3.5–5 cm wide, pinnately nerved
from the lower half or two-thirds, the nerves 8–9 2, very bullulate, scabrous above,
densely upcurved-hirsute on the nerves and veins beneath; petiole very short,
5–6 mm long, upcurved-hirsute, not winged; spikes strongly curved, 10 cm long,
3 mm thick, or larger; peduncle slender, 10 mm long, sparsely hirtellous; bracts
conspicuous, round- or triangular-subpeltate, the tawny margin rusty-ciliate; stigmas
3, sessile; berries small, obconic (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2,
and 3).
Piper aequale: Shrub or treelet, 1–4 m tall, glabrous. Prophyll 10–15 mm long,
slender, acute. Petiole slender, 1–1.5(–4) cm long, vaginate only at base; blade
membranous or subcoriaceous, not conspicuously glandular-dotted, shiny green
above, pale below, often drying yellowish green, lanceolate to lance-elliptic or
elliptic-ovate, broadly ovate on sterile branches, often asymmetrical: with one side
wider in the lower half, 12–23 3.5–9(–11) cm, apex acuminate, base equally
attached to petiole, acute, cuneate or obtuse, may be truncate or subcordate on sterile
branches; pinnately veined, secondary veins 4–6 per side, originating at a steep angle
from 3/4 or more of primary vein, 2–3 lower ones from near base, slightly pro-
minulous on both sides, often pale or yellow, tertiary venation inconspicuously
reticulate, with some more prominent ones transverse. Inflorescence erect; peduncle
slender, 1–1.5 cm long; spike to 10 cm long, white or green, apiculate or not; rachis
glabrous; flowers densely crowded; floral bracts marginally fringed. Infructescence
(gray-)green; fruits oblongoid to trigonous, 0.7–1(–3) mm in diam., brownish green,
glabrous, stigmas 3, sessile (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7,
and 8).
Fig. 1 Piper aduncum

(Piperaceae), Leymebamba,
Piper acutifolium: Bolivia: Fresh leaves are used to treat arthritis, rheumatism, short-
ened tendons, people affected by cold air, “quirwación” (pain on the sole of the feet),
uterus disease, uterus prolapse, colds, flu, internal cold, kidney infection, prostate infec-
tion, and bad air (Bussmann et al. 2016). Also it is used for colds, cough, wounds, bone
pain, and rheumatism (Quiroga et al. 2012).
Piper aduncum: Colombia: The root of the Cordoncillo is used in Colombia against
internal hemorrhages. The leaves are used as a decoction, as a tonic to treat
dysentery, as well as to heal sores (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011;
Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Stems
and leaves are used to treat hemorrhage, sores, indigestion, and dysentery and as
astringent (Bussmann et al. 2018).
Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat liver and wounds (Béjar et al. 2001;
Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). With this plant, washes are prepared to treat
grains and to increase or decrease body temperature (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura).
The extract of the dried leaves in alcohol is used in the preparation of baths to calm the
headache (Awa-Carchi). The stem, leaves, and boiled flowers are used to treat wounds
and bumps (unspecified ethnic group – Loja, Zamora Chinchipe). The infusion of


fresh or dried leaves is given to women when contractions begin during labor, and it is
also used to treat menstrual cramps and pulmonary hemorrhages. The same infusion,
mixed with corn hair water (Zea mays), is diuretic. The finely chopped leaves are put
on the nose to stop nosebleeds (Shuar-Napo). The infusion of the leaves is taken to
treat stomach pain, skin infections, and kidney conditions (unspecified ethnicity –
Loja). The infusion is applied externally to treat the skin rash of children (unspecified
Fig. 4 Piper aequale

Fig. 5 Piper ecuadorense

Fig. 6 Piper ecuadorense

Fig. 7 Piper sp. (Piperaceae),

R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 8 Piper sp. (Piperaceae),

R.W. Bussmann &
ethnic group – El Oro). The infusion is effective in the treatment of ulcers (Mestizo-
Tungurahua). The whole plant is used to treat fractures (Shuar-Orellana). The leaves
are used to treat cuts and inflammations. In poultices, they soothe bone pain (Shuar-
Napo). The plant, in infusion, is used to treat rheumatism and liver conditions (Kichwa
de la Sierra-Imbabura; unspecified ethnicity – Loja). The leaves serve to increase body
temperature and treat chills (Kichwa of the East-Sucumbíos). The leaves are used to
treat pimples in the mouth (Wao-Orellana). The leaves, in infusion, are used to treat
inflammation (Awa-Carchi; unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Loja). The buds, in infu-
sion, lower the level of cholesterol (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay). It is anti-
hemorrhagic (unspecified ethnicity – Loja). It is a tonic for general health
(unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). It is used to treat bumps (unspecified ethnicity –
Loja). In infusion, along with other plants, it treats snake bite. The leaves are used to
treat skin infections. The infusion of the entire plant is applied, in hot baths, to treat
convalescents (Mestizo-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It is a plant used by
sorcerers to cure (unspecified ethnicity – others (Ecuador)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Leaves, fresh or dried, are used to treat colds, fungus, cough, wounds, bron-
chitis, chills, and tuberculosis and to stop hemorrhage (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b, 2011; Monigatti et al. 2013). Piper
aduncum shows antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2008a, 2010a, b, 2011a, b).
Piper aequale: Ecuador: The leaves treat indeterminate conditions (Kichwa of the
East-Sucumbíos). It is used in baths to increase or lower body temperature (Kichwa
de la Sierra-Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The whole plant or only the leaves
are used to treat the “bad wind” (Kichwa del Oriente-Orellana, Sucumbíos) (de La
Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Leaves and stems, fresh or dried, are used to treat liver, hepatitis, and infection
in the body (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b;
Bussmann and Glenn 2010c).
Piper species are very commonly sold fresh in local markets (Bussmann et al.
2007a, b, 2008b, Bussmann et al. 2009; Bussmann and Sharon 2009, 2010) and are
often used in mixture with other plants (Bussmann and Sharon 2010; Bussmann
et al. 2010c). They are often used in emollients (Bussmann et al. 2015).
Local Food Uses
Piper aduncum: Ecuador: The leaves are edible (Shuar-Sucumbíos) (de la Torre
et al. 2008).
Piper aduncum: Ecuador: It has unspecified fuel use (unspecified ethnicity –

Tungurahua) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves are used as toilet paper for children
(Wao-Napo, Orellana). The leaves, finely chopped and put on the nose, induce
sneezing (Shuar-Napo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is used as a living fence
(unspecified ethnic group-Esmeraldas) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010a;17(2):331–46.
ailments. Arnaldoa. 2010c;17(2):243–54.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
2010. p. 184–207; 288 p.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008b;6:351–61.
(4):742–53.
2015;69:83–8.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
(2):450–64.
Pisum sativum L.
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Pisum sativum L.: Pisum vulgare Judz.
Local Names
Spanish: Arberjas, Arveja; English: Pea
Botany and Ecology
Annual; plant glabrous, yellowish-green, or glaucous; stems simple or branching

only at base, prostrate, or climbing; stipules subcordate, 4–6(10) cm long, 2–3 cm
wide, sometimes dentate at base; leaves with 2–3 pairs of leaflets, ending in tendrils;
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

leaflets thin, ovate, usually entire, 2–5 cm long; calyx slightly gibbous, teeth
lanceolate, long than tube; corolla usually white or pink, with darker purple wings;
pods 5–7(10) cm long, 2 cm wide, smooth or inconspicuously netted-veined,
indehiscent; seeds globose, 4–8 mm wide, greenish-yellow, reddish, or brown,
hilum elliptic, ca. 2 mm long. Flowering June–July. Widely cultivated.
The origin and progenitors of Pisum sativum are not well-known. The Mediter-
ranean region, Western and Central Asia, and Ethiopia have been indicated as centers
of origin. Recently FAO designated Ethiopia and Western Asia as centers of diver-
sity, with secondary centers in Southern Asia and the Mediterranean region. Archae-
ological evidence of the use of pea dating from 8000 BC has been found in the
Fertile Crescent, but has one of its centers in the Caucasus (Bussmann 2017;
Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016). The first cultivation of pea appears to have been in
Western Asia, from where it spread to Europe, China, and India. In classical times
Greek and Roman authors mentioned its cultivation as a pulse and fodder crop. Pea
was already well-known in the mountain regions of Central and East Africa before
the arrival of the Europeans and was a well-established and important food crop in
Rwanda and south-western Uganda by 1860. The use of the edible pods was first
described in the Netherlands and France during the sixteenth century, whereas the
use of immature seeds as a vegetable began in Europe a century later. At present,
Pisum sativum is found in all temperate countries and in most tropical highlands.
The fruits of the Pea include several medicinal uses in Colombia, among them the
one to dissolve incipient blood clots to avoid the generation of thrombus, cerebral
spills, or coronary disorders. They are also considered as an excellent diuretic and
serve to soften and beautify the skin, they also stimulate milk production in lactating
women, and they help maintain controlled blood sugar levels. People with vitamin A
deficiency are advised to consume it raw, liquefied, or in juice. The water obtained
from the cooking of fresh peas is used to cure ulcerations and wounds in the skin and
is also very useful in the treatment of testicular tumors (García Barriga 1974; Pérez
Arbeláez 1996). Peru: Fresh seeds are used for smallpox, rubeola, to promote the
release of all bad and it’s coming out and for inflammation of the intestine
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b).
Local Food Uses
The pods of the legumes are considered an excellent food (Fig. 1).
Pisum sativum L. 1467
Fig. 1 Pisum sativum

(Fabaceae), cleaning peas,
R.W. Bussmann and
References
2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
2014;12:237–313.

016-0110-2.
Pitraea cuneato-ovata (Cav.) Caro
VERBENACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Pitraea cuneato-ovata (Cav.) Caro: Bouchea copiapensis Gay.; Castelia cuneato-

ovata Cav., Phelloderma cuneato-ovata (Cav.) Miers, Pitraea chilensis Turcz.,
Priva cuneato-ovata (Cav.) Rusby, Priva laevis Juss.
Local Names
Chile: Chamén, Cháme, Chávil, Papa cháme, Paparuma, Paparoma, Paroma,

A’paruma, Papilla, Papa blanca
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Perennial herb, erect; stems between 10 and 60 cm high, quadrangular; deep roots of
gemmiferous and rooted tubers undercut. Simple, opposite leaves with ovate or
triangular-rhomboidal lamina, with dentate margin. Inflorescence in terminal clus-
ters. Flowers protected by lanceolate bracts, hermaphrodites, zygomorphs; tubular
chalice, curved or finely pubescent rectum; corolla lila or white-Iilacina, with yellow
fauce; the obtuse lobes. Fruit a drupa, obovate; subcilíndricas seeds, smooth, white.
Sea level to 3000 m (González and Molina 2017).
Local Food Uses
Root tubers, dried and raw, are edible (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al.
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Plantago australis Lam.
Plantago lanceolata L.
Plantago linearis Kunth
Plantago major L.
Plantago rancaguae Steud.
Plantago sericea Ruiz & Pav.
PLANTAGINACEAE

Synonyms
Plantago australis Lam.: Frustillum foetulentum Sniffit; Plantago accrescens Pilg.;

Plantago asplundii Pilg.; Plantago australis subsp. hirtella (Kunth) Rahn.; Plantago
bicallosa Decne; Plantago brachypus Pilg.; Plantago candollei Rapin; Plantago
cantagallensis Zahlbr. ex Wawra; Plantago capillaris E. MEy. ex Decne; Plantago
denudata Pilg.; Plantago durvillei Delile ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey.; Plantago durvillei
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero

subsp. mollior (Pilg.) Pilg.; Plantago durvillei subsp. pflanzii (Pilg.) Pilg.; Plantago
durvillei var. chamaeclina (Pilg.) Pilg.; Plantago durvillei var. grandidens Pilg.;
Plantago durvillei var. hauthalii (Pilg.) Pilg.; Plantago durvillei var. latifolia (Pilg.)
Pilg.; Plantago galeottiana Decne; Plantago gigantea Decne; Plantago hirtella
fo. minor (Pilg.) Pilg.; Plantago hirtella Kunth; Plantago hirtella var. brachypus Pilg.;
Plantago hirtella var. denticulata Pilg.; Plantago hirtella var. galeottiana (Decne) Pilg.;
Plantago hirtella var. glabrescens (Schltdl. ex J.A. Schmidt) Pilg.; Plantago hirtella var.
janirensis Pilg.; Plantago hirtella var. platensis Pilg.; Plantago hirtella var. veratrifolia
Pilg.; Plantago kurtzii Pilg.; Plantago leptophylla Decne; Plantago macropus Pilg.;
Plantago macrostachys Decne.; Plantago macrostachys fo. brachypus (Pilg.) Pilg.;
Plantago macrostachys var. accrescens (Pilg.) Pilg.; Plantago macrostachys var.
angustifolia Pilg.; Plantago macrostachys var. brachypus Pilg.; Plantago macrostachys
var. denudata (Pilg.) Pilg.; Plantago macrostachys var. gigantea (Decne) Pilg.; Plantago
macrostachys var. stuckertii (Pilg.) Pilg.; Plantago macrostachys var. latifolia Speng.;
Plantago myosurus var. latifolia Pilg.; Plantago pachyneura subsp. pflanzii (Pilg.) Pilg.;
Plantago pachyneura var. chamaeclina (Pilg.) Pilg.; Plantago pachyneura var. hauthalii
(Pilg.) Pilg.; Plantago pachyneura var. latifolia Pilg.; Plantago pflanzii Pilg.; Plantago
pflanzii var. chamaeclina Pilg.; Plantago pflanzii var. grandidens Pilg.; Plantago pflanzii
var. hauthalii Pilg.; Plantago pflanzii var. mollior Pilg.; Plantago refractata Pilg.;
Plantago refractata Pilg.; Plantago schiedeana Decne; Plantago schiedeana var.
minor Pilg.; Plantago sodiorana Pilg.; Plantago stuckertii Pilg.; Plantago stuckertii
subsp. catamarcensis Pilg.; Plantago tomentosa Lam.; Plantago tomentosa
ar. glabrescens Schltdl. ex J.A. Schmidt; Plantago veratrifolia Decne; Plantago
virginica var. hirtella (Kunth) Kuntze
Plantago lanceolata L.: Plantago lanceolata fo. eriophora (Hoffmanns & Link)
Beck; Plantago lanceolata var. sphaerostachya Mert. & W.D.J. Koch; Plantago
sinuata Lam.
Plantago linearis Kunth: Plantago agrostophylla Decne.; Plantago amblyacme
Pilg.; Plantago barneoudii Decne.; Plantago bernoulliana Vatke; Plantago
eriorrhiza Willd. ex. Spreng; Plantago graminea Willd. ex Schult.; Plantago
linearis var. barneouldii (Decne.) Pilg; Plantago linearis fo. supina Pilg.; Plantago
linearis var. agrostophylla (Decne.) Pilg.; Plantago linearis var. capitata Pilg;
Plantago linearis var. eulinearis Pilg.; Plantago linearis var. humboldtii Vatke;
Plantago linearis var. lasiophylla Pilg.; Plantago linearis var. leptotricha Pilg.;
Plantago linearis Kunth var. linearis; Plantago linearis var. mexicana (Link.)
Pilg.; Plantago linearis var. rhizophora Pilg.; Plantago linearis var. stenophylla
Pilg.; Plantago linearis var. villosa Pilg; Plantago luzuloidea Decne; Plantago
mexicana Link; Plantago nivea Kunth; Plantago sericea var. agrostophylla
(Decne.) Wedd.; Plantago sericea var. linearis (Kunth) Wedd.; Plantago sericea
var. luzuloides (Decne.) Wedd.; Plantago xorullensis Kunth
Plantago major L.: Plantago borysthenica Wissjul.; Plantago dregeana Decne;
Plantago gigas H. Lév.; Plantago intermedia Gilib.; Plantago jehohlensis Koidz.;
Plantago latifolia Salisb.; Plantago macronipponica Yamam.; Plantago major fo.
scopulorum (Fr. & Broberg) Pilg.; Plantago major subsp. pleiosperma Pilg.; Plantago
major var. borysthenica Rogow; Plantago major var. gigas (H. Lév.) H. Lév.; Plantago
major var. jehohlensis (Koids.) S.H. Li; Plantago major var. kimurae Yaman.; Plantago
Plantago australis Lam. . . . 1473
major var. paludosa Bég.; Plantago major var. pauciflora (Gilib.) Bég.; Plantago major
var. sawadai Yamam.; Plantago major var. sinuate (Lam.) Decne.; Plantago officinarum
Crantz; Plantago pauciflora Gilib.; Plantago sawadai (Yamam.) Yamam.; Plantago
sinuata Lam.; Plantago villifera Kitag.
Plantago rancaguae Steud.: Plantago deserticola Phil.
Plantago sericea Ruiz & Pav.: Plantago compsophylla Pilg.; Plantago extensa
Pilg.; Plantago fiebrigii Pilg.; Plantago hillii Pilg.; Plantago monticola Decne; Plantago
monticola subsp. angusta Pilg.; Plantago monticola subsp. crispula Pilg.; Plantago
monticola subsp. eumonticola Pilg.; Plantago monticola subsp. herrerai Pilg.;
Plantago monticola subsp. sericans Pilg.; Plantago monticola var. humillima Pilg.;
Plantago monticola var. majuscula Pilg.; Plantago monticola var. maxima Pilg.; Plantago
nubigena Kunth; Plantago polyclada Pilg.; Plantago sericea subsp. argyrophylla
(Decne) Rahn; Plantago sericea subsp. perreymondii (Barnéoud) Rahn; Plantago
tarattothrix Pilg.; Plantago tarijensis Pilg.; Plantago vestita Roem. & Schult.
Local Names
Plantago australis: Colombia: Llantén (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. en prep.);

Ecuador: Llantén, Llantén de páramo (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008)
Plantago lanceolata: Bolivia: Llantén (s) (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2016a);
Ecuador: Sacha llantén (Spanish-Kichwa), Falso llantén, Haba, Llantén, Llantén
de Castilla, Llantén macho, Llantén menor, Llantén silvestre (Spanish), Casuarto
(unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); English: Plantain
Plantago linearis: Peru: Llantén, Lánten de la costa, Llantén sertrano
Plantago major: Bolivia: Llantén, Llantina (Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005; Justo
Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016a); Colombia: Llantén (Spanish)
(Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Llantén (Spanish), Kutu kiyanchi remedyu tape
(Chafi’ki), Warmi llantin, Yawar llantin (Kichwa), Llantén, Llantén de agua, Llantén
desnudo, Llantén hembra, Llantén sentado (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru:
Llantén (Spanish); English: Plantain
Plantago rancaguae: Chile: Anqoqhora, Oqeqhora, Qhora
Plantago sericea: var. sericea: Peru: Rabo de paloma, Hierba del susto (de cerro)
(Spanish)
Plantago sericea: var. lanuginosa: Peru: Paja blanca
Botany and Ecology
Plantago australis/Plantago lanceolata: Perennial. Plant 8–70 cm tall, with well-

developed taproot and with several or numerous (25–30) erect or ascending scapes.
Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, 3–5(7)-veined, gradually
narrowed toward the base and apex, acute, with short or fairly long petioles; entire,
rarely sparsely dentate, glabrous, or densely hairy or lanate. Scapes distinctly
longitudinally sulcate, usually pubescent, upward appressed hairy. Spikes dense,
Fig. 1 Plantago australis

(Plantaginaceae), Uchumarca,
compact, capitate or cylindrical, 0.5–7 cm long. Bracts ovate or elliptic, membra-

nous, with distinct herbaceous keel not reaching the tip of bracts, short or long
acuminate, equaling or exceeding calyx, glabrous or sparsely hairy. Calyx lobes
2.5–3.5 mm long, membranous, all with distinct herbaceous keel, glabrous, rarely
more or less hairy along back, 2 anterior calyx lobes connate, forming a broad,
shortly bilobed scale with 2 keels. Corolla lobes ovate or oblong-ovate, acuminate,
about 1.2 mm long. Capsule elliptic, about 3 mm long, 2-seeded. Seeds oblong or
oblong-elliptic, 157 with one side convex, the other sulcate. In dry meadows, on
grassy, open slopes, vacant lots, along roads, on open soil deposits, on the banks of
rivers (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995; Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Plantago linearis: Stem extremely short, from a rather slender root; leaves densely
rosulate, moderately rigid, narrowly linear, 4 to about 10 cm long, glabrescent or
with a few white or whitish hairs; peduncles 6–11 cm long, long-pubescent below,
above, especially below the spike, hirsute-villous; spikes dense, to 2 cm long; bracts
cuneately narrowed from the ovate base, obtuse, lightly villous, with a broad, thick
keel; sepals 2.5 mm long, apically a little villous, the anterior ones obovate-elliptic,
with a thick, broad keel, the posterior ones rotund-elliptic; corolla lobes rotund-
ovate, 2 mm long, obscurely spotted basally; capsule ellipsoid, the seeds oval,
purplish brown, 2.5 mm long. The typical form of the species extends from

Colombia to Peru; the species, sensu lato, ranges from Mexico to Northern Argen-
tina (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Plantago major: Herbaceous perennial. Leaves in basal rosettes, broad-elliptic to
broad-ovate, 4–21 cm long, 3–14 cm wide, 3–9 parallel veins, sheathing petiolate.
Inflorescences dense, erect, narrow-cylindric spikes, 5–15 cm tall; peduncles
15–70 cm tall; bracts ovate, acute. Corolla greenish or yellowish white with
4 reflexed lobes. Fruit a 2-seeded, circumscissile capsule. Seeds 1–5 mm long,
densely reticulate. On vacant lots, garbage places, near settlements, on forest
meadows, glades, banks of reservoirs, along roads (Figs. 7, 8, and 9).
Plantago rancaguae: Annual herb, 1–2 leaved. Leaves narrow-linear, silky
fibrillose, base attenuate; peduncles as long as leaves, silky; flowers broadly ovate,
leaves ovate sea level to 200 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Plantago sericea: Ligneous herb, nearly suffrutescent, the stems divided into many
decumbent or arcuate-ascending, laxly branching branches; leaves densely crowded
at the branchlet tips, marcescent, persisting, more or less curving, narrowly linear,
2–5 cm long, never more than 1 mm wide, slender-sulcate above, silky-pilose, the
triquetrous sheath with longer, villous-tomentose trichomes; inflorescences on each
branch few, the rigid but slender peduncles 10–15 cm long; spikes short, dense,
10–11 mm long; bracts as much as half as long as the calyx, broadly ovate, villous;
sepals (anterior a little narrower) 3.2–3.5 mm long, elliptic or broadly elliptic,

slightly villous, strongly carinate; corolla lobes broadly elliptic or broadly

ovate-elliptic, obtusish, 3 mm long, marked medially with rather wide striae;
seeds narrow, about 3 mm long, brownish (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995;
Figs. 10 and 11).
Plantago australis: Colombia: Llantén is mainly prepared in infusions, decoctions,

or juices. The infusion of the leaves is used as a febrifuge, especially in cases of
malaria; the juice of the leaves cures the intestinal ulcers as well as the chronic
gastritis and some diseases of the liver. Leaves lightly placed in boiling water are
used to heal skin ulcers, fistulas, and cancer. By crushing the leaves and then cooking
them together with oil or butter, an ointment is prepared to treat the hemorrhoids.
The leaves of the plantain are also prepared in the form of plasters for its healing,
anti-inflammatory, and anti-hemorrhagic properties. The juice extracted from the
plant is used as eye drops to treat cataracts and “clouds” in the eyes. Seeds prepared
in the form of jelly or syrup or simply toasted and powdered are used as an effective
laxative to treat chronic constipation (García Barriga 1975; Giraldo Quintero et al.
2015). Fresh leaves are used to treat throat inflammation, mouth inflammations,
Fig. 4 Plantago lanceolata

(Plantaginaceae), Iran. (Photo
F. Khajoei Nasab)

(Plantaginaceae), Cappadocia,
Turkey. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
rashes, liver cleaning and as expectorant (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The
whole fresh plant is used to treat liver and kidney infections (Béjar et al. 2001;
Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). This plant is used to treat “heat inflammation”
(swelling) (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The infusion of the plant is taken to treat
inflammation of the kidneys (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). The infusion,
along with other species, is drunk to treat liver and kidney pain (unspecified

(Plantaginaceae), Cappadocia,
Turkey. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 7 Plantago major

(Plantaginaceae), Chicani,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
ethnicity – Pichincha). The leaves are used to heal wounds and ulcers (externally)
(unspecified ethnicity – Loja). It is used to treat heartburn and liver and kidney
conditions (unspecified ethnicity – Loja; Mestizo-Morona Santiago) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). It is used to clean and purify the blood (unspecified ethnicity – Loja)

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Plantago lanceolata: Leaves prepared in decoction or applied in Colombia in the

form of baths are used against diarrhea, as healing, anti-inflammatory, and anti-
hemorrhagic, and to wash external wounds in order to avoid infections (Cardona and
Barrientos 2011; Galvis Rueda and Torres Torres 2017; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015;
Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bolivia: The whole plant is used to treat heartache and liver
and kidney infection (Bussmann et al. 2016a). It is also used to treat heat- and
sunstroke and liver and gallbladder ailments (Quiroga et al. 2012). Ecuador: The
infusion, along with other species, is drunk to treat liver and kidney conditions
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Tungurahua; unspecified ethnic group – Carchi, Pichincha). It
is used to treat respiratory conditions and to prevent skin inflammations and malig-
nant ulcers. The root is chewed to calm the toothache (unspecified ethnicity –
Cotopaxi). The root, in infusion, is used to treat urinary tract infections (unspecified
ethnic group – Imbabura). The macerated leaves are used to treat inflammations and
headaches (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo). Raw seeds are used as an emollient
(unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). In Peru, it is used to treat
infected wounds, hematoma, kidney inflammation, stomach pain, and stomach
infection (Monigatti et al. 2013; Figs. 12 and 13).
Similar uses are observed in Eurasia (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b). Plantago
lanceolata is used in Pakistan to remedy constipation (Sher et al. 2016) and as
emollient (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018).

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 10 Plantago setacea

(Plantaginaceae), Cajamarca,
Plantago linearis: Peru: To treat inflammation of wounds, wounds (cleansing);

liver, inflammation of the kidneys, bladder; cough, bronchitis (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b, c). It is commonly
sold in Peruvian medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2007b, 2009a, 2010b).
Fig. 11 Plantago setacea

(Plantaginaceae), Cajamarca,

(Plantaginaceae), freshly
harvested, Tusheti, Georgia.
The species has strong antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008b, 2009b, 2010c,
2011a, b).
Plantago major: Bolivia: The whole plant is used to treat heartache, gallbladder,
gastritis/ulcers, liver, blood cleansing, cancer, inflammation, kidney infection,
inflammations, uterus prolapse, hemorrhage, hearth disease, menstrual problems
(Bussmann et al. 2016a). Colombia: The infusion or decoction of the plant is
used, orally, to treat gastrointestinal problems such as colic, diarrhea, dysentery,
and gastritis. It is also used in the treatment of respiratory conditions such as asthma,
bronchitis, fever, and cough and in urinary conditions such as inflammation of the

(Plantaginaceae), drying,
R.W. Bussmann and
urinary bladder, stones, and urinary incontinence. Externally the infusion is applied
to treat abscesses, bruises, wounds, burns, and ulcers. In Colombia the species is
used mainly prepared in infusions, decoctions, or juices. The infusion of the leaves is
used as a febrifuge, especially in cases of malaria; the juice of the leaves cures the
intestinal ulcers as well as the chronic gastritis and some diseases of the liver. Leaves
lightly placed in boiling water are used to heal skin ulcers, fistulas, and cancer. By
crushing the leaves and then cooking them together with oil or butter, an ointment is
prepared to treat the hemorrhoids. The leaves of the plantain are also prepared in the
form of plasters for its healing, anti-inflammatory, and anti-hemorrhagic properties.
The juice extracted from the plant is used as eye drops to treat cataracts and “clouds”
in the eyes. Seeds prepared in the form of jelly or syrup or simply toasted and
powdered are used as an effective laxative to treat chronic constipation (Díaz 2003;
Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; Giraldo
Quintero et al. 2015; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Ministerio de
Protección Social 2008). The whole plant is used to treat inflammations, arthritis,
hemorrhage, wound healing, throat inflammation, mouth inflammations, inflamma-
tion of the gums, skin ulcers, respiratory tract, as expectorant, as tonic, kidney
infection, indigestion, hemorrhoids, gastritis, gangrene, fever, erysipelas, dysentery,
diarrhea, liver problems, bot fly infestations, as analgesic and as astringent
(Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat liver
problems and breast pain and as anti-inflammatory (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and
Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The bath with the infusion of this plant, together with matico
and horsetail (Equisetum giganteum), is used to eliminate irritation and inflammation
(unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The juice of the plant, with white watercress, is
used to remove gas from the lungs (unspecified ethnic group – Bolívar). Fresh juice
extracted from the leaves is taken to eliminate internal parasites and to treat ulcers
and headache; it is also applied to the eyes to treat flares and inflammations. The
leaves, in poultices and applied on cuts, stop bleeding and accelerate healing.
The flower and leaves, in infusion, comfort the discomfort caused by hemorrhoids.
The root is chewed to treat toothache (Shuar-Napo). The plant is used to treat
tuberculosis. The decoction of the leaves is used to treat swelling and irritation of
the stomach, liver, and kidneys (Kichwa of the Sierra-Imbabura). Horchata is drunk
to lower blood pressure and treat kidney conditions and stomach pain (ethnicity not
specified – Loja). Root infusion is used to remove pimples and pimples from the face
(unspecified ethnic group – Carchi, Cañar). The infusion of the leaves is used to
regulate menstruation and to treat stomach ulcer and pain. The infusion of the leaves
and flowers, mixed with flaxseed, is taken to treat kidney conditions (kidney pain)
(Mestizo, unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). It is used to cleanse the stomach and
regenerate blood. The infusion of the crushed leaves and healthy root and tumors
(unspecified ethnic group-Chimborazo). Infusion with horsetail (Equisetum giga-
nteum), borage (Borago officinalis), mallow (Malva sp.), and corn stigmata (Zea
mays) is used to treat heart decay, fatigue, and liver and kidney pain (Kichwa de la
Sierra, unspecified ethnic group – Tungurahua). The whole plant, in infusion
combined with taraxaco, escancel, “kasha cerraja,” calaguala, artichoke, carrot,
corn hair, and a lemon, is used to treat liver and kidney problems and to regulate
menstruation (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura,
Chimborazo). The plant is used to lower fever (Kichwa de la Sierra-Tungurahua). It
is used to treat wounds. The leaves are used to treat headache (unspecified ethnicity –
others (Coast Region)). The leaves, in infusion, are used as an astringent in case of
dysentery or other similar diseases (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). The
infusion of the leaves is taken to treat stomachache (unspecified ethnicity – Manabi;
Kichwa of the Sierra-Tungurahua). The leaves, in infusion, are used to treat inflam-
mation, especially of the stomach, intestine, kidneys, tonsils, mouth, and molars
(Chachi-Esmeraldas; Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity – Carchi). It is
diuretic; it is used to perform douching and to treat urine retention, inflammation
of the ovaries, intestinal infections, infected wounds, swelling, bumps, inflammation
of the tonsils, and liver and throat pain and to treat diseases of children (Mestiza-
Pichincha). It also treats liver conditions (side effects, causes memory loss) (Mestiza-
Loja). It is used, in infusion, to treat lung conditions, asthma, compulsive cough, and
chronic colds (unspecified ethnicity – Carchi). It is used, together with
Lasiocephalus ovatus, Taraxacum, Myrcianthes hallii, Alternanthera lanceolata,
Equisetum giganteum, Papaver rhoeas, and two unidentified species, in the treat-
ment of liver conditions (Mestiza-Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The
infusion of the leaves is used to purify the blood; mixed with honey, it purifies the
whole organism (unspecified ethnic group – Carchi; Mestiza-Pichincha) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). Peru: Fresh leaves are used to treat hemorrhoids, tumors of the skin
(benign), for vaginal cleansing, wounds, blood purification, inflammation, liver,
kidneys, bad breath produced by contamination of an organ, arthritis, pain (physi-
cal), twists, contusions, infections; fresh or dried seeds used to treat bronchitis,
cough, colic and a blow or bruise that gets infected (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b, c; Monigatti et al. 2013). It is very
commonly sold in Peruvian medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b,
2008a). Rarely an ingredient in emolientes – hot beverages taken for breakfast
Similar uses are observed in Eurasia (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b). Plantago
major is also used in Nepal to treat diarrhea and indigestion (Kunwar et al. 2010).
Plantago rancaguae: The infusion of the aerial parts is used to combat stomach pain
(Philippi 1860; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Plantago sericea: In Colombia the species is mainly prepared in infusions, decoc-
tions or juices. The infusion of the leaves is used as a febrifuge, especially in cases of
malaria; the juice of the leaves cures the intestinal ulcers as well as the chronic
gastritis and some diseases of the liver. Leaves lightly placed in boiling water are
used to heal skin ulcers, fistulas, and cancer. By crushing the leaves and then cooking
them together with oil or butter, an ointment is prepared to treat the hemorrhoids.
The leaves of the plantain are also prepared in the form of plasters for its healing,
anti-inflammatory, and anti-hemorrhagic properties. The juice extracted from the
plant is used as eye drops to treat cataracts and “clouds” in the eyes. Seeds prepared
in the form of jelly or syrup or simply toasted and powdered are used as an effective
laxative to treat chronic constipation (García Barriga 1975; Giraldo Quintero et al.
2015). Plantago sericea var. lanuginosa is used in Peru to treat vaginal discharge
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b, c).
It is commonly sold in Peruvian medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2007b,
2009a, 2010a). The species has strong antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008b,
2009b, 2010c, 2011a, b).
Plantago depressa is used in India for cuts and wounds (Bhat et al. 2013), herpes,
burns, boils and skin problems, and constipation (Singh et al. 2017). Plantago
himalaica is employed in India for diarrhea (Bhat et al. 2013). Plantago palmata
is used in Ethiopia against parasites, tonsillitis, and throat swelling (Luizza et al.
2013).
In Peru many species are used in mixture with other plants (Bussmann et al.
2010c).
Local Food Use
Plantago major: Ecuador: The leaves are edible (Shuar-Napo) (de la Torre et al.
2008).
Plantago lanceolata: Ecuador: The plant is used as animal fodder (Kichwa de la

Sierra-Cotopaxi; unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
The flower is visited by bees (unspecified ethnic group – Loja) (de la Torre et al.
2008).
Plantago rancaguae: Forage use (Philippi 1860; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán
and Castro 2003).
Plantago sericea: Peru: Fresh leaves are used to treat fright (susto) (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010b;17(2):331–46.
ailments. Arnaldoa. 2010c;17(2):243–54.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008b;6:351–61.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009b;16(1):93–103.
can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010c;9
(4):742–53.
2014;12:237–313.
2015;69:83–8.
016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Cardona JO, Barrientos JC. Producción, uso y comercialización de especies aromáticas en la región
de Sumapaz, Cundinamarca. Rev Colomb Cienc Hortíc. 2011;5(1):114–29.

Corregimientos de Medellín. Historias de vidas y plantas. Medellín: Universidad de Antioquia -
Sogamoso, Boyacá, Colombia. Rev Invest Agraria Ambient. 2017;8(2):187–206.
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Res Appl. 2013;11:315–39.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
(2):450–64.
Atacamense. Sumptibus E. Anton, Halle; 1860.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3.
Plukenetia carolis-vegae Bussmann,
Paniagua Zambrana & Téllez
Plukenetia huayllabambana Bussmann,
C. Téllez & A. Glenn
Plukenetia volubilis L.
EUPHORBIACEAE
Synonyms
Plukenetia volubilis L.: Fragariopsis paxii Pittier; Plukenetia macrostyla Ule;

Plukenetia peruviana Müll. Arg.
Local Names
Spanish: Sacha inchi, Maní del monte, Yuchi; English: Sacha inchi, Inca nut, Inca-
peanut
Botany and Ecology
Plukenetia is a Pantropical genus of lianas and scrambling vines. Of the 20 known

species, 12 occur in the Neotropics, 7 in Africa and Madagascar, and 1 in Asia. It is most
noteworthy for four-carpellate ovaries, fused styles that are often massive, scandent
R. W. Bussmann (*)

habit, adaxial, basilaminar glands, numerous stamens and, often large, pistillate flowers
with four sepals. Plukenetia belongs to the tribe Plukenetieae characteristically lacking
latex. All Neotropical species of the genus are lianas or vines, and the majority occurs in
humid tropical forest at altitudes up to around 1000 m.
Plukenetia lehmanniana (Pax & K. Hoffm.) Huft & L.J. Gillespie is only known
from Colombia and Ecuador, reaching montane forest locations up to 2100 m. The
only other species known from mountain forests are Plukenetia multiglandulosa Jabl.,
known from a single locality in Venezuela, and Plukenetia huayllabambana
Bussmann, Tellez & Glenn. and Plukenetia carolis-vegae Bussmann, Paniagua-
Zambrana & Téllez. Plukenetia volubilis L., the most widely used and grown species,
is mostly found from sea level to less than 1000 m (Bussmann et al. 2009, 2013).
Plukenetia carolis-vegae: A large vine ca. 6 m long with thin stems disposed with
leathery, heart-shaped leaves. Each leaf is borne from a stalk ca. 5 cm long. The leaf
is 12 cm long and has fine white hairs along the veins, and the margin has fine teeth.
The flowers are disposed on a 13-cm-long spike from the base of the leaf. Two or
three flowers are borne on a branched inflorescence 13 cm long. The two or three
female flowers are up to 1.5 cm long and borne at the base, and the rest of the spike is
crowded with male flowers. The female flower is dark green tubular with four-
curled, light green tips and a four-parted style. The male flowers are light green and
disposed with numerous stamens. Each has numerous stamens and no petals. The
fruit is a distinctly four-parted capsule ca. 6 cm wide and 4 cm tall, containing 2–4
large and round, warty seeds. It occurs in the provinces of Rodriguez de Mendoza,
Amazonas at elevations ca. 1800 m (Bussmann et al. 2013; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Fig. 1 Plukenetia carolis-vegae (Euphorbiaceae), Rodriguez de Mendoza, Peru. (Photo

Plukenetia carolisae Plukenetia huayllabambana. . . 1491
Fig. 2 Plukenetia carolis-

vegae (Euphorbiaceae),
Rodriguez de Mendoza, Peru.
Plukenetia huayllabambana: Monoecious liana or twining vine; branches slender,

puberulous. Leaves alternate, simple, stipules small, persistent; petiole 2–9 cm long,
puberulous; blade large, 4–10 7–14 cm, elliptic to ovate-elliptic, slender acumi-
nate at apex with acumen 1–2 cm long, and 0.3–0.7 cm wide, cuneate to slightly
cordate at base, serrulate, glabrescent with a few unbranched hairs, sparsely
puberulous on major veins below. Primary veins 3, secondary veins 3–4 on each
side of central primary vein, and 4–5 on lower side of lateral primary veins; tertiary
veins percurrent; quaternary veins reticulate; basilaminar glands 2, narrowly trans-
verse 2–5 mm long, 0.3–1 mm wide, marginal, adaxial, laminar glands absent; small
pair of stipules at petiole apex between basilaminar glands, conical, 0.2–1.2 mm
long, rounded at apex; without glandular knob. Inflorescence slender, racemose, (3)
4–12 cm long, bisexual, axillary; axes puberulous, pistillate flowers 1–4 at basalmost
node; staminate flowers numerous, cyme axes 1–3 mm long, bracts triangular,
0.2–1 mm long. Staminate pedicel 0.1–0.7 mm long, puberulous; bud elliptic to
broadly elliptic, 1–2 mm long; sepals 5 (rarely 4), ovate, 2.5–3.5 mm long,
2–2.5 mm wide, corolla and disc absent; stamens 10–14, 0.2–0.4 mm in diameter;
filaments flattened, broad, 0.1–0.3 mm long. Pistillate pedicel 1–3 mm long,
puberulous, sepals 4; ovary 4 locular, 2–5 mm wide, 2-3 mm long, puberulous,
4-winged; styles puberulous in cylindrical column, 8–12 mm long, 1–2 mm wide;
4 free style arms 4–5 mm long, forming a cross shape when mature. Fruiting pedicel


1–3 cm long, capsule 4 lobed, 3-4–4-6 cm; glabrous, each lobe with a small, winged
horn. Seeds very large, lenticular, laterally compressed, 3–4 cm long, 3–4 cm wide,
1.5–2.5 cm thick, with large, corrugated ridges. Known only from the Peruvian
region Amazonas, provinces Rodriguez de Mendoza, Bongará and Chachapoyas, on
the eastern slopes of the Northern Peruvian Andes, where it grows in a mixture of
Fig. 5 Plukenetia
huayllabambana
(Euphorbiaceae), Rodriguez
de Mendoza, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 6 Plukenetia huayllabambana (Euphorbiaceae), Rodriguez de Mendoza, Peru. (Photo

slightly disturbed, deeply incised gorges in dense cloud forest at altitudes between
1300 and 2200 m (Bussmann et al. 2009; Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10).
Plukenetia volubilis: Vine, climbing, monoecious, deciduous plant, up to 6 m long.
Leaves opposite and simple. Leaf blade triangular-ovate, 6–13( 20) cm long and
4–10( 12) cm wide, with truncate or cordate base and crenate or serrulate margin;
one glandular protuberance on the adaxial side at the tip of the petiole. Inflorescence
5–18 cm long, racemose, elongated, and monoecious. Flowers with pistils solitary at
base nodes; stylar column partially or totally connate, 15–30 mm long; numerous
sub-globular masculine flowers grouped on distal nodes; 16–30 conical stamens,
Fig. 7 Plukenetia
huayllabambana
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 8 Plukenetia
huayllabambana
R.W. Bussmann and
0.5 mm long with visible filaments. Capsules tetra- or pentamerous, glabrous, 2.5–6
( 7) cm in diameter. Seeds, 1.5–2 0.7–0.8 cm, lenticular, laterally compressed,
brown colored with irregular darker spots (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Local Food Uses
Plukenetia volubilis and in particular Plukenetia huayllabambana have proven to

contain extraordinarily large amounts of omega fatty acids (Bussmann et al. 2009;
Tellez Alvarado 2008). The seeds and oil of both species, as well as the roasted
seeds, are widely consumed by the local population in the study region, and the
archaeological record shows that this use goes back at least 1500 years (Tellez
Alvarado 2008; Vega 2008). Moche ceramics, dating back to about 650 CE, clearly
show fruit capsules of Plukenetia spp. The seeds of Plukenetia volubilis contain
about 55% fatty acids, of which between 85% and 96% are unsaturated, with the
highest amount of linoleic acid (25–32%, omega 6) and linolenic acid (45–61%,
omega 3) and 33% proteins, in particular containing cysteine, tyrosine, threonine,
Fig. 9 Plukenetia
huayllabambana
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 10 Plukenetia
huayllabambana
R.W. Bussmann and
and tryptophan. They are also rich in vitamins A and E (Tellez Alvarado 2008; Vega
2008; Bussmann et al. 2009). The high content of essential polyunsaturated fatty
acids offers interesting nutritional benefits. During the last decade, the trades in
Sacha Inchi products, especially oil for the cosmetic industry, but also roasted seeds
as snacks and oil for human consumption, mostly derived from Plukenetia volubilis,
have risen tremendously (Tellez Alvarado 2008; Vega 2008) and are now a
multimillion-dollar business. Both P. huayllabambana and P. carolis-vegae have

shown higher content of omega fatty acids and are thus especially interesting for the
development of future nutraceuticals. In contrast to Plukenetia volubilis, these two
species require shade to grow, and are producing mostly in natural or semi-natural
forest conditions, and could as such be an excellent alternative for sustainable
income generation and replacement of illicit crops such as Cannabis sativa and
Erythroxylum coca, both of which have been found in increasing quantities in the
region (Bussmann et al. 2009, 2013).
References
Bussmann RW, Téllez C, Glenn A. Plukenetia huayllabambana (Euphorbiaceae) – a new useful
species from the Upper Amazon of Peru. Nord J Bot. 2009;27:313–5.
Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Tellez C. Plukenetia carolis-vegae (Euphorbiaceae) – a
new useful species from Northern Peru. Econ Bot. 2013;67(4):387–92.
Tellez Alvarado C. Colecta, identificación, determinación taxonomica, y análisis de de la
concentración de ácidos grasosos de ecotipos de Sacha Inchi en la Región Amazonas. 2008.
Vega C. Mesa Técnica de Sacha Inchi. Producto de Conservación: Sacha Inchi, Desarrollo
Estratégico en la Región Amazonas. 2008.
Polylepis pacensis M. Kessler & Schmidt-Leb.
Polylepis racemosa Ruiz & Pav.
Polylepis tomentella Wedd.
ROSACEAE

Javier Echeverría
Synonyms
Polylepis racemosa Ruiz & Pav.: Polylepis incana subsp. icosandra Bitter; Poly-
lepis incana subsp. micranthera Bitter; Polylepis incana var. connectens Bitter;
Polylepis incana var. primovestita Bitter; Polylepis villosa Kunth
Polylepis tomentella Wedd.: Polylepis tarapacana Phil.; Polylepis tomentella
subsp. dentatialata Bitter; Polylepis tomentella subsp. pentaphylla Bitter; Polylepis
tomentella var. tetragona Bitter; Polylepis tomentella subsp. pilosior Bitter
Local Names
Polylepis pacensis: Bolivia: Keñua (Spanish), Queñua (Aymara) (Bussmann et al.

2016)
Polylepis racemosa: Peru: Quinual (Spanish)
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría

Polylepis tomentella: Bolivia: Keñua (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2016); Chile:

Keñoa, Keñua
Botany and Ecology
Polylepis pacensis: Evergreen tree up to 8 m tall; bark of trunk and larger branches
reddish brown, thick, flaking off in small pieces. Leaves mostly congested at tips of
branches, imparipinnate with 2–3 pairs of leaflets, obtrullate in outline, 2.5–4.0 cm
wide and (2.0–)3.0–4.5 cm long; rachises densely to weakly pannose; stipular
sheaths weakly spurred at apex, incised beyond middle, densely villous. Leaflets
obovate in outline, the apical pair larger, one of this pair 0.5–1.0( 1.2) cm wide and
1.5–2.0 cm long; margins crenate in apical half, conspicuously revolute; apices
emarginate (to rounded); bases acute; terminal leaflets with 1–4-mm-long petiolule;
upper surfaces sparsely pilose and balding, dark green; lower surfaces white to
grayish from an evenly distributed, densely pannose indumentum, with additional
yellowish glandular hairs especially on the central veins; inflorescences pendant,
unbranched, (4–)6–9( 10) cm long, bearing 6–10 flowers; floral bracts 4–7 mm
long, brown; inflorescence rachises moderately to densely pannose. Flowers perfect,
0.6–1.0 cm in diameter; sepals 3–4, obovate to almost rounded, yellowish to reddish,
outer surfaces pannose especially near tips, inner surfaces pilose near tips; stamens
about 24, anthers with curly white trichomes along whole length but more densely in
upper half, style base glabrous. Fruits turbinate with 3–4 irregular, flattened ridges
with 1–4 teeth each, body of fruit densely pannose, 0.4–0.5 cm wide including
protuberances, 0.7–0.8 cm long (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, and 6).
Polylepis racemosa: Trees 4–15 m tall. Leaves congested at the ends of the
branches, imparipinnate with 1–3 pairs of leaflets; rhomboid to obtrullate in outline,
2.3–5.0 cm wide and 3.5–8.8 cm long, rachises villous, especially along a line on the
upper surface near the base of the leaf and extending into the inside of the stipule
sheath; point of leaflet attachment with a tuft of long white, straight trichomes;
stipular sheaths with a slight shoulder or sloping away from the petiole, glabrous on
the outer surface but with long trichomes protruding at the apex from the inside
surface. Leaflets obovate to almost oblong in outline, second pair from the terminal
leaflet the largest when present, a leaflet of this pair from 0.6–0.7 cm wide and
2.1–3.7 cm long, margins crenate, especially at the apex, apex slightly to deeply
emarginate, base attenuate, or unequal; upper leaflet surface glabrous, dark green,
sometimes with scattered trichomes in the midvein depression; lower surface with
long, shaggy trichomes inserted on the veins but loosely covering the entire under-
surface, these trichomes mixed with a variable number of short, twisted, several-
celled, often glandular trichomes. Inflorescences pendant, 4.0–11 cm long, bearing
3–11 flowers; floral bracts lanceolate, to 3 mm long, scarious; rachises with
scattered, curled trichomes. Flowers perfect, 0.9–1.0 cm in diameter, sepals
4, ovate, outer surface villous especially at the tips, pilose on the tips of the inner
surface, often with intermixed several-celled glandular trichomes, stamens 10–20.
Polylepis pacensis M. Kessler & Schmidt-Leb. . . . 1499
Fig. 1 Polylepis multijuga (Rosaceae), El Jardin, Leymebamba, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Anthers orbicular, barbate; style often enlarged near the base due to projection of tlie
ovary from the floral cup, villous at the point of projection. Fruit turbinate with 4–5
irregular, flattened wings projecting into a point at the top, body of the fruit covered
with curled, white trichomes mixed with glandular multicellular trichomes,
0.2–0.9 cm wide including wings, 0.3–0.8 cm long (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12).
Polylepis tomentella: Small trees 1–4 m tall. Leaves congested at the ends of the
branches or continuously borne all along the branches, composed of 1, occasionally
2 pairs of leaflets, trullate in outline, 0.8–3.9 cm wide, 1.9–2.4 cm long, rachises
glabrous or covered on the abaxial side with glandular trichomes and long, white,
single-celled trichomes, point of leaflet attachment sericeous; stipule sheaths with a
slight shoulder at the apex or sloping downward, glabrous at the bottom of the outer
surface, the top of the outer surface often with glandular trichomes, and with long
trichomes projecting from the inside upper sheath surface. Leaflets ovate to obovate,
0.3–0.6 cm wide and 0.7–2.0 cm long, variable in thickness, margins entire to
crenate, apex obtuse, base unequal; upper surface glabrous, dull green or yellowish
green; lower surface variable, densely pilose, often with glandular multicellular
trichomes giving the surface a matted, yellow appearance or glabrescent with
scattered glandular protuberances. Inflorescences upright or pendant; if upright,
bearing 1–2 flowers, if pendant, with 1–8 flowers, 0.1–5.1 cm long; floral bracts
Fig. 2 Polylepis multijuga (Rosaceae), El Jardin, Leymebamba, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 3 Polylepis multijuga

(Rosaceae), El Jardin,
R.W. Bussmann and
hidden or lanceolate, denticulate, about 2 mm long, sparsely covered with glandular

trichomes; rachises glabrescent with appressed, twisted trichomes mixed with glan-
dular protuberances and resin. Flowers perfect, 0.4–0.6 cm in diameter, sepals
3, ovate, sometimes adnate at the base, green, outer surface with twisted white
trichomes and glandular protuberances, stamens 6–14, ovoid, red, tomentose at the
apex; base of style hispid. Fruit turbinate, with 3–4 ridges, the ridges sometimes

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and
expanded into wings with entire or toothed margins or merely with a few knobs,
body of the fruit with twisted trichomes, 0.2–0.78 cm wide, including ridges,
0.3–0.9 cm long (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 13, 14, and 15).
Fig. 7 Polylepis racemosa

(Rosaceae), La Paz, Bolivia.
Fig. 8 Polylepis racemosa

Polylepis pacensis: Bolivia: Branches and leaves are used to treat stomachache and
prostate problems (Bussmann et al. 2016).
Polylepis racemosa: Peru: Leaves, fresh or dried, are used to treat bloating and as,
after birth, detoxifier (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b). The species has
Fig. 9 Polylepis racemosa (Rosaceae), La Paz, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 10 Polylepis reticulata (Rosaceae), La Paz, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 11 Polylepis reticulata

strong antibacterial activities (Bussmann et al. 2010a, 2011a, b). It is sometimes sold
in local medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2007) and can be an ingredient in
herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010b).
Polylepis tomentella: The bark is taken in Colombia as tea and is a remedy for the
lungs. The infusion is a remedy for the heart, cough, and bad urine. Boiled with burnt
sugar, it is a remedy for bronchial infections (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez
et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Bolivia: Branches and leaves are used to
treat stomachache and fever (Bussmann et al. 2016).
All species are used as firewood.

Polylepis racemosa: Peru: Used for bad air (mal aire) (Bussmann and Sharon 2006,
2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010c). It is rarely found in local markets
Polylepis tomentella: The wood is used for the construction of roofs and also as
firewood. Different handicrafts are carved with the root. Carbon was made with the
trunk (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
Fig. 12 Polylepis reticulata

Fig. 13 Polylepis tomentella



References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass.
ASTERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass.: Cacalia glandulosa Salisb.; Cacalia

porophyllum L.; Cacalia ruderalis (Jacq.) Sw.; Kleinia porophyllum (L.) Willd.;
Kleinia ruderalis Jacq.; Porophyllum ellipticum Cass.; Porophyllum ellipticum var.
genuinum Urb.; Porophyllum ellipticum var. intermedium DC.; Porophyllum
ellipticum var. ruderale (Jacq.) Urb.; Porophyllum latifolium Benth.; Porophyllum
macrocephalum DC.; Porophyllum macrocephalum Malme; Porophyllum
oblanceolatum Rusby; Porophyllum porophyllum (L.) Kuntze; Porophyllum
ruderale subsp. macrocephalum (DC.) R.R. Johnson; Porophyllum ruderale var.
angustifolia Hassl.; Porophyllum ruderale var. ellipticum (Cass.) A. Gray ex
B.L. Rob.; Porophyllum ruderale var. glandulosum Chodat; Porophyllum ruderale
(Jazq.) Cass. var. ruderale; Tagetes integrifolia Muschl.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Bolivia: Quirquiña; Colombia: Chucha, Ruda de gallina, Venadillo; Ecuador:

Larindi (Tsafi’ki), Hierba de gallinazo, Ruda de gallinazo (Spanish) (de la Torre
et al. 2008); Peru: Hierba Gallinazo, Hierba del Gallinazo (Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Sometimes robust herb, bluish-green, up to 1.5 m high. Stems branched from near
the base or higher, leaves opposite to alternate, on long pedicels, ovate to almost
circular, up to 5 cm long, rounded at the apex and with the wavy margin, with
translucent, elongated glands. Inflorescence with heads 2–3 cm long, peduncles
thickened toward the apex, generally solitary, or a few grouped toward the tips of
the stems. Numerous flowers per head, all tubular, up to 1.5 cm long, hermaphro-
ditic; the corolla a very thin tube that widens to the apex and is divided into 5 short
lobes, creamy, greenish or tending to brown or red; the alternate stamens with the
corolla lobes, their free filaments and inserts on the tube of the corolla, the anthers
welded together forming a tube around the style, with an appendix at the apex and
Fig. 1 Porophyllum ruderale

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass. 1511

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
with the base obtuse or somewhat sagittate; the inferior ovary. The fruit is dry and
indehiscent, with a single seed, narrow, cylindrical but somewhat wider toward the
apex, blackish, from 1 to 1.5 cm long. Very fragrant when squeezed (Macbride and
In Colombia the plant prepared in decoction is used to stop the hemorrhages and to
alleviate the diseases of the skin. Chancres of syphilitic skin and leprosy ulcers have
been successfully treated using this plant frequently (García Barriga 1975). Ecua-
dor: Hot leaves are used to relieve earache (Mestiza-Guayas). The leaves are used to
stop bleeding (Tsa’chi-Pichincha). It is used to treat rheumatism and nerves
(unspecified ethnic group – Carchi). It is used to treat epidermal or pustular diseases
(unspecified ethnicity – others (Costa Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant,
particularly the fruit, is used to treat “bad air” and fright (Tsa’chi-Pichincha;
unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The
species is not used medicinally in Peru, although strong antibacterial activity has
been shown (Bussmann et al. 2011a, b, 2010a, b).

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Bolivia: It is widely used as ingredient in hot sauces and in general cuisine. The
strong antibacterial activity of the species might explain the origin of this use.
Interestingly, Bolivia is the only Andean country where the species is used as
food. Ecuador: The fruit is used as fuel (unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). The
leaves, in cooking and macerated, are used to wash the eyes and head (Tsa’chi-
Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It is also used to treat susto/fright (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006a; 2007a). Peru: The species is often sold in ritual plant markets
(Bussmann et al. 2008b; used to treat fright/susto and for cleansings (limpia) and
to clean the energy of the home (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2010c; Bussmann
and Sharon 2007b, 2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013). It is part of a wide array of
ceremonially used plant mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010c), and the species is often
sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2008c, 2008a).
References
Porophyllum ruderale (Jacq.) Cass. 1513
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional medicinal plant use in Northern Peru: tracking two thousand
years of healing culture. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006b;2:47.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008b;6:351–61.
Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629.
(2):450–64.
Portulaca oleracea L.
PORTULACACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Portulaca oleracea L.: Portulaca consanguines Schltdl.; Portulaca intermedia

Link; Portulaca marginata Kunth; Portulaca neglecta Mack. & Bush; Portulaca
officinarum Crantz; Portulaca oleracea subsp. granulatostellulata (Poelln.) Danin
& H.G. Baker; Portulaca oleracea subsp. nicaraguensis Danin & H.G. Baker;
Portulaca oleracea subsp. nitida Danin & H.G. Baker; Portulaca oleracea subsp.
sylvestris Thell.; Portulaca oleracea var. granulatostellulata Poelln.; Portulaca
oleracea var. macrantha Eggers; Portulaca oleracea var. micrantha Eggers; Portu-
laca oleracea var. opposita Poelln.; Portulaca oleracea var. parvifolia (Haw.)
Grieseb.; Portulaca olitoria Pall.; Portulaca parvifolia Haw.; Portulaca pilosa L.;
Portulaca pusilla Kunth; Portulaca retusa Engelm.; Portulaca sativa Haw.; Portu-
laca suffruticosa Thwaites
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Colombia: Anu wan u, Verdolaga, Verdolaga de castilla; Ecuador: Cutuyuyo,

Verdalonga (Spanish), Reuma tape (Spanish-Chafi’ki), Llutu Yuyu, Yana llutu
yuyu, Yawati mikuna yuyu (Kichwa), Lutu yuyu negro (Spanish-Kichwa),
Verdolaga (Spanish), Pirtugakas (unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008);
Peru: Verdolaga (Spanish); English: Purslane
Botany and Ecology
Annual. The stem (7) 10–30 cm long, glabrous, fleshy, prostrate, mostly appressed to
the soil or ascending, branched from base. The leaves are alternate, sessile, cuneately
narrowing toward the base, fleshy. The flowers are solitary or in clusters of 2 or 3, in
the stem crotches or in the leaf axils. The sepals are herbaceous, obtusely keeled. The
petals (4–6) are free or connate at base, united with the calyx, obovate, and yellow.
The stigmas are linear. The stamens 8–15, free or adnate at base to petals. The
capsule is ovoid or globular, 5–8 mm long. The plant can be found in sand deposits
on riverbanks, fields, weed-infested places around villages, and gardens (Figs. 1, 2,
and 3).
Colombia: In Colombia this plant is used in the treatment of fevers. The stem in
decoction is used in cases of infectious diseases. The leaves in infusion act as a good
purgative and are suggested in the treatment of any kind of pain (Fonnegra-Gómez
and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; Pabón et al. 2017; Patiño
1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996; Vera Marín and Sánchez Sáenz 2015). The whole plant
is used to treat urinary infections and burns; leaves are used to treat fever and as
vermifuge (Bussmann et al. 2018a). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat
fever and liver problems (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Fresh juice extracted from the leaves is used to treat erysipelas. In addition, the
leaves are effective in the treatment of burns and ulcers and cleaning the irritated
eyes. The infusion is taken to eliminate kidney stones (Shuar-Napo). The juice of the
plant is used to treat inflammation of internal organs (unspecified ethnic group –
Cañar). The entire plant, in plaster, is applied to treat kidney pain, colds, and
rheumatism (Chachi-Esmeraldas; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Chimbo-
razo, Azuay). The plant is vermifuge, antiscorbutic, and refrigerant (unspecified
ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). The plant, liquefied with egg white and a little oil, is
applied to the place affected by inflammation of the kidneys (unspecified ethnicity –
Azuay). The plant, in infusion or plaster, is used to treat kidney pain (unspecified
ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha). The plant, in infusion, is used to increase milk
secretion and to treat purulent wounds, diarrhea, colic, fever, and liver and kidney
Portulaca oleracea L. 1517
Fig. 1 Portulaca oleracea

(Portulacaceae), Tusheti,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
conditions (Mestizo-Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity-Imbabura, Pichincha, Chim-

borazo, Loja). The leaves are used to treat women who follow the diet (sic) and have
belly pain (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura). The leaves, root, and stem are macerated,
and applied as plaster, to treat bruises and tumors (Shuar-Napo, Morona Santiago). It
is used to treat stomach, liver, and kidney conditions and as a purgative, to perform
intestinal washes (Mestiza-Guayas, Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity – Loja, others
(Costa Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: The whole fresh plant is used to treat liver, kidney infections, hepatitis, and
inflammation of the liver and to cleanse the liver (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b). It is an often ingredient in herb
mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010).
Local Food Uses
Colombia: Leaves are used as food (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: Fresh,
cooked, or fried leaves are edible; they are used to prepare salads and refreshing
drinks (Kichwa del Oriente-Orellana; Shuar-Napo; Mestizo-Morona Santiago;
unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Cañar, Azuay, Loja, Zamora Chinchipe, others
(Andean Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves are used as seasoning
(unspecified ethnicity – others (Costa and Sierra Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Interestingly, no food uses have been reported from Peru. However, the species is
widely consumed in Eurasia, especially the Caucasus (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017;
Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2016, 2018b). In Pakistan Portulaca is used to
treat liver infections, as anthelmintic, for jaundice, asthma and as diuretic (Umair
et al. 2019). In Kenya the plant is used to treat typhoid (Njoroge et al. 2004), and in
India it is used to remedy jaundice and liver and kidney problems (Verma et al.
2007).
Ecuador: It is food for birds, donkeys, and land turtles (unspecified ethnic group –
Guayas, Orellana). Social: The plant is used to treat “peeks” (Mestizo-Guayas) (de la
Torre et al. 2008).
References
Batsatsashvili K, Mehdiyeva N, Fayvush G, Kikvidze Z, Khutsishvili M, Maisaia I, Sikharulidze S,
Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Portulaca
oleracea L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer Interna-
tional Publishing; 2017.
Portulaca oleracea L. 1519
2017. XXVII, 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Pabón LC, Rodríguez MF, Hernández-Rodríguez P. Plantas medicinales que se comercializan en
Bogotá (Colombia) para el tratamiento de enfermedades infecciosas. Bol Latinoam Caribe Plant
Med Aromát. 2017;16(6):529–46.
10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4.
Vera Marín B, Sánchez Sáenz M. Registro de algunas plantas medicinales cultivadas en San
Cristóbal, municipio de Medellín (Antioquia – Colombia). Rev Fac Nacl Aronomía. 2015;68
(2):7647–58.
Prosopis alba Griseb.
Prosopis laevigata (Humb. & Bonpl. ex
Willd.) M.C.
Prosopis pallida (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.)
Kunth
FABACEAE

Javier Echeverría
Synonyms
Prosopis laevigata (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) M.C.: Acacia laevigata Humb. &
Bonpl. ex Willd.; Algarobia dulcis (Kunth) Benth.; Mimosa laevigata (Humb. &
Bonpl. ex Willd.) Poir.; Mimosa rotundata Sessé & Moc.; Neltuma attenuata Britton
& Rose; Neltuma laevigata (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Britton & Rose; Neltuma
michoacana Britton & Rose; Neltuma pallescens Britton & Rose; Neltuma palmeri
Britton & Rose; Prosopis dulcis Kunth
Prosopis pallida (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Kunth: Acacia pallida Humb. &
Bonpl. ex Willd.; Mimosa pallida (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Poir.; Prosopis
limensis Willd.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría

Local Names
Prosopis alba: Chile, Peru: Algarrobo; English: Mesquite

Prosopis laevigata: Bolivia: Algarrobo, Tajo (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2016)
Prosopis pallida: Ecuador: Algarrobo (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru:
Algarrobo (Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Prosopis alba: Tree up to 12 m high and 1 m in diameter, usually with few short
spines and geminated. Leaves 1–2 bipinnate with linear leaflets, 5–15 mm long,
number 25–36 per pinna. Yellow-green flowers, grouped in spiciform clusters. The
fruit is a pod. Seeds smooth, ellipsoid, compressed laterally, surrounded by pulp. Sea
level to 2500 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Prosopis laevigata: Tree with a height of up to 12 m, trunk with up to 1.2 m in
diameter. Leaves deciduous, bipinnate, light green, compounded with 12–20 leaflets.
Flowers appear shortly after leaf development. Flowers in 5–10 cm long green-
yellow cylindrical spikes, which occur in clusters of 2–5 at the ends of branches.
Pods 20–30 cm long and contain between 10 and 30 seeds per pod. A mature plant
can produce hundreds of thousands of seeds. Seeds remain viable for up to 10 years.
The tree reproduces only by way of seeds, not vegetatively. Seeds are spread by
cattle and other animals that consume the seed pods and spread the seeds in their
droppings (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).
Prosopis pallida: Tree, 8–20 m high, trunk to 60 cm in diameter, unarmed or spiny,
with short, axillary, uninodal, geminate, paired, divergent spines less than 4 cm long.
Leaves bipinnate, medium to small in size, pallid grayish-green when dry, (1–)2–4 pairs
of pinnae, pubescent, ciliolate to subglabrous; petiole short, with the rachis 0.8–4.5 cm
long, pubescent; pinnae 1.5–6.0 cm long, with a sessile, cuplike gland at their junction;
leaflets green or gray when dry, 6–15 pairs per pinna, approximate without touching or a
little distant, pubescent or at least ciliolate, oblong-elliptic to ovate, obtuse or mucronate,
Fig. 1 Prosopis chilensis

(Fabaceae), Calama, Chile.
Señoret)
Prosopis alba Griseb. . . . 1523
Fig. 2 Prosopis tamarugo (Fabaceae), Calama, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)
firm, pinnately nerved below, 2.5–8.3 mm long 1.4–4.0 mm broad. Racemes 2–3
times longer than the leaves; rachis and short peduncle pubescent, together 8–15 cm
long; florets dense (200–250 per raceme), short-pedicelled, greenish-yellow; calyx
ciliolate, 0.5–1.5 mm long; petals 2.5–3.0 mm long, free, villous within; stamens
5–7 mm long; ovary stalked, villous. Legume straight or subfalcate, very similar to
that of P. juliflora (Sw.) DC., but thicker, straw-yellow when ripe, with parallel margins,
fleshy, sweet, edible, subcompressed, long or short stipitate with rounded base, and
acuminate, sometimes nearly subquadrate-rectangular in transection, (6–)10–25 cm
long 1.0–1.5 cm broad 5–9 mm thick; endocarp segments to 30, broader than
long; seeds oblong, brown, 6.5 mm long (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Fig. 2).
Prosopis alba: Used as an antispasmodic for the treatment of symptoms and signs of
stomach disorders (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Prosopis laevigata: Bolivia: Dry fruits are used to treat anemia, frailty, for strength-
ening, kidney infection, prostate problems, and against curses (Bussmann et al. 2016).
Prosopis pallida: Ecuador: The juice of the bud, put to heat, is applied to the eye to
treat the “evil eye” (unspecified ethnicity – Manabi) (de La Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Dried seeds are used to treat cough, anemia, fertility, sexual potency, bron-
chitis, and as nutritional supplement, for stomachache, hangover, arthritis,
rheumatism, colds, bone ache, toothache, to pull out teeth and for critical wounds
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b, 2011).
The species shows antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2009a, b, 2010; 2011a, b).
Local Food Uses
Prosopis alba: In Chile the pulp of the fruits of the white carob tree is edible raw. It
is also milled to obtain flour and make bakery products. In addition, the fruits (with
the exception of the seeds and sourdough) are fermented to prepare a drink called
“Aloja de Algarrobo” (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Prosopis pallida: Ecuador: The fruit is used to prepare a drink (unspecified ethnic
group – Guayas, Manabí) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: It is sometimes used as
ingredient in emollients (healthy beverages often taken for breakfast) (Bussmann
et al. 2015).
Prosopis pallida: Ecuador: The wood is used to make coal (unspecified ethnic
group – Guayas, Manabí) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves and fruit are used as
animal fodder (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Manabí) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
The plant is used to reforest (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Manabí) (de la
Torre et al. 2008).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010b;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103.
Prosopis alba Griseb. . . . 1525
(1):105–10.
can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010;9
(4):742–53.
2015;69:83–8.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Psammisia spp.
ERICACEAE
Botany and Ecology
Terrestrial or epiphytic shrubs. Leaves (15–)18–40 6–13( 17.5) cm, ovate,

elliptic, or oblong-lanceolate, glabrous, rib 5–7-plinervia, base cuneate to rounded,
apex attenuating and long accumulated; petioles 8–19 mm, glabrous. Shortly race-
mose but corymbiform inflorescences due to elongation of the pedicels inferior,
glabrous, although frequently covered with a whitish exudate when young that can
persist, with 10–20( 35) flowers; spine 0.7–2 cm; floral bracts c. 3 mm, broadly
ovate to oblong, acute, the margins decidedly fimbriate-glandular; pedicels
20–60 mm, lengthening up to 71 mm after anthesis; bracts 1.8–2 mm, triangular,
acute, fimbriate-glandular margins. Flowers with the calyx 6.5–8 mm, the tube
2.5–4 mm, the limbo c. 4 mm, wolves 2–3 mm, ovate, rounded, apiculate, margins
apparently broken; corolla (18–)25–38 mm, swollen but more or less cylindrical in
the 1/3–1/2 basal, constricted once above the base, fimbriate-glandular distally, of a
dark red-pink in the basal portion swollen and slightly red-pink distally, wolves
2–3 mm, triangular to oblong, acute; stamens 9–15 mm; filaments 3–6 mm, distinct
or slightly connate at the base, scattered hairy on the margins distally, the connective
R. W. Bussmann (*)

without spurs; anthers 10–13 mm, teak 4–7 mm, tubules 3–5.5 mm, sometimes
laterally connate at 1/2 baseline. Berries at least 13 mm in diameter, spherical, green
to dotted green mottled brown. Premontane forests (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Fig. 1 Psammisia guianensis

(Ericaceae), Uchumarca, Peru.


Psammisia spp. 1529

Various species of Psammisia are used in curing ceremonies for spiritual flowering.
References
Pseudognaphalium dysodes (Spreng.) S. E.
Freire, Bayón & C. Monti
Pseudognaphalium psilophyllum (Meyen &
Walp.) Anderb.
ASTERACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Pseudognaphalium dysodes (Spreng.) S. E. Freire, Bayón & C. Monti:

Gnaphalium dombeyanum DC.; Gnaphalium dysodes Spreng.; Gnaphalium
graveolens Kunth; Gnaphalium humillimum Spreng.; Gnaphalium nanum Kunth,
Pseudognaphalium dombeyanum (DC.) Anderb.; Pseudognaphalium graveolens
Anderb
Pseudognaphalium psilophyllum (Meyen & Walp.) Anderb.: Gnaphalium
glandulosum Klatt, Gnaphalium psilophyllum Meyen & Walp., Pseudognaphalium
glandulosum (Klatt) Anderb.
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Local Names
Pseudognaphalium dysodes: Chile: Viravira, Viravira blanca.

Pseudognaphalium psilophyllum: Chile: Viravira, Wirawira, Chuncho viravira,
Q’osqot’ola.
Botany and Ecology
Pseudognaphalium dysodes: Herb, leaves alternate, woolly or glandular, often

discolorous. Capitula disciform, in small loose terminal corymbs; receptacle
smooth or honeycombed; phyllaries in 3–4 rows, subequal, papery and glossy,
yellowish to white to brownish, often with a central unthickened area, stereome
usually divided. Outer florets yellow, female, filiform; inner florets hermaphrodite,
fewer than the outer, yellow, lobes glandular, anthers short-tailed, style branches
truncate. Fruits achenes usually glabrous, with mucilaginous hairs; pappus of
barbellate bristles, basally with patent cilia. 3400–4300 m (Macbride and
Pseudognaphalium psilophyllum: Perennial herb between 10 and 85 cm high;
multiple erect stems, branched at the top. Stem leaves between 10 and 65 mm
long, linear, smooth margin, acute apex; basal leaves between 85 and 90 mm long,
linear-obovate, glandular on both sides, sometimes arachnoid, with many trichomes.
Terminal inflorescences, numerous chapters, arranged in corymbs or panicles,
between 3 and 5 mm, with 4 sets of bracts. Yellow pistillate flowers, between
82 and 143 per capitulum, with tubular corolla. Fruits between 0.6 and 1 mm long,
glabrous, smooth epidermis; villous, between 2.5 and 3.4 mm long. 800–4600 m
(Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Fig. 1 Pseudognaphalium
and N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)
Pseudognaphalium dysodes (Spreng.) S. E. Freire, Bayón & C. Monti. . . 1533
Pseudognaphalium dysodes: The infusion of flowers is used to relieve cough

Pseudognaphalium psilophyllum: The infusion of the aerial parts mixed with
lampaya (Lampaya medicinalis) and rikarika (Aloysia deserticola) is used to treat
lung diseases and to relieve cough (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al.
Pseudognaphalium americanum is used in Ecuador to treat diarrhea in children
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a) and in Peru for nervous system problems and
diabetes (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011). It is
sometimes sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). The species has limited
antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2011a, b).
Pseudognaphalium dysodes (Spreng.) S. E. Freire, Bayón & C. Monti. . . 1535
Pseudognaphalium psilophyllum: Forage use (González and Molina 2017;

Pseudognaphalium americanum is used in Ecuador to treat fright/susto
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Psidium guajava L.
Psidium guineense Sw.
MYRTACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Psidium guineense Sw.: Guajava guineense (Sw.) Kuntze; Guajava mollis (Bertol.)
Kuntze; Guajava polycarpa (C.L. Anderson ex Lamb.) Kuntze; Myrtus guineensis
(Sw.) Kuntze; Psidium araca Raddi; Psidium benthamianum O. Berg.; Psidium
chrysobalanoides Standl.; Psidium costaricense O. Berg; Psidium dichotomum
Wenm.; Psidium guyanese Pers.; Psidium hasslerianum Barb. Rodr.; Psidium
laurifolium O. Berg; Psidium molle Bertol.; Psidium molle var. gracile O. Berg;
Psidium monticola O. Berg; Psidium ooideum var. longipedunculatum Rusby;
Psidium polycarpon C.L. Anderson ex Lamb.; Psidium rotundifolium Standl.;
Psidium schiedeanum O. Berg.; Psidium schippii Standl.; Psidium sericiflorum
Benth.; Psidium sprucei O. Berg
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Psidium guajava: Spanish: Colombia: Guava, Guaya Biche, Guayaba, Guayaba

Pera, Guayabo; Peru: Graviola, Guanábana; English: Guava
Psidium guineense: Colombia: Guayabo cimarrón (Spanish) (Bussmann et al.
en prep.); Ecuador: Guayavilla (Spanish), Allpa guayaba (Spanish-
Kichwa), Guayaba, Guayaba del monte, Guayabilla (Spanish), Chaguindo
(unspecified language) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Graviola, Guanábana;
English: Guava
Botany and Ecology
Psidium guajava/Psidium guineense: Shrub or treelet, 1–8 m tall, with light gray
and smooth bark. Leaves opposite and simple, often less than 10 cm long and each
is finely pubescent, somewhat thick and leathery, elliptic to egg-shaped with a
strong midvein and about 8 pairs of lateral veins which are impressed above. The
flowers are disposed in threes from an inflorescence 3 cm long that is borne from
the base of a leaf pair, and each on its own, stout branchlet. Sepals green and
rounded, petals 5, concave, white and falling off early, 1 cm long. Stamens many,
and the style shorter than the stamens. Fruit round to pear-shaped, yellowish green
and up to 2 cm in diameter. Cultivated throughout South America, occurring also
in open spaces of montane forests at elevations between 600 and 2600 m (Mac-
bride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Fig. 1 Psidium guineense

(Myrtaceae), Pisac, Peru.
Psidium guajava L. . . . 1539



Psidium guajava: In Bolivia the leaves are used to treat diarrhea (Quiroga et al. 2012).
The bark and leaves are prepared in Colombia as decoction and are used in dysentery
and diarrhea. Macerated or in decoction is used when the teeth are damaged. The
leaves in infusion are used as stimulants and antispasmodics. The buds and tender
leaves prepared in decoction are used as hair tonic and help prevent hair loss. The fruits
are used to treat diarrhea. Powdered seeds are used in the treatment of diabetes
(Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975; Patiño 1963;
Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In Peru the plant is used to treat cancer and liver problems
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013). Psidium sows
limited antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2010a, b, 2011a, b). It is often sold in
local fruit and medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2007).
In India the species is chewed to treat diarrhea, piles and vomiting (Debbarma et al.
2017), jaundice, cough and cold, infections, hypertension, and heat stroke (Raj et al.
2018). In Nepal it serves for constipation, as laxative, to treat colics and as astringent
(Kunwar et al. 2010). In Kenya the species is used for colds and asthma (Njoroge and
Bussmann 2006a), as well as diarrhea, especially in veterinary medicine (Njoroge and
Bussmann 2006b). In Madagascar it is used for diarrhea (Rakotoarivelo et al. 2015)
and also to treat malaria, vomiting, and gastric cramps (Razafindraibe et al. 2013).
Psidium guineense: In Bolivia the leaves are used to treat diarrhea (Quiroga et al.
2012). Colombia: The bark and leaves are prepared as decoction and are used in
dysentery and diarrhea. Macerated or in decoction is used when the teeth are damaged.
The leaves in infusion are used as stimulants and antispasmodics. The buds and tender
leaves prepared in decoction are used as hair tonic and help prevent hair loss. The fruits
are used to treat diarrhea. Powdered seeds are used in the treatment of diabetes
(Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García
Barriga 1975). Leaves are used for diarrhea and skin ulcers (Bussmann et al. 2018).
Ecuador: Yellow fruits and flowers are used fresh for diarrhea (Béjar et al. 2001;
Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The fruit, tender and cooked, is used to treat
diarrhea (unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Local Food Uses
Both species are edible and widely consumed or made into jams. Psidium
guineense: Ecuador: The fruit is edible; it is used to prepare jellies, jams, sweets,
and delicacies (Mestiza-Tungurahua; unspecified ethnic group – El Oro, Loja) (de la
Torre et al. 2008).
Psidium guineense: Ecuador: It has beekeeping use (unspecified ethnicity – Loja)

Psidium guajava L. . . . 1541
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
2010a;9(4):742–53.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.

2013;145(2):450–64.
2006b;108:332–9.
018-0208-9.
the Ambalabe rural community, Eastern Madagascar. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:68.
2013;9:73.
Pycnophyllum bryoides (Phil.) Rohrb.
Pycnophyllum macropetalum Mattf.
CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Pycnophyllum bryoides (Phil.) Rohrb.: Stichophyllum bryoides Phil.
Local Names
Pycnophyllum bryoides: Chile: Yaretilla, Yaretilla chica, K’jota, Ayro hembra,

Ayro, Yaretilla hembra, Taksataksa, Ch’arina
Pycnophyllum macropetalum: Chile: Ayro, Ayro macho, Yaretilla macho, Yaretilla,
K’jota
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Pycnophyllum bryoides: Cespitose perennial herb, dioecious, with creeping rhi-

zomes. Stems numerous, 15 cm long, twigs somewhat elongated apically. Leaves
ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, sheathing, like scales, imbricate, margin broadly,
shortly serrated, 2–2.5 mm long. Terminal flowers, solitary, pedicelled, 3.5 mm
long. Sepals 5, more or less scarious. Chalice 3 mm long, lanceolate, lobes obtuse,
scarious, longitudinally ribbed. Petals 5, minute or absent, oblong-linear, bifid to
almost the base, very sharp lanceolate division, almost 2 mm long. Simple style;
stigmas 3. Uniseminated walnut, irregularly dehiscent at the base, enclosed by the
persistent calyx; triangular or piriform seeds. 4100–4500 m (Macbride and Dahlgren
1936) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Pycnophyllum macropetalum: Stems to 15 cm long, the thicker branches to 3.5 mm
thick toward the tip; leaves densely spiraled, shortly sheathed, the blades obovate,
conspicuously constricted below the middle, 2–2.5 mm long, rounded at the apex,
minutely mucronulate, pale straw-colored, obscurely calloused; bracts spatulate,
longer than 4 mm, not calloused; flowers dioecious, the pistillate obovoid, 6 mm
long, the nearly orbicular sepals papillose below the apex, with a green callus 4 mm
long; petals obovate, deeply bifid, 5 mm long; styles 1.5 mm long, the branches
0.5 mm long. P. spathulatum Mattf. has obovate, obtuse, or denticulate petals to
1.5 mm long. 4000–4800 m (Macbride and Dahlgren 1936).
Pycnophyllum bryoides: The infusion of aerial parts is used to treat colds. Women
use it as medicine for the womb (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Pycnophyllum macropetalum: The boiled root is used to grow hair. The infusion of
the aerial parts is used for the treatment of colds (Macbride and Dahlgren 1936;
Fig. 1 Frankenia triandra

(Pycnophyllum pilgerianum)
(Frankeniaceae), Turi, Chile.
Señoret)
Pycnophyllum bryoides (Phil.) Rohrb.. . . 1545
Fig. 2 Frankenia triandra (Pycnophyllum pilgerianum) (Frankeniaceae), Turi, Chile. (Photo

Fig. 3 Pycnophyllum bryoides (Frankeniaceae), Quebrada Chita, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard
Señoret)
Señoret)
Señoret)
Pycnophyllum bryoides (Phil.) Rohrb.. . . 1547
Fig. 6 Pycnophyllum
bryoides (Frankeniaceae),
Pycnophyllum bryoides: The boiled root is used as a shampoo to wash hair and as a
hair tonic. The hair grows bright and vigorous. It also serves as detergent to wash
clothes and wool. Forage use (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán
and Castro 2003).
Pycnophyllum macropetalum: This plant is used as a mattress filling, which remain
soft and warm. The boiled root is used as a shampoo to wash the hair and as
detergent to wash wool (Macbride and Dahlgren 1936; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
References
Macbride JF, Dahlgren BE. Flora of Peru, vol. 21. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History;
1936.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Pyrethrum parthenium (L.) Sm
ASTERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Pyrethrum parthenium (L.) Sm: Aphanostephus pinulensis J.M. Coult.; Chrysan-

themum parthenium (L.) Bernh.; Chrysanthemum parthenium (L.) Pers.; Matricaria
latifolia Gilib.; Matricaria parthenium L.; Pyrethrum matricaria Gesn. ex Rupr.;
Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip.
Local Names
Colombia: Altamisa, Altamisa mexicana, Amargosa, Artemisia, Manzanilla

amarga, Manzanilla criolla, Manzanilla matricaria, Matricaria común; Ecuador:
Santa Maria
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Perennial herbs to 80 cm tall, aromatic; stems erect, densely leafy, prominently

angled, puberulent to glabrate. Leaves ovate in outline, 3–12( 15) cm long (includ-
ing petioles), 1–2-pinnatifid, the primary segments 3–5-paired, 0.7–3.5 cm long,
0.5–2.0 cm wide, usually 3–7-lobed, the margins dentate or pinnatifid, the ultimate
segments oblong to lanceolate, obtuse to acute, mucronate, puberulent to glabrous,
punctate-glandular beneath; petioles 0.5–3.5 cm long. Inflorescences laxly corym-
bose, 5–20( 30)-flowered; peduncles 3–8 cm long, puberulent, bracteate. Capitula
radiate, heterogamous, 3–5 mm high, 9–11 mm wide (excluding rays); involucres
hemispherical; phyllaries 3-seriate, imbricate, lanceolate, 2.0–3.5 mm long,
0.3–0.6 mm wide, keeled, stramineous, puberulent, glandular, the margins scarious,
ciliolate; receptacles convex, sparsely paleaceous; paleae oblanceolate, ciliolate; ray
florets 13–21, the ligules 4–6( 9) mm long, 2–4 mm wide, oval to oblong,
3-denticulate, white, the tube ca. 1 mm long, dorsiventrally compressed, enlarged
near the base; disc florets 150–300, the corollas cylindrical, 1.5–2.0 mm long,
5-lobed, yellow. Achenes cylindrical, 1.0–1.6 mm long, curving inward, 5–8-ribbed,
glandular; pappus absent or an irregularly lobed corona, 0.1–0.3 mm high (Macbride
and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 1 Pyrethrum
aromaticum (Asteraceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Pyrethrum parthenium (L.) Sm 1551
Fig. 2 Pyrethrum
aromaticum (Asteraceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Manzanilla criolla is used in Colombia for the treatment of migraine, menstrual

irregularities, stomach disorders, fever, vertigo, insect bites, and dermatitis. It is also
used as a laxative, against intestinal worms, as an anti-inflammatory, and as an
antispasmodic (Bernal et al. 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; Ministerio de
Protección Social 2008). The species shows antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al.
2011a) but has some toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b).
Species of Pyrethrum are widely used as analgesic and tonic, for headache, for
diarrhea, against skin infections and wounds, for inflammations and oral cavity
problems in the Caucasus (Bussmann 2017).
In Ecuador the plant is mostly used for spiritual cleansing, against fright (susto) and
against the devil (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007).
References
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
2017. XXVII. 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1.
9789962-2-2.
Raphanus sativus L.
BRASSICACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Raphanus sativus L.: Raphanistrum gayanum Fisch. & C.A. Mey.; Raphanus
acanthiformis J.M. Morel ex Sasaki; Raphanus acanthiformis var. raphanistroides
(Makino) Hara; Raphanus candidus Vorosch.; Raphanus chinensis Mill.; Raphanus
gayanus (Fisch. & C.A. Mey.) G. Don. ex Sweet; Raphanus macropodus H. Lév.;
Raphanus niger Mill.; Raphanus raphanistroides (Makino) Nakai; Raphanus
raphanistrum subsp. sativus (L.) Beck; Raphanus raphanistrum var. sativus (L.)
Domin; Raphanus sativus var. longipinnatus L.H. Bailey; Raphanus sativus var.
macropodus (H. Lév.) Makino; Raphanus sativus var. radicula Pers.; Raphanus
sativus var. raphanistroides (Makino) Makino; Raphanus taquetii H. Lév.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Colombia: Rabanito colorado, Rábano, Rábano blanco, Rábano negro, Rebancá

(Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Annual or biennial; root thickened, edible, annual (red radish) or biennial (white
radish), rarely thin (Chinese radish), red, white, violet, pink, black; lower leaves
lyrate-pinnatifid, with large terminal lobe, lateral lobes 2–6-paired, rarely leaves
subentire. Petals white, pink, or violet; siliques broad, slightly inflated, glabrous or
hirsute, soft at base, spongy inside, obscurely concave above but not jointed,
breaking in irregular portions, mostly longitudinally; beak generally stout, usually
half as long as silique. Grown everywhere where kitchen gardens are cultivated.
The thin rooted form (Chinese radish) is very rare in Western Europe. Unknown in
its wild state. Ural, Caucasus, and Central Middle Asia, as weed in crops, on
fallow land, near settlements. Cultivated in all parts of Europe, in the temperate
zones of Asia and North America and Australia. Originated on the shores of the
Fig. 1 Raphanus sativus

R.W. Bussmann and
Raphanus sativus L. 1555
Mediterranean. Raphanus raphanistrum is the most likely ancestor of polymor-

phic Raphanus sativus. The area of maximum diversity of radish lies between
the Eastern Mediterranean and the Caspian Sea, which is probably the original
gene center for this species. Radish was cultivated already in ancient times in
the Mediterranean, from where it spread to China in about 500 BC and to Japan
in about 700 AD. The variability diminishes gradually from the Caspian Sea
to China, and even more toward Japan. It is also a crop that has been cultivated
since ancient times in the oases of the Sahara and in Mali. Radish can now be
found as a cultigen throughout the world in many different forms, from small
leafy annuals to biennials with large fleshy roots. The cultivars with relatively
small roots (small radish) are most important in temperate climates of the world
and only of limited importance in Africa, mostly in francophone countries
among people originating from Europe. Radish is grown mainly for its thickened
fleshy root. Small radishes are pungent and used as appetizer when eaten fresh
and for adding color to dishes. Oriental radish (to which Chinese radish,
Japanese radish, and mooli belong) is crisp with a mild flavor (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, and 8).

R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 3 Raphanus sativus var.

caudatus (Brassicaceae),
Fig. 4 Raphanus
raphanistrum (Brassicaceae),
garden, Bakuriani, Georgia.

sativus (Brassicaceae),

sativus (black variety, above)
and Raphanus sativus var.
longipinnatus (below)
R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and

sativus (Brassicaceae),
Radish prepared in infusion is used in Colombia for chronic cough, bronchitis, and
stomach disorders and as a diuretic, against biliary diseases, urinary disorders, and
fungi. The root prepared in the form of syrup or in decoction is used for pulmonary
and bronchial diseases; it is also used as a general tonic to purify the blood and
increase appetite and is also a good general restorative. Radish prepared in syrup is
used to treat pimples and pimples on the face (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño
2011; Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1974; Ministerio de Protección
Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In Peru, it is used for bronchitis to cleanse blood
from toxins, cleanse the liver, and erase stains from the face (Bussmann and Sharon
2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010).
Local Food Uses
Radishes have limited food use in the new world, but are widely eaten in other parts
of the world, e.g., Eurasia (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016).
References
Rev Peruana Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
2014;12:237–313.
016-0110-2.
Reyesia juniperoides (Werderm.) D’Arcy
SOLANACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Reyesia juniperoides (Werderm.) D’Arcy: Salpiglossis juniperoides Werderm.
Local Names
Chile: Canchanlahua
Botany and Ecology
Annual herb, between 10 and 30 cm high; slender stems deeply branched, woody,
with short internodes that appear without leaves. Leaves reduced of 1 mm in length.
Solitary flowers, scattered on the upper branches; narrow calyx of 5 lobes; white
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

bluish corolla approximately 7 mm long, with a tube tightly ascending upward,

4 stamens. Fruit a dehiscent capsule. 2000–2700 m (González and Molina 2017).
The infusion of the aerial parts is used to treat liver and gallbladder diseases and
relieve stomach pain. On the skin, it is used to remove stains (González and Molina
Forage use (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Rheum officinale Baill.
Rheum palmatum L.
POLYGONACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Rheum palmatum L.: Rheum potaninii Losinsk.; Rheum qinlingense Y.K. Yang,
J.K. Wu & D.K. Zhang
Local Names
Rheum officinale: Spanish: Raíz de ruibarbo, Rizoma de ruibarbo, Ruibarbo,

Ruibarbo de china; English: Rhubarb
Rheum palmatum: Colombia: Rizoma de ruibarbo, Raíz de ruibarbo, Ruibarbo,
Ruibarbo del tibet, Ruibarbo (Bussmann et al. 2018); English: Rhubarb
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Rheum officinale: Perennial; stem erect, hollow, leafy, to 2 m tall, 4 cm in diameter,

glabrous, finely sulcate, with persistent foliaceus and scarious sheaths; leaves thin,
elongate-triangular, strongly tapering toward apex, cordate at base, with 5 principal
veins, minutely papillose on both sides, the blade 15–60 cm long; petiole as long as
the blade, glabrous, sulcate; cauline leaves small, the upper ones sessile; inflores-
cence long, paniculate, with several peduncles arising from the axils of upper leaves,
each with its own ocrea; flowers in groups of 5 or 6; perianth segments 6, oblong-
ovate, narrowed toward base, yellow, 1-nerved, the outer 2 mm, the inner 1.5 mm
long; stamens with very short filaments; pedicels jointed in upper part; fruit broad-
oval, ca. 8 mm long, 6–7 mm broad, the light brown medially nerved wings as broad
as the dull brown ovate achene (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Rheum palmatum: Perennial; root fusiform, bulky, up to 8–12 kg in weight; stem
erect, to 2 m tall; leaves radical, to 75 cm in diameter, palmately divided into
pinnatisect lobes, the petiole to 30 cm long, the entire leaf scabrous with short
papillae; inflorescence to 50 cm long, branched, many-flowered; bracts short, cori-
aceous, half-clasping; pedicels capillary, 3–4 mm long, densely clothed with short
papillae; perianth short, with 6 obtuse yellowish segments; stamens 9; ovary tri-
quetrous, 1-ovuled, with 3 stigmas; fruit triquetrous, red, broadly rounded, 7–10 mm
long. Native in mountains of S. and W. China.
Rheum officinale: Rhubarb is commonly used in Colombia as a laxative and for the
treatment of urinary diseases. The root is used in the treatment of dysentery, cholera,
and diabetes. In small doses it is used as a digestive tonic, and in higher doses it acts
as a purgative. Other uses of rhubarb include the treatment of biliary conditions and
headaches. It is also used to treat infertility (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño
Fig. 1 Rheum rhabarbarum

(Polygonaceae), garden,
R.W. Bussmann and
Rheum officinale Baill. . . . 1565

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and
2011; García Barriga 1974; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez
1996).
Rheum palmatum: Colombia: Rhubarb facilitates digestion and relieves stomach
discomfort, although in high doses it can act as a purgative. It is used in Colombia to
treat the rebound of bile, headaches, and digestive disorders. The tincture of rhubarb
is traditionally attributed to the fact that certain couples who do not have children
can, in many cases, have offspring. The root of rhubarb is used for the treatment of
dysentery, cholera, diabetes, as a laxative, and in case of urinary disorders (García
Barriga 1974; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008). The whole plant is used to treat
stomach problems, infertility, headache, gallbladder problems, and constipation; the
root is used to treat indigestion, flatulence, and digestive problems and as tranquil-
izer (Bussmann et al. 2018).
Local Food Uses
Rheum rhabarbarum is used as food, especially in pies and compotes (Figs. 4 and 5).

(Polygonaceae), preparing to
make compote, Chicani,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

(Polygonaceae), rhubarb
compotes, Chicani, Bolivia.
Rheum officinale Baill. . . . 1567
References
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Ricinus communis L.
EUPHORBIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Ricinus communis L.: Ricinus africanus Mill.; Ricinus angulatus Thunb.; Ricinus
armatus Andrews; Ricinus atropurpureus Pax & K. Hoffm.; Ricinus badius Rchb.;
Ricinus cambodgensis Benary; Ricinus digitatus Noronha; Ricinus europaeus
T. Nees; Ricinus giganteus Pax & K. Hoffm.; Ricinus glaucus Hoffmanns.; Ricinus
hybridus Besser; Ricinus inermis Mill.; Ricinus japonicus Thunb.; Ricinus krappa
Steud.; Ricinus laevis DC.; Ricinus leucocarpus Bertol.; Ricinus lividus Jacq.;
Ricinus macrocarpus Popova; Ricinus macrophyllus Bertol.; Ricinus medicus
Forssk.; Ricinus medius J.F. Gmel.; Ricinus megalospermus Delile; Ricinus
messeniacus Heldr.; Ricinus metallicus Pax & K. Hoffm.; Ricinus microcarpus
Popova; Ricinus minor Mill.; Ricinus nanus Bald.; Ricinus obermannii Groenl.;
Ricinus peltatus Noronha; Ricinus perennis Steud.; Ricinus persicus Popova;
Ricinus purpurascens Bertol.; Ricinus ruber Miq.; Ricinus rugosus Mill.; Ricinus
rutilans Müll. Arg.; Ricinus sanguineus Groenl.; Ricinus scaber Bertol. ex Moris;
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Ricinus speciosus Burm. f.; Ricinus spectabilis Blume; Ricinus tunisensis Desf.;
Ricinus undulatus Besser; Ricinus urens Mill.; Ricinus viridis Willd.; Ricinus
vulgaris Mill; Ricinus zanzibarinus Popova
Local Names
Bolivia: Macororo (Bussmann et al. 2016); Colombia: Higuerilla, Higuerillo (Span-

ish) (Bussmann et al. en prep), Ricino, Higuerillo rojo, Higuerillo blanco, Higuerito,
Jieratapi, Relajar, Palmachristis, Cawapat, Carapate, Masketi, Palma Kristi, Ricin,
Higuera, Higuereta, Higuerillo verde; Ecuador: Chide a’sete (Tsafi’ki), Toxi panka,
Vela muyu, Yurak higuerilla (Spanish-Kichwa), Higuerilla, Higuerilla blanca, Palma
cristi, Piojo del diablo, Picino (Spanish), Azete macho (Spanish-unspecified) (de la
Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Higrillo, Higrilla, Piñon, Higuerilla, Llonque; English:
Castor bean
Botany and Ecology
Annual to perennial herbs or shrubs; stems branching, 80–400 cm high, young

branches and petioles with bluish bloom; leaves alternate, glabrous, large, petiolate,
palmately 5–11-sect, lobe’s ovate-oblong, dentate at margin. Flowers unisexual,
monoecious, in racemiform inflorescences opposite leaves or terminal, the staminate
flowers lower, the pistillate upper, sometimes irregularly disposed, sometimes in
reverse order, often bisexual; perianth 3–5-partite; petals absent; stamens numerous,
connate in clusters, branched above; anthers sometimes almost 1000; ovary
spherical-oval, 3-locular, with 1 ovule in each cell; style shortly 3-partite, with red
linear stigmas, entire or 2-sect; capsules as large as a hazelnut, globose-oval, covered
with spines, 3-valvate, with 1 seed in each cell; seeds oval, different in size,
depending upon the variety, varying from 0.8 to 2.5 cm long, with smooth shiny
variegated testa and rather large aril. Indigenous to tropical Africa. It was already
grown for its oil in Egypt some 6000 years ago and spread through the Mediterra-
nean, the Middle East, and India at an early date. It is now widely cultivated in most
drier areas of the tropics and subtropics and in many temperate areas with a hot
summer. It naturalizes easily and grows in many areas as a ruderal plant. Castor oil is
so important in chemistry that the United States has declared it a “strategic material”
of which adequate stocks have to be maintained at all time (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Bolivia: Seeds are used to treat gallstones and alcoholism and as laxative (Bussmann
et al. 2016) and for scars and swellings (Quiroga et al. 2012). Colombia: Castor oil
is used in Colombia externally as an anti-inflammatory. The consumption of the oil is
indicated as purgative and laxative. This oil is also used to keep hair healthy. Castor
Ricinus communis L. 1571
Fig. 1 Ricinus communis

(Euphorbiaceae), Loja,
Ecuador. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae), Loja, Ecuador. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
oil has also been used to stimulate uterine contractions and start labor when the
pregnancy is at term (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga
1975; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Seeds are used to
treat styes, gastritis, and constipation; leaves are used to promote sweating; leaves
and seeds are used to treat diarrhea; bark and exudate are used to treat stinging and
dry skin (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: With one branch the body is beaten to
Fig. 3 Ricinus communis

(Euphorbiaceae), Loja,
Ecuador. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
treat dizziness and muscle ache, headache, and stomachache (unspecified ethnicity –
Chimborazo). Seed oil is used as a purgative and laxative (Tsa’chi, Mestiza-
Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha). Castor
oil is used as a laxative for constipation in pregnant women and children, as it is a
purging cathartic. The leaves are used to treat colic; in plaster, they are used to treat
rheumatism and infected wounds (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo; unspecified
ethnic group – Imbabura). The decoction of the leaves is used to give sitz baths to
women with blood problems (Mestizo, unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The leaf
is scrubbed in the place affected by pains of internal organs (stabbing) (East Kichwa-
Orellana). The infusion of the leaves and seeds is used to treat chicken sickness
(Kichwa from the East-Napo, Pastaza). The plant is used as a strong purgative of
intestinal parasites (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The sap of the leaves and
branches is applied to the warts to eliminate them (Mestiza-Pichincha). The leaves
are used for empacho (agitation) of children, together with almond oil placed on their
chest. The leaves and seeds are used to treat diarrhea (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Imbabura). Used to treat blows, it is tied in the affected part (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Tungurahua) (de la Torre et al. 2008). As poultice to treat sprains and fractures (Béjar
et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Peru: The fresh leaves are used to treat constipation (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011). It is sometimes sold in markets
(Bussmann et al. 2007). The seed oil is also used for hematomas and wounds,
especially in veterinary medicine (Monigatti et al. 2013).
In India Ricinus is used to treat swellings and rheumatism (Debbarma et al. 2017), as
well as cough, headache, jaundice, dental problems, joint pain, wounds, stomach
problems, indigestion, skin disorders, boils, and burns and serves as anthelminthic
(Raj et al. 2018). In Nepal the seeds serve for constipation and the roots as analgesic
(Kunwar and Bussmann 2008). In the Bale region of Ethiopia, the seed oil is used
for wounds (Luizza et al. 2013). Kenyan herders use the leaves for theileriosis in
cattle (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a). The species is also used to treat cough
(Njoroge and Bussmann 2006b), skin rashes (Njoroge and Bussmann 2007), and
placenta problems (Njoroge and Bussmann 2009). In Madagascar it is employed
for asthenia, hemorrhoids, wounds, intestinal parasites, colds, as galactagogue,
purgative, laxative, anthelminthic, for, headache, rheumatism, dental cavities,
wounds, and fevers (Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015).
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: The fruit is edible (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo). The seeds are used
to extract edible oil (Mestiza-El Oro; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura) (from de
la Torre et al. 2008).
Ecuador: The leaves are food for animals, such as cattle (unspecified ethnic group –
Guayas; Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008) The flower is
visited by bees (unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The seeds are
used as “sperm” (Kichwa of the Sierra-Chimborazo). The fruits and seeds are used to
obtain gunpowder and oil to illuminate, known as castor oil (unspecified ethnic
group – Cañar, Imbabura, others (Europe)). Materials: The fruit is used as a brush for
its spines (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). Seeds, halters, creams, soaps,
casseroles, tallow for rats, butter, and castor oil are produced (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Chimborazo, Loja; Mestizo-Manabí, Guayas; unspecified ethnic group – Manabí,
Guayas, Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cañar). Crafts are made with wood (Kichwa de la
Sierra-Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is used as a living fence
(Mestizo-Guayas; unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The
leaves, in infusion, are used to bathe children in order to cure “fright” (unspecified
ethnic group – Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Kunwar RM, Bussmann RW. Ethnobotany in the Nepal Himalaya: a review. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed.
2008;4:24.
Res Appl. 2013;11:315–39.
(2):450–64.
2006a;108:332–9.
Knowl. 2009;8(2):262–9.

018-0208-9.
Randriamiharisoa MN, Kuhlman AR, Jeannoda V, Rabarison H, Rakotoarivelo N,
2015;11:60.
Rosa centifolia L.
Rosa odorata (Andrews) Sweet
ROSACEAE
Synonyms
Rosa odorata (Andrews) Sweet: Rosa gigantea Collett ex Crép.; Rosa indica var.
odorata Andrews
Local Names
Rosa centifolia: Ecuador: Rosa, Rosa roja, Rosa rosada (Spanish) (de la Torre et al.
2008); Peru: Rosa de Castilla, Rosa (Spanish).
Rosa odorata: Bolivia: Rosa blanca (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2016).
Botany and Ecology
Rosa centifolia: Shrub, up to 1 m high; rhizome not as long-creeping but prickles of

sterile shoots larger than in Rosa gallica, bristles more profuse on branches, leaflets
less coriaceous, glabrous, glandular beneath. Flowers drooping, pink, nearly always
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Rosa canina

(Rosaceae), Tusheti, Georgia.
double; hypanthia ovoid; sepals longer and narrower than in Rosa gallica. Native to
Central Asia. Described from cultivated specimens (Fig. 1).
Rosa odorata: Shrubs, stem higher and more robust than in Rosa gallica up to 1.5 m;
prickles equal, large, hamate, flattened, often red; stipules distinctly glandular-
ciliate, upper stipules barely broader than the lower; leaflets ovate-lanceolate, once
crenate-serrate, shiny above, pubescent beneath, sometimes also above. Inflores-
cence usually rather many-flowered, corymibiform or corymbiform-paniculate;
flowers double, pale red or pink; fruit oblong, broadest in upper part, red. A much-
cultivated ornamental, apparently of Near Asian origin. Described from a cultivated
specimen (Figs. 2 and 3).
Rosa centifolia: Ecuador: The leaves are used to treat colds (Mestizo-Pichincha).
The petals are used for the preparation of eye drops; this use is given to several
species of the genus Rosa (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre
et al. 2008).
Rosa odorata: Bolivia: Fresh flowers are used to treat heartache, epilepsy, nerves, as
relaxant, headache, nausea, and for lightning stroke (Bussmann and Sharon 2006,
2007, 2015a, b). Roses are sold in markets everywhere (Bussmann et al. 2007) and
are one of the few cultivated medicinal species.
Rosa centifolia: Peru: Fresh or dried flowers are used as laxative and for improve-
ment of health, love, and economy (Bussmann et al. 2010).
Rosa centifolia L. . . . 1579
Fig. 2 Rosa odorata

(Rosaceae), garden, Chicani,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 3 Rosa odorata

(Rosaceae), garden, Chicani,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010;4(9):580–629.
Rubus robustus C. Presl
ROSACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Rubus robustus C. Presl: Rubus abundus Rydb.; Rubus boliviensis Focke; Rubus
floribundus Kunth; Rubus helioscopus Focke; Rubus peruvianus Fritsch
Local Names
Spanish: Ecuador: Flor mora, Mora, Mora silvestre (Spanish) (de la Torre et al.
2008); Peru: Zarzamora, Moyaca, Zarza, Zarza Parrilla, Mora, Cushai; English:
Bolivian blackberry
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Robust shrub, arcuately and abundantly branched; branches and leaflets beneath
commonly conspicuously villous-tomentose; petioles and petiolules more or less
villous-tomentose, recurved-aculeate; leaflets elliptic-oblong, acuminate, appressed-
Fig. 1 Rubus acanthodes

Fig. 2 Rubus megalococcus

Rubus robustus C. Presl 1583
pubescent above, the nerves 9–12( 15); inflorescence terminal, sometimes narrow,
often much branched and leafy below; sepals and petals subequal, the sepals often a
little longer; carpels usually many, glabrous. Variable in pubescence, size of flowers,
and number of carpels (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, and 10).
Colombia: The leaves, young shoots, and floral buttons of the mulberry are prepared
in Colombia as decoction to treat oral conditions and to gargle. Fruits crushed with
panela and charcoal are used to treat mouth sores. The extract of the fruits is used
against scurvy, inflammations, and dysentery (García Barriga 1974; Patiño 1963;
Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The flower, infused and mixed with other species,


Fig. 5 Rubus roseus

Fig. 6 Rubus roseus

is used to treat cough (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). It is also used to eliminate

flatulence. The infusion of the flower is drunk to treat pneumonia and pertussis
(unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). The leaves, in infusion, are used to treat the flu,
Fig. 7 Rubus roseus (Rosaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Fig. 8 Rubus roseus

headache, diarrhea, and bleeding gums (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay). The plant
also treats undetermined conditions (unspecified ethnicity – Tungurahua) (de la
Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Flowers and leaves, fresh or dried, are used to treat diabetes,
cough, cholesterol (high), bronchitis, throat (dry), kidney stones, inflammation of the
kidneys, inflammation of the uterus, arthritis, and pain of the body (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010, 2011a, b; Monigatti et al.
Fig. 9 Rubus sp. (Rosaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Fig. 10 Rubus sp.

2013). Wild collected blackberries can be bought in many local markets (Bussmann
et al. 2007). Rubus does show mild antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008,
2009, 2010b, 2011a, b) and are often used as ingredient in herbal mixtures
Local Food Uses
The fruits are widely eaten.

Ecuador: The fruit is edible, and it is used to prepare juices and sweets (unspecified
ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua, Chimborazo, Cañar, Azuay, Loja)
Ecuador: It has unspecified fuel use (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). The plant is used as a living fence (unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura)
(de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: It is used to treat fright (susto) and to treat children
who cannot speak (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al.
2010c).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
rheumatism, Arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011a;10(3):397–412.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
G. G, Perez-A. F, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in Northern Peru.
Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629.
(2):450–64.
Rumex acetosella L.
Rumex crispus L.
Rumex cuneifolius Campd.
POLYGONACEAE

Javier Echeverría
Synonyms
Rumex acetosella L.: Acetosa acetosella (L.) Mill.; Acetosa angiocarpa (Murb.)
Holub; Acetosa hastata Moench; Acetosella acetosella (L.) Small; Acetosella
tenuifolia Á. Löve; Acetosella vulgaris (W.D.J. Koch) Fourr.; Rumex acetosella
ssp. angiocarpus (Murb.) Murb.; Rumex acetosella ssp. tenuifolius O. Schwarz;
Rumex acetosella var. tenuifolius Wallr.; Rumex acetosella var. vulgaris
W.D.J. Koch; Rumex angiocarpus Murb.; Rumex multifidus L.; Rumex tenuifolius
Á. Löve
Rumex crispus L.: Lapathum crispum (L.) Scop.; Rumex odontocarpus Sandor ex
Borbás
R. W. Bussmann (*)
e-mail: rbussmann@gmail.com; rainer.bussmann@iliauni.edu.ge
J. Echeverría

Local Names
Rumex acetosella: Chile: Romaza, Kintoraya

Rumex crispus: Chile: Romaza, Lanteja, Lenguaigauy, Lengua de buey, Lengua de
vaca, Lengua de caballo, Leguanbuey, Leguantaye, Kintorya, Lechugon; Peru:
Mala hierba
Rumex cuneifolius: Bolivia: Kento (Spanish); K’entu (Aymara) (Macía et al. 2005;
Justo and Moraes 2015)
Botany and Ecology
Rumex acetosella: Perennial. Rhizome creeping. The stems are numerous, erect,
branched, 15–55 cm long. The lower leaves are petiolate, hastate, 1–5 cm long,
2–1.5 mm wide. The terminal lobe lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, the two smaller
narrow lateral lobes perpendicularly spreading or upcurved. The upper leaves are
sessile, lanceolate or linear-lanceolate. The flowers are unisexual, dioecious, in
rather loose clusters disposed in a loose panicle. The pedicels are not joined. The
tepals and staminate flowers are erect, the outer is shorter and narrower than
the inner. The valves of the fruiting pistillate flowers about equal the fruit.
1.5 mm long, 1 mm broad, ovoid, acuminate, unappendaged and not tubercle at
base. The achene is lustrous, trigonous, light brown, and less than 1 mm long. This
plant is found in wood margins, slopes, pine woods, sand, bluffs, fallows, and
roadsides.
Rumex crispus: Perennial. The root is vertical, fusiform stout. The stem is erect,
glabrous, coarsely but rather shallowly sulcate, 50–120 cm long. Leaves lanceolate
to oblong-lanceolate, long-acuminate, cuneately narrowed toward base, strongly
undulate marginally, the blade 15–25 cm long and 1.5–4 cm wide. The petiole is
slightly shorter than the blade; upper leaves are smaller, short-petioled; flowers
hermaphrodite, in whorls of 20–30, forming a narrow-paniculate inflorescence to
60 cm long, with appressed branches. The valves rounded-ovate, cordate at base,
acuminate at apex, slightly concave, smooth or slightly denticulate on the margin, to
5 mm across, all or only one of them with a rounded-oval tubercle only a fraction of
the length of the valve. This plant is found in meadows, field borders, weedy places,
slopes, and roadsides (Figs. 1 and 2).
Rumex cuneifolius: Widely creeping, with somewhat fleshy, obovate leaves and
small fruiting panicles; leaves somewhat crisped marginally, the rather short
petioles and leaf nerves beneath scabrous; branches of the panicle few, short;
flower verticels usually approximate, without leaves; pedicels thick, shorter than
the fruit, usually jointed at the middle; valves firm, triangular-ovate, entire,
4–5 mm long, all with a prominent grain; ripe achenes dark brown, broadest at
the middle, 2.5 mm long. This species of peculiar habit cannot be confused with
any other Peruvian one. It is widely spread through a large part of southern South
America and introduced to some ports of North America and Europe. The height of
Rumex acetosella L. . . . 1591
Fig. 1 Rumex
sp. (Polygonaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
stem, thickness of leaves, and size of valves are variable (Macbride and
Rumex acetosella: The species is used in Colombia as aperitif, diuretic, laxative,

antimicrobial, antiparasitic, and antiviral. The root is used for digestive purposes. It
is consumed to fight anemia. In infusion, it is drunk to remineralize. The aerial parts
mixed with urine are used to heal chronic wounds (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán
and Castro 2003).
Rumex crispus: It is used in Colombia in infusion as a refreshing beverage and as an
emollient. The infusion of the root is used as a laxative and for intermittent fevers.
The poultice of ground or cooked leaves is used to relieve all types of ulcers,
especially varicose ulcers (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Fig. 2 Rumex crispus

(Polygonaceae), Uchumarca,
Fig. 3 Rumex peruanus

Rumex acetosella L. . . . 1593
Fig. 4 Rumex peruanus

Peru: It is used to treat infections of the uterus, inflammation of the kidneys, general
inflammation (internal female organs), and vaginal inflammation (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010).
Rumex cuneifolius: Bolivia: The leaves are used to treat arthritis, rheumatism,
uterus, acne, as disinfectant, for wound healing, blows, menstrual pain, and swelling
due to frost (Macía et al. 2005; Justo and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016).
Rumex nepalensis is used in Ethiopia for stomach problems (Bussmann et al.
2011), in Nepal for paralysis and joint pain (Kunwar et al. 2010), in Pakistan as
astringent (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), and in India for stomachache and itch (Bhat
et al. 2013), while Rumex hastatus is used for cuts, wounds, and to relieve nettle
stings (Bhat et al. 2013), and in Nepal for cuts, wounds, and against bleeding
(Kumar et al. 2011). Rumex dentatus serves for stomach pain (Singh et al. 2019)
and in Pakistan as astringent (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018).
Local Food Uses
Rumex acetosella: The leaves are consumed in Colombia raw or cooked, very much
appreciated for their lemon-like citrus flavor. These are prepared in salads, tortillas,
soups, and other different dishes (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Rumex crispus: The leaves are harvested in Colombia before flowering and are
consumed in salads, soups, stews, tortillas, and fried, similar to chard. It can also be
added to different preparations, especially legumes (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán
and Castro 2003).
In general, many Rumex species are used as food, either pickled or in herb pies, in
the Caucasus (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017).
References
Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Rumex acetosa
L.; Rumex acetosella L.; Rumex confertus Willd.; Rumex conglomeratus Murray; Rumex crispus
L.; Rumex tuberosus L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Springer
International Publishing; 2017.
in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1)
Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus: Springer International Publishing; 2017.
XXVII, 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011;7:28.
Justo Chipana M, Moraes RM. Plantas medicinales comercializadas por las chifleras de La Paz y
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-west Nepal: a
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Singh S, Bhat JA, Malik ZA, Youssouf M, Bussmann RW, Kunwar RM. Sacred groves in Western
Himalaya, India: community-managed nature refuges for conservation of biodiversity and
culture. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2019;18(15) https://doi.org/10.32859/era.18.15.1-21.
Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Editorial Universitaria;
2003.
Ruta chalepensis L.
Ruta graveolens L.
RUTACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Ruta chalepensis L.: Ruta ulyssiponensis Houtt.

Ruta graveolens L.: Ruta hortensis Mill.
Local Names
Ruta chalepensis: Colombia: Ruda, Ruda de arao; Bolivia: Ruda, Ruda macho
(Spanish), Ruta k’achu y ork’o (Aymara) (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and
Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016); English: Rue
Ruta graveolens: Colombia: Ruda, Ruda de huerta; Peru: Ruda, Hierba de la
quinda, Ruta hembra; English: Rue
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Ruta chalepensis/Ruta graveolens: Perennials, completely glabrous, glaucescent or

glaucous; stems more or less woody at base, branching in inflorescence, 20–50 cm
high; lower and median leaves long-petioled, triangular-ovate, 2–3-pinnatisect into
spreading segments, segments nearly subentire, narrowly involute at margin, the
lateral linear-lanceolate or oblanceolate, acute or obtuse, the terminal oblong-
oblanceolate, acute or obtuse, apical segment obovate or oblong-obovate, truncate
or short-acuminate at apex, the principal segments long-petioled, the others sessile;
uppermost leaves sessile, pinnatisect, with 200 narrower segments. Inflorescence
loose, corymbiform; bracts linear; sepals triangular, acute, 2–2.5 mm long; petals
abruptly tapering to claw, entire or finely toothed, more or less curly at margin,
6–9 mm long; capsules with obtuse cells, 5–7(9) mm wide. Ruta chalepensis/Ruta
graveolens are closely related species. Both are indigenous to the Mediterranean
region but have widely become naturalized around the globe (Macbride and
Ruta chalepensis: The whole plant is prepared in Colombia as decoction, infusion,

or extract and is used as a tonic to promote good gastric function and in some
diseases of the liver; it also excites the uterus and promotes menstruation. It is used a
lot to relieve menstrual cramps; However, we must be careful with its use, because
this plant is abortive. The Rue is also used to treat styes (Fonnegra-Gómez et al.
2012; García Barriga 1975; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015). Bolivia: Stems, leaves,
and flowers are used to treat rheumatism, arthritis, nerves, headache, stomach pain,
epilepsy, gastritis (ulcers), kidney infection, for abortion, postpartum washing,
childbed problems, postpartum care, and cold (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana
and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Ruta graveolens: Bolivia: The plant is used for neck and ear pain (Quiroga et al.
2012). Colombia: The whole plant is used to treat stomach problems, flatulence,
erysipelas, constipation, indigestion, uterine diseases, strengthen the uterus, men-
strual colic, rashes, neuralgia, as vermifuge, as emmenagogue, and for good luck;
leaves are used to treat epilepsy and to promote sweating (Bussmann et al. 2018).
This plant is used also in Colombia for menstrual disorders and to treat inflamma-
tions. It is also used against spasms, as antibacterial, antifungal, menstruation-
promoting, against strong and dry cough, against intestinal worms, insect bites,
and to treat arthritis. It is common to use it as an activator of the uterus and digestive
system and in the treatment of menstrual cramps (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-
Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Martínez Correa
1996). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat sore eyes, bad humor,
dizziness, headache, nausea, and vomiting (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon
2006a, 2007a). Hot leaf tea is taken to treat stomach cramps; in addition, these are
Ruta chalepensis L. . . . 1597
Fig. 1 Ruta chalepensis

(Rutaceae), garden, Chicani.

chewed to calm the nerves and vertigo. The leaves and flowers, in infusion, are used
to treat menstrual cramps, headache, and colerin; in plasters or drinks, they are used
to treat fever and flu. It is antispasmodic, effective to accelerate labor, and to treat
gout, bumps, and heart conditions (Kichwa de la Sierra, unspecified ethnic group –
Chimborazo). The infusion of the plant, along with molle, is applied as a bath to treat
arthritis. Infusion or poultice is used to take out the air and the cold, especially in

women who are going to give birth (unspecified ethnicity – Chimborazo). The infusion
of the plant, together with eucalyptus, chamomile, nettle, marco, verbena and chilca, is
taken as a purgative (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The infusion of the leaves and
flowers treats menstrual cramps (unspecified ethnicity – Other (Coast Region)). Infusion
of the branches, combined with poppy, pimpernel, and borage, is effective in stimulating
menstruation, provided the woman is not pregnant. The leaves and flowers, in infusion,
are used to treat stomach and intestinal colic (they should not be many because it is
toxic). In compresses, treat inflammation in eyelids and eyes (unspecified ethnicity –
Imbabura). The plant has a relaxing effect when it is smelled. The leaves are used to treat
rheumatism, macerated, soothe ear pain. The infusion is drunk to treat pneumonia
(Mestiza-Pichincha). The plant, infused or mixed with water and chili pepper, is used
to treat “chicken disease” (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Chimborazo, Bolívar).
The plant, in infusion, is used to treat “cuichic” or “rainbow” (sic) (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Imbabura). The macerated leaves are used to treat the headache and are applied to the
head as febrifuge (Chachi-Esmeraldas). Crushed leaves are used to treat scabies. The
seeds, in infusion, are used to treat colic (Mestizo, unspecified ethnic group –
Pichincha). The leaves are used to treat nervous conditions (unspecified ethnicity –
Loja). The leaves, in infusion, are used to regulate menstruation and prevent its delay
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo; Mestizo-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group –
Pichincha, Chimborazo, Azuay, Cañar, Loja). Infusion of the branches is effective in
calming nerves, hysteria, epilepsy, stomach cramps and pain, dizziness, and headache
(Mestizo-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha, Loja). It is used as
an anthelmintic and as a pesticide (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo; unspecified ethnic
group – Imbabura). It is used to treat stomach and headache, as well as conditions of the
intestine and nerves (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay). It is used, in infusion, to treat
“damaged” blood (unspecified ethnic group – Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The
plant is used for abortion, strong menstrual and other colics, heart, menstrual regulation,
depression, rheumatism, nerves, vomiting, and nausea (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b, 2011a, b). The species is frequently
sold in local medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008, 2009) and is
often used in mixture with other species (Bussmann et al. 2010a). Rue has antibacterial
activity (Bussmann et al. 2010b, 2011a, b). Very rarely the species is added to
emolientes (Bussmann et al. 2015) (Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 7).
Rue is widely grown as an ornamental plant and can be used as an insect repellent.
Fig. 4 Ruta graveolens


Fig. 6 Ruta graveolens (Rutaceae), garden, Chicani. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)

Ruta chalepensis: Bolivia: Stems, leaves, and flowers are used against curses, air
(“aire”), good luck, lightning stroke, to drive away evil spirits, and rituals of “limpias”
(Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016).
Ruta graveolens: Ecuador: The plant is used as a broom to sweep chicken coops. It
is used for baths (ethnicity not specified – Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The
branches are used to clean the rooms and prevent something bad from entering. The
juice of the plant is used in “glimpsed” animals (unspecified ethnic group – Cañar).
The infusion of the plant, together with eucalyptus, chamomile, nettle, frame,
verbena, and chilca, is used to clean the bad spirits of the houses. The plant is placed
at the doors of the houses to attract good luck (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura,
Pichincha). The infusion of the plant, together with molle, is used to perform good
luck cleansing (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). The leaves are used in
clean to counteract spells (Kichwa de la Sierra-Tungurahua, Chimborazo). The
branches, together with brandy, are used to clean the “glimpsed” or frightened
children (unspecified ethnicity – Other (Coast Region)). Seeds and leaves are used
to treat “fright” in children, as well as “evil eye” and “bad air” (Mestizo-Pichincha;
unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura, Pichincha, Chimborazo, Cañar, Azuay). It is used
as an abortive and stimulant (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo, Azuay, Cañar)
(de la Torre et al. 2008) and also used for cleansing (“limpias”) (Béjar et al. 2001;
Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: The whole fresh plant is used for
abortion, strong colics, good luck, fright (susto), heart, menstrual regulation,
depression, rheumatism, nerves, vomiting, nausea, for babies who cry too much
and/or cannot be tranquil, bad air (mal aire), fright (susto), success, as aphrodisiac,
envy, improve business, bad luck, improve life, so that all goes well for you, to open
a door that never closes again and to obtain success, and to protect the house
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010c; Monigatti
et al. 2013).
References
rheumatism, Arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011a;10(3):397–412.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
9960231-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
Appl. 2008;6:351–61.
Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629.
2015;69:83–8.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Abierta y a Distancia UNAD, Escuela de Ciencias Agrícolas, Pecuarias y del Medio Ambiente,
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
Monigatti M, Bussmann RW, Weckerle CS. Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at
different altitudes in the Bolivar Province, Peru. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145(2):450–64.
Salix chilensis Molina
SALICACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Salix chilensis Molina: Salix humboldtiana var. stipulacea (M. Martens & Galeotti)
C.K. Schneid.; Salix humboldtiana Willd.; Salix stipulacea M. Martens & Galeotti
Local Names
Colombia: Sauce, Sauce amargo, Sauce macho, Sausa; Ecuador: Sauce, Sauce
común, Sauce llorón, Sauce real (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Sauce
(Spanish); English: Chilean willow
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Salix chilensis

(Salicaceae), garden, Chicani,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Botany and Ecology
Trees, up to 15 m tall, leaves linear, acuminate, serrulate; stipules deciduous;

catkins appearing with the leaves, the woolly bracts deciduous; capsules
ovate, glabrous, the glabrous pedicels longer than the gland. Ascending to more
than 3000 m. Often planted (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2,
and 3).
In Bolivia, the plant is used to treaty body pain and colds (Quiroga et al. 2012). The
bark is used in Colombia in infusion to lower fevers, as a healing, anti-inflammatory,
anti-hemorrhagic, to whet the appetite, as a facilitator of menstruation, against
spasms, as an analgesic and aphrodisiac, and in cases of rheumatism. The charcoal
obtained from the wood of the Willow is used as a disinfectant of the digestive tracts,
as an antiflatulent, against colic, and in the diarrheas produced by amebas. In
decoction, bark, leaves, and tender stems are used to cure intermittent fevers. Tender
Salix chilensis Molina 1607

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
stems are used to prevent tooth decay. The decoction of the leaves is used to prevent
hair loss and to treat rheumatic fever (García Barriga 1974; Ministerio de Protección
Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Stems are used to treat cavities; leaves are used to treat bone pain and alopecia;
bark is used as sedative and as analgesic; bark and stems are used to treat fever and
rheumatism (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: Fresh leaves are used to treat fever
and infections (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The leaves,
macerated and placed on the forehead, stop bleeding. For the same purpose, the juice
of the crushed plant is inhaled with aromatic vinegar, Castile vinegar, camphor, and
brandy. Leaf smoke is inhaled to stop nosebleed (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja;
unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). Environmental: The plant is sown as a living
fence and to protect water sources (Mestizo-Loja; unspecified ethnic group –
Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It is used in good luck baths and to decorate
altars (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo; Mestiza-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al.
2008). Peru: Fresh leaves are used to treat hangover fever, fever, malaria, and
colds (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn
2010a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a; Monigatti et al. 2013). The plant is often sold in
markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). Willow has antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al.
2008) and sometimes used as a part of fever lowering mixtures (Bussmann et al.
2010b).

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Ecuador: The wood is used as poles, stakes, and to make handicrafts, drawers, and
matchsticks (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo; Mestizo-Loja; unspecified ethnic
group – Esmeraldas, Guayas, Loja). With the infusion of the entire plant, the hair
is washed in order to stimulate its growth and fortify it (unspecified ethnic group –
Guayas, Chimborazo) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2010a;8:125–34.
Rev Peru Biol. 2010b;17(2):331–46.
Salix chilensis Molina 1609
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Romero C, Hart RE. Astonishing diversity –the medicinal
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional; 1974. 561 pp
(2):450–64.
Salvia ayavacensis Kunth
Salvia cuspidata Ruiz & Pav.
Salvia discolor Kunth
Salvia hispanica L.
Salvia macrophylla Benth.
Salvia microphylla Kunth
Salvia palifolia Kunth.
Salvia rosmarinifolia G. Don.
Salvia sagittata Ruiz & Pav.
Salvia tubiflora Sm.
LAMIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Salvia ayavacensis Kunth: Salvia mucidistachys Epling

Salvia cuspidata Ruiz & Pav.: Salvia bangii Rusby; Salvia erythradena Briq.;
Salvia gillesii Benth.; Salvia gillesii var. glandulosa Grieseb.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Salvia hispanica L.: Kiosmina hispanica (L.) Raf.; Salvia chia Sessé & Moc.;
Salvia hispanica var. chionocalyx Fernald; Salvia hispanica var. intonsa Fenrald;
Salvia neohispanica Briq.; Salvia prismatica Cav.; Salvia schiedeana Stapf.; Salvia
tetragona Moench
Salvia macrophylla Benth.: Salvia macrophylla var. macrophylla Benth
Salvia microphylla Kunth: Salvia grahamii Benth.; Salvia lemmonii A. Gray;
Salvia obtusa M. Martens & Galeotti; Salvia odoratissima Sessé & Moc.
Salvia sagittata Ruiz & Pav.: Salvia rumicifolia Kunth
Salvia tubiflora Sm.: Salvia biflora Ruiz & Pav.; Salvia biflora var. glabrata Benth.;
Salvia excisa Ruiz & Pav.; Salvia scrobiculata Meyen; Salvia scrobiculata Meyen &
Benth.
Local Names
Salvia ayavacensis: Peru: Ticra, Sticra (Spanish)

Salvia cuspidata: Peru: Salvia blanca
Salvia discolor: Peru: Palmeras (Chica), Llatama, Yatama
Salvia hispanica: Bolivia: Chía (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2016); Colombia: Chía
(Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Salvia (Spanish) (de la Torre et al.
2008)
Salvia macrophylla: Ecuador: Santa Ana grande (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008);
Peru: Cuchichara (Spanish)
Salvia microphylla: Ecuador: Camotillo (Spanish)
Salvia palifolia: Spanish: Colombia: Contrafuego, Mastranto, Oreja de perro,
Salvia
Salvia rosmarinifolia: Peru: Romero del campo, Romero blanco, Romero serrano
(Spanish)
Salvia sagittata: Ecuador: Manka paki (Kichwa), Matico, Salvia, Salvia real, Salvia
real azul, Salvia real negra, salnarea blanca (Spanish), sopetiana (lengua no
especificada) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Salvia negra
Salvia tubiflora: Peru: Hierba del recaída, Hierba del aire, Cutiquero, Yuca del aire,
Paja del aire (Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Salvia ayavacensis: Perennial herb, 50–100 cm high, shortly and densely villous all
over with simple gland-tipped trichomes; lower petioles to 4.5 cm long, nearly
lacking toward inflorescences; leaves cordate-deltoid, obtuse or rounded, 4–6 cm
long and wide, crenate; flowers 3–6, glomerules to 3 cm distant; pedicels to 1.5 cm
long; calyx in flower about 17 mm long, in fruit 2 cm long, the acuminate 7-veined
upper lip longer than the lower; corolla tube 27 mm long, smooth within, the upper
lip 1 cm long, the lower about 1.5 cm long; stamens at throat, filaments 4 mm long,
connective nearly 4 cm long (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1 and 2).
Salvia ayavacensis Kunth. . . 1613
Fig. 1 Salvia
sp. (Lamiaceae), Uchumarca,
Fig. 2 Salvia
Salvia cuspidata: Shrub up to 1 m tall, the sparsely floccose branched indument

subglandular above; petioles 3–5 mm long; leaves ovate, truncate to subcordate at
base, obtuse, unevenly crenulate, 2.5–3.5 cm long, 1.5–2 cm wide, only slightly
bullate and pubescent above but cinereous tomentulose beneath; flowers 3, the
caducous ovate bracts 3–4 mm long, the glomerules 0.5–1.5 cm distant in lax
often paniculate spikes; calyx 5–5.5 mm long, little enlarged in fruit, glandular
Fig. 3 Salvia
Fig. 4 Salvia
hispid, the subequal lips about 1.3 mm long, the 3-cuspidate upper subspinulose, the
divisions of the lower acuminate spinulose; corolla tube 5 mm long, smooth within,
lightly ventricose, the upper lip 4–5, the lower about 8 mm long (Macbride and
Salvia discolor: Shrub or early with only ligneous caudex, the few ascending stems
several diameter tall, compactly white tomentose below as the entire coriaceous
leaves beneath, glabrous toward the apparently viscid apex, the latter glabrous
above; petioles 7–13 mm long; leaves oblongovate, rounded at base, obtuse,
3–6 cm long, 12–25 mm wide; flowers 3–9, the caducous ovate-lanceolate acumi-
nate bracts 6–10 mm long, the glomerules finally 2–6 cm distant; pedicels 3–4 mm
long; calyx subcanescent with shortly branched trichomes, chartaceous, early 12–16,
at maturity about 25 mm long, the very obtuse to mucronate lip 5–7 mm long; corolla
dark blue, the thick ventricose tube constricted under the lower lip, 13 or 14 mm
long, binately rugose within, the upper lip 7–9 mm high, the lower 9–11 mm long;
style glabrous; gubernaculum entire or obscurely incurved (Macbride and
Fig. 5 Salvia
Salvia hispanica: Annual shrubby herb, up to 1.75 m tall, leaves opposite, 4–8 cm
long, 3–5 cm wide. Flowers purple or white (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
Salvia macrophylla: Shrub, closely related to S. sagittata and S. scutellarioides,
with similar inflorescence but suffrutescent and the membranous leaves deltoid or
cordate, rounded, truncate or somewhat hastate at base, acuminate, the larger
10–20 cm long, 8–15 cm wide, hirsute above, pilose-villous beneath; petioles to
15 cm long; pedicels as the obovate bracts 6–7 mm long, to 2 cm distant, calyx 6 or
in fruit 10–12 mm long; stamen connective about 2.5 cm long, the dilation 5 or 6 mm
long (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Salvia microphylla: Shrublet, grows to 1–1.3 m tall. Leaves ovate shaped, smooth or
lightly covered with hairs. When crushed, the leaves have a strong fragrance, which
has been described as pleasant and mint-like, but also as similar to that of black
currant leading to the use of “Blackcurrant Sage” as an English name for this species
Salvia palifolia: Decumbent perennial herb, growing in grassland, cloud forest
clearings, streamsides, and rocky outcrops from 1600 to 3500 m. Leaves 3–4 cm
long, hastate or cordate; flowers blue, 5–6 mm long (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
Salvia rosmarinifolia: Fragrant shrub 1–2 m tall that is covered in silvery hairs. The
stems are winged and bear readily peeling bark. The leaves are in whorls or on very
short shoots or opposite pairs separated by 1 cm on the stem. The leaf is elliptic and
1 cm long with pointed tips. The flowers are disposed from the nodes of leaves or
short shoots. The flowers are often orange with red markings. The sepals form a
tube covered in silvery hair and having prominent veins with narrow teeth. The
petal tube is at twice as long and arching somewhat. The upper lip is erect
and somewhat hooded, and the bottom lip is 3-lobed. The style and stamens
are exposed from below the upper lip. Occurs on roadsides of dry forest remnants
of La Libertad, Peru, at elevations to 2800 m (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
Salvia sagittata: Up to 2.5 m tall shrub, branched at base, the upper stems and
panicles especially the calyces glandular villous; petioles 2–8 cm long; leaves
unevenly crenulate, notably hastate, acute, 6–20 cm long, 2.5–12 cm wide,
coriaceous, bullate-rugose and green above, sometimes canescently, sometimes
sparsely villous beneath where strongly reticulate-veined; flowers solitary, the
caducous bracts ovate, 3–4 mm long, the glomerules to 1 cm distant in ample
panicles or subcorymbose; pedicels 3–4 mm long; calyx 4.5–6 mm long, in fruit
8 mm long, the lips 2–2.5 mm long, the upper subtridentate, the lower
segments acute; corolla tube 16–18 mm long, smooth within, the upper lip about
1 cm long, the lower 12 mm long; stamens at throat, filaments 2 mm long,
connective 30–34 mm long, the dilation 7 mm long (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
Salvia tubiflora: Suffrutescent, the lax elongating branches toward apex, petioles
1–3 cm long, leaves beneath, and racemes including the calyces 15–17 mm long
more or less white villous-lanate, scarcely or not viscid-glandular; leaves mostly
cordate-ovate or the upper subtruncate, obtuse, unevenly and coarsely crenate, green
and glabrate above unless on principal nerves, the mature to about 8 cm long, 5 cm
wide, not much reduced above; flowers solitary ( 3), the caducous ovate acuminate
bracts about 1 cm long; pedicels 5–7 mm long, each pair about 1 cm distant; calyx
mucronulate, segments acuminate, 5 mm long; corolla red, the tube 3–3.5 cm long,
Fig. 6 Salvia
little ampliate, smooth within, the upper lip 1 cm long, the lower shorter; stamens at
middle of tube, connective 33–42 mm long, gubernaculum 13–16 mm long (Mac-
bride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 6).
Salvia ayavacensis: Peru: Fresh or dried leaves are used to treat fungus all over the
body and skin inflammation (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). The
species is sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007).
Salvia discolor: Peru: The plant is used to prevent infections after birth (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b). The species
has strong antimicrobial activity (Bussmann et al. 2011a), but extracts can show
some toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b).
Salvia hispanica: Bolivia: Dry seeds are used to treat gastritis/ulcers, for slimming,
and for blood cleansing (Bussmann et al. 2016). Colombia: Dry seeds are used to
treat diabetes, obesity, and as appetite suppressant (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador:
It is used as a stimulant (unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al.
2008).
Salvia macrophylla: Ecuador: It is used as medicine to clean wounds – it is roasted
and tied in the wound (Kichwa de la Sierra, unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre
et al. 2008).
Peru: Leaves, fresh or dried, are used to treat wounds and chronic gangrene
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b) and also for bronchial problems,
flu, colic, and indigestion (Monigatti et al. 2013). It is sold in local markets
(Bussmann et al. 2007). The species has strong antimicrobial activity (Bussmann
et al. 2010a, 2011a), but extracts can show some toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b).
Sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2010b).
Salvia microphylla: Ecuador: Fresh leaves and flowers are used to treat inflamma-
tion of the arms and feet, and rheumatism (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon
2006a, 2007a).
Salvia palifolia: The decoction of the whole plant is used in Colombia to lower
blood pressure (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975;
Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Salvia rosmarinifolia: Peru: The whole fresh plant is used to treat inflammations
and sinusitis (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). The plant is sold in
local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008; Revene et al. 2008). The species has
strong antimicrobial activity (Bussmann et al. 2011a), but extracts can show some
toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b).
Salvia sagittata: Ecuador: The infusion of the plant is used to treat spasms,
diarrhea, flatulence, fever, flu, gastritis, stomach pain, and intestinal, lung, and
liver disorders (Kichwa of the Sierra-Cotopaxi; unspecified ethnic group – Carchi,
Pichincha, Tungurahua, Cotopaxi, Chimborazo). The leaves are used to treat crip-
pled, injured, cuts, bumps, and skin conditions (pimples) (unspecified ethnic group –
Carchi, Pichincha). The leaves and flowers, in infusion, are used for kidney
conditions (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). The leaves, heated with

brandy, are applied to treat rheumatism and knee pain (unspecified ethnicity –
Cotopaxi). It is used to treat facial paralysis and, in vaporizations, to treat sinusitis
(Mestiza-Pichincha). The infusion is used as an antiemetic (unspecified ethnic group
– Carchi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The flower, in infusion, is drunk to “clarify
intelligence” (sic). The juice of the leaves and the stem is used to treat “bad air” and
“fright” (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Tungurahua, Cotopaxi) (de la Torre
et al. 2008).
Peru: Root and stems, fresh or dried, are used to treat cough, asthma, and for hair loss
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b).
The plant is sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). The species has antibacterial
activity (Bussmann et al. 2009). The species has strong antimicrobial activity
(Bussmann et al. 2011a), but extracts can show some toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b).
Salvia tubiflora: Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat body pain, for
after birth care (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). It is sold in local
markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). The species has strong antimicrobial activity
(Bussmann et al. 2011a), but extracts can show some toxicity (Bussmann et al.
2011b).
Local Food Uses
Salvia hispanica: The young parts of the plant are consumed as raw or cooked
vegetables and are used in salads. Chia seeds are considered a very nutritious food,
and when soaked in water, they release the mucilage, producing a gelatinous liquid
that is used to prepare a refreshing drink. The seeds can also be dried and ground to
prepare a fine flour that is consumed as a sweet (Martínez Correa and Montes
Martínez 2017).
Salvia ayavacensis: Peru: Fresh or dried leaves are used to treat fungus all over the
body, skin inflammation, and for “daño,” fright/susto, and sorcery (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010c).
Salvia cuspidata: Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used for fright/susto and
“daño” (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010c).
Salvia discolor: Peru: Fresh stems are used for success (Bussmann and Sharon
2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b).
Salvia macrophylla: Peru: Leaves, fresh or dried, are used to treat sorcery
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010c).
Salvia rosmarinifolia: Peru: The whole fresh plant is used to treat bad air/mal aire,
negative energy, cleansing of the home, and for fright/susto (Bussmann and Sharon
2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010c).
Salvia sagittata: Ecuador: It serves as fodder for animals such as guinea pigs
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Cotopaxi) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Salvia tubiflora: Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried, is used to treat bad air/mal
aire (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010c).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010b;17(2):331–46.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008;6:351–61.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629.
inal plants in the markets of La Paz and El alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Biológicas de la Universidad de Aarhus. Quito/Aarhus
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
(2):450–64.
Salvia officinalis L.
Salvia rosmarinus Scheid.
LAMIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Salvia rosmarinus Scheid.: Rosmarinus officinalis L.
Local Names
Salvia officinalis: Colombia: Salvia (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador:

Salvia (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Salvia (Spanish); English: Sage.
Salvia rosmarinus: Bolivia: Romero (Spanish); Colombia: Romero (Spanish)
(Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Romero, Romero del cerro (Spanish) (de La
Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Romero, Romero Castilla (Spanish); English: Rosemary
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Salvia officinalis: Subshrub, 25–50 cm high; root woody; stem erect, branched,
several times as long as inflorescence, with short leafy shoots at base, with short
crisp hairs and evenly distributed leaves; leaves of vegetative and flowering shoots
oblong, 3.5–8 cm long, 0.8–1.5(4) cm broad, subobtuse to acute, cuneate or
rounded at base, crenulate, rugose, densely covered on the convexities above
and all over beneath with fine multicellular hairs, white-pubescent when young,
the lower and middle on crisp-puberulent petiole much shorter than blade, the
upper sessile; basal lobes, if present, very small, elliptical, long-attenuate to
rounded, or acute apex; lower floral leaves sessile, lanceolate, resembling the
cauline but much smaller, upper floral leaves ovate to suborbicular, short-
acuminate, scarious or green, densely crisp-pubescent outside, deciduous at
anthers; inflorescence simple or branched, with 6 or 7 verticillate, these
10-flowered, 1–2 cm apart; flowers on crisp-pubescent pedicels 3–6 mm long,
mostly with 2 small lanceolate pubescent bracteoles; calyx 9–10 mm long,
2-lipped nearly to the middle, covered outside with short crisp hairs especially
on nerves and at margin, with numerous sessile glands between the nerves; upper
lip of calyx as long as the lower, the lateral teeth ovate, long-acuminate, the middle
tooth half the length, broadly triangular, terminating in a very short point; lower lip
more deeply bidentate, the teeth lanceolate, long-acuminate; corolla violet, longer
as calyx, slightly crisp-pubescent; upper lip erect, slightly emarginate; lower lip
longer than the upper, the lateral lobes elliptical, recurved, the middle lobe longer,
broadly obovate, notched, convex, drooping; stamens concealed under the upper
lip; filaments attached to staminal connective nearer the anterior anther cells, these
somewhat reduced, coherent, the anterior anther-cells about as long as the poste-
rior arm of connective; upper stamens reduced to short apically enlarged
staminodes; style slightly exserted; lobes of stigma unequal; nutlets subglobose,
2.5 mm in diameter, brown, with darker stripes. In gardens, cultivated or natural-
ized (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Salvia rosmarinus: This species is plain Rosemary. Originally Rosemary was in
fact its own genus, with Rosmarinus officinalis as the main species. However,
recent taxonomic shifts have placed the species within the Eurasian clade of
Salvia, and it has been renamed Salvia rosmarinus. Shrub, 50–200 cm high,
strongly branching; branches ascending or erect, covered with gray, easily peeling
bark; young branches obtusely 4-angled, pubescent, with axillary fascicles; leaves
on very short petioles, evergreen, linear, obtuse, revolute-margined, rather thick,
dark green above, subglabrous, with solitary minute stellate hairs, white-
tomentose beneath, 1.5–3.5 cm long, 1.5–3 mm wide; flowers subsessile, in
5–10 flowered racemiform inflorescences at the end of short shoots; calyx gray-
tomentose, with glabrous throat; corolla blue-violet, sparingly pubescent outside,
the tube slightly exceeding the calyx; upper lip deeply emarginate; lower lip
slightly longer, the large middle lobe toothed at margins; stamens exserted; nutlets
globose-ovoid, 1.5–2 mm long, smooth, brownish. Native to the Mediterranean,
widely planted worldwide (Figs. 5, 6, and 7).
Salvia officinalis L. . . . 1623
Fig. 1 Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Salvia officinalis

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Salvia officinalis: Colombia: This species of Salvia is used in Colombia as an

antiseptic, healing, anti-inflammatory, anti-hemorrhagic, antiflatulent, facilitating
digestion, antiperspirant, and against spasms. The leaves are used as a home remedy,
especially as anti-inflammatory and as painkillers of oral conditions and pharyngitis.
The decoction of the leaves is used to treat stomach disorders (Fonnegra-Gómez and
Fig. 3 Salvia officinalis (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Salvia officinalis

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975; Martínez Correa and Martínez 2017;
Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Leaves are used to treat
throat inflammation, stomach problems, pharyngitis, mouth diseases, as expectorant,
as analgesic, as tranquilizer, and as astringent (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The
decoction of the plant is used to wash the body of women after giving birth (Kichwa
de la Sierra-Loja). The leaves, in the form of a drink, are used to treat diarrhea,
intestinal disorders, headache, and to calm the cold (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Chimborazo). Treats indeterminate conditions (unspecified ethnic group-Imbabura)
(de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: The whole plant, fresh or dried is used to treat cough,
bronchitis, control and regulate menstrual cycle (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b).
Salvia rosmarinus: Rosemary is used in Colombia to promote bile health, as a
stimulant of appetite and gastric secretions and for the treatment of digestive
disorders and flatulence. Externally it is applied in the form of plasters to treat
eczema and accelerate the healing of wounds. Rosemary has stimulating, digestive
properties, promotes menstruation and is exciting of the nervous system. The
infusion of leaves or inflorescence is used to treat stomach disorders, anemia,
absence of menstruation, and infections of the lymph nodes. Romero’s infusions
are also useful in the treatment of nervous disorders (palpitations, hypochondria,
dizziness, headaches, hysteria, etc.). Asthma, bronchitis, and some lung diseases are
also treatable with the help of Romero. The maceration of rosemary branches in
water and resting for a long time helps to fortify the memory. In addition, the cooking
of rosemary leaves is used in diarrhea, rheumatism, and gastritis. Rosemary boiled in
wine is used to fortify the sight and helps to heal wounds. In compresses, Rosemary
is applied to treat contusions, cuts, scrapes (Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-
Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Giraldo Quintero
et al. 2015; Martínez Correa and Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social
2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bolivia: Stems and leaves are used to treat varicose
veins, liver, stomach ache, gastritis, ulcers, bone pain, rheumatism, arthritis, cramps,
varicose veins, memoria, nerves, cancer, childbed, post-partum care, post-partum
washing, cold, kidney infection, “dientes destemplados,” bad air and for good luck
(Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016). Peru:
Used to treat nerves, spasm, asthma, heart diseases, cough, alopecia, vertigo,
strengthens vision, stomach ache, rheumatism, memory, hypochondria, healing
wounds, headache, gastritis, diarrhea, bronchitis, arthritis, anemia, for good luck,
as tranquilizer, as stimulant, and as emmenagogue (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b). Widely produced and sold in
markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008, 2009; Bussmann and Sharon 2009;
Revene et al. 2008). Sometimes in admixture with other species (Bussmann et al.
2010). Sage has antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2011a, b).
Salvia rosmarinus: Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used for nerves and sore eyes
(Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The bath with the infusion
of the branches or the powder of the ground leaves is applied to treat scabies. With
the branches and leaves, in infusion, baths are made that cure the carachas (Kichwa
de la Sierra-Imbabura). It is used to treat toothache. Crushed leaves are used to treat
mouth irritations. The burnt stick is used to burn warts (unspecified ethnicity-
Fig. 5 Salvia rosmarinus

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Chimborazo). The flower, in infusion, is used to treat eye irritations (Kichwa de la

Sierra-Bolívar; unspecified ethnic group-Chimborazo). The infusion of the plant is
used to treat nerve problems and skin infections (Mestizo, unspecified ethnic group-
Chimborazo). The infusion is taken to treat conditions of the abdomen and liver,
delayed menstruation, and menstrual colic (unspecified ethnicity-Loja). The infusion
is used to treat cold, nerves, rheumatic pain, and kidney problems (unspecified
ethnicity-Imbabura). The infusion is used to treat leukorrhea. The branches, in
infusion, are used to treat heart conditions and to perform vaginal lavages before
delivery, when there is an infection or to treat the white water of women (vaginal
discharge) (Kichwa de la Sierra-Bolívar). The plant is used as a brain tonic. The
flowers, placed in alcohol, are used to treat eye conditions (unspecified ethnicity-
Pichincha). Sap is used to treat gangrene and horchata is drunk to treat headache
(Kichwa de la Sierra, unspecified ethnicity-Loja). Useful as tonic, emenagogue and
vulnerable (unspecified ethnicity -Azuay, Cañar). It is used to treat poor circulation
and conditions of the liver and pancreas (unspecified ethnicity-Other (Coast
Region)). It is used, in vaporizations, to treat conditions of the lungs and, in infusion,
to treat conditions of the nerves, retention of urine and physical and intellectual
exhaustion (Mestizo-Pichincha). Used in infusion and mixed with cedron, it is useful
to soothe headaches (ethnicity not specified-Cañar) (de La Torre et al. 2008).
Horchata is used to treat “bad air” (unspecified ethnicity-Loja). The leaves and
flowers, in infusion are used to tone the brain (unspecified ethnic group-

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Chimborazo). It serves for sahumerios (unspecified ethnic group-Tungurahua)

Peru: Leaves, fresh or dried are used for hair loss (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b). Widely produced and sold in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b,
2008, 2009; Bussmann and Sharon 2009; Monigatti et al. 2013; Revene et al. 2008).
Local Food Uses
Salvia rosmarinus: Ecuador: Used to prepare aromatic waters (Mestizo-Azuay;

unspecified ethnicity-Tungurahua). The leaves serve as a condiment for meat and
roasts (Kichwa de la Sierra-Bolívar; Mestiza-Pichincha) (de La Torre et al. 2008).
Salvia rosmarinus: Ecuador: It has beekeeping use (unspecified Ethnicity-Azuay,

Cañar) (from de la Torre et al. 2008). It is used to prepare baths (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Loja). The infusion of the branches is used to wash the hair and prevent its fall
(Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group-Imbabura, Pichincha, Tungurahua,

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Chimborazo, Bolívar, Loja). The infusion is used to lighten the hair and to beautify
the skin (Mestizo-Pichincha; unspecified ethnicity-Cañar). The leaves are used to
treat scalp problems such as dandruff (unspecified ethnicity-Other (Coast Region)).
The leaves, macerated in a drink (brandy), are used to wash the eyes before bedtime
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Bolívar) (de La Torre et al. 2008). Used to treat mal aire/bad air
References
Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano. San Diego, Latino Herbal Press. 2001;340 p.
female health. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010a;6(30):1–12.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008;6:351–61.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
y aromáticas. Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt.
Bogotá: Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial; 2003. 111 pp.
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
Revene Z, Bussmann RW, Sharon D. From Sierra to coast: tracing the supply of medicinal plants in
Sambucus canadensis L.
Sambucus nigra L.
ADOXACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Sambucus canadensis L.: Sambucus canadensis var. lacinata A. Gray; Sambucus

canadensis var. oreopola (Donn. Sm.) Rehder; Sambucus canadensis var. submollis
Rehder; Sambucus mexicana C. Presl. ex DC.; Sambucus nigra subsp. canadensis
(L.) Bolli; Sambucus oreopola Donn. Sm.
Sambucus nigra L.: Sambucus graveolens Willd. ex Schult.; Sambucus peruviana
Kunth
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Sambucus canadensis: Bolivia: Khojla (Aymara); Spanish: Sauco; English: Elder-

berry, black elder, elder, bore tree
Sambucus nigra: Colombia: Sauco, Saúco, Carbunquera, Bajman, Sacatsum,
Zahuco, Flor de Tilo, Sauco de Europa, Khojla, Rayan, Asauco, Sauco Blanco;
Ecuador: Sauco tilo; Peru: Sauco, Cinta de novia
Botany and Ecology
Sambucus canadensis/Sambucus nigra: Woody shrubs or low tree 4.7(10) m tall,

with trunk up to 30 cm in diameter, covered with light brown, suberized, fissured
bark. Branches brownish-grayish, longitudinally rugose, with sharply pointed
lenticels; young branches glabrous or with sparse short hairs. Pith broad, white,
does not turn brown. Leaves up to 32 cm long, petiolate, with caducous, tiny,
lanceolate or almost filiform stipules. Leaflets (3)5–7(9), ovate-elliptic or elliptic to
oblong-elliptic, rarely almost orbicular (f. rotundifolia Endl.), sometimes deeply
pinnate or doubly pinnatisect (f. laciniata L.), at tip usually sharply tapered into,
mostly long caudate, rarely into short more or less broad mucro, with rounded or
cuneate, often unequal base, fairly deeply serrate along margin, upper surface
extremely short lanuginose along main vein, glabrous beneath or with sparse
hairs along veins, longer than on upper surface; petiolules 1.5–3 mm long, gla-
brous or, together with rachis, sparsely hairy. Flowers aromatic, in terminal dense,
many-flowered, flat, umbelliform apical panicles 10–20 cm across, having long
peduncles, with 5 main, repeatedly branched axes; inflorescence axis glabrous and
more or less densely pubescent with short, thick, villiform hairs. Flowers sessile in
forks of axes; moreover, lateral (on axes of successive order); remaining flowers on
distinct pedicels up to 7(12) mm long; calyx teeth ovate, deltoid or elliptic. Corolla
cream-white, 5–8 mm across with spreading, broad, ovate or suborbicular, obtuse
lobes of limb. Stamens with yellow anthers. Ovary subglobose, short. Panicle
slightly nodding in fruit, with violet or purple colored axes. Fruits globose,
5–8 mm long, lustrous, violet-black, with dark red juice; stones 3(4) chocolate
colored, ovate, convex on back, transversely rugose. Forests and edges, shrub
undergrowth, especially along rivers, roadsides, and weedy places (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, and 8).
Elder leaves are applied in Colombia as poultices to treat skin conditions and in
infusion are used as anti-inflammatory, to promote the production of breast milk, as
laxatives, expectorants, purgatives, and sudorific. Infusion of flowers calms cough,
sinusitis, and inflammations of the stomach. Fresh flowers can act as laxatives. The
ripe fruits are used as purgatives, diuretics, and to avoid excessive sweating; they are
Sambucus canadensis L. . . . 1633
Fig. 1 Sambucus nigra (Adoxaceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
also used as a remedy against neuralgia (Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-
Londoño 2011; Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Martínez
Arbeláez 1996).
Sambucus canadensis: In Bolivia, the plant is used to treat wound swellings
Sambucus nigra: In Colombia, the bark is used to treat apnea and measles; bark,
flowers, and fruits are used to treat arthritis, rheumatism, headache, promotes sweat-
ing, and helps to treat sunstroke; bark, leaves, flowers, and fruits are used for blood
cleansing, bronchitis, burns, conjunctivitis, diarrhea, as diuretic, for fever, flu, respi-
ratory tract problems, skin diseases, as tonic, and for urinary infections; the flowers are
used to treat mouth diseases, purifies the body, for sinusitis, and for throat inflamma-
tion; the fruits serve to treat neuralgia; leaves and flowers are used to treat cough;
leaves and fruits are used to treat constipation; leaves, flowers, and fruits serve to treat
arteriosclerosis, bronchial diseases, and as expectorant (Bussmann et al. 2018).
Ecuador: an infusion of the fresh leaves boiled in alcohol, or simply the fresh
masticated leaves are used to treat fever and infections (Bussmann and Sharon
2006a; 2007a).
Peru: The plant is used to treat swellings, kidneys, cough, concussions, prostate,
fever, bronchitis, yellow fever inflammation of the kidneys, gastritis, nerves, cough,
cold, and fever (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and
Glenn 2010a, b; Bussmann et al. 2011a, b; Monigatti et al. 2013). Sambucus has
mild antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2009a, 2010a, b). Sometimes fruits
are sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2009b; Revene et al. 2008).
Sometimes the plant is used in herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010c).
Local Food Uses
In Eurasia, the plant is widely used for compotes and to produce alcohol (Bussmann
et al. 2016b).
Peru: The species is used to treat fright/susto (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b,
2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010d).
Fig. 5 Sambucus nigra

(Adoxaceae), garden, Chicani,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 8 Sambucus nigra (Adoxaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010a;17(2):331–46.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009a;16(1):93–103.
(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010d;4(9):580–629.

016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
(2):450–64.
Sanguisorba minor Scop.
ROSACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Sanguisorba minor Scop.: Poterium sanguisorba L.
Local Names
Bolivia: Pimpinela (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2016); Ecuador: Pimpinela (Span-

ish) (de la Torre et al. 2008), Pimpinela de bejuco; Peru: Pimpinela, Flor de overa
(Spanish).
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Sanguisorba minor: Perennial, 30–60 cm high; rhizome robust, becoming woody;

stem prostrate, ascending or erect, usually more or less spreading-hairy in lower
part, otherwise glabrous, cylindrical, furcately branching; radical and lower
cauline leaves often with pubescent rachis, with 5–25(35) leaflets; leaflets
1–1.5 cm long, short-petioluled, ovate or suborbicular, rarely oblong, cordate
or obtuse at base, crenate or serrate, with 3–9 rather large teeth at each side,
glabrous, usually pale green; cauline leaves small and with smaller number of
leaflets (5–9 in upper leaves). Flower head long peduncled, globose, or (espe-
cially in fruit) ellipsoid, up to 2 cm long; lower flowers staminate, the median
bisexual, the upper often pistillate; pedicels short, with one lanceolate enveloping
leaf and ovate bracts; calyx pale yellow, later turning brown, deciduous in fruit;
stamens of staminate flowers (10)20–30, in bisexual flowers less, filaments long,
thin; fruit 1–3 mm long, tetragonal-ovoid, wingless or very narrowly winged
along ribs, with obtuse wings only 0.25 mm wide, finely netted-veined or nearly
smooth (between wings), yellowish gray. Native to Eurasia. Open dry places,
meadows, stony taluses, banks, roadsides and field borders, crops, fallow fields,
and waste places (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Fig. 1 Sanguisorba minor

(Rosaceae), Bakuriani,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Sanguisorba minor Scop. 1643

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
The infusion of the leaves is used to relieve diarrhea in Colombia (Pérez and Matiz-
Guerra 2017; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bolivia: The whole dried plant is used to treat
heart attacks, heartache, epilepsy, nerves, headache, nausea, and as relaxant
(Bussmann et al. 2016). Ecuador: It is used as a purgative and to treat diabetes
and blood pressure (Mestizo, unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura) (de la Torre et al.
2008). Peru: The whole plant, fresh, is used to treat heart, nerves, insomnia,
depression, anxiety, menstrual regulation, arthritis, blood (Bussmann and Sharon
2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010, 2011a, b), and also for
headache and anger (Monigatti et al. 2013). The plant is infrequently sold in
medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2009). The species has antibacterial
activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010a, 2011a, b). Sometimes it is used in admixture
with other species (Bussmann et al. 2010b).
In Ecuador, the plant is used to treat bad air/mal aire (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann
and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: The whole plant, fresh, is used to treat fright/susto,
for spiritual flowering, good luck, and pain of love (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010c; Monigatti et al. 2013).
References
disease, blood pressure irregularities and cholesterol control. Arnaldoa. 2011a;18(2):167–78.
rheumatism, Arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011b;10(3):397–412.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629.
Sanguisorba minor Scop. 1645

(2):450–64.
Pérez D, Matiz-Guerra LC. Uso de las plantas por comunidades campesinas en la ruralidad de
Bogotá D.C., Colombia. Caldasia. 2017;39(1):68–78.
Satureja boliviana (Benth.) Briq.
Satureja pulchella (HBK) Briquet.
Satureja sericea (C. Presl. ex Benth.) Briq.
LAMIACEAE
Synonyms
Satureja boliviana (Benth.) Briq.: Clinopodium bolivianum (Benth.) Kuntze.;

Clinopodium kuntzeanum (Briq.) Kuntze; Micromeria boliviana Benth.; Micromeria
boliviana var. angustifolia Wedd.; Satureja boliviana var. tarijense (Wedd. ex
Grieseb.) Epling; Satureja kuntzeana Briq.; Satureja simulans Epling; Xenopoma
bolivianum (Benth.) Grieseb.; Xenopoma bolivianum var. tarijense Wedd. ex
Grieseb.
Satureja pulchella (HBK) Briquet.: Gardoquia pulchella Kunth; Gardoquia
rugosa Benth; Gardoquia tomentosa Kunth; Satureja panicera Epling; Satureja
rugosa (Benth.) Briq.; Satureja tomentosa (Kunth) Briq.
Satureja sericea (C. Presl. ex Benth.) Briq.: Clinopodium sericeum (C. Presl ex
Benth.) Govaerts; Clinopodium sericeum (C. Presl. ex Benth.) Harley; Gardoquia
sericea C. Presl. ex Benth.
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Local Names
Satureja boliviana: Bolivia: K’oa

Satureja pulchella: Peru: Panisara, Panizara
Satureja sericea: Peru: Romero silvestre, Romero amarillo
Botany and Ecology
Satureja boliviana: Puberulent or in Peru somewhat hirtellous shrub up to 1 m tall;

leaves narrowly obovate to rather elliptic, narrowed to short (1–1.5 mm) petioles,
subobtuse, entire to serrulate, often 1–2 cm long; flowers whitish, subsessile and
solitary or fasciculate on short axillary branchlets; calyx tube 2–2.5 m long, acute
deltoid teeth all scarcely 1 mm long; corolla tube 6–7 mm long, pubescent within;
stamens shortly exserted; nutlets oblong, 1.5 mm long, usually with mucro to
0.5 mm long, puberulent above. Typical form glabrate with narrowly obovate entire
leaves, branchlets sometimes with a dense retrorse curled pubescence instead of a
somewhat spreading hirtellous indument; also, leaves cinereous and hirtellous,
flowers fascicled in short axillary branchlets (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Satureja pulchella: Shrub with slender ascending crisply puberulent branchlets, the
internodes in type about 4 cm long; petioles 2–5 mm long; leaves rhomboid-ovate,
shortly narrowed at base, obtuse or obtusely apiculate, closely but clearly crenate,
2–4 cm long, about half as wide, green but hispidulous above, white tomentose
beneath; flowers few in the upper axils, the bractlets 3–6 mm long; calyx tube
puberulent, 6–7 mm long, the subulate-setaceous teeth to about 4 mm long; corolla
tube 2 cm long, the upper lip 5 mm long. Flowers a pale salmon-orange, a tea from
the leaves used for colds (West) (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Satureja sericea: Shrub, to 1.5 m tall; branchlets subappressed hirtellous; petioles
2–5 mm long; leaves rhomboid and cuneate at base or deltoid-ovate and truncate-
subcordate, all obtuse, 1–2.5 cm wide, serrate-crenate, revolute, rugose, glabrous
above, densely white tomentose beneath; flowers about 6 in shortly peduncled
axillary cymules with linear bractlets 3–4 mm long; calyx crisply hirtellous, tube
about 6 mm long, teeth deltoid-lanceolate, acute, the lower 3.5–4 mm long, the upper
similar, basally connate; corolla orange, the tube 2–2.5 cm long, the upper lobe
4–5 mm high. Resembles S. rugosa (R. & P.) Briq. and S. tomentosa (HBK.) Briq.
but calyx of first 7 mm long, the fine pubescence spreading, the teeth 2.5 mm long,
corolla tube about 1 cm long, while the calyx teeth of S. tomentosa are rarely longer
than 2.5 mm (author); sold in Trujillo as a medicinal herb (collectors). Compare with
S. pulchella (HBK.) Briq. but that with basally acute leaves. Distinguishable from
S. rugosa primarily by the appressed hirtellous pubescence (Macbride and
Satureja boliviana (Benth.) Briq. . . . 1649
Fig. 1 Satureja sp.

Fig. 2 Satureja
Fig. 3 Satureja
Local Medicinal Use
In Peru, both Satureja pulchella and Satureja sericea are used widely for bronchi-
tis, asthma, liver disease, infection (internal), nerves, menstrual delay, and providing
vitamins (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a,
b, 2011; Monigatti et al. 2013). The species are frequently in sold markets
(Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2008a, 2009; Revene et al. 2008). Satureja has anti-
bacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008b, 2010a, b, 2011a). They are often used as
ingredients in herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010c). Especially ethanolic extracts
show toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011b).
Local Food Use
Satureja boliviana is mainly used in Bolivia as ingredient of soups (Bussmann et al.

2018).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010a;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008b;6:351–61.
Satureja boliviana (Benth.) Briq. . . . 1651
(4):742–53.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
(2):450–64.
Schinus areira L.
Schinus molle L.
ANACARDIACEAE

Synonyms
Schinus areira L.: Schinus molle L. var. areira DC

Schinus molle L.: Schinus angustifolia Sessé & Moc.; Schinus areira L.; Schinus
bituminosa Salisb.; Schinus huigan Molina; Schinus molle var. areira (L.) DC.;
Schinus molle var. argentifolia Marchand; Schinus molle var. huigan (Molina)
Marchand; Schinus molle var. huyngan (Molina) March.; Schinus occidentalis
Sessé & Moc.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero

Local Names
Schinus areira: Chile: Pimiento, molle, muelle

Schinus molle: Bolivia: Molle (Spanish); Colombia: Aroeira, Bálsamo Sanalotodo,
Molle, Muelle, Mulli, Pimenteira, Pimentera, Pimiento, Piru, Terebinto, Arbol de la
Vida (Spanish); Ecuador: Molle (Spanish); Peru: Molle, Moy (Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Schinus areira: Perennial tree between 10 and 20 m high, with between 2 and
4 secondary branches, young branches lax, decumbent. Leaves composed, oppo-
site, long petiolate, imparipinnate, between 9 and 20 cm long; with between
10 and 30 leaflets, lanceolate, between 1 and 7.5 cm long. Axillary or terminal
inflorescences in panicle. Numerous flowers, from 100 to more than 500 flowers
per panicle; corolla with 5 colored petals white, 10 stamens white, pistil with
3 styles. Fruit: reddish or pink globose drupe, with a strong flavor, with a
yellowish seed inside. Sea level to 3500 m (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
Schinus molle: Trees or shrubby, with alternate simple or odd-pinnate leaves with
sessile leaflets, these often somewhat crenate-dentate, especially toward the tips.
Flowers polygamodioecious, bracteate, in axillary or terminal panicles or pseudo-
racemes, the 5 calyx segments and oblong petals imbricate, the former rounded, the
latter with the 10 stamens inserted at base of thick disk, finally reflexed; filaments
subulate, anthers oval. Ovary free, sessile, 1-celled, the ovule suspended from near
the apex. Style terminal, trifid or simple, with 3 min capitellate stigmas or simple and
3-lobate. Drupes globose, small, the putamen coriaceous or osseous, usually oily.
Often with abundantly developed rose-red berry-like fruits that may long persist
among the feathery light green foliage (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Schinus areira: Traditionally it is used in Chile for digestive ailments and as

purgative and diuretic. The leaves prepared in infusion are used for washing in
cases of venereal diseases, irritated eyes, conjunctivitis, and cataracts. The infusion
of the cortex decreases inflammation and promotes the healing of ulcers (González
Schinus molle: This plant is used as antirheumatic, antihemorrhagic, against
bronchitis, as a urinary antiseptic, to treat leprosy, as a healer, diuretic, anti-
flatulent, against stomach cramps, against vomiting and nausea, against diarrhea,
to treat wounds and sores, against glaucoma, angina pectoris, as an insecticide,
Schinus areira L. . . . 1655
Fig. 1 Schinus molle

(Anacardiaceae), garden,
R.W. Bussmann and
and to treat neuralgia and prostate problems. The extract of the bark has exciting
antirheumatic, healing, anti-inflammatory, and anti-hemorrhagic properties and is
also used in the treatment of diarrhea. The juice extracted from the leaves is used
for the treatment of diseases of the eyes, rheumatism, and gonorrhea. The cooked
leaves act as diuretics and applied in bathrooms are used to prevent the fall of the
uterus. The fruit is antiflatulent, soothes stomach cramps, and is used to treat
gonorrhea (Bernal et al. 2011; García Barriga 1975; Patiño 1963; Pérez Arbeláez
1996). Bolivia: Stems and leaves are used to treat varicose veins, stomach ache,
rheumatism, sprains, and for cultural illnesses (against curses, bad air, as incense
for cleansing, to treat lightning stroke, ritual cleansing, sajra (a specific curse), to
make children speak (1–3 years)) (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo Chipana and
Moraes 2015; Macía et al. 2005). The plant is also used to treat body pain, cold,
rheumatism, Chagas disease, and urifa (dehydration in children) (Quiroga et al.
2012). Schinus longifolius is also used for body pain, measles, wounds, and
smallpox (Quiroga et al. 2012).
Colombia: Bark and leaves are used to treat arthritis and rheumatism; the bark is
used to treat diarrhea and as stimulant; leaves are used to treat conjunctivitis and as
diuretic (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: Fresh flowers, leaves, and seeds are used

R.W. Bussmann and
to treat rheumatism (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru:
Fresh flowers, leaves, and stems are used to treat arthritis, rheumatism, bone pain,
bronchitis, cough, cold, chills, and inflammation of the body (Bussmann and Sharon
2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b, 2011a, b, c; Monigatti et al.
2013). Schinus is sold very commonly in local herb markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a,
b, 2009). The species exhibits antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010,
2011a), and no toxicity has been observed either on water or alcohol extracts
(Bussmann et al. 2011b). The bark resin contains a number of interesting new
constituents (Malca García et al. 2017).
Local Food Uses
Schinus areira: Chile: The fruits, with a spicy flavor, can be eaten raw or cooked.
Through its cooking and fermentation, chicha or vinegar is obtained. In addition, the
still unfermented beverage concentrated at low heat serves to prepare honey or molle

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and
syrup. The seeds, also spicy, are used as a condiment and have a taste very similar to
black pepper (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and
Castro 2003).
Schinus molle: Peru: The species is used to treat fright/susto (Monigatti et al. 2013).

R.W. Bussmann and
References
2011. 232 pp.
Rev Peru Biol. 2010a;17(2):331–46.
rheumatism, Arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011b;10(3):397–412.
of diabetes and cancer in northern Peru. J Med Plant Res. 2011c;5(31):6916–30.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
(4):742–53.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
the markets of La Paz and El alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;97:337–50.
Malca García GR, Hennig L, Ganoza Yupanqui ML, Piña Iturbe A, Bussmann RW. Constituents
from the bark resin of Schinus molle L. Rev Bras. 2017;27:67–9.
(2):450–64.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell.
ASTERACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell.: Amblyopappus mendocinus Phil.,

Chlamysperma polygana Triana; Hopkirkia anthemioides DC.; Mieria virgata La
Llave; Pectis pinnata Lam., Rothia pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze, Rothia pinnata (Lam.)
Kuntze ex Thell. var. pallida, Rothia pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. var.
purpurascens, Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. var. abrotanoides,
Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. var. octoaristata, Schkuhria
abrotanoides Roth, Schkuhria abrotanoides Roth var. isopappa, Schkuhria
abrotanoides Roth var. pomasquiensis, Schkuhria advena Thell., Schkuhria
bonariensis Hook. & Arn., Schkuhria coquimbana Phil., Schkuhria guatemalensis
(Rydb.) Standl. & Steyerm.; Sckuhria hopkirkia A. Gray; Schkuhria isopappa
Benth., Schkuhria octoaristata DC., Schkuhria pinnata fo. pringlei (S. Watson)
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Heiser; Schkuhria pinnata var. abrotanoides (Roth) cabrera; Schkuhria pinnata var.
guatemalensis (Rydb.) McVaugh; Schkuhria pinnata var. octoaristata (DC) Cabrera;
Schkuhria pinnata var. virgata (La Llave) Heiser; Schkuhria pinnata var. wislizeni
(A. Gray) B.L. Turner; Schkuhria pringlei S. Watson; Schkuhria virgata (La Llave)
DC.; Sckkuhria wislizeni A. Gray; Sckkuhria wislizeni fo. flava (Rydb.) S.F. Blake;
Sckkuhria wislizeni var. frustrata S.F. Blake; Sckkuhria wislizeni var. wrightii
(A. Gray) S.F. Blake; Sckkuhria wrightii A. Gray; Tetracarpum anthemoideum
(DC.) Rydb.; Tetracarpum flavum Rydb.; Tetracarpum guatemalense Rydb.; Tetra-
carpum pringlei (S. Watson) Rydb.; Tetracarpum virgatum (La Llave) Rydb.;
Tetracarpum wislizeni (A. Gray) Rydb.; Tetracarpum wrightii (A. Gray) Rydb.
Local Names
Chile: Cachanlahuen cimarrón, Canchalahua; Peru: Canchalagua, Canchalagua

chica
Botany and Ecology
Delicate, densely branched annual herb. Leaves mostly pinnately dissected with
filiform segments. Upper leaves simple and filiform. Capitula small and numerous,
deep yellow with green involucral bracts. Sea level to 3000 m (Macbride and
In Chile, the infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment of cutaneous
affections (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). In Peru,
Schkuhria is a common medicinal plant used for blood cleansing, liver, blood
purification, gallbladder, bad breath, diabetes, menstrual delay, allergies, men-
struation, blood irrigation, and inflammation of the urinary tract (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010, 2011). The species has
been shown to be active in the treatment of acne (Bussmann et al. 2008a). It is
sometimes found in markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008b). It has proven
antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008b, 2008c, 2010a, b, 2011a; Bussmann
and Glenn 2011). Sometimes it is used as ingredient in medicinal plant mixtures
(Bussmann et al. 2010c). Especially the ethanolic extract shows toxicity
(Bussmann et al. 2011b). In Kenya, this introduced invasive species is used to
treat malaria (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a) and respiratory disorders (Njoroge
and Bussmann 2006b).
Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. 1663
The species is used as forage (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
Bussmann RW, Barocio Y, Díaz PD, Sharon D. Peruvian Plants Canchalagua (Schkuhria pinnata
2008b;15(1):149–52.
activity. Arnaldoa. 2008c;15(1):127–48.
Chile. Gayana Botánica. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Scoparia dulcis L.
PLANTAGINACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Scoparia dulcis L.: Capraria dulcis (L.) Kuntze; Gratiola micrantha Nutt.;
Scoparia dulcis var. tenuifolia Grieseb.; Scoparis grandiflora Naudin; Scoparia
nudicaulis Chodat; Scoparia procumbens Jacq.; Scoparia purpurea Ridl.; Scoparia
ternata Forssk.
Local Names
Spanish: Colombia: Escoba de Castilla, Escobilla, Escobilla amarga, Escobilla

menuda, Escubilla, Escudilla, Granito de aníz, Kasuusa, Mariquita, Mastuerzo,
Paraguay, Parawai, Teatino, Tiatino, Yerbaní, Yerbanís; Ecuador: Tepeti (Awapit),
Tupin remedyu (Chafi’ki), Pichana, Wawa pichana (Kichwa), Funduisi (A’ingae),
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Pampa, Teatina, Verbena (Spanish), Babo cástah, Sabacasan (unspecified language)

(de la Torre et al. 2008), Tiatina (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006,
2007)
Botany and Ecology
Shrub or subshrub woody only at base, subglabrous. Stems terete, branches terete or
4-angled, longitudinally striate, when winged the wings sometimes strongly ridged;
leaves decreasing in size base to apex, opposite or ternately verticellate, especially
the upper; flowers pedicellate, usually 2 or 3 in each leaf axil, often appearing
clustered; pedicels frequently shorter than the bracts and longer than the calyx,
only rarely exceeding three times longer than the calyx, usually very sparsely
puberulent with stiff hairs, occasionally vesture dense; sepals 4, 3 due to loss of
the posterior, imbricate, usually united only at the base, thinly scarious margined and
ciliolate; corolla subrotate, 4-lobed due to loss of posterior petal, white, internally
beset with longish hairs at the base of the lobes, petals frequently reflexed, at least
when dry; stamens 4, inserted on the base of the short corolla tube but alternating
with the lobes, filaments filiform, anthers subsagittate, parallel, dorsifixed, proxi-
mate; style erect, usually little longer than the ovoid to globose ovary, stigma lobes
short, truncate, free at the tips but appearing united, punctiform or clavate; capsule
septicidal and secondarily barely loculicidal at the apex, ovoid. Largest leaves up to
5 cm long, blades mostly 1.0–3.5 cm long, narrowly lance-ovate to ovate, uppermost
sometimes lanceolate, apex usually acute, cuneately narrowed to the short petiole,
margins deeply, irregularly serrate (the larger leaves) to serrate-serrulate, glandular-
punctate; pedicels up to 9 mm long; calyx lobes about 1.5–2.0 mm long, elliptic to
elliptic-ovate, 3-nerved; corolla white, 4–10 mm wide, lobes almost equal, ovate;
stamens with the filaments about two times longer than the anthers; capsule
1.5–2.5 mm long; seeds yellowish brown (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Colombia: The decoction of the whole plant is used in Colombia to lower fevers and
in the treatment of malaria (García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Leaves are
used against fever (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The decoction of the leaves is
used to eliminate intestinal worms (Afro-Ecuadorian-Emeralds; Kichwa of the East-
Orellana). The infusion of the leaves is drunk as a tonic and to lower the fever.
Applied to the skin, it comforts allergies or irritations (Shuar-Napo). The plant is
used to treat fever and diarrhea (Awa-Esmeraldas, Carchi). The plant is used to treat
infected pimples on the skin and erysipelas (Mestizo-Guayas; unspecified ethnicity –
Guayas, Loja; Kichwa of the East-Orellana). Wounds are washed with the plant; it
can help healing and disinfecting them. The plant, in infusion, is used to treat
stomach pain (Cofán-Sucumbíos). The boiled root treats scurvy (unspecified ethnic-
ity – Loja). The leaves, in infusion, are antiseptic and antifungal (Shuar-Napo,
Scoparia dulcis L. 1667
Orellana). It is used to treat inflammations. The leaves, roasted and powdered, are
applied to the skin to treat scabies and leishmaniasis; in infusion, they are used to
calm cramps. The branches, infused and mixed with three drops of cigar (80–90
alcohol) and Mama Juana (Adenostemma lavenia), are used to wash the cuts.
Macerated and cooked together with mama Juana, matico de monte (Piper
veneralense), walnut (Juglans neotropica), and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus sp.) are
used to treat the “glue of the moon in the udder” (cow disease) (Mestiza-Pichincha).
It is drunk to treat early pneumonia and cough. The root heals cuts and wounds of the
feet (Tsa’chi-Pichincha). It is used to treat diabetes, insect bites, rashes, rashes,
pimples, swelling, wounds, and skin ulcers (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas,
Others (Coast Region)). It is used, in infusion, to treat colic (unspecified ethnic group
– Cañar). It also treats indeterminate conditions (Shuar-Zamora Chinchipe) (de la
Torre et al. 2008). The leaves are used to prepare baths against “chutún”
(Awa-Carchi) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The plant is also used to treat bruises and
blows (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007).
In India, the species is used for piles, paralysis, diarrhea, and gastroenteritis (Raj
et al. 2018).
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: It is edible (Shuar-Morona Santiago) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Ecuador: The stem is used to make canoe sticks, and the fibers are used to make
brooms (unspecified ethnic group – Loja; Cofán-Sucumbíos; Kichwa of the East-
Orellana; Shuar-Napo, Zamora Chinchipe). It is used to remove spines (unspecified
ethnic group – Guayas) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
9789962-2-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.

018-0208-9.
Senecio adenophyllus Meyen & Walp.
Senecio atacamensis Phil.
Senecio breviscapus DC.
Senecio candollei Wedd.
Senecio canescens (Bonpl.) Cuatrec
Senecio chinogeton Wedd.
Senecio ctenophyllus Phil.
Senecio filaginoides DC.
Senecio haenkeanus Cuatrec.
Senecio nutans Sch. Bip.
Senecio olivaceobracteatus Ricardi & Martic.
Senecio pappii Ricardi & Martic.
Senecio proteus J. Rémy var. proteus
Senecio pseudotites Grieseb.
Senecio puchii Phil.
Senecio scorzonerifolius Meyen & Walp.
Senecio smithioides Cabrera
Senecio volckmannii Phil.
Senecio xerophilus Phil. var. xerophilus
Senecio zoellneri Martic. & Quezada
ASTERACEAE


Synonyms
Senecio adenophyllus Meyen & Walp.: Senecio adenophyllus Meyen & Walp. var.
oblongifolius. Wedd.; Senecio adenophyllus var. stipulata Domke
Senecio breviscapus DC.: Kleinia brevisacapa DC.; Senecio acaulis Phil.; Senecio
acaulis Sch. Bip.; Senecio chamaecephalus Wedd.; Senecio wernerioides Wedd.;
Werneria cortusifolia Griseb.; Werneria wernerioides (Wedd.) Kuntze.
Senecio candollei Wedd.: Culcitium glaciale Meyen & Walp., Culcitium humile
DC., Senecio anacephalus Griseb., Senecio glacialis (Meyen & Walp.) Cuatrec.,
Senecio glacialis Wedd., Senecio mandonianus Wedd.
Senecio canescens (Bonpl.) Cuatrec: Culcitium canescens Bonpl.; Culcitium
canescens var. monocephalum Wedd.; Culcitium rufescens Bonpl.
Senecio chinogeton Wedd.: Senecio subdecurrens Sch. Bip. ex Wedd., Senecio
teprosioides Turcz.
Senecio filaginoides DC.: Senecio albicaulis Hook. & Arn.
Senecio haenkeanus Cuatrec.: Culcitium haenkei Wedd.
Senecio nutans Sch. Bip.: Senecio graveolens var. psilochaenius Cabrera; Senecio
graveolens Wedd.; Senecio nutans Sch. Bip. ex Wedd.; Senecio
psychrophilus Wedd.
Senecio scorzonerifolius Meyen & Walp.: Senecio armeriifolius Phil.
Senecio zoellneri Martic. & Quezada: Culcitium albifolium Zoellner, Culcitium
oligocephalum Cabrera, Senecio keshua Cabrera, Senecio zoellneri Martic. & Quezada
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero
Senecio adenophyllus Meyen & Walp. . . . 1671
Local Names
Senecio adenophyllus: Chile: Tola hedionda, Chachakoma del burro, Tola del burro
Senecio atacamensis: Chile: Mukuraka, Mokoraka, Mukurakan, Chachakoma blanca,
Chachakoma del burro, Chachakoma de la cabra, Burro chachakoma, Cacho de canra,
pasto
Senecio breviscapus: Chile: Lechiguilla, Psike, Psike del seco, Psike del perro
Senecio candollei: Chile: Chukuchuku
Senecio canescens: Bolivia: K’ea. k’ea (Aymara); Colombia: Falsa arnica blanca;
Peru: Vira vira, Oreja de conejo (Spanish)
Senecio chinogeton: Peru: Hornamo leon amarillo (Spanish)
Senecio ctenophyllus: Chile: Flor amarilla, Monte manzanilla, Tuksatuksa, Llink’illinki
Senecio filaginoides: Chile: Monteblanco, Duraznillo
Senecio haenkeanus: Chile: Chukuchuku
Senecio nutans: Bolivia: Chachak’oma (Aymara)
Senecio olivaceobracteatus: Chile: Koya blanca, Anqot’ola, Monte blanco,
Chukuchuku, Tola blanca, Tolilla balnca, Payakoa, Kopa de cóndor, romerillo, Koa,
Diablo koya
Senecio pappii: Chile: Kopa de condor, Chachakoma blanca, Chachakoma macho,
Tolita ploma, Kopakopa, Pupusa
Senecio pseudotites: Peru: Arnica (Spanish)
Senecio puchii: Chile: Chachakoma, Chachakoma macho, Chachakoma de la
vicuña, Leña de tola, Tola de la piedra, Parpaparpa, Chachakoma de burro,
Burrochachakoma, Chachakoma de la precordillera, Chachakoma rosada
Senecio scorzonerifolius: Chile: Romerillo chico
Senecio smithioides: Bolivia: Lampazo (Spanish)
Senecio tephrosioides: Peru: Huamanrripa, Genciana
Senecio volckmannii: Chile: Pukachaki, Pata colorada, Kopa de cóndor, Kopilla,
Romerillo, Oqelorenso, Maravilla chica, Maransel macho, Wirawira, Viravira,
Wariprpa, Monte plomo, Romero
Senecio xerophilus: Chile: Romerillo, Romerillo blanco
Senecio zoellneri: Chile: Chukuchuku
Botany and Ecology
Senecio adenophyllus: Densely glandular-pubescent, leaves subcarnose, oblong or

oblanceolate-spathulate, acute, mucronate, dentate or lobate, capitula discoid, soli-
tary, involucre campanulate, 4200–4900 m above sea level (Macbride and
Senecio atacamensis: Woody shrublet. Leafy branches to the apex. Short, fleshy-
leathery leaves, oblong contour, pinnatifid, with three short and thick segments in each
margin; sheets longer than internodes, sometimes reflexed; the superiors with broadly
atrial base. The superior region of the branches is corymbose-ramose, the leafy twigs in
Fig. 1 Senecio atacamensis

Señoret)
solitary heads, involucrum subcylindric, with 1–2 linear glands on the back, with wooly
apex, 1 cm long, peripheral flowers only 5 mm long. Stems 0.25 m long (Fig. 1).
Senecio breviscapus: Perennial herb with horizontal underground stems. Rosette
leaves, oblanceolate, 5–12 m long. Yellow flowers, the female and ligular periph-
erals, the hermaphrodite and tubular centrals, 2500–4900 m above sea level (Mac-
Senecio candollei: Herb, highly variable in leaf shape and leaf margins, and the number
of phyllaries, 3500–5000 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Senecio canescens: Perennial herb up to 2 m tall with thick leaves and covered
entirely with downy, whitish fluff. Stem thick, erect, and hollow or weakly spongy
inside and often less green and whiter than the leaves. The basal leaves are ca. 50 cm
long and 4 cm wide. The stem leaves are much shorter and linear. Old leaves remain
attached as fibery sheaths. The flower heads are nodding, each borne from a single
flower stalk branching from the stem and mature one by one. The numerous florets
are surrounded by a bell-shaped whorl of linear bracts, each equal in length. The ray
florets are a white tube with pale green petals. Each of the florets are funnel shaped
with five small, tooth-like petals. Each disc floret has five linear stamens yellow in
color. The pistil is white and fine. The seed is oval with many bristles attached.
Occurs in the Andean Cordillera of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia between 2200 and
4700 m. Found in jalca, paramo, puna and including steep, dry, rocky slopes
(Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995; Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Senecio chinogeton: Herb, up to 0.5 m tall. Leaves in a basal rosette and other
smaller ones throughout of the stem, from oblong to spatulate, up to 15 cm long, the
margins crenados, revolute, the shortly auriculated base. Inflorescences of colorful
hanging heads in the stem end, up to 15 per plant; each one up to 2.5 cm in diameter,
with bracts large, lemon yellow, peduncles reddish-pink. Flowers up to 15 mm long,
lemon yellow, tubular, with 5 short teeth. Vilano of silky trichomes, up to 12 mm
long, white (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995; Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11).
Senecio ctenophyllus: Perennial shrub 30–80 cm tall, glaucous, glabrous and very
broad branches. Blue-green leaves between 10 and 30 mm long, sessile, pinnatisect,
Fig. 2 Senecio canescens (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 3 Senecio canescens

with 3–4 pairs of triangular-linear segments. Terminal inflorescences, chapters

arranged in corymbose, peduncles between 2 and 3 cm long; flared-cylindrical
involucre with between 8 and 10 linear-oblong bracts of dark color. Marginal flowers
between 6 and 8 per chapter, ligulate, yellow; tubular central flowers, yellow. Fruit:
small achene with vilane formed by short white hairs, 1000–3600 m above sea level
(Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995; Figs. 12 and 13).
Senecio filaginoides: Hemispherical shrub 0.5–1 m high, densely branched, with
cylindrical stems albo-tomentose, leafy to the apex. Leaves alternate, linear, from
10–40 1–2 mm, sharp, entire, revolutionary at the margin, covered with silvery

hairs. Discoid chapters arranged in corymbiform tops at the ends of the branches.
Involucre cylindrical flared 5–7 mm high 4–5 mm in diameter; bracts involucrales
8–14, lanceolate, woolly. Flowers 15–25 yellowish or pink, isomorphic, with tubular
corolla up to 8 mm, pentadentate at the apex. Achene fruit with white papus. It blooms
in summer, 400–2700 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Senecio nutans: Small shrub between 20 and 50 cm tall, resinous, very fragrant and
densely ramose. Old branches covered by the remains of dried leaves, while new
branches thickly leafy to the apex. The leaves fleshy and arranged alternately, short
from 3 to 12 mm. Flowers pink, orange, or yellow.
Senecio olivaceobracteatus: Subshrub between 30 and 40 cm high, deeply
branched, with tomentose stems. Leaves between 13 and 26 mm long, lanceolate,
alternate, sessile, covered with a whitish tomento (velvet). Yellow, tubular, hermaph-
roditic flowers. Inflorescence in chapter. Dry fruit with a seed inside, 3500–4700 m
above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Senecio pappii: Herb, rhizome gritty, oblique, often covered by debris of leaf
sheaths. Radical leaves many, 6–12 cm long, 5–8 mm wide, with edges more or
less coiled, tomentose on both sides; sheaths often wider than 1 cm and from 3 to
8 cm long, browning when dry, striae longitudinal. Peduncle from 8 to 15 cm long,
with lanceolate bracts much smaller than the leaves, especially the higher ones.

Fig. 6 Senecio chinogeton

Capitulum the size of a small walnut, with a compound of a large number of bracts,
more or less tomentose on the edges, and almost black when dry.
Senecio proteus: Shrub, 80–100 cm tall, with long, furrowed or smooth branches.
Sheets lanceolate, attenuated at the base, with the apex obtuse, flat, with a woolly
button in the armpits, whole or 3–5–7, with narrowly linear, two acute segments,

lightly arachnose; 2–5 cm long capitules numerous, arranged in compact corymbs.

Peduncles bracteous. Disk flowers ovoid-campanate, the acute, lanceolate, slightly
shorter than the disc 8 mm wide.
Senecio pseudotites: Herb, stem arachnoid-puberulous with corymbiform poly-
céphalous cuneate leaves, gradually attenuate to petiole, with cordate base and
sharply pointed teeth, petiole on auriculate-amplexicaule, ears semicordate-
subrotund, heads radiating with hemispheric sub-phyllous pilose leaflets on back
of a convex upper apex, obtuse, the exteriors adpressed scales scarcely twice shorter.
Leaves 37–10 cm long, broad at the base, lower petiole up to 20 cm long with double
deltoid teeth; ligulae 4 cm wide.
Senecio puchii: Sufruticose low herb, very ramose, forming hemispherical hemi-
spheres 5–15 cm high. Old branches naked, with traces of dried leaves. New branches
densely leafy to the apex, glabrous, fluted. Leaves alternate, internodes 1–5 mm,
glabrous, somewhat fleshy, spatulate, 6–13 3–5 mm, acute apex, attenuated base in
pseudo-specific, with 2–3 acute thick lobes on each side, whole or 1–2 teeth. Discoid,
solitary chapters, at the apex of the twigs, peduncles 1–10 mm. Involucre flared,
caliculated, 7–8 mm in height and diameter. Bracteolae numerous, linear, semiobtusa,
stained at the apex, arranged in two series, the internal almost as long as the involucre.
Bracts involucrate 10–14, linear-oblong, the apex with a dark spot, often in groups of

2–3. Flowers very numerous, yellow, isomorphic, hermaphrodite, corolla tubulosa, of

about 5 mm, narrow lobes, obtuse, granular, of 0.5 mm. Achenae cylindrical, sides,
glabrous, 2.5 mm. White pappus, 5 mm, 4000–4800 m above sea level (Macbride and
Weberbauer 1936–1995; Figs. 14 and 15).
Senecio scorzonerifolius: Perennial herb with ramified rhizome and cespitose stems,
4–6 cm high, branching, densely leafy at the bottom, almost bare on the upper, glabrous
or lanuginous. Leaves alternate, sessile, closely linear, 25–80 0.7–2 mm, whole, acute
apex, somewhat lanuginous or glabrous. Discoid chapters, solitary at the apex of the
branches. Involucre flared, caliculated, 8–10 mm high and 9–11 mm in diameter, the
same length as the flowers. Bract them from the linear calculus, almost as long as the
involucre. Bracts involucrales 13–18, oblong-lanceolate, acute, usually stained dark at
the apex, glabrous back, at the base somewhat welded together. White flowers, isomor-
phic, numerous, hermaphroditic, corolla tubulosa, 6–7 mm, with 5 triangular teeth,
0.6 mm. Truncated style branches, with hairs. Akenia cylindrical, sides, short pubescent-
papillae or glabrous, 3.5 mm. Pappus copious, white, 7 mm, 4400–4600 m above sea
level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Senecio smithioides: Shrubby herb, 1–2 m tall, flowers whitish.
Senecio volckmannii: Sufruticose herb about 20 cm high, stems ascending or erect,
laxly tomentose or glabrescent, densely leafy to the apex. Leaves alternate, sessile,

oblanceolate-linear, 30–50 3–4 mm, acute apex, long attenuated base, entire
margin and somewhat revolute, laxly tomentose on both sides or glabrescent on
top. Discoid chapters, solitary at the apex of the branches or in number 2–4 forming a
loose corymb. Involucre flared, caliculated, about 12 mm in height and diameter, the
same length as flowers or a little more. Bract them from the few, linear calculus. Bracts
involucrales about 20, oblong-linear, apex acute and penicillate, back lanuginous or
glabrescente. Flowers very numerous, yellow or orange, isomorphic, hermaphrodite,
corolla tubulosa of about 8 mm, with 5 teeth linear-lanceolate, 0.5 mm, with more or less
ribs transformed into bags of essence. Akenia cylindrical, glabrous, 3–4 mm pappus
copious, white, 8–9 mm, 3300–4500 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995; Figs. 16 and 17).
Senecio xerophilus: Sufruticose herb 15–30 cm in height, densely branched. Cylin-
drical branches, sides, densely albo-woolly, broad near the apex. Leaves alternate,
sessile, oblong, pectinate-pinnatisect, rachis of 5 1–3 mm, acute apex, with
3–4 pairs of alternating or semiopuestos segments, oblong, acute, margin slightly
revolute, 3–5 about 1 mm, albo-tomentosos. Discoid, solitary or geminated
chapters at the apex of the branches. Peduncles bracteolados, lanuginous, of
15–20 mm. Involucre flared, caliculated, 8–12 mm high and 8–14 mm in diam-
eter, the same length as the flowers or something shorter. Bract them from the few,
linear calculus. Bracts involucrales 14–20, oblong-linear, attenuate in the upper

part and penicillated in the apex, woolly or glabrescent in the back. Yellow
flowers, numerous, isomorphic, hermaphroditic, corolla tubulose, 6.5–8.5 mm,
with 5 teeth linear-lanceolate, acute, 0.7 mm, marked central vein. Achenae
cylindrical, sides, glabrous, 4 mm. Pappus copious, white, 3700–4700 m above
sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Senecio zoellneri: Herb up to 40 cm high. Tomentose white leaves densely agglom-
erated in the lower part and scattered in the upper part, between 12 and 19 cm long;
lower leaves oblanceolate-spatulate, with petiole envainador, obtuse apex; cauline leaves
lanceolate, whole, revolute, apex semiobtuse to acute. Terminal inflorescences, chapters
arranged in open corymbiform tops; Involucrum flared, with between 22 and 26 linear-
lanceolate bracts. Numerous flowers, isomorphic, hermaphrodite, yellow, between 2 and
2.9 mm long. Achenes glabrous, side, between 2 and 2.9 mm long, with white vilano
7 mm long, 3200–5000 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Senecio adenophyllus: Chile: The plant crushed and mixed with urine is used to
cast broken limbs (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).

Fig. 12 Senecio dichotomus

(Asteraceae), Caspana, Chile.
Señoret)
Senecio atacamensis: Chile: The plant is used as incense to fight headache. The
infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment of headache and vomiting.
Applied in bathrooms, it is used for the treatment of stomach and head pain, “mal de
aire air,” and for “Puna disease” (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Fig. 13 Senecio dryophyllus

Peru. (Photo Lucas Burchard
Señoret)
Fig. 14 Senecio sp. (Asteraceae), Uchumarca, Peru. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Senecio breviscapus: Chile: The infusion of the aerial parts serves as a purgative
Senecio candollei: Chile: The aerial parts crushed and mixed with urine serve as
plasters to heal wounds (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Senecio canescens: Colombia: The leaves and flowers are considered antispasmodic
and anti-inflammatory in Colombia. They are prepared in infusion or decoction and also
applied in poultices to relieve pain and inflammation (Bussmann et al. 2018; Galvis
Fig. 15 Senecio
Fig. 16 Senecio
Rueda and Torres Torres 2017). Bolivia: The leaves are used to treat rheumatism,
arthritis, fever, asthma, cough, throat, pneumonia, and cancer (Bussmann et al. 2016;
Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015). Peru: The species is used for cough treatment
Fig. 17 Senecio
sp. (Asteraceae), Caspana,
Señoret)
Peru: The whole fresh plant is used to treat bronchitis, asthma, cough, and nerves
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b). It is an
important medicinal plant sold in many local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b). The
species has antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2009, 2010a, b, c, d, 2011a, b).
Senecio chinogeton: Peru: Leaves and stems, fresh or dried, are used to treat
inflammation (general) (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b). The plant is
sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b). The species has antibacterial
activity (Bussmann et al. 2009, 2010a, b, c, d, 2011a, b).
Senecio ctenophyllus: Chile: The aerial parts crushed serve as plasters to heal wounds
Senecio haenkeanus: Chile: The plant is used for general undefined ailments
Senecio nutans: Bolivia: Leaves, fresh or dried, are used to treat diarrhea, gastritis/
ulcers, stomachache, and for blood cleansing (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo Chipana
and Moraes 2015).
Senecio olivaceobracteatus: Chile: The aerial parts are used to treat blemishes
Senecio pappii: Chile: The aerial parts are used to treat colds and stomach pain. It is
also used in childbirth (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Senecio proteus: Chile: The aerial parts are used to treat injuries (Rodriguez et al.
Senecio pseudotites: Peru: Fresh leaves and stems are used to treat inflammations,
rheumatism, and high fever (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b). The plant
is sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b). The species has antibacterial
activity (Bussmann et al. 2009, 2010c, d, 2011a, b).
Senecio puchii: Chile: The aerial parts as infusion or as incense are good for headache,
stomach pain, and Puna disease (Peñazola et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán
and Castro 2003).
Senecio smithioides: Bolivia: The plant is used for back pain, bone pain, waist pain,
fever, inflammation, cough, pneumonia, bruises, wound swelling, and kidney infec-
tion (Bussmann et al. 2016; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015).
Senecio tephrosioides: Peru: The whole fresh plant is used to treat bronchitis,
asthma, and pneumonia (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann
and Glenn 2010a, b). The species has antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2009,
2010c, d, 2011a, b).
Senecio volckmannii: Chile: The aerial parts as infusion are used for sore throat
(Penazola et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Senecio xerophilus: Chile: Aerial parts as an infusion are used for heart conditions
(Penazola et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Senecio zoellneri: Chile: The aerial parts crushed serve as plasters to heal wounds
Senecio sp. is used in Bolivia for allergies (Quiroga et al. 2012).
Local Food Uses
Senecio atacamensis: Chile: The green parts are eaten and used in soups as a
condiment (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Senecio ctenophyllus: Chile: The aerial parts are used as a condiment for various
dishes (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Senecio proteus: Chile: The aerial parts are used as a condiment for various dishes
Senecio zoellneri: Chile: The aerial parts are used as a condiment for various dishes
In India, Senecio nudicaulis is used for treating earaches (Singh et al. 2017), and
Senecio graciliflorus is used for ringworm, insect bites, and otitis media (Bhat et al.
2013). Senecio canaliculatus is used in Madagascar for gastric ulcers, syphilis, and
gastroenteritis (Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015).
Senecio adenophyllus: Chile: The crushed and boiled leaves are used as yellow dye
Senecio atacamensis: Chile: The plant is used as forage (Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Senecio breviscapus: Chile: The species is used as forage (Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Senecio chinogeton is used in Peru to treat bad air/mal aire and as hallucinogen/for
vision enhancement (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b).
Senecio ctenophyllus: Chile: The species is used as forage (González and Molina
Senecio filaginoides: Chile: The plant is used as forage (Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Senecio pappii: Chile: It is used as forage (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and
Castro 2003).
Senecio proteus: Chile: The species is used as forage (Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Senecio puchii: Chile: The plant is used as forage and firewood (Peñazola et al.
Senecio scorzonerifolius: Chile: The plant is used as forage (Peñazola et al. 2013;
Senecio volckmannii: Chile: The species is used as forage (Peñazola et al. 2013;
Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). The aerial parts are used as a
condiment for various dishes (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Senecio xerophilus: Chile: The plant is used as forage (Peñazola et al. 2013;
Senecio zoellneri: Chile: The species is used as forage (González and Molina 2017;
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010b;17(2):331–46.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas de
los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. ISBN 978-0-
9789962-3-9.
flora of Northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
Pharmacol. 2010b;4(9):580–629.
Bussmann RW, Malca-García G, Glenn A, Sharon D, Chait G, Díaz D, Pourmand K, Jonat B,
Somogy S, Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A. Proving that
traditional knowledge works: the antibacterial activity of Northern Peruvian medicinal plants.
Ethnobot Res Appl. 2011a;9:67–96.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Sogamoso, Boyacá, Colombia. Rev Invest Agraria Ambient. 2017;8(2):187–206.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Randriamiharisoa MN, Kuhlman A, Jeannoda V, Rabarison H, Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianarivony T,
Raktoarivony F, Randrianasolo A, Bussmann RW. Economic importance of medicinal plants sold in
the markets of Antananarivo, Madagascar. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:60.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3.
Sida rhombifolia L.
MALVACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Sida rhombifolia L.: Malva rhombifolia (L.) E.H.L. Krause; Napaea rhombifolia
(L.) Moench; Sida adusta Marais; Sida alba Cav.; Sida andicola Gand.; Sida
angustifolia Mill.; Sida compressa Wall.; Sida hondensis Kunth; Sida insularis
Hatus.; Sida pringlei Gand.; Sida retusa L.; Sida rhombifolia subsp. insularis
(Hatus.) Hatus.; Sida rhombifolia var. canariensis Grieseb.; Sida rhombifolia var.
canescens DC.; Sida rhombifolia var. var. guazumifolia K. Schum.; Sida rhombifolia
var. obovata Wall. ex Mast.; Sida rhombifolia var. retusa (L.) mast.; Sida
rhombifolia var. rhomboidea (Roxb.) Mast.; Sida rhombifolia var. surinamensis
K. Schum.; Sida rhomboidea Roxb.; Sida ruderata Macfad.; Sida unicornis Marais
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Colombia: Escoba Babosa, Escobo, Escoba Negra, Escoba Cimarrona, Escobadura,

Escoba, Escobo Amarillo, Escobilla, Escobadura; Ecuador: Guintun verde (Span-
ish); Dewi (Tsafi’ki), Willu (Kichwa), Cosa cosa, Crementina, Escoba, Escobilla,
Escobillo, Palo morado (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); English: Sida hemp
Botany and Ecology
Ordinarily much branched, somewhat ligneous below, minutely stellate puberulent

above; stipules linear, as long or longer than the petioles (3–5 mm.); leaves oblong to
lanceolate or rhomboid, crenate to entire at base, 3-nerved, tomentose beneath,
crenulate toward the acute or obtuse tip, usually 5–6 cm long; peduncles (1)2.5–3
(4) cm long, articulate above the middle, mostly solitary, rarely on a secondary
branchlet or corymbose at tip; calyx 6–7 mm long, 10-angled, the lobes acute; petals
yellow or with red-purplish base, exceeding calyx, retuse; carpels (7)10–14, the 1 or
2 awns (sometimes reduced) glabrous or puberulent; seeds brown, subcaudate,
puberulent only at hilum. A very variable cosmopolitan weed (Macbride and
Weberbauer 1936–1995; Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
It is used in Colombia to relieve and reduce swelling and inflammation. The stems,
leaves, and flowers in decoction and applied as washing are used to wash and clean
wounds, it is considered a great disinfectant, desirritant, and desinflammatory. It is
also used to treat breast diseases (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011;
Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975).
Ecuador: Fresh leaves are used to treat infections (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and
Sharon 2006, 2007). The entire plant is used to treat abscesses with pus (Tsa’chi-
Pichincha). The root, in infusion, is used to treat diarrhea in children (unspecified
ethnicity – Other (Coast Region)). The leaves, in plasters, serve as a healing agent
(unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The leaves, crushed with corn and salt, are
applied to treat burns and tumors in children (Kichwa de la Sierra-Bolívar). It is
used to treat inflammation of the liver and kidneys (Mestiza-Pichincha) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). With the stem and infusion of the macerated seeds, the children are
cleaned with “fright” or “bad wind” (Kichwa de la Sierra-Bolívar) (de la Torre et al.
2008).
Local Food Uses
The leaves and shoots are used as a vegetable (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño
2011; Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975).
Sida rhombifolia L. 1689
Fig. 1 Sida rhombifolia

(Malvaceae), Pusac, Peru.
Fig. 2 Sida rhombifolia

Ecuador: The leaves, in infusion, serve to prepare high quality tea (unspecified
ethnicity – Pichincha). It is used as food for newborns (Kichwa de la Sierra-Bolívar)
Fig. 3 Sida hederifolia

Fig. 4 Sida hederifolia

Ecuador: It is used as animal fodder, especially for rabbits (Mestiza-Manabí;

unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It has
beekeeping use (unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (from de la Torre et al. 2008). The bark
is used to produce textile fibers (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha). The plant is used
as a broom (Mestiza-Guayas; Tsa’chi-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group –
Imbabura, Loja; Siona, Kichwa del Oriente-Sucumbíos) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
The root in the pastures is used to extract minerals from the soil (unspecified ethnic
group – Loja).
References
Sida rhombifolia L. 1691
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Traditional medicinal plant use in Loja province, Southern Ecuador. J
Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2006;2:44.
9789962-2-2.
Instituto de Ciencias Naturales. Universidad Nacional; 1975.
Sigesbeckia orientalis L.
ASTERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Sigesbeckia orientalis L.: Siegesbeckia orientalis L.; Sigesbeckia brachiata Roxb.;

Sigesbeckia caspia Fisch. & C.A. Mey.; Sigesbeckia esquirolii Lév. & Vaniot;
Sigesbeckia gracilis DC.; Sigesbeckia humils Koidz.; Sigesbeckia iberica Willd.;
Sigesbeckia microcephala DC.; Sigesbeckia orientalis subsp. caspia (Fisch. &
C.A. Mey.) Kitam.; Sigesbeckia orientalis var. caspia (Fisch. & C.A. Mey.) Grossh.
Local Names
Colombia, Ecuador: Pacunga, Pausa, Trompetilla
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Annual, stem erect, simple or dichotomously branched, branches opposite, obtusely

angular, 30–75(100) cm high, more or less crisped hairy to densely tomentose,
particularly above. Leaves ovate-triangular, ovate, or oblong-ovate, at base cuneate
or rounded to slightly cordate, coarsely, generally unevenly dentate (to sinuate-
toothed), sometimes resembling reduced leaves of sunflower, pubescent with
appressed hairs (particularly beneath), acute or acuminate, sometimes with sparse
fine glands or hairs. Capitula small (about 5 mm wide). Outer involucral bracts
covered with dense, capitate, stalked hairs, oblong-obovate or linear spatulate,
distinctly exceeding inner bracts, sometimes broader and with few glands or shorter;
inner bracts shorter than outer. Achenes pyramidal, dark gray or dull black, some-
times covered with sparse, light-colored, smooth, irregular tubercles, about 3 mm
long, 1.2 mm wide, at apex with white, annular tuft; outer achenes slightly curved.
Gardens, vegetable gardens, near hedges and buildings, roadsides, sometimes in
fields as a weed (Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 1 Sigesbeckia orientalis

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Sigesbeckia orientalis L. 1695
Fig. 2 Sigesbeckia orientalis

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Trompetilla is used in Colombia to treat severe cramping. The leaves are used as
antiflatulents (García Barriga 1975). Ecuador: The whole fresh plant is used to treat
stomach problems (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007).
References
9789962-2-2.
Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.
ASTERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.: Carduus mariae Crantz; Carduus marianus L.;
Carthamus maculatum (Scop.) Lam.; Cirsium maculatum Scop.; Mariana lactea
Hill.; Mariana mariana (L.) Hill.; Silybum maculatum (Scop.) Moench; Silybum
mariae (Crantz) Gray
Local Names
Spanish: Colombia: Cardo blanco, Cardo de burro, Cardo de maría, Cardo lechero,
Cardo mariano; Ecuador: Kasha marucha (Kichwa), Cardo, Cardo santo, Cardón,
Cardón santo, carco (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008)
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Silybum marianum

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Botany and Ecology
Annual or biennial herb, up to 1.5 m tall, often only 30 cm tall. Stems straight, with
ridges, covered in powdery substance. Leaves 80 cm long, shiny with white spots
and up to 80 cm long. Both forming a basal rosette and alternating stem, these
lanceolate to elliptic, pinnately lobed, lobes prickly. Upper leaves smaller, simpler
and with short petioles and clasping stem. Flowers to 6 cm in diameter, solitary on
each stalk, Bracts with 4–6 spiny tips on their margins. Florets pink violet to white,
many on each flower. Achenes elliptic, 7.3 mm long. Dark reddish brown, pappus
hairs unequal white or yellowish. Old fields, roadsides, fallow cultivated lands. Ural,
Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, on wastelands, along the edges of roads, and on the
abandoned fields (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Milk thistle is used in Colombia to treat liver deficiencies, inappetence, slow digestion,
gallbladder disorders, intoxication from fungal consumption, and skin psoriasis. It has
also been used as an antioxidant (Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Mini-
sterio de Protección Social 2008). Colombia: Stems, root, and fruits are used to treat
Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. 1699

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
liver problems (Bussmann et al. 2018a.). Ecuador: The latex is used to treat herpes
(unspecified ethnic group – Carchi). The juice of the crushed plant is used to treat
headache, vomiting, and body discomfort (unspecified ethnicity – Chimborazo). The
infusion of the plant is used for alcoholics (unspecified ethnicity – Tungurahua). The
infusion of flowers is used to treat heart disease (heart palpitations and pain) (unspecified
ethnic group – Cañar, Azuay). The infusion of the leaves is taken to combat stomach
problems and to reduce fever. The seeds are used to treat liver, spleen, and bladder
conditions. The plant is used to increase milk production in breastfeeding mothers

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. 1701

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Cañar). The root is used to treat damaged blood (irregular

menstruation and swelling) (unspecified ethnicity – Cañar). The leaves are tied to relieve
headache and body bumps (Kichwa de la Sierra-Tungurahua) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
The juice of the crushed plant is used to treat “bad air” (unspecified ethnic group –
Chimborazo). The decoction of the root and seeds is used to purify the blood (Kichwa de
la Sierra-Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
The species is widely used in the Caucasian-Mediterranean cultural complex.
A decoction and infusion of the seeds is used as choleretic in inflammation of liver
and gallbladder, cholelithiasis, and jaundice. The decoction and infusion of seeds is
also used for spleen problems, hemorrhoids, and as anastaltic when patients are
spitting blood. Root and leaves are used to remedy fever and dropsy. Seeds (raw and
fried) are eaten for blood purification (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018b;
Mehdiyeva et al. 2017) (Fig. 7).
Ecuador: The spike is used to comb wool, especially shawl and blankets (Kichwa
de la Sierra-Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
In the Caucasus in early spring, young soft stems are cleaned of the skin and are
eaten raw. Young leaves are eaten with vinegar and oil as salad. The oil of the seeds
is used as food (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2018b; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017).

(Asteraceae), harvested seeds,
Guria, Georgia (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
References
2017. XXVII. 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.
In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International Publish-
ing; 2017.
Smilax kunthii Killip & C.V. Morton
Smilax medica Schltdl. & Cham.
Smilax officinalis Kunth
SMILACACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Smilax kunthii Killip & C.V. Morton: Smilax domingensis Willd.; Smilax flori-
bunda Desv. ex Ham.; Smilax floribunda Kunth
Smilax medica Schltdl. & Cham.: Smilax aristolochiifolia Mill.
Smilax officinalis Kunth: Smilax barbillana Cufod.; Smilax bernhardii F.W. Apt.;
Smilax chiriquensis C.V. Morton; Smilax gilgiana F.W. Apt; Smilax standleyi Killip
& C.V. Morton; Smilax tonduzii F.W. Apt; Smilax vanilliodora F.W. Apt
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Smilax kunthii: Peru: Palo de China

Smilax medica: Peru: Zarzaparilla
Smilax officinalis: Colombia, Peru: Zarzaparilla; English: Green briar
Botany and Ecology
Vines, usually climbing by paired tendrils, or rarely erect herbs, often with thick,
tuber-like rhizomes. Stems rounded or sometimes quadrangular, armed with
spines or unarmed, the surface smooth, scabrous, villose or setose. Base of
branchlets provided with one or two scales on the adaxial side, leaves simple,
alternate, petiole often geniculate, sheath terminating in a pair of tendrils, blade
broadly cordate to lanceolate, glabrous, smooth or ciliate, spiny or at least with
hairs, with 3–8 sup-parallel veins from the base, margins entire. Inflorescence
pedunculate, axillary, and umbel or panicle of umbels. Flowers unisexual, peri-
anth segments 6, distinct, narrow, equal or almost equal, stamens 6, free, anthers
basifixed, 2 celled, longitudinally dehiscing. Ovary superior, syncarpous with
1–3 loculi, each with 1–2 ovules, stigmas 3, sessile. In female flowers 0–6
staminodes. Fruits fleshy globose berries, indehiscent, smooth, orange-yellow
to black, seeds 1–3, arillate, up to 10 mm in diameter (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Smilax kunthii: Peru: The plant is used for cancer treatment in traditional medicine
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011a). It is
rarely found in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007).
Smilax medica: Peru: The species is used for heart problems, kidney inflammation,
and general inflammation (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann
et al. 2010; Bussmann and Glenn 2011b, c). It is often found in local markets
(Bussmann et al. 2007). The species has antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al.
2011).
Smilax officinalis: Colombia: The root of the Sarsaparilla are used in Colombia in
decoction is often used as a stimulant, to whet the appetite, against syphilis, to
purify the blood, and as an antidote against the venom of snakes (Díaz 2003;
García Barriga 1974; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez 2017; Pérez
Arbeláez 1996). The whole plant is used as circulatory stimulant; the root is
used to treat rheumatism, virility, syphilis, menopause, lung diseases, asthma,
bronchial diseases, cough, lack of appetite, diuretic, blood cleansing, apnea, to
promote sweating, as stimulant, and as antidote (Bussmann et al. 2018).
Smilax kunthii Killip & C.V. Morton. . . 1705
Fig. 1 Smilax excelsa

(Smilacaceae), Guria,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Smilax
sp. (Smilacaceae), Guria,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 3 Smilax
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Smilax domingensis

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Smilax aspera is used in Nepal for dropsy and gout (Kunwar et al. 2010), and for
snake bites in India (Reang et al. 2016; Singh et al. 2017). Smilax anceps serves in
Madagascar for pregnancy-related problems, fatigue and boils (Razafindraibe et al.
2013), gastrointestinal problems, colics, varicose veins, liver problems, and eczema
(Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015)
Smilax kunthii Killip & C.V. Morton. . . 1707
Fig. 5 Smilax domingensis

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 6 Smilax
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Local Food Uses
Astonishingly, in the Andes Smilax is not used for food. However, in the Caucasus,
Smilax excelsa is very frequently eaten in salads and as ingredient in herb pies
(Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016).
References
disease, blood pressure irregularities and cholesterol control. Arnaldoa. 2011c;18(2):167–78.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
flora of Northern Peru. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2015a. ISBN 978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010;4(9):580–629.
2014;12:237–313.
Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in far-West Nepal: a
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
Randriamiharisoa MN, Kuhlman A, Jeannoda V, Rabarison H, Rakotoarivelo N, Randrianarivony T,
Raktoarivony F, Randrianasolo A, Bussmann RW. Economic importance of medicinal plants sold in
the markets of Antananarivo, Madagascar. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2015;11:60.
2013;9:73.
Reang I, Goswami S, Pala NA, Kumar K, Bussmann RW. Ethnoveterinary applications of medic-
inal plants by traditional herbal healers in Reang tribe of South district Tripura, India. Med
Aromat Plants. 2016;5:2.
2017;13:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3.
Solanum albidum Dunal
Solanum americanum Mill.
Solanum fragile Wedd.
Solanum herba-bona Reiche
Solanum mammosum L.
Solanum marginatum L. f.
Solanum nigrum L.
Solanum nitidum Ruiz. & Pav.
Solanum nudum Dunal
SOLANACEAE

R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago, Chile
C. Romero

Synonyms
Solanum albidum Dunal: Solanum albidum var., poortmanii André; Solanum

incanum Ruiz & Pav.; Solanum macrophyllum var. carabayense Bitter; Solanum
mandonis subsp. carabayense Bitter; Solanum mandonis Van Heurck & Müll. Arg.;
Solanum mandonis var. dryophyllum Bitter; Solanum mandonis var. tardecalvescens
Bitter; Solanum paniculatum var. chulumani Dunal.
Solanum americanum Mill.: Solanum adbentitium Polgar; Solanum amaranthoides
Dunal; Solanum americanum subsp. nodiflorum (Jacq.) R.J.F. Hend.; Solanum
americanum var. nodiflorum (Jacq.) Edmonds; Solanum caribaeum Dunal; Solanum
curtipes Bitter; Solanum depilatum Bitter; Solanum ganchourenense H. Lév.; Sola-
num gollmeri Bitter; Solanum imerinense Bitter; Solanum inconspicuum Bitter;
Solanum indecorum Rich.; Solanum inops Dunal; Solanum macrotunum Bitter;
Solanum merrillianum T.N. Liou; Solanum minutibaccatum Bitter; Solanum
minutibaccatum var. curtipedunculatum Bitter; Solanum nigrum var. americanum
(Mill.) O.E. Schulz; Solanum nigrum var. minor Hook. f.; Solanum nigrum var.
nodiflorum (Jacq.) A. Gray; Solanum nigrum var. pauciflorum T.N. Liou; Solanum
nigrum var. virginicum L.; Solanum nodiflorum Jacq.; Solanum nodiflorum var.
acuminatum Dunal.; Solanum nodiflorum var. macrophyllum Dunal; Solanum
nodiflorum var. petiolastrum Dunal; Solanum nodiflorum var. puberulum Dunal;
Solanum nodiflorum var. sapucayense Chodat; Solanum oleraceum Dunal; Solanum
parviflorum Badaró; Solanum photeinocarpum Nakam. & Odash.; Solanum
pterocaulon Dunal; Solanum ptychanthum Dunal; Solanum purpuratum Bitter;
Solanum quadrangulare Thunb. ex L. f.; Solanum sciaphilum Bitter; Solanum
subspathulatum Sendtn.; Solanum tenellum Bitter; Solanum triangulare Lam.
Solanum fragile Wedd.: Solanum atripicifolium var. minus Walp.; Solanum
coerulescens Bitter; Solanum grandidentatum Phil., Solanum tarapacanum Bitter;
Solanum tarapacanum Phil.
Solanum mammosum L.: Solanum globiferum Dunal.; Solanum mammosissimum
Ram. Goyena; Solanum platanifolium Hook.
Solanum nigrum L.: Solanum humile Lam.; Solanum nigrum var. atriplicifolium
G. Mey.
Solanum nitidum Ruiz. & Pav.: Solanum angustifolium Ruiz & Pav.; Solanum
calygnaphalum Ruiz & Pav.; Solanum cotopaxense Dunal; Solanum gnaphalioides
Pers.; Solanum gonocladum Dunal; Solanum havanense Jacq.; Solanum
heteranthera Willd.; Solanum nitidum var. angustifolium Dunal; Solanum nitidum
var. hutchinsonii J.F. Macbr.; Solanum pulverulentum Pers.; Solanum rhamnoides
Dunal; Solanum stenophyllum Dunal; Solanum theresiae Zahlbr.; Solanum thereziae
Zahlbr.; Witheringia angustifolia Dunal.
Solanum nudum Dunal: Solanum aphyodendron S. Knapp; Solanum anonaefolium
Dunal; Solanum antillarum O.E. Schultz; Solanum micranthum Willd. ex Roem. &
Schult.; Solanum nudum var. micranthum (Willd. ex Rowm. & Schult.) Hassl.;
Solanum parcebarbatum Bitter; Solanum parcebarbatum var. minorfrons Bitter;
Solanum supranitidum Bitter; Solanum tovarense Bitter.
Solanum albidum Dunal. . . 1711
Local Names
Solanum albidum: Peru: San Pablo

Solanum americanum: Colombia: Batata de murciélago, Chumbalo, Jawasiridaütjü,
Yerba mora, Yerbamora; Peru: Hierba mora (de Jalca); Hierba del susto; Baja de
espanto, Semora; English: Black nightshade, Glossy nightshade
Solanum fragile: Chile: Ñuñumaya, Papa de los abuelos
Solanum herba-bona: Chile: Hierba bona
Solanum mammosum: Colombia: Kukuna, Lulo de perro, Rejalgar, Tetilla; Peru:
Macumamuna, Toro si muere, Toro mishia negro, Toro mishia amarillo, Toro simuro
Solanum marginatum: Bolivia: Cardo santo; Colombia: Lulo de perro, Toronja
Solanum nigrum: Colombia: Chumbalo, Hierba mora, Quielete, Macuy, Mora,
Yerba mora, Yerbamora, Zebame; Ecuador: Hierna mora, Mortiño; Peru: Hierba
mora (de Temple); English: Black nightshade, Glossy nightshade
Solanum nitidum: Bolivia: Ñuñu maya; Solanum nudum: Colombia: Hedionda,
Inmertizo, Matatonto, Pepito, Sanco, Sauco, Sauco amargo, Saúco de montaña,
Zapata, Zapatico
Botany and Ecology
Solanum albidum: A shrub or tree sometimes up to 8 m tall, the stems and branches
typically soon glabrous as the leaves above, but the former often sparsely spinose,
the prickles broad-based especially in age; petioles terete, 2–15 cm long, often
purple, rarely pubescent or aculeate; leaves solitary and geminate, broadly ovate-
oblong, very unequal at the rounded base, entire, or broadly lobed, somewhat
acuminate, the larger to 50 cm long, nearly half as wide, those on the flowering
branchlets much smaller, all reticulate veiny above, strikingly and closely tomentose
beneath unless the 5–6 primary nerves, these usually not prickly; inflorescence
compound, often 5–10 cm wide, the peduncles to 2 cm long, finally glabrate as the
primary branches, pedicels 6–8 mm long, tomentose as the calyces and corollas, the
former cyathiform, about 5 mm. across, 5-crenate or soon shortly 5-lobed, the lobes
rounded; corolla nearly 1 cm long, white, glabrous within, the lanceolate-acuminate
segments to 6 mm long; stamens equal, 6 mm long; anthers fulvous below, oblong-
linear with 2 apical pores; ovary nearly glabrous, style basally articulate, flexuose,
pulverulent, the stigma with 2 filiform cusps; fruit globose, 6–8 mm diameter, black
Solanum americanum/Solanum nigrum: Annuals, stem 15–70 cm tall, erect,
divaricately branched, glabrous or antrorsely puberulent in upper part, sometimes
sparsely puberulent below and on nodes, cylindrical below, compressed cylindrical
above, as also branches; branches glabrous or, especially new shoots, sparsely
pubescent with indistinct thin smooth (not serrated) ribs. Leaves succulent, some-
what thick (dry ones thin, often chartaceous), glabrous or with sparse antrorse
appressed setiform hairs along main ribs, up to 11(13) cm long and 6(8.5) cm
Fig. 1 Solanum chilense

(Solanaceae), Calama, Chile.
Señoret)
broad (mostly 6–7 cm long), lanceolate-ovate or narrowly elliptical-ovate mixed

with ovate leaves, gradually tapering from middle to acute tip, or sometimes short-
mucronate, base cuneate, or rounded-cuneate, widely decurrent on petiole, partly
entire, and partly, usually only in lower half, sinuate-angular or sinuate-dentate, teeth
broad, generally 3, rarely 4–5. Inflorescences 3–8 flowered, usually extra-axillary,
rarely leaf-opposed, umbellate or slightly racemose-corymbose cymes with some-
what regularly spaced (especially in fruit) pedicels; peduncles glabrous or covered
with sparse antrorse appressed hairs. Pedicels often densely pubescent, drooping.
Calyx glabrous or sparsely appressed hairy with ovate, obtuse, or subacute teeth.
Corolla 6–7 cm long, white, 2–3 times as long as calyx, with ovate-lanceolate lobes,
puberulent outside. Berry globose, 8–9(10) mm in diameter, black, occasionally
green. A weed and ruderal growing in gardens, kitchen gardens, near habitations,
roads, hedges, garbage dumps. Sometimes in bushy thickets along riverbanks
Solanum herba-bona: Annual or perennial plant up to 40 cm high. Green stems,
thin, young densely pubescent. Simple sheets, sheet 2–5 1.5–4 cm, 1–1.6 the
width in the long, ovate, densely velutine in the beam and along the middle nerve,
moderately velutine, truncated base, regularly logged margin with 3–4 pairs of
serrated lobes, acute apex, petiole 1–2.5 cm, or absent in smaller leaves, occasionally
narrowly winged. Inflorescence up to 5 cm long 2–4 flowers, densely pubescent
axes. Pedicel 8–15 mm in the anterior, 2–2.5 mm in the fruit. Chalice 5.5–10.5 mm
long. Corolla 1.2 cm in diameter, pentagonal, blue, tube 2 mm long, equal stamens,
10 mm long, attached at the base, style 10 mm long, stigma capited or nailed. Fruit
6–12 mm diameter. Distinguished by its velvet leaves, truncated base petioles,
non-winged petioles, with margin, its anthers of equal length, its blue pentagonal
corolla.
Solanum mammosum: Subherbaceous, 1–1.2 m tall, densely villous all over and
armed on the stems and leaf-nerves with rather stout yellow prickles, many 1.5–2 cm
long; leaves roundish, 3–4(7), sometimes 20 cm long or longer, nearly as wide;
flowers subsessile, 1-few, pink-purple; calyx lobes long-villous with articulated
Fig. 2 Solanum nigrum

(Solanaceae), Bakuriani,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 3 Solanum nigrum

(Solanaceae), Bakuriani,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
trichomes, not aculeate, linear, 4 mm. long; corolla to 3 cm broad, the oblong-linear
acuminate long-villous segments glabrous within, ciliate, 1–2.5 cm long, 4 mm
wide; stamens less than half as long as corolla, filaments 1.5 mm long, anthers
rounded at base, conic-attenuate; ovary glandular punctate, glabrous, tapering into
the thick style, the stigma bilobed; fruits large, yellow with white pulp, 3–6 mm long,
and purple-red punctate seeds (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 4).
Solanum marginatum: Shrub, with rigid and straight spines up to 1.5 cm long, up to
1.8 m high. Stem striated, covered by abundant branched hairs. Leaves alternate,
Fig. 4 Solanum mamosum

(Solanaceae), Pusac, Peru.
more or less oval, up to 25 cm long, on thick petioles up to 5 cm long, with the

rounded apex, white margin, wavy and somewhat lobed, green and almost hairless
on the upper face and with abundant long, soft and white hairs on the underside.
Flowers in small groups located on lateral branches. The axes of the inflorescences
with branched hairs. The bell-shaped calyx and finished in 5 triangular lobes,
covered with abundant branched hairs and in one of the flowers of each inflorescence
there are also some short spines; the white or whitish corolla, broadly flared, divided
into 5 broad lobes, rounded and terminated in a small tip, with hairs on the outer face;
Stamens 5, with large anthers surrounding the style. The hanging fruit, fleshy,
globose, up to 5 cm in diameter, yellowish when ripe, without hairs; the lobes of
the chalice curved backwards. Numerous seeds, somewhat flattened.
Solanum nitidum: Height: 20–80 cm (8–32 in.). Stem ascending erect, sparsely
piggy, glabrous or with soft hairs, occasionally very hairy. Flowers regular (actino-
morphic). Corolla white, fused, wheel-shaped, with 5 lobes, 6–14 mm (2.2–5.8 in.)
Wide. Chalice fused, flared, with 5 deep lobes. Five stamens, anthers in a conical
group. Gynoecium composed of 2 joined carpels. Inflorescence in the form of a lax
top, usually with 3–8 flowers. Leaves alternate, petiolate oval, elliptical or diamond-
shaped, thin, edges with large or sometimes whole teeth. Fruit spherical berry or
slightly wider than long, black or sometimes green when ripe, 5–10 mm long. In
gardens, courtyards, cultivated land, lots of land, vacant lots, coasts. Flowering
July–October (Figs. 5 and 6).
Solanum nudum: Shrubs or trees up to 5 m tall, unarmed; small puberulent
emerging parts with reduced simple trichomes, dark stems when dry, glabrous.
Leaves mostly in pairs, similar major and minor, widely obovate, 5–15 cm long,
apex and base acute or illuminated, whole, glabrous beam, underside glabrous but
with trichome domatia in the armpits of the nerves; petioles of 0.5–1.2 cm long,
almost glabrous. Inflorescences in subumbelated clusters with 10–17 flowers, oppo-
site to the leaves, glabrous or with tiny trichomes, peduncle up to 1 cm. long,
unbranched, pedicels less than 10 mm long 2–3 mm calyx, lobed up to 1/3( 1/2)
of its length, deltoid lobes; corolla from 7 to 10( 12) mm in diameter, white,
yellowish when dry, lobed up to about 1/2 (half) of its length, deltoid lobes, glabrous;
Fig. 5 Solanum nitidum

(Solanaceae), Chilchos, Peru.
Fig. 6 Solanum nitidum

(Solanaceae), Chilchos, Peru.
Fig. 7 Solanum pulchellum

(Solanaceae), Socaire, Chile.
Señoret)
Fig. 8 Solanum quitoense

(Solanaceae), Cuenca,
Ecuador. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 9 Solanum quitoense

(Solanaceae), Cuenca,
Ecuador. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
anthers almost 2 mm long. Fruit type globose berry, almost 1 cm in diameter,

glabrous, green, fruitful pedicels becoming somewhat longer and woody but still
thin, from erect to patent; flattened seeds, almost 1.5–3 mm diameter (Figs. 7, 8, 9
and 10).
Solanum is a very widely used genus in all aspects of plant use, including
medicine, food, and for cultural purposes (Bussmann 2016).
Fig. 10 Solanum sitens

(Solanaceae), Chuquicamata,
Señoret)
Solanum albidum: Peru: The species is used for arthritis, distortions, and fractures
Solanum americanum: Colombia: The fruits of the Yerbamora are narcotic and
poisonous. The leaves in decoction are used in Colombia for the treatment of
stomach cancer and duodenal ulcer, also cure itching and hemorrhoids. The leaves
and fruits are narcotic and disinfectant, so they are used decoction and externally to
cure skin conditions, such as rashes, pimples, pustules, etc. Crushed leaves and fruits
are applied as a plaster on the affected part of the skin to cure eczema and other
infections of the same. Poultices of leaves and fresh fruits are also used to cure
gangrene and anthrax (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra-Gómez
et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Patiño 1963; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Peru: The
plant is used for congestion, flu, and fevers (Monigatti et al. 2013), and is also used
for sinusitis, flu, cold, involuntary urination, fever, cold sores, mouth blisters, and
herpes (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010a,
b, c; Bussmann et al. 2011a, b). The species is widely sold in local markets
(Bussmann et al. 2007, 2009). The species has antibacterial activity (Bussmann
et al. 2008, 2010c, d). Due to toxicity, it is often used in herbal mixtures (Bussmann
et al. 2010e).
Solanum fragile: Chile: The crushed leaves are applied for the treatment of wounds
Solanum herba-bona: Chile: Taken as an infusion, the fruit is used to fight Malaria
tertiana with high fever (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Solanum mammosum: Colombia: The roots are used as diuretics and purgatives
(García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The plant is widely sold in local
markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). The species has antibacterial activity (Bussmann
et al. 2011a, b).
Solanum marginatum: Bolivia: The species is used to treat cough and flu

(Bussmann et al. 2016a). Colombia: Mature fruits are used externally by rubbing
against varicose veins to alleviate them. The fruits are used as disinfectants and anti-
inflammatories, preparing them in decoction and washing the wounds with said
liquid or applying it in the form of warm cloths (García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez
1996).
Solanum nigrum: The leaves, stems, and roots are used in Colombia as poultices or
in baths to treat pains or skin conditions (vitiligo, wounds, burns, eczema, boils,
among others). The fruits are used externally only to counteract pain, inflammation,
and fevers. The fruits of the Yerbamora are narcotic and poisonous. The leaves in
decoction are used in Colombia for the treatment of stomach cancer and duodenal
ulcer and also to cure itching and hemorrhoids. The leaves and fruits are narcotic and
disinfectant, so they are used decoction and externally to cure skin conditions, such
as rashes, pimples, pustules, etc. Crushed leaves and fruits are applied as a plaster on
the affected part of the skin to cure eczema and other infections of the same.
Poultices of leaves and fresh fruits are also used to cure gangrene and anthrax
(García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez
1996). Ecuador: The plant is used for hangover, kidney problems, nosebleeds, and
vomiting (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: The plant is
used to treat fever, headaches, and nerve problems (Monigatti et al. 2013). It is
widely sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2009).
The plant is used in Nepal to treat heart disease (Kunwar et al. 2012) and in Kenya
for typhoid (Njoroge et al. 2004), and fever and wounds (Bussmann and Sharon
2006b). In Ethiopia, the species is used for stomach problems (Bussmann et al. 2011c).
In India, it is used as antidote for opium poisoning, boils, cough, diarrhea, dysentery,
ear complaints, eye complaints, fever, goiter, heart ailment, jaundice, liver complaints,
inflammation of (scrotum, kidney and bladder), sores, nostril complaints, piles, rheu-
matism, skin diseases, sprain, stomachache, swelling, throat trouble, ulcer in mouth,
and urine complaints (Verma et al. 2007). It is also used for diarrhea, vomiting, asthma,
bronchitis, fever, urinary discharge, cuts, wounds, jaundice, abdominal swellings,
stomach pain, fever, gonorrhea, piles, boils, and eye infections (Raj et al. 2018). In
Pakistan, the species is used for treatment of gastralgia, stomach acidity, and infertility
(Sher et al. 2016), and is also used for breast cancer, diarrhea, febricity, ulcer, chicken
pox, hyperglycemia, piles, cardiac pain, sore eyes, cuts, and wounds (Umair et al.
2019), as well as for leprosy (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018). In the Caucasus, the species is
used for toothache (Bussmann et al. 2016b) and rheumatism as well as for wound
treatment (Bussmann et al. 2018).
Solanum nitidum: Bolivia: The plant is used for stomachache, back and body pain,
fractures, strong blows, swellings, cancer, menstrual pain, fever, anti-inflammatory, for
menstrual pain, bruises, wound swellings, and skin infections (Bussmann et al. 2016a).
Solanum nudum: In Colombia, the species is used in the treatment of malaria,
headaches, chills, snake bites, and kidney and liver diseases. It is also used in the
treatment of malaria (Bernal et al. 2011; Ministerio de Protección Social. 2008).
Solanum is a very important and globally used medicinal plant genus. In India, for
example, Solanum indicum is used to treat cough, respiratory infections, colic, nasal
ulcers, and the fruits are used as laxative (Bhat et al. 2013; Joshi et al. 2010), and for
pneumonia, diabetes, and in veterinary medicine for ringworm in cattle (Raj et al.
2018). Solanum khasianum is used for dental pain (Raj et al. 2018). Solanum
xanthocarpum serves for stomach problems, as blood purifier, and for eye problems.
Solanum suffratense is used in Nepal as carminative and expectorant, and to treat
toothache (Kunwar et al. 2010). Solanum incanum is used in Ethiopia for nose-
bleeds and wounds (Luizza et al. 2013) and in Kenya for stomachache (Njoroge
et al. 2004), fever, and wounds (Bussmann 2006). Solanum aculeastrum is used in
Kenya as antimalarial (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a) and against tonsillitis
(Njoroge and Bussmann 2006b), as well as for ringworm and wounds (Njoroge
and Bussmann 2007), and sexually transmitted diseases (Njoroge and Bussmann
2009). It is also used for back pain, diarrhea, toothache, and wounds (Njoroge et al.
2004). Solanum anguivi is used in Kenya for otitis media (Njoroge and Bussmann
2006b). Solanum aculeatissimum, Solanum bendnerianum, Solanum renschii,
Solanum schumanniannum, and Solanum terminale are used for fever and wounds
(Bussmann et al. 2006). Solanum mauritianum is used in Kenya for skin rashes
(Njoroge et al. 2004); in Madagascar, it is used for hepatitis, wounds and ulcers,
(Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015), stomach pain (Rabearivony et al. 2015), and diarrhea
(Rakotoarivelo et al. 2015). Solanum erythracanthum is used in Madagascar to
treat cough (Razafindraibe et al. 2013).
Local Food Uses
Solanum nigrum berries are eaten in Ethiopia by children (Bussmann et al. 2011c).
The leaves are widely eaten like spinach in Madagascar.
Solanum fragile: Chile: The plant is used as forage (Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Solanum nigrum: Bolivia: The species is used to treat cultural illnesses like larpha
and curses (Bussmann et al. 2016a). Ecuador: It is used to cure shame and sorcery
(Bejár et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
Solanum mammosum: The fruit is toxic. The fruits are used in Colombia as
insecticides (García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Peru: It is used to treat
susto/fright, for good luck, to gain weight, against bad air/mal aire, and protection
from evil (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010f).
Solanum marginatum: Bolivia: The species is used to treat cultural illnesses like
larpha (Bussmann et al. 2016a). The fruits are poisonous and are used in Colom-
bia as detergents to wash floors and clothes (García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez
1996).
References
Bejár E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal Herbs of Southern Ecuador – Hierbas
Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano, 340p. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2001.
boldt; 2011. 232 pp.
Rev Peru Biol. 2010c;17(2):331–46.
9789962-2-2).
de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. (ISBN
978-0-9789962-3-9).
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Medicinal plants of the Andes and the Amazon – The magic and
978-0-9960231-2-2).
9960231-3-9).
Bussmann RW, Gilbreath GG, Lutura M, Lutuluo R, Kunguru K, Wood N, Mathenge S. Plant
use of the Maasai of Sekenani Valley, Maasai Mara, Kenya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed.
2006;2:22.
2010b;9(4):742–53.
Guardado G, Aguirre C, Meyer K, Rothrock A, Townesmith A, Effio-Carbajal J, Frías-Fernandez F,
Benito M. Minimum inhibitory concentration of medicinal plants used in Northern Peru as
antibacterial remedies. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010c;132:101–8.
Pharmacol. 2010e;4(9):580–629.
Ehnobiol Ethnomed. 2016b;12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Kunwar RM, Shrestha KP, Bussmann RW. Traditional herbal medicine in Far-West Nepal: a
species in Far-West Nepal – a valuable resource being wasted. J Mt Sci. 2012;9:589–600.
Knowl. 2009;8(2):262–9.
018-0208-9.
2015;11:60.
2013;9:73.
10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4.
Solanum melongena L.
Solanum tuberosum L.
SOLANACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Solanum melongena L.: Solanum esculentum Dunal; Solanum insanum L.; Sola-
num melongena var. depressum L.; Solanum melongena var. esculentum (Dunal)
Nees; Solanum melongena var. serpentinum L.
Solanum tuberosum L.: Solanum andigenum Juz. & Bukasov; Solanum andigenum
subsp. aya-papa Bukasov & Lechn.; Solanum andigenum subsp. bolivianum
Lechn.; Solanum andigenum subsp. ecuatorianum Lechn.; Solanum andigenum
var. stenophyllum Bukasov; Solanum kesselbrenneri Juz. & Bukasov; Solanum
subandigena Hawkes; Solanum tuberosum subsp. andigena (Juz. & Bukasov)
Hawkes; Solanum tuberosum L. subsp. tuberosum.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Solanum melongena: Spanish: Berenjena; English: Eggplant

Solanum tuberosum: Colombia: Chaucha, Papa, Papa de año, Papa paramuna,
Papa sabanera, Turma; Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador: Papa; English: Potato
Botany and Ecology
Solanum melongena: Perennial, cultivated as annual. Stem 30–70 cm tall, fleshy,

green or slightly violet to dark mauve, rather densely stellate-pubescent,
branched. Lower leaves 7–15 cm long, 3–10 cm broad, alternate; upper leaves
smaller, often opposite, ovate, with truncate or cuneate extremely oblique base,
from slightly angular or sinuate to shallowly incised or almost lobed, with a few
broad, usually obtuse lobes, upper surface green, sparsely stellate-pubescent,
grayish pubescent to tomentose underneath with 3 pairs of prominent veins,
usually colored with anthocyanin; petioles almost equaling lamina in lower
leaves, 1/4–1/3 as long as lamina in upper leaves. Flowers often solitary, but
sometimes in 2–3(5)-flowered racemose cymes with pedicel of lower bisexual
flower mostly appearing deflexed 40 independently from stem (due to accretion
of lower part of peduncle with stem) in direct proximity of peduncle bearing 2–3
sterile staminate flowers at apex; peduncle, pedicels, and calyx grayish due to
Fig. 1 Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae), alpine fields, Samtskhe, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann
Solanum melongena L. . . . 1725
Fig. 2 Solanum tuberosum

R.W. Bussmann and
stellate pubescence; in bisexual flowers pedicel becoming woody, drooping after

flowering. Calyx prickly outside, cleft into 5–8(9) unequal, narrow, acuminate
lobes. Corolla light to dark violet, with yellow stellately arranged stripes inside,
plicate, with very short tube and broad limb 3–4 cm across cleft into 5–8
(9) broad, triangular lobes, covered with short, soft indumentum. Stamens alter-
nating with corolla lobes, half as long as corolla. Style tomentose near base, in
bisexual flower longer than stamens, bent; in staminate flowers shorter than
stamens, erect; stigma 4–5-lobed. Berry large, 5–20 cm and more in length,
5–10 cm in diameter, ovoid-oblong to narrowly cylindrical, obtuse, indented at
base, mostly purple when mature for harvesting (at complete seed-maturity stage
becoming lighter, even yellowish), rarely red or whitish, with thick whitish pulp.
Seeds 2–4 mm long, yellowish white, flat.
Solanum tuberosum: Cultivated as an annual. Plants with fibrous roots and
trailing shoots, forming tubers. Stem 0.5–1 m tall, branched, cylindrical
below, upper part along with branches slightly angular, shortly appressed
hairy, green or generally colored with anthocyanin. Leaves interruptedly
pinnatisect, with 7–11 large lobes, alternating with small ones; lobes mostly
ovate, acuminate, with oblique, usually cordate base tapering into petiole, upper
surface subglabrous, lower pubescent. Flowers in terminal inflorescence. Pedi-
cels articulate near middle. Calyx with five lanceolate-acuminate lobes. Corolla

(Solanaceae), garden, Svaneti,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae), fields, Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and

(Solanaceae), potato varieties,
garden, Chicani, Bolivia,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

white, reddish, violet, or bluish with short tube and broad, plicate, 5-angular or
shallowly 5-lobed limb, 2–3(4) cm in diameter. Anthers yellow. Style curved at
base, with capitate stigma. Berry globose, green, 1.5–2 cm in diameter (Figs. 1,
2, 3 and 4).


Solanum melongena: The leaves and the fruit of the eggplant are used in Colombia
to reduce weight and control the level of cholesterol in the blood (Díaz 2003; García
Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In India, it is used topically to treat infections
(Raj et al. 2018).
Solanum tuberosum: The dried buds of the potato bush are prepared in Colombia,
as decoction, are used against spasms and applied in sitz baths to cure hemorrhoids.
The peel of the potato prepared in decoction helps lower blood pressure, heals the
duodenal ulcer, and helps to lose weight. Preparing a dough using scraped raw
potatoes, it is applied to the skin and covered with gauze so that the boils mature and
burst. The poultices prepared with raw peeled and grated potatoes are used to cure
varicose veins and burns. The mass of peeled potatoes dissolved in milk whitens the


(Solanaceae), potato planting,

(Solanaceae), potato planting,
Fig. 12 Solanum melongena

(Solanaceae), pickled, market,
R.W. Bussmann and

(Solanaceae), young plants,
R.W. Bussmann and

(Solanaceae), market, Adjara,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
hands with freckles and spots (García Barriga 1975; Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez
1996). Peru: Potatoes are used to treat gastritis, ulcers, stomach infection, and
kidney problems (Monigatti et al. 2013). It is also used as remedy for after childbirth
complications, bronchitis, and respiratory problems (Bussmann and Sharon 2006,
2007, 2015a, b Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b) (Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11).
Local Food Uses
Solanum melongena: Eggplants are widely planted and eaten (Figs.12, 13, 14 and 15).
Solanum tuberosum: The tubers are widely used as food, and in the Andes, they are
often naturally freeze dried for long-term preservation. Interestingly, young potato
leaves are used as cooked food in Albania and the Caucasus (Bussmann et al. 2014,
2016a, b, c; Quiroga et al. 2012).

(Solanaceae), filled eggplants,
R.W. Bussmann and
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010b;17(2):331–46.
de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. (ISBN
978-0-9789962-3-9).
978-0-9960231-2-2).
9960231-3-9).

2014;12:237–313.
016-0110-2.
Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE, Pieroni A. Your poison in my pie – the use of potato
(Solanum tuberosum L.) leaves in Sakartvelo, Georgia (Caucasus) and Gollobordo, Eastern
Albania. Econ Bot. 2016c;70(4):431–7.
(2):450–64.
018-0208-9.
Sonchus asper (L.) Hill
Sonchus oleraceaus L.
ASTERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Sonchus asper (L.) Hill: Picrosia australis Decne; Picrosia longifolia D. Don.;
Sonchus asper (L.) Vill.; Sonchus carolinianus Walter; Sonchus gigas subsp. medius
Boulos; Sonchus oleraceus var. asper L.; Sonchus spinosus Lam.; Tragopogon
fritillarioides Less.
Sonchus oleraceaus L.: Sonchus ciliatus Lam.; Sonchus gracilis Phil.; Sonchus
mairei H. Lév.; Sonchus maritimus Sessé & Moc.; Sonchus plumieri Sessé & Mac.;
Sonchus rivularis Phil.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Sonchus asper: Spanish: Colombia: Cerraja; English: Prickly sow thistle, rough
sow thistle, spiny sowthistle
Sonchus oleraceus: Bolivia: K’ana paku (Aymara); Ecuador: Kana yuyu
(Kichwa), kasha cerraja (Spanish-Kichwa), Cerraja, Diente de león, Hierba de cuy,
Plumillo (Spanish), Quinquin hembra (Spanish-unspecified), Quinquin, Sulit
(unspecified) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Serraja, Zerraja; Cerraja; English:
Smooth sow thistle, annual sow thistle, common sowthistle, milk thistle
Botany and Ecology
Sonchus asper: Annual, root slender, narrowly conical or fusiform, usually

branched. Stem (10)30–75(100) cm high, finely sulcate, fistular, simple or
branched, glabrous or covered with dark, stalked, glandular hairs above. Leaves
somewhat stiff or almost coriaceous, less often thin and soft, dark green or
sometimes light bluish, oblong or obovate, 6–15 cm long and 1.5–8 cm wide,
undivided, sinuate-pinnatifid, or, less often, pinnatisect, with unevenly
spinescent teeth; lower leaves on winged petiole, middle and upper leaves sessile,
with roundish auricles appressed to stem. Capitula less numerous (usually 5–10),
in corymbose or umbellate-corymbose inflorescence; peduncles glabrous or
glandular hairy, often much longer than usually undeveloped capitula; fully
developed capitula with 100–150 florets. Involucre campanulate or bowl-shaped,
10–12(15) mm long, (6)10–15(25) mm wide, bracts dark green, narrowly ovate,
lanceolate or oblong, usually three-rowed. Corolla yellow. Achenes oblong-
obovoid, flat, light- or dark-brown, 2.5–3(3.5) mm long and 0.75–1 mm wide,
not rugose transversely (or weakly rugose), usually winged, weakly toothed
along margin, mostly with three prominent longitudinal ribs on each side; pappus
of numerous thin and soft, white, almost smooth, weakly toothed (under high
magnification), fragile hairs, two times or slightly more as long as achenes. In
fields, kitchen gardens, orchards and vineyards, roadsides, weedy places, thickets
of steppe shrubs, river valleys (in semidesert), and banks of canals (Figs. 1 and 2).
Sonchus oleraceus: Annual (sometimes biennial). Root narrowly conical or
fusiform. Stem 30–100 cm high, finely sulcate, fistular, simple or branched,
glabrous or glandular-hairy above. Leaves not stiff, dull, 10–18(22) cm long
and 5–7(12) cm wide, pinnatipartite or lyrate with large terminal, triangular lobe,
finely sinuate-toothed, with somewhat spinescent teeth; lower leaves on winged
petiole with wide amplexicaul base; upper leaves sessile, with sagittate auricles at
base. Capitula mostly few (usually 5–15), in corymbose or umbellate-corymbose
inflorescence; peduncles and bases of capitula arachnoid- or flocculose-lanate
when young, sometimes glandular hairy; some capitula often undeveloped,
normally with 100–125(150) florets. Involucre campanulate or bowl-shaped,
10–12 mm long and (6)10–15(25) mm wide; bracts dark green, usually three-
rowed, sometimes dorsally with few glandular hairs. Corolla yellow, less often
Sonchus asper (L.) Hill. . . 1737
Fig. 1 Sonchus asper

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Sonchus asper

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
whitish. Achenes oblong-obovoid, somewhat narrowed toward base, more or less

strongly compressed, light brown, brown, or dark brown, 2.5–3, mm long, 1 mm
wide, weakly toothed along margin, with three or less often more prominent
longitudinal ribs on each side, finely rugose transversely; pappus of numerous
thin, soft, white, almost smooth bristles, two times as long as achene. As a weed
Fig. 3 Sonchus oleraceus

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
in fields, kitchen gardens, gardens, on irrigated lands, banks of streams, less often
on coastal sands (Figs. 3, 4 and 5).
Sonchus asper: The infusion or decoction of the whole plant is used in Colombia to
prevent the goiter or preserve and as a purgative (Bussmann et al. 2018; Fonnegra-
Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975).
In India, the plant is used to treat cholera, cuts, wounds, diarrhea, and jaundice
(Verma et al. 2007).
Sonchus oleraceus: Bolivia: Fresh stems and leaves are used to treat gallbladder,
liver, high blood pressure, stomachache, stomach acidity, and alcoholism
(Bussmann et al. 2016a, Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015, Macía et al. 2005).
Ecuador: The latex of the leaves is used to soothe toothache. The juice of the
crushed leaves is used to treat the colerín; in infusion, it is used to treat colds,
colic, diarrhea, and infections in children. The infusion of the whole plant,
combined with taraxaco, escancel, calaguala, artichoke, plantain, cerote, corn

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
hair, and a lemon, is drunk to treat liver and kidney problems. The whole plant, in
infusion, is used to treat nerves and vomiting; infused and combined with
oregano, melissa, and sour orange, it is used to treat the liver and liver conditions.
The infusion is tonic and is used to treat flu and fever (unspecified ethnicity –
Imbabura). The stem, leaves, and flowers are used to treat head attacks, liver
irritation and back, abdomen, heart and chest pain. The plant is used to treat heart
poisoning (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura). The boiled inflorescence, together
with the vanilla fruit, the cabbage roots, “orosul,” and the guineo flower, is used
to treat asthma (Mestiza-Manabí). The infusion of the plant treats diseases of the
liver and kidneys. The leaves are used to treat grains and bee stings (unspecified
ethnicity – Chimborazo). Root and leaf infusion is used to treat biliary conditions
(unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Cotopaxi). With the infusion of the root
and leaves, the colerín is cured (Kichwa de la Sierra – Imbabura, Cotopaxi;
unspecified ethnic group – Tungurahua, Azuay). The infusion of the root, with
lemon and salt, is taken to treat stomach pain (unspecified ethnicity – Cañar). The
infusion is drunk or used in baths to treat infected wounds. The crushed plant is
used to treat gangrene and stomach pain (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The infusion
is used to prevent “relapses” and to treat cough and menstrual cramps
(unspecified ethnicity – Napo). The plant is appreciated as a refrigerant
(unspecified ethnic group – Azuay, Cañar). The plant is used for colds and
styes (Kichwa de la Sierra-Pichincha). It serves to treat the flu (unspecified
ethnicity – Loja). It is used, in plaster, to treat inflammation (unspecified ethnic
group – Bolívar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Milk thistle is used to treat
cholera, high blood pressure, embarrassment, shame, hangover, and anger
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006; 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a). The
plant is widely sold in medicinal plant markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b,
2008a, 2009). The species shows antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008b,
2011a, b) and is often included in herbal mixtures (Bussmann et al. 2010b).
In Kenya, the species is used for chest pain and tonsillitis (Njoroge and Bussmann
2006b) and in the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases (Njoroge and Bussmann
2009), as well as typhoid (Njoroge et al. 2004).
Local Food Uses
Sonchus asper and Sonchus oleraceus leaves are eaten as a cooked vegetable or
occasionally raw in salads (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra-
Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975) and are also eaten in the Caucasus
Colombia: Sometimes the species is fed to guinea pigs and rabbits. (Fonnegra-Gómez
and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975). Ecuador:
It is used as fodder for guinea pigs, rabbits, and cattle (Kichwa de la Sierra-Pichincha;
unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Cotopaxi, Cañar). Social: It is used to purify the
blood (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007. (ISBN
978-0-9789962-3-9).
978-0-9960231-2-2).
9960231-3-9).
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.

Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
2006a;108:332–9.
Knowl. 2009;8(2):262–9.
Spartium junceum L.
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Local Names
Bolivia: Retama (Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005, Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015,
Bussmann et al. 2016); Colombia: Retama, Retama de olor (Spanish); Ecuador:
Retama, Flor de retama, Retama, Retama macho (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008);
Peru: Retama (Spanish)
Botany and Ecology
Shrub to 2 m high; branches erect, stout, green, sulcate, very sparsely leafy, leaves
simple, short-petioled or sessile, lanceolate or oblong-oboval, stiff, with prominent
midrib, 2–4 cm long, and 0.2–0.4 cm broad; flowers short-pediceled in a long loose
terminal raceme; calyx membranous, inflated, split above almost to base, with 5 short
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Spartium junceum

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
acute teeth on lower side, 8–9 mm long; corolla yellow; standard suborbicular, 30 mm
long including claw, 25 mm broad, slightly attenuate toward apex; wings oblong, 2 cm
long, with a short claw and a rather sharp auricle; keel sharp-tipped, curved, darker than
other petals, 25 mm long; petal claws adnate to staminal tube; style exceeding stamens;
pod linear, flat, many-seeded in the Mediterranean, widely planted as ornamental
(Macbride and Weberbauer 1936-1995) (Figs. 1, 2 and 3).
Bolivia: Fresh branches and leaves are used to treat heartache, against curses, good
luck, lightning stroke, to drive away evil spirits, “limpias,” damn (sajra), postpartum
care, and gallbladder (Macía et al. 2005, Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015, Bussmann
et al. 2016). Colombia: Flowers soaked in alcohol are used in Colombia to treat
rheumatism. For this purpose, the stems and leaves are also used, applying them in
the form of frictions on the affected part (García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Leaves, flowers, and seeds are used to treat constipation; flowers are used to treat
diabetes (Bussmann et al. 2018).
Spartium junceum L. 1745

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Ecuador: The flower, in infusion, is used to treat cough and kidney ailments
(unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo, Cañar). The infusion is used to purge,
along with broom, “piqui yuyu,” “maihua,” and “horse sucks” (unspecified ethnicity
– Pichincha). The leaves and flowers, in infusion, serve to treat urine sickness,
discomfort of the menstrual period, and liver conditions (Kichwa de la Sierra-
Chimborazo, Cañar). The seeds, in moderate doses, are emetic and purgative. The
seeds are used in small doses to treat dropsy (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar).
It is diuretic (unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi, Azuay, Cañar). It is used to treat
liver conditions and stomach pain (Mestiza-Imbabura). It is used to treat ulcers,
gastritis, stomach and heart pain, and kidney conditions (pain and retention of urine)
(Mestiza-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Fresh flowers and soot are used
to treat hepatitis, liver, high blood pressure, and diabetes (Bussmann and Sharon
2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010, 2011). Spartium has strong
antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010a, b, c; 2011a; Bussmann and
Glenn 2011), but the plant is also toxic (Bussmann et al. 2011b). Due to its toxicity, it
is mostly used in mixture with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010d). It is sold in local
markets (Bussmann et al. 2007; Revene et al. 2008).

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Ecuador: It is used as guinea pig fodder (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay). Fuels:

The plant is used as fuel (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
The flower is used to extract a yellow dye (unspecified ethnicity – Azuay, Cañar).
With the branches, brooms are made (Kichwa de la Sierra-Chimborazo,
Cañar; unspecified ethnic group – Carchi, Azuay, Cañar). It is used for baths
(Mestiza-Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The flower is used in ornaments, in
religious festivals such as the Setenario de Corpus (unspecified ethnic group –
Azuay, Cañar). The leaves and flowers, in drinks, baths, or plasters, are used to
counteract spells and cure “bad air” and “fright” (Kichwa de la Sierra Chimboraz,
Cañar; unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (from de la Torre et al. 2008). The whole
fresh plant is used for fright/susto (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon
2006a, 2007a). Peru: It is used for spiritual flowering and protection (Bussmann
et al. 2010d).
Spartium junceum L. 1747
References
ailments. Arnaldoa. 2010;17(2):243–54.
9789962-2-2).
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds - the magic and medicinal flora of Peru. Plantas
de los cuatro vientos - La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú. Honolulu: Arogya; 2007b. (ISBN
978-0-9789962-3-9).
978-0-9960231-2-2).
9960231-3-9).
medicine in Northern Peru. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010b;6(10):1.
Pharmacol. 2010d;4(9):580–629.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Macbride JF, Weberbauer A. Flora of Peru. Chicago: Field Museum; 1936-1995.
Stachys pusilla (Wedd.) Briq.
LAMIACEAE
Synonyms
Stachys pusilla (Wedd.) Briq.: Stachys elliptica var. pusilla Wedd.
Local Names
Bolivia: Verbena, Verbena blanca (Spanish), Wirwina jan’ku (Aymara) (Macía et al.
2005; Justo and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016)
Botany and Ecology
Perennial, ranching sparsely hirsutulous-puberulent annual, the stems rarely 2 dm.

long; petioles to 2 cm long, leaves rather coarsely crenate-dentate, ovate or ovate-
oblong, to 2 cm long, rounded-truncate at base; flowers sometimes 2 or 3 in the upper
R. W. Bussmann (*)

axils, calyx in flower 3–3.5 mm long, turbinate, in fruit 4 mm long, urceolate, the
ovate obtuse weakly if at all awned teeth scarcely 1 mm long. Corolla tube 3–3.5 mm
long, barely exserted, not annulate, the upper lip 1.5–2 mm long; stamens in the
throat, nutlets 1.5–2 mm long. Usually in disturbed areas (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7).
Fig. 1 Stachys arvensis


Stachys pusilla (Wedd.) Briq. 1751

Fig. 4 Stachys peruviana




Bolivia: Branches and leaves, fresh or dried, are used to treat heartache, gallbladder,
liver, stomach acidity, diarrhea, stomach ache, gastritis, ulcers, alcoholism, and
kidney infection (Macía et al. 2005; Justo and Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016).
Stachys pusilla (Wedd.) Briq. 1753
References
inal plants in the markets of La Paz and El alto, Bolivia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;193:76–95.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Stellaria chilensis Pedersen
CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Stellaria chilensis Pedersen: Stellaria circinata Ravenna, Stellaria concinna

Ravenna, Stellaria celsa Ravenna.
Local Names
Chile: Malva
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Perennial herb, up to 1 m tall; flowering stems between 1 and 3.5 mm in diameter,

pubescent. Leaves between (17–)20–45 mm long, petiolate; superior sessile, trian-
gular to oval-triangular or oval-lanceolate, base sometimes attenuated, margin cili-
ate, apex glabrous. Flowers arranged in loose tops, with internodes between 3 and
90 mm long; pedicels between 12 and 48 mm long; sepals between (5–)6–10
Fig. 1 Stellaria ovata

(Caryophyllaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and

(Caryophyllaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Stellaria chilensis Pedersen 1757

(Caryophyllaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
(–13) mm long; petals up to 2 times longer than sepals, between (9–)11–14(–15) mm

long, white, with a rounded tip. Fruit: capsule 10–14 mm long, with 6 valves, with
apex curled outwards during dehiscence; brown or black seeds, about 1.2 mm long,
reniform, with glochidia. Sea level to 3400 m (González and Molina 2017) (Figs. 1,
2, and 3).
The infusion of the aerial parts is used to perform intestinal washes (González and
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Tagetes elliptica Sm.
Tagetes erecta L.
Tagetes filifolia Lag.
Tagetes minuta L.
Tagetes multiflora Kunth
ASTERACEAE

Synonyms
Tagetes erecta L.: Tagetes elongata Willd.; Tagetes ernstii H. Rob. & Nicholson;
Tagetes excelsa Soule; Tagetes heterocarpha Rydb.; Tagetes major Gaertn.; Tagetes
patula L.; Tagetes remotifolia Kunze; Tagetes tenuifolia Cav.
Tagetes filifolia Lag.: Diglossus variabilis Cass.; Solenotheca tenella Nutt.; Tagetes
anisata Lillo; Tagetes congesta Hook. & Arn.; Tagetes dichotoma Turcz.; Tagetes
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
Santiago de Chile, USACH, Santiago, Chile
C. Romero

dichotomum Turcz.; Tagetes foeniculata Desf.; Tagetes foenicuata Poepp. ex DC.;

Tagetes fragantissima Sessé & Moc.; Tagetes multifida DC.; Tagetes pauciloba DC.;
Tagetes pseudomicrantha Lillo; Tagetes pusilla Kunth; Tagetes scabra Brandegee;
Tagetes silenoides Meyen & Walp.
Tagetes minuta L.: Tagetes bonariensis Pers.; Tagetes glandulifera Schrank;
Tagetes glandulosa Link; Tagetes porophyllum Vell.; Tagetes riojana M. Ferraro
Tagetes multiflora Kunth: Tagetes andina M. Ferraro, Tagetes erythrocephala
Rusby, Tagetes multiflora Kunth var. rupestris Wedd.
Local Names
Tagetes elliptica: Peru: Culantrillo serrano (Spanish)

Tagetes erecta: Colombia: Flor de muerto, Ruda; Peru: Flores del Muerto, Claveles
Chino, Flor de Muerto (Spanish); English: Aztec marigold, American marigold,
African marigold
Tagetes filifolia: Ecuador: Allpa Anís, Panpa anís, Sacha anís (Spanish-Kichwa),
Anís común, Anís de campo, Anís de monte, Anisillo (Spanish) (de la Torre et al.
2008); Peru: Anis, Anis Serrano (Spanish)
Tagetes minuta: Ecuador: Chil chil (Spanish)
Tagetes multiflora: Bolivia: Chijchipa (Aymara); Chile: Soyko, Suyko, Sayko, Seyko,
Wakataya, Watakay, Té de burro; Ecuador: Allpa tsintsu, Ashna yuyu (Kichwa), Tsintsu
(panzaleo), Allpa anís (Spanish-Kichwa), Haya sitzo (Kichwa), Anís, Anís chiquito,
Anís de la tierra, Anís en hierba (Spanish), Sincho (unspecified) (de la Torre et al. 2008)
Botany and Ecology
Tagetes elliptica: Aromatic herbaceous species. The stem branched and erect.
Leaves pinnate, with elliptic and sawn leaflets. Up to 2 m tall.
Tagetes erecta: Annual. Plant 50–150 cm high, strongly aromatic, glabrous. Stem
erect, longitudinally finely ribbed, with upright branches. Leaves pinnately divided,
5–10 cm long, 4–8 cm wide, with lanceolate lobes, 0.8–3.0 cm long, 1.5–4.0 mm
wide, sharply serrate, with 3 1 mm long awns (in upper leaves). Capitula solitary,
cup-shaped; involucre 1.8–2.0 cm long, 1 cm wide, smooth, of five connate bracts,
apices of bracts 2–3 mm long, 2 mm wide, acute. Ligulate florets 2.9 cm long, with
yellow or dark orange corollas 2 cm long, tube 5 mm long, ligules obovate, 1.4 cm
long, 1.2 cm wide, tapered to base, emarginate, smooth; tubular florets with yellow,
smooth corollas, 9 mm long with five, 1.5–2.0 mm long teeth. Achenes linear,
tapered at base, 8–11 mm long, 1 mm wide, black or brown, covered with short,
chestnut-colored, upward-appressed hairs; pappus of short (0.6 cm long) and long
(1 cm long) scales. Tagetes erecta is indigenous to Mexico and Guatemala and most
probably naturalized in the rest of Central America and the western Andes of South
America. It became naturalized also elsewhere in the tropics and is widely cultivated
all over the world (including Africa and the Indian Ocean islands) as a popular
Tagetes elliptica Sm. . . . 1761
Fig. 1 Tagetes erecta

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
garden ornamental. It is cultivated commercially for its dye (Macbride and

Tagetes minuta: Annual, from 30 to 180 cm tall, leaves: 8–15 cm long, leaflets from
9 to 17, narrowly lanceolate to linear-lanceolate from 1.2 to 2.5 and up to 5 cm long
by 0.2–0.7 mm wide. Inflorescence dense, sessile flowers, on a structure similar to a
cushion) in corymbose, peduncle from 0.1 to 0.5 cm long. Involucrum from 0.7 to
1 cm long by 0.15–0.3 cm wide. Ligulate flowers from 1 to 3, yellow, ovate
(egg-shaped) to elliptical 0.1–0.2 cm long, flowers of the disc 3–5, corolla
3–4 mm in length. Vilanum 1–2 of sublimated scales 2–3 mm long. Fruit a capsule
from 4.5–7 mm long (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Tagetes filifolia: Annual herb, up to 50 cm high, but generally between 10 and 20 cm.
Very branched, striated, sometimes with hairs. Leaves opposite or sometimes alternate,
up to 3 cm long, divided into very thin segments that in turn can be divided into
segments, may look like needles of a pine; sometimes with hairs. Generally numerous
heads on peduncles 0.5–2 cm long or sometimes sessile. Capitulae with small sessile
flowers arranged on a flat or convex receptacle that does not have bracts. Involucral
bracts fusiform or cylindrical and sometimes angled at the base, of unequal size, joined
together near the apex, the truncated apexes but terminated at a short and sharp tip, and
provided with 2 rows of glands translucent Flowers linked 0–3, white, elliptical corolla,
1–1.5 mm long; flowers of the disc 5–25, yellow corolla divided into lobes, 3–4 mm
long; the alternate stamens with the corolla lobes, their free filaments and do not exceed
the corolla tube, anthers welded together forming a tube around the style; the inferior
ovary. Achenae with a single seed, linear, 3–6 mm long, striated, blackish, with hairs,
2-shaped edge-shaped villain, 3–4 mm long and 2 or 3 scales of 0.5 2 mm long, with the
obtuse apex, joined together, strong smell of anise when squeezed.
Tagetes multiflora: Herb between 5 and 30 cm high, very broad; thin stems
ascending. Leaves alternate or opposite between 1 and 4 cm long, pinnatisects,
with 3 pairs of almost spatulate segments, with few teeth at the apex. Terminal
inflorescences long pedunculated, chapters arranged in corymbose peaks; cylindrical
Fig. 2 Tagetes minuta

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 5 Tagetes minuta (Asteraceae), Svaneti, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Fig. 6 Tagetes multiflora

involucre, bracts between 5 and 6, welded, red. Flowers marginally ligulate, yellow,
between 3 and 5 per chapter; tubular central flowers, yellow, between 6 and 7 per
head. Achene black, thin, with some ribs; long vilano formed by numerous hairs,
1000–4500m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 6, 7, 8,
9, and 10).
Taretes erecta is used in Colombia as anthelmintic, digestive, diuretic, sedative, and

stomachic. It is used internally to treat indigestion, colic, constipation, dysentery,
cough, and fever, and externally to treat sores, ulcers, eczema, sore eyes, and
rheumatism. In Colombia, Tagetes erecta is used against intestinal worms and to
promote menstruation (Bussmann et al. 2018; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño
2011; Fonnegra-Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In
Peru, the plant is used for respiratory problems, bronchitis, colds, and congestion
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010, 2011).
Tagetes species are commonly sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). All
express considerable antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2009, 2010a, b,
2011a, b). It is often used as admixture to other species (Bussmann et al. 2010c).
In India, the species is used for dental problems, cuts, wounds, and mouth ulcers
(Raj et al. 2018).
Fig. 7 Tagetes multiflora

Señoret)
Fig. 8 Tagetes
sp. (Asteraceae), Bakuriani,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Tagetes filifolia: Ecuador: The decoction with milk of the plant is used to treat
postpartum conditions, “cold inflammation” (sudden cooling of the body) and
stomach pain (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The plant contains an oil, consisting
mostly of anethole, which has carminative properties (unspecified ethnicity –
Pichincha). The plant, in infusion, is used to treat colds, colic, gas, stomach pain,
and digestion problems (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura; Mestiza, unspecified ethnic
group – Pichincha). It has stomach and tonic properties (unspecified ethnic group –
Pichincha, Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Fig. 9 Tagetes
Fig. 10 Tagetes
Peru: Whole plant, fresh or dried, is used for severe colic, stomach, stomach pain,
and diarrhea (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn
2010). Tagetes species are commonly sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007).
All express considerable antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2009, 2010a,
b, 2011a, b). It is often used as admixture to other species (Bussmann et al. 2010c).
Tagetes minuta: The species is used in Kenya to treat asthma (Njoroge and
Bussmann 2006a), wounds (Njoroge and Bussmann 2007), and also to increase
fertility (Njoroge and Bussmann 2009).
Tagetes multiflora: It is taken as tea for stomach pain, soroche, swelling, and other
ailments. The infusion relieves the “mal de orina” (González and Molina 2017;
Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Bolivia: Fresh stems and leaves
are used to treat stomachache, gastritis/ulcers, rheumatism, childbed inflammations,
and for postpartum care and postpartum washing (Bussmann et al. 2016a; Justo
Chipana and Moraes 2015). Ecuador: The leaves and flowers, infused with Melissa,
are used to soothe stomach pain (unspecified ethnic group – Cañar). The leaves, in
infusion, are used to treat stomach inflammations, gastric ulcerations, gas, and colic
(Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi, Chimborazo) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). The plant sap, crushed and mixed with others, is drunk to treat “bad air”
(Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja; unspecified ethnicity – Cotopaxi). The entire plant is used
in clean to treat “scared” children (Kichwa de la Sierra, unspecified ethnicity –
Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Local Food Uses
Tagetes elliptica: Peru: Whole plants, fresh or dried, are used to treat colds,
bronchitis, and congestion (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b).
Tagetes erecta extract is a solvent extract of the flowers, used mainly in Western Europe
as a yellow to orange food colorant, e.g., for salad dressings, ice cream, dairy products
and other foodstuffs with a high fat content, and also in soft drinks, bakery products,
jams, and confectionery (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b). Ecuador: The plant is used to
prepare an infusion, because it tastes good (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja). The flower serves
as a condiment (unspecified ethnic group – Other (Andean Region)). Social: Grass is
used by sorcerers (unspecified ethnic group – Others (Ecuador)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Fresh flowers and leaves are used to treat colic of the stomach (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b) (Fig. 11).
Tagetes multiflora: Aromatic leaves are used for food, such as condiment.
The yellow flowers of Tagetes erecta are the source of two food-colorant prod-
ucts: “marigold meal” and “marigold extract.” Marigold meal consists of dried
powdered flowers and is used mainly in poultry feed to enhance the yellow color
Fig. 11 Tagetes erecta

(Asteraceae), drying for
winter Bakuriani, Georgia.
N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana).
meat and egg-yolks. It is used similarly in feed for salmon and crustaceans. Fresh
and dry flowers can be used to dye wool, silk, and cotton golden-yellow to orange
and olive-green to bronze. Tagetes erecta is popular worldwide as an ornamental,
in Central America particularly in cemeteries leading to the Spanish common
name “flor de muerto,” flower of the dead. Peru: Fresh flowers and leaves are
used to treat fright/susto and bad air/mal aire (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010d).
Tagetes minuta: Ecuador: The plant is used in spiritual healing for bad air/mal aire
and also for healing fright in children/espanto caused by the rainbow (Béjar et al.
2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). It is used in Kenya for ectoparasites in
cattle (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006b).
Tagetes multiflora: The species is used as forage (González and Molina 2017;
Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Ecuador: The leaves are used
to prepare aromatic waters (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). The leaves and flowers are used as a soup and soup condiment (Kichwa
de la Sierra-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha, Others (Andean
Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Rev Peruana Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Cardenas R, Chait G, Castro M, Regalado S, Del Toro C R,
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
2010a;9(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010d;4(9):580–629.
2014;12:237–313.
016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
2006b;108:332–9.
Knowl. 2009;8(2):262–9.
018-0208-9.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Tamarindus indica L.
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Tamarindus indica L.: Cavaraea elegans Speg.; Tamarindus erythraeus Mattei;

Tamarindus occidentalis Gaertn.; Tamarindus officinalis Hook.; Tamarindus
somaliensis Mattei; Tamarindus umbrosa Salisb.
Local Names
Colombia: Tamarindo (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Tamarindo

(Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Tamarindo (Spanish); English: Tamarind
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Tree 3–24 m tall, bark rough, grey or grey-black, crown rounded, young branchlets
pubescent or puberulous. Petiole with rachis 5–12(16) cm long, mostly pubescent,
leaflets in 10–18(–21) pairs, narrowly oblong, (0.8)1.2–3.2 cm long, 0.3–1.1 cm.
wide, rounded to rounded-sub-truncate rarely slightly emarginate at apex, rounded
and asymmetric at base, glabrous except for a tuft of yellowish hairs at base,
sometimes pubescent up midrib and margins, rarely all over both surfaces; venation
reticulate-raised on both surfaces. Racemes 1–15(22) cm. long, axis subglabrous to
densely pubescent, pedicels 3–14 mm. long, glabrous to pubescent. Flowers red.
Hypanthium 3–5 mm long, sepals 8–12 mm long, pale yellow inside, reddish
outside, petals 10–13 mm long, elliptic or obovate-elliptic, gold with red veins.
Pods curved or sometimes straight, sausage-like, (3)6.5–14 cm long, 2–3 cm in
diameter, usually obtuse at base and apex, sometimes irregularly constricted, closely
covered outside with brown scurf, 1–10-seeded. Seeds chestnut-brown, rhombic to
trapeziform, 11–17 mm long, 10–12 mm wide. Growing naturally in woodlands,
wooded grasslands, deciduous bushlands, up to 15 m. Native in the Old World
tropics, now widely cultivated.
Colombia: The decoction of the tamarind leaves is prescribed in Colombia in the

form of gargles to treat angina and inflammations of the throat. The juice of the green
leaves is used in the rebounds of bile and to clarify the urine. Preparing poultices
with the leaves and pulp of the fruit are treated inflammations and their associated
pains. The fruits of tamarind have digestive, antiflatulent, soothing properties of
stomach cramps, and are also used as laxative and purgative. The decoction of the
fruits is used in attacks of fever caused by malaria. The sorbets and juices made with
the fruit of tamarind are used in the treatment of gastritis and gastroenteritis.
Tamarind pulp is used also as a laxative (García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez
1996). The whole plant is used to treat malaria; leaves are used to treat urinary
infection, throat inflammation, and gallbladder; fruits are used to treat inflammation,
stomach problems, skin ulcers, indigestion, flatulence, constipation, and as abortive
(Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The fruit is used to treat the colerín (Mestiza-
Guayas). The seeds are laxatives (unspecified ethnicity – Other (Coast Region)). It is
used as a purgative (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Fresh fruit pulp is used as laxative, for blood circulation, epilepsy, and heart
disease (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2011;
Monigatti et al. 2013). Sometimes tamarind pulp is added to emolientes (Bussmann
et al. 2015).
Tamarindus is used in India to treat indigestion, fever, piles, ulcers, nausea,
vomiting, swelling, jaundice, gastropathy, wounds, scorpion bite, scabies, stomach
pain, boils, cold, cough, skeletal pain, neck pain, tonsillitis and swellings (Raj et al.
2018), also anasarca, is used as anthelmintic, for boils, cough, digestion, eye
Tamarindus indica L. 1773
complaints, fever, headache, muscular pain, stomachache, sun stroke, swellings,

syphilis, toothache, and urine complaints (Verma et al. 2007). The species is widely
sold in Madagascar as laxative, vermifuge, for stomachache, and general wounds
(Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015).
Local Food Uses
The pulp of the fruits has been used as a food ingredient for thousands of years. The
pulp was traded widely in ancient times leading to the extensive use and cultivation
of tamarind, which in turn has resulted in the widespread tropical distribution of this
species. The fruits, and especially the pulp, can be eaten raw or used as an ingredient
in curries, pickles, confectionery, and in fermented drinks. The seeds are eaten raw or
cooked.
Colombia: Fruits are used as food (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The pulp that
wraps the seeds is used to prepare drinks (unspecified ethnic group – Guayas, Others
(Coast Region); Mestizo-Others (Coast Region)). Food additive: The fruit serves as a
condiment (Mestizo-Others (Coast Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Tamarind wood is used as timber, firewood, and for charcoal. Other uses of the
species include medicines, dyes, and for planting as an ornamental.
Ecuador: The stem is used as poles in the construction of houses (unspecified ethnic
group – Guayas; Mestizo-Loja). The plant is used to shade cattle (Mestizo-Loja)
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
2015;69:83–8.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
(2):450–64.
018-0208-9.
2015;11:60.
Tarasa tarapacana (Phil.) Krapov.
Tarasa tenella (Cav.) Krapov.
MALVACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Tarasa tarapacana (Phil.) Krapov.: Malva tarapacana Phil., Malvastrum

tarapacanum (Phil.) Baker f.
Tarasa tenella (Cav.) Krapov.: Malva multicaulis Schlechtendal ex Britton pro syn;
Malva tenella Cav.; Malvastrum micranthum Wooton & Standl.; Malvastrum multi-
caule Britton; Malvastrum pygmaeum Griseb., hom. illeg.; Malvastrum tenellum
(Cav.) Hieron.; Malveopsis multicaule (Britton) Rusby
Local Names
Tarasa tarapacana: Chile: Malva, Malva hembra, Canchalahua

Tarasa tenella: Chile: Malva
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Tarasa operculata

(Malvaceae), Cupo, Chile.
Señoret)
Botany and Ecology
Tarasa tarapacana: Decumbent annual herb. Leaves tripartite, lobules in turn lobed,
Tarasa tenella: Herb, stems hirsute, leaves orbiculate, trilobate, crenate, long petiolate,
12 mm, flowers sessile, axillary, bracts of involucre linear, corolla 3 cm across,
4–6 cm, blue, 2500–3800 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Tarasa tarapacana: An infusion of the aerial parts is drunk as tea (Rodriguez et al.
Tarasa tenella: The infusion of the aerial parts or as a bath is used to relieve fever,
especially in children (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Tarasa tenella: It is used as a shampoo to wash your hair. The species is also used as
forage (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
References
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del Norte de Chile. Santiago: Editorial
Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg
ASTERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg: Leontodon taraxacum L.; Leontodon vulgare

Lam.; Taraxacum dens-leonis Desf.; Taraxacum mexicanum DC.; Taraxacum
officinale var. palustre Blytt; Taraxacum retroflexum H. Lindb.; Taraxacum sub-
spathulatum A.J. Richards; Taraxacum sylvaticum R. Doll.; Taraxacum taraxacum
(L.) H. Karst.; Taraxacum tenejapense A.J. Richards; Taraxacum vulgare Schrank
Local Names
Bolivia: Diente de león (Spanish); Colombia: Diente de leon, Diente de león,

Amargón, Escorzonera, Chicoria, Achicoria (Spanish); Ecuador: Warmi Taraxaco
(Castellano-Kichwa), Bitter, Horse tooth, Dandelion, Female Taraxaco (Spanish),
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

large tañi (Spanish-unspecified language), kulcas, salij, tani, tañig (unspecified

language) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Diente de Leon, Amargon, Hierba del
Leon (Spanish); English: Dandelion
Botany and Ecology
Perennial plants, 5–50 cm high, with more or less thick, usually vertical root; root
collar more or less woolly, less often glabrous. Leaves 10–25 cm long and
1.5–5.0 cm wide, pinnatipartite or pinnatilobate, with more or less deflexed, often
toothed, lateral lobes and larger terminal lobes, less often undivided, sinuate-toothed,
scatteredly hairy to entirely glabrous. Scapes with more or less profuse arachnoid
hairy tomentum. Involucre 13–20 mm long, green, outer involucral bracts broadly
lanceolate to lanceolate-linear, more or less recurved, almost as wide as inner or
wider, without scarious border or with very narrow membranous border, without
cornicle; inner involucral bracts oblonglinear, one and one-half times or less as long
as longest outer bracts without cornicle, less often with indistinct cornicle. Florets
yellow with profuse long hairs in middle part of corolla; peripheral florets usually
with dark stripes on lower side of ligules. Achenes light brown or brownish, body of
achenes 3–4 mm long, covered with acute tubercles in upper half; cone 0.4–0.6 mm
long, beak 7–12 ram long; pappus 6–8 mm long, white. Flowering April–June. Ural,
Caucasus, Altai, Middle Asia, meadows, gardens and parks, near roads, and weeds
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Bolivia: Fresh stems and leaves are used to treat gallbladder, liver, stomachache,
stomach acidity, gastritis/ulcers, anemia, fever, kidney infection, high blood pres-
sure, alcoholism, and as depurative and galactogogue (Bussmann et al. 2016a; Justo
Chipana and Moraes 2015; Macía et al. 2005). Colombia: Dandelion is used in
Colombia as a general tonic, as a diuretic, against liver and skin diseases, to decrease
the levels of uric acid in the blood in patients with gout, to treat gastric affections, to
eradicate warts, and to treat malaria. The root is used as a mild laxative, as well as as
a diuretic and to facilitate the expulsion of bile. The leaves are used prepared in
infusion or decoction as diuretics and facilitators of digestion (Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-
Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Martínez Correa and Montes 2017; Ministerio de
Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Whole plant used to treat gout,
high cholesterol, obesity, liver problems, improve health, skin ulcers, urinary infec-
tion, and as diuretic; leaves are used to treat gastritis and stomach problems; root and
leaves are used to treat arthritis, blood cleansing, constipation, gallbladder, indiges-
tion, and stomachache (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: The fresh plant is used to
treat liver problems and high blood pressure (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and
Sharon 2006a, 2007a). The juice of the macerated root is diuretic. Root infusion is
Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg 1779
Fig. 1 Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
drunk to treat kidney pain and diarrhea. The whole plant, infused and combined with
escancel, “kasha cerraja”, calaguala, artichoke, plantain, cerote, corn hair, and a
lemon, is used to treat liver and kidney problems. It is used to increase red blood cells
and to eliminate toxins from the body. It is used to treat colds and kidney conditions
(unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). The flower, mixed with egg yolk and salt, is used
to treat abscesses and tumors. Root infusion is used to treat kidney conditions
(unspecified ethnic group – Cañar). The infusion of the entire plant is used to treat
bile and kidney conditions (unspecified ethnicity – Tungurahua). The infusion of the
plant is used for menstrual delays, kidney pain, liver, and chest conditions
(unspecified ethnicity – Carchi). The infusion of the plant, mixed with plantain,
escancel, horse sucks and squid, is taken to regulate menstruation and treat liver and
kidney problems (unspecified ethnic group – Chimborazo). Infusion of the root or
leaf juice is used to reduce obesity and to treat constipation, liver, and kidney
conditions (Kichwa de la Sierra, unspecified ethnicity – Tungurahua). The infusion
of the root and leaves is used as a diuretic (unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha,
Loja). The infusion of the macerated stem treats liver and bile conditions
(unspecified ethnic group – Cotopaxi). The root and leaves are used to relieve
stomach pain, liver irritation, body discomfort, and internal infections (Kichwa de
la Sierra-Imbabura). The plant, in infusion, is used to treat the hangover. The leaves
and the root, in infusion, are used as laxatives and to treat digestion problems and
conditions of the skin, blood, liver, and kidneys. It cleanses the stomach and heals
ulcers and pressure problems (Mestiza, unspecified ethnic group – Pichincha). The
Fig. 2 Taraxacum officinale

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
leaves, in infusion, are used to treat kidney conditions (Kichwa de la Sierra-Bolívar).

The leaves, in infusion, are used to relieve stomach pains (unspecified ethnic group –
Imbabura, Chimborazo). It serves as a cholagogue (medicine that produces the
evacuation of bile) and for liver congestion (unspecified ethnicity – no locality). It

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and
is used to treat the colerín (Kichwa of the Sierra-Cotopaxi) and relieves kidney
conditions (unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: The whole fresh plant used to treat liver problems, stomachache, inflammation
(internal), and ovaries (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann
and Glenn 2010a, b, 2011). It is also used for liver problems, fever, and malaria
(Monigatti et al. 2013). Dandelion is often sold in medicinal plant markets

(Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008a; Revene et al. 2008). Limited antibacterial activity
has been shown (Bussmann et al. 2008b, 2010a, 2011). Sometimes it is applied in
combination with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010b). In the Caucasus, it is used
as diuretic, for gallstones, as laxative, for liver problems, oral inflammation, and
toothache (Bussmann et al. 2016b).
Local Food Uses
Colombia: The leaves are used as food (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: With the
leaves and flowers, salads are prepared (Mestizo-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group
– Imbabura, Pichincha, Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It is also eaten in the Caucasus
Ecuador: The plant is used as animal fodder (unspecified ethnic group – Chimbo-
razo) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It has beekeeping use (ethnicity not specified – Loja).
Dandelion used as a dye and for skin cleansing (unspecified ethnic group –
Imbabura) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The whole plant, the juice of the leaves or the
infusion of the root, serves to purify the blood (Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified
ethnicity – Pichincha, Tungurahua). The root and leaves are used, in infusion with
nettle, tamarind, lemon, and honey, to clean the blood, liver, and kidneys
(unspecified ethnic group – Cañar). It is used as a liver cleanser (unspecified
ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). In Peru, it is used for bad air/mal aire
and protection against evil (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b;
References
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629.
016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.

D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
(2):450–64.
Tessaria absinthioides (Hook. & Arn.) DC.
Tessaria integrifolia Ruiz & Pav.
ASTERACEAE

Synonyms
Tessaria absinthioides (Hook. & Arn.) DC.: Baccharis absinthioides Hook. &
Arn., Gynheteria incana Spreng., Pluchea absinthioides (Hook. & Arn.) H. Rob.
Tessaria integrifolia Ruiz & Pav.: Conyza riparia Kunth; Gynheteria dentata (Ruiz
& Pav.) Spreng.; Gynheteria incana Spreng.; Gynheteria salicifolia Willd. ex Less.;
Tessaria ambigua DC.; Tessaria dentata Ruiz & Pav.; Tessaria legitima DC.;
Tessaria mucronata DC.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero

Local Names
Tessaria absinthioides: Chile: Brea, breya, sorona, hierba de la zorra

Tessaria integrifolia Argentina: Pajaro bobo, Aliso; Colombia: Aliso, Cenizo,
Sauce de playa, Olivo, Sauce playero, Sauce blanco, Sauce de playa, Sauce playero;
Ecuador: Nanavi waska (Kichwa-), ccasepacho’si (A’ingae), álamo, balsa, mangle
álamo, olivo, palo bobo (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Pajaro bobo,
Chamchi, Mayu-chamch
Botany and Ecology
Tessaria absinthioides: Sufruticose herb, between 1 and 2 m of high, very ramoso

from the base, with very tomentose stems. Leaves oblanceolate from 5 to 8 cm long,
base attenuated, very shortly petiolate, apex acute to sub-obtuse, serrated edge in the
upper half, surface of the leaf greyish-tomentose. Terminal inflorescences, chapters
arranged in corymbose peaks; Involucrae flared with numerous bracts. Flowers very
variable in color, pistillate flowers with lilac corollas. Achene 0.6 mm long, gla-
brous; vilano with hairs between 4.5 and 5 mm long. Sea level to 3000 m (Macbride
Tessaria integrifolia: Trees or large shrubs, 3–10(–15) m tall; stems green to brownish
green. Leaves oblanceolate to lanceolate or elliptic, 3–9 cm long, 0.8–3.5 cm wide, base
attenuate, apex acute, mucronulate, both surfaces minutely puberulent, glandular, gray-
ish. Capitula 4–5 mm high, 3–3.5 mm wide; outer phyllaries ovate, 1.5–2.5 mm long,
1–1.2 mm wide, apex acute, the inner linear to lanceolate, 4–5 mm long, 0.5–1 mm
wide, apex reflexed; marginal florets 40–80, corollas 3–3.5 mm long, styles exserted.
Hermaphroditic floret 1, the corolla ca. 4 mm long. Achenes 0.5–0.8 mm long; pappus
bristles ca. 20, ca. 5 mm long. Tessaria integrifolia is widely distributed throughout
southern Central and South America. It generally prefers sandy soils along the margins
of rivers and at times forms pure stands from adventitious root sprouts (Macbride and
Tessaria absinthioides: The plant is marketed for the treatment of cancer, prostate
ailments, and rheumatism (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Tessaria integrifolia: The leaves are used medicinally for hepatitis and as a diuretic.
In Colombia, the plant is used to treat liver diseases, hepatitis, as a tonic, purifying
blood, as a mild laxative, antiasthmatic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, and diuretic.
It is also suggested to treat inflammations, pain and infection of ovaries, and kidney
affections. For these purposes, a preparation of the stems and leaves is prepared. For
the problems of the skin, wounds, or sores, the ground leaves are used (Mutis 2003).
Tessaria absinthioides (Hook. & Arn.) DC. . . . 1787
Fig. 1 Tessaria integrifolia



Peru: Fresh flowers and leaves are used to treat liver, kidneys, gallbladder, inflam-
mation (general), fever, and bad breath (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b;
Bussmann and Glenn 2010; Monigatti et al. 2013). It is often found in local markets

and is widely used (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b). Tessaria has antibacterial activity
(Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010b). It is often used in mixture with other species
Tessaria absinthioides: The plant is used as forage. It is used as fodder for sheep,
rabbits, and donkeys. It is a remedy for rabbits. Formerly it was used to roof houses.
It has ceremonial use and as firewood (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al.
Tessaria integrifolia: The wood is often used in the construction of corrals and the
bark for the tanning of leather. In Argentina, its wood is utilized in the production of
paper and the leaves are sometimes used as forage source for cattle (González and
Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Ecuador: The
species is used as animal fodder (unspecified ethnicity – Imbabura). The plant has
beekeeping use (unspecified ethnicity – Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The stem is
used as fuel (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Tungurahua) (de la Torre et al.
2008). The stem is timber and is used in the construction of the roofs of the houses
(unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura, Tungurahua; Cofán-Sucumbíos) (de la Torre
et al. 2008). The plant helps to prevent erosion (usually found in ravines) and is used
to stabilize river banks (Cofán-Sucumbíos; unspecified ethnic group – Esmeraldas,
Guayas, Sucumbíos). The plant is used as a living fence (unspecified ethnic group –
References
Tessaria absinthioides (Hook. & Arn.) DC. . . . 1789
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Mutis JC. Flora de la Real Expedición Botánica del Nuevo Reyno de Granada (1783–1816). Tomo
XLIX. Asteráceas, Tribus Liabeae, Tageteae, Senecioneae, Inuleae y Anthemidae.
Determinaron las láminas y redactaron los textos: Santiago Díaz-Piedrahita & Gina Paola
Méndez Ramírez. Madrid: Ediciones Cultura Hispánica; 2003.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Villagrán C, Castro V. Ciencia indígena de los Andes del Norte de Chile. Santiago: Editorial
Thelypteris argentina (Hieron.) Abbiatti
THELYPTERIDACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Thelypteris argentina (Hieron.) Abbiatti: Amauropelta argentina (Hieron.) Salino

& T.E. Almeida, Aspidium argentinum Hieron., Aspidium conterminum auct. Non
Willd., Aspidium galanderi Hieron., Aspidium lorentzii Hieron., Dryopteris argen-
tina (Hieron.) C. Chr., Dryopteris argentina (Hieron.) C. Chr. var. lorentzii,
Dryopteris galanderi (Hieron.) C. Chr., Dryopteris lorentzii (Hieron.) C. Chr.,
Lastrea argentina (Hieron.) Copel., Lastrea galanderi (Hieron.) Capurro,
Nephrodium argentinum (Hieron.) Hicken, Nephrodium galanderi (Hieron.)
Hicken, Nephrodium lorentzii (Hieron.) Hicken, Thelypteris argentina (Hieron.)
Abbiatti, Thelypteris galanderi (Hieron.) Abbiatti, Thelypteris lorentzii (Hieron.)
Abbiatti
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Local Names
Chile: Regalís, Regale, Helecho; Peru: Helecho macho
Botany and Ecology
Perennial herb with creeping rhizome, voluminous, covered with dark brown,
triangular scales. Leaves between 30 and 80 cm long, dark green, fasciculate; petiole
a quarter of the total length of the leaf, with some scales; herbaceous, pinnate-
pinnatifid, elliptical-lanceolate lamina; pinnae subopposed or alternate, sessile, lin-
ear lanceolate; apex obtuse, acute or shortly acuminate, entire margin, something
reflex. Circular soros, from medium to submarginal position; indusium small,
glandular-hairy on the margin, sometimes outdated or not very visible. Sea level to
3300 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Phytochemistry
The infusion of aerial parts is used in Chile to relieve stomach pain, and it is very
fresh (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003). In Peru, a species of Thelypteris, probably T. scalaris, is used as contracepti-
ve (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010).
In. Ethiopia, Thelyperis sp., is used as antifungal (Bussmann et al. 2011; Luizza
et al. 2013).
Fig. 1 Thelypteris concinna

(Thelypteridaceae), El Jardin,
Leymebamba, Peru. (Photos
R.W: Bussmann and
Thelypteris argentina (Hieron.) Abbiatti 1793

R.W: Bussmann and

R.W: Bussmann and

R.W: Bussmann and

R.W: Bussmann and
Used as ornamental, either as a pot plant or to qualify flowers, to make bouquets, or

to take to the cemetery (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán
and Castro 2003).
References
female health. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6(30):1–12.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Res Appl. 2013;11:315–39.
Theobroma cacao L.
MALVACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Theobroma cacao L.: Cacao minus Gaertn.; Cacao sativa Aubl.; Cacao theobroma
Tussa; Theobroma cacao fo. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Ducke; Theobroma cacao
L. subsp. cacao; Theobroma cacao subsp. sativum (Aubl.) León; Theobroma
cacao subsp. sphaerocarpum (A. Chev.) Cuatrec.; Theobroma cacao var. typicum
Cif.; Theobroma caribaeum Sweet; Theobroma integerrimum Stokes; Theobroma
kalagua De Wild.; Theobroma leiocarpum Bernoulli; Theobroma pentagonum
Bernoulli; Theobroma saltzmannianum Bernoulli; Theobroma sapium Pittier;
Theobroma sativum (Aubl.) Lign. & Le Bey; Theobroma sativum var.
leucospermum A. Chev.; Theobroma sativum var. melanospermum A. Chev.;
Theobroma sphaerocarpum A. Chev.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Spanish: Colombia: Abacaraá, Aso-ya-ee, Baiuc, Cabecerá, Cacao, Cacao criollo,

Ha-ha; English: Cocoa
Botany and Ecology
Tree, usually 5–8 m high, branches in clusters mostly of 5, spreading, gray, glabrous,
the very young ones pubescent; leaves obovate-oblong or oblong, rotund, or obtuse
at the base, abruptly acuminate or cuspidate at the apex, glabrous or slightly
pubescent beneath, the nerves pinnate, the mid-nerve very strong beneath but only
filiform above, secondary nerves 10–14 at each side, spreading, curved-ascending,
slender and prominent beneath, the other veins making a lax small but conspicuous
reticulum above (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995). The ritual use of
Theobroma has been widely documented (Bussmann 2016) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Fig. 1 Theobroma cacao

(Malvaceae), Moyebamba,
Theobroma cacao L. . . . 1797



The leaves in infusion are used to treat heart diseases and as a cardiac tonic in
Colombia. They are also used as diuretics (García Barriga 1975; Patiño 1963; Pérez
Arbeláez 1996). In Peru, Theobroma is used to treat kidney problems (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b). The plant shows some antibacterial properties
(Bussmann et al. 2008, 2010), and cocoa pods are sold in local markets (Bussmann
et al. 2007).
Local Food Uses
To make chocolate and beverages.
References
Bussmann RW, Sharon D. Plants of the four winds – the magic and medicinal flora of Peru.
Honolulu: Plantas de los cuatro vientos – La flora mágica y medicinal del Perú; 2007. ISBN
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Theobroma cacao L. . . . 1799
can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Trad Med. 2010;9
(4):742–53.
Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum.
APOCYNACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum.: Cascabela peruviana (Pers.) Raf.;

Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold; Cerbera peruviana L.; Cerbera thevetia L.;
Thevetia linearis A. DC.; Thevetia neriifolia Juss. ex A. DC.; Thevetia neriifolia
Juss. ex Steud.; Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) Merr.; Thevetia thevetia (L.) Millsp.
Local Names
Colombia: Cascabel, Caucho, Cobalonga, Cucaracho, Pepa de cabrito; Pepa

decabrito; Caucho (Spanish); Ecuador: Camalonga (Spanish); Tenba’juu kiyanchi
tape (Chafi’ki), Suchi de cerro (Spanish-Kichwa), Jacapa (Spanish) (de la Torre et al.
2008); Peru: Mailchin, Maichil, Camalonga, Cabalonga (Spanish).
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Fig. 1 Thevetia peruviana

(Apocynaceae), Huanchaco,

(Apocynaceae),
Samborondón, Ecuador.
Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum. 1803
Botany and Ecology
Slender-stemmed, erect or clambering shrub sometimes 6 or 7 meters tall, with greenish-

brown bark, the latex bitter; leaves alternate or verticillate, linear, long-attenuate to base,
acuminate, about a dm long or longer, scarcely ever 1 cm. wide, coriaceous, lustrous;
calyx lobes 7 mm long, 2 mm wide; corolla-tube about 4 cm long, to 1.5 cm wide above,
the lobes about 2.5 cm long; fruit a bright red drupe 5 cm thick with brown reticulate
seeds. Said to be very poisonous. Peruvian specimens mostly from shrub-tree forma-
tions (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
The latex is used to relieve toothache. In Colombia the plant is used in heart diseases.
The bark and seeds are used as emetic, purgative, and febrifuge (García Barriga 1975).
The whole plant used to treat Heart diseases; bark, leaves, and seeds used to treat

(Apocynaceae),

(Apocynaceae),
constipation and fever (Bussmann et al. 2018). Ecuador: Bark and fresh seeds used to
treat fever and heart problems (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a).
The latex is used to remove warts (unspecified ethnicity – Guayas). The leaves are
rubbed on the chest to calm the pain (Chachi-Esmeraldas) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Fresh stems and leaves used to treat bones, rheumatism, and arthritis (Bussmann
and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010, 2011a, b). Sometimes
for sale in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). Maichil has antibacterial properties
(Bussmann et al. 2008, 2011a, b). Due to its toxicity the species is normally applied in
mixture with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010a).
The fruits are traditionally used as rattles for dancers, as well as musical instru-
ments. This practice has a very long tradition, as Thevetia rattles are already
depicted in Moche fineline drawings (Bussmann and Sharon 2009). Ecuador:
Toxic to other organisms: has insecticidal properties (unspecified ethnicity –
Loja). Environmental: The plant is used as a living fence (unspecified ethnic
Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum. 1805
group – Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Bark and fresh seeds used to treat evil
eye/mal ojo (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: Fresh
stems and leaves used to treat bad air/mal aire and cause bad luck/to cast a spell
(sorcery) (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al.
2010b).
References
female health. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6(30):1–12.
of diabetes and cancer in Northern Peru. J Med Plant Res. 2011a;5(31):6916–30.
rheumatism, arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011b;10(3):397–412.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
2009;5:8.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010b;4(9):580–629.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel PM, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas
Thymus vulgaris L.
LAMIACEAE

Carolina Romero
Local Names
Colombia: Tomillo (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Orégano, Orégano

chico, Orégano de Castilla, Orégano de tierra, Orégano del país, Orégano dulce,
Tomillo (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Tomillo (Spanish); English:
Thyme
Botany and Ecology
Originating from the N. W. part of the Mediterranean region, and now widely
cultivated. The species is characterized by the arachnoid indument of the leaf
underside Stems uniformly short-haired; leaves oblong-obovate, 5–10 mm long,
2–3 mm broad, with short but quite distinct petiole; inflorescence usually
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

interrupted; pedicels fairly long; calyx 3–5 mm long; corolla lilac, rather pale to
almost white. Growing wild in the Mediterranean region (from Portugal to Greece).
Cultivated in Europe and the Americas for its essential oil; sometimes naturalized
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Colombia: Thyme is prepared in Colombia in decoction and applied to the exterior

as an antiseptic. Consumed is used as an aromatic, to open the appetite and as
antiflatulent, against stomach cramps, as a promoter of menstruation and against
spasms. The same decoction is drunk to eliminate intestinal worms and in the form of
infusion the whole plant acts as a general tonic. Its consumption should be done in
moderation; it is poisonous in a lot (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011;
García Barriga 1975; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The whole plant is used to treat vaginal
discharge, toothache, strengthens digestive system, stomach cramps, flatulence, skin
diseases, sinusitis, sexual potency, rheumatism, lack of appetite, indigestion, halito-
sis, gum pain, gastrhitis, flu, cough fatigue, constipation, dermatitis, alopecia, as
analgesic, as tonic, as vermifuge, as emenagogue, and as fungicide (Bussmann et al.
2018). Ecuador: The infusion is used as an antispasmodic and stimulant
(unspecified ethnicity-Azuay, Cañar). The infusion, together with raw or flaky
flaxseed, is taken to treat diarrhea (unspecified ethnicity-Pichincha). The plant or
Fig. 1 Thymus vulgaris (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann &
Thymus vulgaris L. 1809
Fig. 2 Thymus vulgaris (Lamiaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 3 Thymus sp. (Lamiaceae), garden, Bakuriani, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann &
Fig. 4 Thymus
sp. (Lamiaceae), garden,
R.W. Bussmann &
leaves, in infusion, are used to treat conditions of the digestive system (stomach pain,
infections, ulcers) (Mestizo-Pichincha, Tungurahua; unspecified ethnic group-Imbabura,
Pichincha, Cotopaxi, Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Peru: Leaves, stems, and flowers, fresh or dried, are used to treat cough, colic, liver,
gases, indigestion, and bladder (Bussmann and Glenn 2010; Bussmann and Sharon
2006, 2007, 2015a, b). Widely sold (Bussmann et al. 2007). Thyme has antibacterial
activity (Bussmann et al. 2009, 2010, 2011). Sometimes it is added to emolientes
Thymus serpyllum is used to treat lung disease and asthma in Pakistan (Sher et al.
2016).
Local Food Uses
Ecuador: It is used to prepare aromatic waters (Unspecified ethnicity-Loja). The

plant is used as a condiment in meals (Mestiza-Pichincha; unspecified ethnic group-
Imbabura, Pichincha, Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Ecuador: The flower is very pleasing to bees (unspecified ethnic group-Azuay,

References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
Thymus vulgaris L. 1811
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009;16(1):93–103.
can traditional applications provide leads for modern science? Indian J Tradit Med. 2010;9
(4):742–53.
2015;69:83–8.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel PM, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas
Útiles del Ecuador. Quito & Aarhus: Herbario QCA de la Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas de la
Ismaeli and Sunni ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province Pakistan. J Ethnopharmacol.
Tiquilia atacamensis (Phil.) A.T. Richardson
Tiquilia dichotoma (Ruiz. & Pav.) Pers.
Tiquilia paronychioides (Phil.)
A.T. Richardson
BORAGINACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Tiquilia atacamensis (Phil.) A.T. Richardson: Coldenia atacamensis Phil.;

Coldenia parviflora Phil.
Tiquilia paronychioides (Phil.) A.T. Richardson: Coldenia aggregara Rusby;
Coldenia paronychioides Phil.
Local Names
Tiquilia atacamensis: Chile: Káuchal, Catamása, Jata mása, Malva, Malvilla,

Alfilla, Alfombrilla, Alfalfilla naya;
Tiquilia dichoitoma / Tiquilia paronychioides: Peru: Flor de arena, Mano de ratón,
Paja de lagartija
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Tiquilia Atacamensis
Low shrub, procumbent, up to 60 cm in diameter; old lignified stalks of whitish

color; young stems with hairs. Leaves grayish green, between 5–8 mm long, long
petiolate, closely ovate to oval, entire margins, with tight trichomes, obtuse apex
with 1–2 spines of 0.5 mm long. Flowers with corolla violet to lilac, with yellow to
orange throats, between 4.0 and 5.5 mm long; calyx between 3.5 and 4.5 mm long,
with triangular lobes, with between 1 and 2 apical hairs. Fruit ovate-elliptical, 4 or
occasionally less, between 1.1 and 1.4 mm long. Sea level to 3500 m (Macbride and
Tiquilia Dichotoma/Tiquilia Paronychioides
Annual or perennial, sometimes more or less ligneous, often spreading or prostrate

and the veiny or evenose leaves approximate or subtending the small flowers. Calyx
4–5-parted. Corolla funnelform or salverform, appendaged or smooth. Style 2-cleft
or 2-parted. Ovary entire or 4-lobed, in fruit 4, rarely 2, separate nutlets; these
attached basally, usually ventrally. Tiquilia dichotoma with nutlets plano-convex;
stamens exserted, Tiquilia paronychioides with nutlets narrowly ovoid with ventral
scar; petioles usually villousciliate (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10).
Tiquilia Atacamensis
Chile: The infusion of the root is good for the treatment of hernias (González and
Tiquilia Dichotoma/Tiquilia Paronychioides
Peru: To treat inflammation, inflammation of the kidneys, inflammation of the

ovaries, bladder stones, prostate inflammation, gallbladder, and urinary infections
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010). Very
frequently sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2009), and one of the
species distributed to patients in the public health system. Tiquilia has antibacterial
activities (Bussmann et al. 2011a), and no toxicity has been shown (Bussmann et al.
2011b). The plant is often added as ingredient to emollients – hot beverages served
for breakfast (Bussmann et al. 2015).
Tiquilia atacamensis (Phil.) A.T. Richardson. . . 1815
Fig. 1 Tiquilia paronychioides (Boraginaceae), Huanchaco, Cerro Campana, Peru. (Photo

Fig. 2 Tiquilia
paronychioides
(Boraginaceae), Huanchaco,
Cerro Campana, Peru. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 3 Tiquilia
paronychioides
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Tiquilia
paronychioides
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 5 Tiquilia
paronychioides
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 6 Tiquilia
paronychioides
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 7 Tiquilia
paronychioides
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 8 Tiquilia
paronychioides
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 9 Tiquilia atacamensis

Fig. 10 Tiquilia atacamensis

Local Food Uses
Tiquilia atacamensis: Chile: The root, fresh and peeled, is edible and sweet
Tiquilia atacamensis: Chile: Forage use (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.

2015;69:83–8.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Tribulus terrestris L.
ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Tribulus terrestris L.: Tribulus bimucronatus Viv.; Tribulus lanuginosus L.; Tri-
bulus saharae A. Chev.; Tribukus terrestris var. sericeus Andersson ex Svenson
Local Names
Chile: Michi, Gato, Pastito del campo, Cabeza de gato, Caremichi, Cabeza de
caballo; Peru: Abrojo, Cadillo.
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Summer annual that develops a mat of prostrate stems about 30–90 cm across; it
branches frequently at the base, and occasionally elsewhere. The round stems are
initially green, but quickly become brown; they are densely covered with short hairs
and sparsely covered with long hairs. The compound leaves are evenly pinnate,
consisting of 4–8 pairs of leaflets. Each compound leaf is about 5–10 cm in length,
and it has a hairy central stalk. The dark green leaflets are up to 2 cm long and 1 cm
across; they are, oblong, smooth along the margins, and sparsely to moderately hairy.
There is a short petiole at the base of each leaflet. The flowers occur individually
from the axils of the compound leaves on hairy pedicels about 1–2 cm long. Each
flower is about 1.5 cm across, consisting of 5 yellow petals, 5 triangular green sepals,
10 stamens with yellow anthers, and a pistil with a 5-lobed stigma. The petals are
well-rounded and longer than the sepals. Sea level to 3600 m (Macbride and
Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5).
Chile: The infusion of the aerial parts is used for the treatment of hernias (Rodriguez
et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Peru: Use for sharp pain in any part of the
body, inflammation (general), skin, intestine, liver disease, gallbladder disease,
tumors, and urinary disease (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann
and Glenn 2011a, b). Sold in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2010a). The species has
Fig. 1 Tribulus terrestris

(Zygophyllaceae),
Huanchaco, Cerro Campana,
Tribulus terrestris L. 1823
antibacterial properties (Bussmann et al. 2008). Normally used as admixture with

other species (Bussmann et al. 2010b). The roots are used in Ethiopia as toothbrush
(Bussmann et al. 2011c). In Pakistan, it is used to treat bloody diarrhea, urodynia,
irregular menstruation.

(Zygophyllaceae),

(Zygophyllaceae),

(Zygophyllaceae),

(Zygophyllaceae),
References
Rheumatism, Arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011a;10(3):397–412.
Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional medicinal plants used in northern Peru for kidney problems
and urinary infections. Arnaldoa. 2011b;18(1):77–94.
Tribulus terrestris L. 1825
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Northern-Peruvian medicinal plants - a low cost laboratory approach to assess biological
(4):742–53.
10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4.
Trichocereus atacamensis (Phil.) Backeb.
CACTACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Trichocereus atacamensis (Phil.) Backeb.: Trichocereus pasacana (F.A.C. Weber)

Britton & Rose, Pilocereus pasacana F.A.C. Weber, Cereus pasacana
(F.A.C. Weber) F.A.C. Weber, Echinopsis pasacana (F.A.C. Weber) Friedrich &
G.D. Rowley, Echinopsis atacamensis (Phil.) Friedrich & G.D. Rowley ssp.
pasacana (F.A.C. Weber) G. Navarro, Cereus atacamensis Phil., Echinopsis
atacamensis (Phil.) Friedrich & G.D. Rowley, Helianthocereus atacamensis (Phil.)
Backeb., Helianthocereus pasacana (F.A.C. Weber) Backeb.
J. Echeverría
e-mail: echeverriam@usach.cl
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Trichocereus atacamensis (Cactaceae), Cupo, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)
Local Names
Chile: Pasakana, Cardón, Cardón grande, Quisco, Chasudo, Kuri, Kewayllo, Captus
Botany and Ecology
Columnar cactus, up to 7 m in height and 70 cm diameter. Occasionally with few

lateral ramifications. Ribs: from 20–30 (less than 38). Areolae with brown fine
indumentum, whitish or yellowish thorns. In mature branches, they are larger.
Thorns 50–100. Light brown, not differentiable in marginal and central, and
mixed short and long. Some greater than 28–30 cm length. Root fasciculate.
Flowers lateral, from 10–14 cm long, narrow; white tepals with pink
tints; stamens of light green color, in two series; ovary and floral tube
covered with scales and black hairs. Fruits edible, sweet, spherical, 5 cm in
diameter, dark green, and densely covered by long hairs. Seeds black and bright,
1.5 mm long. 2000–3800 m above sea level (Señoret and Acosta 2013) (Figs. 1,
2, 3, 4, and 5).
Trichocereus atacamensis (Phil.) Backeb. 1829
Fig. 2 Trichocereus
atacamensis (Cactaceae),
Cupo, Chile. (Photo Lucas
Burchard Señoret)
Fig. 3 Trichocereus atacamensis (Cactaceae), Cupo, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard Señoret)
Fig. 4 Trichocereus
atacamensis (Cactaceae),
Cupo, Chile. (Photo Lucas
Burchard Señoret)
Fig. 5 Trichocereus
formosus (Cactaceae),
Toconce, Chile. (Photo Lucas
Burchard Señoret)
The fruit is used for the hangover after drinking alcohol (Señoret and Acosta 2013;
Local Food Uses
The fruit is called pasakana and is edible and sweet (Señoret and Acosta 2013;
Trichocereus atacamensis (Phil.) Backeb. 1831
The wood is used to make boards, doors, window frames, roof beams, and coffins.
Wood is highly valued for handicrafts to make bombs, lamps, tables. The flowers are
used to make “llipta”. The thorns are used to weave wool (Señoret and Acosta 2013;
References
Señoret F, Acosta JP. Cactáceas endémicas de Chile, Guía de Campo. ed. Corporación Chilena de la
Madera. Chile: Concepción; 2013. 250 p.
Trichocline caulescens Phil.
ASTERACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Trichocline caulescens Phil.: Onoseris lanata Phil., Trichocline nivea Phil., Tri-
chocline stuebelii Phil., Chaetanthera crispa Phil.
Local Names
Chile: Wanti, Garra de león, Bailabaila, Wailawaila, Bailabuena
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Acaul escent herb between 3 and 20 cm high, with short vertical rhizome. Leaves in
rosette, alternate or opposite, from 1 to 4 cm long, very tomentose, oblong-spatulate,
obovate-spatulate or orbicular, regular or irregularly crenate margin, serrated or
dentate with between 3 and 11 teeth. Terminal inflorescences, solitary chapters;
hemispherical involucre with between 2 and 3 series of bracts. Yellow marginal
flowers, ligulate, between 12 and 14 per capitulum; tubular central flowers, yellow.
Achene ellipsoid, papillose-pubescent 4 mm long, vilano with pluriseriate, copious,
and whitish hairs. 1800–3500 m above sea level (González and Molina 2017)
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).
Fig. 1 Trichocline
caulescens (Asteraceae),
Burchard Señoret)
Fig. 2 Trichocline
Burchard Señoret)
Trichocline caulescens Phil. 1835
Fig. 3 Trichocline
Burchard Señoret)
Fig. 4 Trichocline concinna

(Asteraceae), Ascotán, Chile.
Señoret)
Fig. 5 Trichocline
Burchard Señoret)
Fig. 6 Onoseris atacamensis

Señoret)

Señoret)

Señoret)
Trichocline caulescens Phil. 1837

Señoret)
Fig. 10 Onoseris
Burchard Señoret)
Fig. 11 Onoseris
Burchard Señoret)
The infusion of the aerial parts is used for stomach pain (González and Molina 2017;
Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003) (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11).
References
Triticum aestivum L.
POACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Triticum aestivum L.: Triticum aestivum subsp. vulgare (Vill.) Thell; Triticum
aestivum var. hybernum (L.) Farw.; Triticum aestivum var. hybernum (L.) Fiori;
Triticum album Gaertn. ex Steud.; Triticum amylosum Flaksb.; Triticum antiquorum
(Heer) Udachin; Triticum arundinaceum Schur; Triticum asiaticum Kudr.; Triticum
bucharicum Flaksb.; Triticum caeruleum Ard. ex Bayle-Bar.; Triticum cereale
Schrank; Triticum clavatum Seidl ex Opiz; Triticum compositum L.; Triticum
dicoccon var. timopheevii Zhuk.; Triticum duriusculum Flaksb.; Triticum erinaceum
Hornem.; Triticum estuvium Raf.; Triticum hieminflatum Flaksb.; Triticum
horstianum Clemente; Triticum hybernum L.; Triticum imberbe Desv.; Triticum
inflatum Kudr.; Triticum korlrti Clemente; Triticum linnaeanum Lag.; Triticum
orientale Percival; Triticum persicum Vavilov ex Zhukov; Triticum pulverulentum
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Hornem.; Triticum pyramidale Percival; Triticum quadratum Mill.; Triticum sativum

Lam.; Triticum sativum var. aestivum (L.) Alph. Wood; Triticum sativum var.
compositum (L.) Alph. Wood; Triticum sativum var. vulgare (Vill.) Wilm.; Triticum
sativum var. vulgare Desv.; Triticum sativum var. vulgare Hick.; Triticum sibiricum
Flaksb.; Triticum timopheevii (Zhuk.) Zhuk.; Triticum vavilovii (Tumanian) Jakubz.;
Triticum velutinum Schübl.; Triticum vulgare (L.) Salisb.; Triticum vulgare var.
aestivum (L.) Spenn.; Triticum vulgare Vill.; Zeia vulgaris var. aestiva (L.) Lunell
Local Names
Spanish: Trigo; English: Wheat
Botany and Ecology
Annual. Culms hollow, with glabrous nodes; leaves flat, usually glabrous nodes;
leaves flat, usually glabrous. Spikes linear, long, loose or dense, square or nearly so
in cross section, usually narrowed upward, not brittle; spikelets 4–5-flowered (upper
florets neuter), awnless or awned; glumes ovate, keel not prominent in upper part,
indistinct and almost disappearing in lower part, prolonged at the tip into a tooth, this
rather short, subobtuse, pointed, or tapering into a short, aristate point; lemmas
awnless or long-awned, awns usually divergent; caryopsis obscurely or slightly
compressed, farinaceous or vitreous. Widely cultivated (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7).
In Bolivia used to treat smallpox and measles (Quiroga et al. 2012). Wheat germ oil
is used in Colombia to treat intestinal constipation. Wheat flour is applied to the
irritated and inflamed surfaces of the body in the form of poultices to reduce
inflammation. Wheat starch is used in intestinal inflammations, burns and cracks
in the skin and as an anti-inflammatory and de-irritant of the mucosa of the digestive
tract. Wheat bran is recommended to treat constipation. (García Barriga 1974;
Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In Peru wheat is
used to treat vaginal infections and vaginal discharge (Bussmann and Sharon
2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010).
Local Food Uses
Widely used as food (Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12).

Triticum aestivum L. 1841
Fig. 1 Triticum aestivum (Poaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 5 Triticum durum (Poaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 6 Triticum durum and Triticum carthlicum (Poaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo
Fig. 8 Triticum aestivum

(Poaceae), harvest, garden,
R.W. Bussmann and

(Poaceae), harvest, garden,
R.W. Bussmann and

(Poaceae), harvest, before
winnowing, garden, Chicani,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

(Poaceae), harvest, before
winnowing, garden, Chicani,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 12 Triticum durum and Triticum aestivum (Poaceae), harvest, garden, Chicani, Bolivia.
(Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA,
Trixis cacalioides (Kunth) D. Don
ASTERACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Trixis cacalioides (Kunth) D. Don: Perdicium cacalioides Kunth, Trixis frutescens

P. Browne var. denticulata, Trixis hexantha S. Moore, Trixis papillosa Gillies ex
D. Don, Trixis neaeana DC., Trixis papillosa Gilles ex Don; Trixix paradoxa Cass.,
Trixis subparadoxa B. Herrera
Local Names
Chile: Visavisa; Peru: Añasquero Chico
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Perennial shrub, between 0.3 and 1.6 m high; very ramoso, with erect lignified
stems. Leaves between 1.8 and 12 cm long, alternate, sessile or shortly petiolate,
elliptical, lanceolate or ovate, acute or obtuse apex, entire edge, acute base. Terminal
inflorescences arranged in chapters, between 5 and 7 lanceolate bracts. White or
yellow flowers, between 5 and 7 per chapter. Fruit: Achene linear, papillose, with
vilano formed by between 2 and 3 rows of hairs white or pale yellow. Sea level to
Chile: the aerial parts ground and mixed with wheat flour and egg white are used
used to mend broken bones (González and Molina 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Villagrán and Castro 2003). Peru: used to treat arthritis, in mixture with other
species (Bussmann et al. 2010b). Antibacterial properties have been shown
(Bussmann et al. 2011a), while toxicity is low (Bussmann et al. 2011b).
In Peru used to rid the house of negative energy, daño/sorcery, fright/susto, bad
air/mal aire (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2010a, b; Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007
2015a, b).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
Trixis cacalioides (Kunth) D. Don 1851

Universidad de Tarapacá; 2017. 233 pp
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Ullucus tuberosus Caldas
BASELLACEAE
Synonyms
Ullucus tuberosus Caldas: Basella tuberosa Kunth; Melloca peruviana Moq.; Ullucus
aborigeneus Brücher; Ullucus kunthii Moq.; Ullucus tuberosus fo. albiflorus Kuntze;
Ullucus tuberosus fo. rubiflorus Kuntze
Local Name
Colombia: Chugua/Ulluco (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Ulluku (Kichwa),

Melloco, Melloco amarillo (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Varieties with
white tubers: Mestiza chchuccha, yurac-lisas, or yurac-ckolla, the last with tubers
produced in abundance but very small. Tubers yellow: Ckello-chuccha, ckello-lisas,
or ckello-ckolla. Tubers yellowish red: Bela-api-chchuccha. Tubers rose-colored:
Muru-chchuccha, muru-lisas, or muruckolla, the last large. Tubers reddish: Puca-
lisas
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Fig. 1 Ullucus tuberosus

(Basellaceae), garden,
Zambrana)
Botany and Ecology
An herb with potato-like tubers, at first erect but soon sprawling and somewhat
twining, succulent. Perianth parts spreading, narrowed abruptly from an oval base to
an elongate, nearly linear, appendage-like tip. Anthers dehiscent apically. Important
as food plant. In the cultivated form almost bushy in habit. The tubers attain the size
of small potatoes, but are usually more elongate, and generally pale yellow with
violet “eyes”. Leaves long-petioled, cuneate to subcordate at the base, rounded or
obtuse at the apex, often mucronulate, sometimes 20 cm broad; racemes of greenish
yellow flowers shorter than the leaves, bracteolate, the lower bractlets longer than the
pedicels. The tubers of the wild form are the size of pigeon eggs, roseviolet in color,
the plants developing little tubers in the leaf axils and attaining a length of 50 cm
(Figs. 1 and 2).
Local Medicinal Use
Colombia: Root used to treat constipation and childbed (Bussmann et al. 2018).
Ecuador: The fruit is used to treat toothache (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura). The
tuber is used to facilitate delivery (unspecified ethnicity-Other (Australian Region))
(de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Sometimes eaten to aid in childbirth (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2016; 2018; Monigatti et al. 2013).
Food Use
Bolivia and Peru: Often eaten, sometimes freeze-dried like potatoes (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2016, 2018; Monigatti et al. 2013).
Ecuador: The tuber is used in the preparation of soups or consumed boiled with
meat or cheese. It is an important Andean crop (Kichwa de la Sierra-Carchi,
Ullucus tuberosus Caldas 1855
Fig. 2 Ullucus tuberosus

(Basellaceae), pink tubers,
Cotopaxi, Loja; Unspecified ethnic group- Pichincha, Tungurahua, Azuay, Cañar,

Others (Andean Region)). The leaves are used to prepare soups (unspecified ethnic-
ity – no location) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The leaves are used to prepare soft drinks
(unspecified ethnic group – Napo) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Perú. St. Louis: William L. Brown Center, MBG; 2013. ISBN 978-0-9848415-8-5.
Uncaria guianensis (Aubl.) J.F. Gmel.
Uncaria tomentosa (Willd.) DC.
RUBIACEAE
Mimosa acantholoba (Humb. & Bonpl.
ex Willd.) Poir.
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Uncaria guianensis (Aubl.) J.F. Gmel.: Nauclea aculeata (Willd.) Willd.;

Ourouparia guianensis Aubl.; Uncaria aculeata Willd.; Uncaria spinosa Raeusch.
Uncaria tomentosa (Willd.) DC.: Cinchona globifera Pav. ex DC.; Nauclea
aculeata Kunth; Nauclea cinchonae DC.; Nauclea tomentosa Willd.; Ourouparia
tomentosa (Willd.) K. Schum.; Uncaria surinamensis Miq.; Uncaria tomentosa var.
dioica Bremek.
Mimosa acantholoba (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Poir.Mimosa acantholoba
(Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Poir: Acacia acantholoba Humb. & Bonpl. ex
Willd.; Mimosa colimensis B.L. Rob.; Mimosa eurycarpoides B.L. Rob.;
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Neomimosa colimensis (B.L. Rob.) Britton & Rose; Neomimosa eurycarpoides

(B.L. Rob.) Britton & Rose; Neomimosa russellii Britton & Rose
Local Names
Mimosa acantholoba: Ecuador: Uña de gato (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Uncaria guianensis: Bolivia: Uña de gato (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2016); Ecua-
dor: Kasha waska, Rinri kasha waska, Yaku kasha (Kichwa), Turiyai oja,
Umuco (Pai coca), Aigowe, Eigawen, Eyigoe, Ontaepome (Wao tededo),
Kenkuk (Shuar chicham), Uña de gato (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru:
Uña de gato; English: Cat’s claw
Uncaria tomentosa: Colombia: Bejuco de agua, Garabato, Garabato amarillo,
Rangaya, Samento, Ungananguí, Uña de gato; Ecuador: Eygawe (Wao tededo),
Kenkuk (Shuar chicham), Uña de gato (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Uña
de gato, Una de gato de la selva, Uña de gato de la costa (Spanish); English: Cat’s
claw
Botany and Ecology
Uncaria guianensis: Large shrub with scandent or recurved branches; leaves

short-petiolate, the blades oblong to broadly elliptic, 6–12 cm long, obtusely
short-acuminate, truncate to obtuse at the base; flower heads 2.5 cm in diameter;
calyx 4–5 mm long, turbinate, tomentulose; corolla white, 11 mm long, densely
pilose, the lobes obtuse; fruit 3.5–4 cm long, glabrate. In Colombia, the medicinal
uses include the treatment of symptoms associated with arthritis,
osteoarthritis, cancer, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, anemia, male impo-
tence, pains of the womb, and gastritis. The bark is mostly used in infusion (Díaz
2003; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015) (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).
Uncaria tomentosa: Large, more or less, scandent shrub, armed with stout spines.
Leaves short-petiolate, blades thin, oval to ovate or broadly oblong, 10–15 cm
long, acute or short-acuminate, usually pale beneath and minutely tomentose,
often glabrate and strigose on the veins; flowers whitish, fragrant, the dense
heads 2 cm in diameter; corolla 8–10 mm long, densely tomentose; capsule
6–8 mm long. In Colombia, the bark prepared in infusion or decoction and its
extract are used in the treatment of inflammatory diseases, arthritis, rheumatism,
abscesses, fever, asthma, allergies, viral infections, gastric ulcers, gastritis, men-
strual irregularities, lupus, dysentery, fatigue syndrome, as a tonic in convales-
cence, and to remove impurities from the skin. Some intestinal and kidney diseases
are treated equally with the decoction and/or syrup of the bark and the root (Díaz
2003; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015; Martínez Correa and Montes Martínez. 2017;
Uncaria guianensis (Aubl.) J.F. Gmel. . . . 1859
Fig. 1 Uncaria guianensis

(Rubiaceae), Moyebamba,

(Rubiaceae), Alto Ivon,
Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Ministerio de Protección Social 2008) (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)

(Fig. 5).
Mimosa acantholoba: Ecuador: Fresh whole plant used to treat cancer as falsification
of Uncaria. The bark of all species is used as anti-inflammatory to treat illnesses from
asthma to cancer and diabetes, arthritis, rheumatism, ulcers, fever, inflammations,
intestinal and urinary tract infections, as well as wounds. Due to large demand,

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 5 Mimosa nothacacia

(Rubiaceae), Pusac, Peru.
preparations are often falsified with the bark of Mimosa acantholoba and Mimosa
nothacacia (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, b; 2007) (Fig. 6).

(Rubiaceae), collected bark
for sale, Moyebamba, Peru.
Uncaria guianensis: Bolivia: The dried bark is used to treat gastritis/ulcers, liver,
rheumatism, cancer, uterine cysts, and kidney infection (Bussmann et al. 2016).
Ecuador: The bark and stem infusion are used to treat cancer, inflammations, and
pains, and it is believed that it could be used to treat AIDS (unspecified ethnic group
– Los Ríos; Sequoia, Siona-Sucumbíos; Kichwa del Oriente-Sucumbíos, Napo,
Orellana, Pastaza; Shuar-Orellana). The bark, macerated and boiled, relieves
cough, flu, abdominal pain, body aches, and malaise in general (Wao-Napo,
Orellana). The whole plant and especially the root are purifying (Kichwa of the
East-Sucumbíos; Shuar-Orellana). It is used as an antirheumatic (unspecified ethnic
group – Los Ríos) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Leaves and Stems, fresh or dried,
are used for bronchitis, kidneys, asthma, AIDS, allergies, rheumatic infections,
cancer, contraceptive, ulcers, prostate, bladder, arthritis, bones, blood circulation,
hemorrhages (internal), wounds (internal), and kidney inflammation (Bussmann and
Sharon 2006b, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010, 2011a, b, c). Cat’s claw
is one of the ten most commonly sold medicinal plants in Peruvian markets
(Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2009b; Bussmann and Sharon 2009, 2010), and one of
the most commonly falsified ones (Bussmann et al. 2015a). It is sometimes used in
emollients (Bussmann et al. 2015b). It has strong antibacterial activity (Bussmann
et al. 2008, 2009c, 2010a, b, 2011a, b).
Uncaria tomentosa: Colombia: Leaves are used to treat liver problems; bark, root,
and leaves are used to strengthen the immune system, treat rheumatism, arthritis,
herpes, gastritis, cancer, and as fungicide; bark and root are used to treat stomach
problems, kidney stones, intestinal inflammation, HIV, for healing wounds, gastro-
intestinal disorders, duodenum problems, as contraceptive, and as analgesic.
Ecuador: The stem, in infusion, is used to strengthen the immune system and to treat
the headache (Shuar-Zamora Chinchipe). The bark is used to treat diabetes and
kidney conditions (Wao-Orellana). The infusion of the cortex is taken to treat
gastritis, ulcer, and cancer (Shuar-Zamora Chinchipe). It is considered useful for
treating prostate cancer and other cancers (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura,
Sucumbíos). It is used for general health (unspecified ethnic group – Imbabura)
(de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Leaves and stems, fresh or dried, are used for
bronchitis, kidneys, asthma, AIDS, allergies, rheumatic infections, cancer, contra-
ceptive, ulcers, prostate, bladder, arthritis, bones, blood circulation, hemorrhages
(internal), wounds (internal), and kidney Inflammation (Bussmann and Sharon
2006b; Bussmann et al. 2007b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010; 2011a, b, c; Bussmann
and Sharon 2015a, b). Cat’s claw is one of the ten most commonly sold medicinal
plants in Peruvian markets (Bussmann et al. 2007a, b, 2009a, b; Bussmann and
Sharon 2007, 2009, 2010), and one of the most commonly falsified ones (Bussmann
et al. 2015a). It is sometimes used in emollients (Bussmann et al. 2015b). It has
strong antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008, 2009c, 2010a, b; Bussmann et al.
2011a, b).
Local Food Use
Uncaria guianensis: Ecuador: The juice that is extracted from the stem is drunk to
quench thirst (Wao-Napo) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Mimosa acantholoba: Ecuador: The wood is used to build fences (unspecified

ethnic group-Guayas) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
Uncaria guianensis: Ecuador: The stem (central part) is used as a basket brace
(Wao-Napo). The bark is used to make ropes (Wao-Orellana) (de la Torre et al.
2008).
Uncaria tomentosa: Ecuador: It is used to make fishing traps (Shuar-Zamora
Chinchipe) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
Revista Peruana de Biologia. 2010;17(2):331–46.
Rheumatism, Arthritis and sore bones. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011a;10(3):397–412.
of diabetes and cancer in Northern Peru. J Med Plant Res. 2011c;5(31):6916–30.
9789962-2-2.
developments and case studies in Ethnobotany. Recife: Brazilian Society of Ethnobiology and
2010. p. 184–207. 288 p.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Bussmann et al. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants of Northern Peru part II; 2009a.
Peru. Arnaldoa. 2009c;16(1):93–103.
(4):742–53.
Caballo” – Horsetail, in the markets of La Paz, Bolivia. Econ Bot. 2015a;69:89–93.
2015b;69:83–8.
D.C. NOVA. 2015;13(23):73–80.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
Urtica dioica L.
Urtica echinata Benth.
Urtica magellanica Juss. ex Poir.
Urtica urens L.
URTICACEAE

Synonyms
Urtica dioica L.: Urtica andicola Wedd.; Urtica echinata Benth. var. punctulata
Urtica echinata Benth.: Urtica tibetica W.T. Wang; Urtica galeopsifolia Wierzb. ex
Opiz
Urtica magellanica Juss. ex Poir: Urtica dioica var. pycnantha Wedd. & DC.
Urtica urens L.: Urtica trianae Rusby
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero

Local Names
Urtica dioica/Urtica magellanica Colombia: Chichicastle, Dominguilla, Ortiga,

Solimán; Ecuador: Ortiga negra; Peru: Ortiga, Orticga chica, Ortiga de oveja,
Ortiga negra, Hortiga; English: Stinging nettle
Urtica urens: Bolivia: Ortica, Itupalo (Bussmann et al. 2016a); Colombia: Ortiga,
Ortiga menor; Ecuador: Ortiga, Chige; English: Stinging nettle
Botany and Ecology
Urtica dioica: Perennial, rootstock creeping underground. Stems erect, 60–100 cm long,
glabrous or sparingly pubescent, with a dense coating of stinging hairs especially at the
nodes. The leaves ovate-cordate, coarsely serrate with incurved teeth, mostly cordate at
base, acuminate at apex. Stipules free, oblong, scarious, up to 12 mm long. The plants
are dioecious, with long branched inflorescences, covered with simple hairs and
scattered stinging hairs. The bracts of the flowers are small. The fruit is 1.25–1.5 mm
long and extends beyond the kernel. The plant can be found along roadsides, as a weed
among crops and near human habitations and in damp woods (Figs. 1 and 2).
Urtica echinata: Perennial herb, up to 30 cm tall; typical root. Laminar leaves,
petiolate, with urticating hairs that by simple contact produce very painful skin
irritations, provided with unicellular urticant trichomes. Cymose inflorescence. Uni-
sexual flowers, dioceous species; Actinomorphic flowers, perigoniadas, formed by
4 tepals. Female flowers with short style, ovary with feathery stigma. The fruit is a nut.
3600–4500 m above sea level (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 3 and 4).
Urtica magellanica: A perennial herb, up to 80 cm high, the stem glabrous or
pubescent, sparingly or sometimes densely armed with bristles; leaves ovate or
ovate-lanceolate, 2–7 cm. long, 1.5–5 cm wide, acuminate, cordate or rounded at
the base, coarsely serrate or dentate; flowers in androgynous glomerules or slender
spikes, the staminate flowers about 2 mm wide; achenes 1.2–1.5 mm long, strongly
compressed (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 5 and 6).
Urtica urens: Perennial, stems erect, 15–40 cm long; leaves elliptic or ovate, deeply
incised to dentate, rounded-cuneate at base, acuminate, the long petioles usually exceed-
ing the inflorescences; stipules small, green, free. Inflorescence containing both stami-
nate and pistillate flowers; the lateral perianth segments short, the dorsal ones enlarging
in fruit, ovate, investing, and as long as the achene; achene up to 1.5 mm long.
May–October. Weed-infested places, near human settlements, and on roadsides.
Urtica dioica: The nettle is used in Colombia as bactericidal, healing, anti-

inflammatory, antihemorrhagic, vasodilator, and to lower blood sugar. Nettle is
used as a stimulant for the production of lymphocytes. The roots are used as a
diuretic and in cases of enlargement of the prostate. The leaves of the Nettle are used
internally as diuretics and in disorders of the biliary tract, externally they are applied
Urtica dioica L. . . . 1867
Fig. 1 Urtica dioica

(Urticaceae), Bakuriani,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 2 Urtica dioica

(Urticaceae), Svaneti,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
as an anti-arthritic, to relieve osteomuscular pains and as a cicatrizant. The infusion

prepared with the leaves is used in the treatment of inflammation of the urinary tract
(Díaz 2003; Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015a, b; Ministerio de Protección Socia. 2008.).
Ecuador: Used against muscle pain (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a,
2007a). Peru: Used for blood purification, fever, rheumatism, arthritis, blood circu-
lation, hemorrhages, hair loss, asthma, hemorrhoids, and inflammation (general)
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). Nettles are among the most
commonly sold medicinal plants in Peruvian markets (Bussmann et al. 2007c, d,
2009; Revene et al. 2008).
Fig. 3 Urtica echinata

(Urticaceae), Uchumarca,
Fig. 4 Urtica echinata

Fig. 5 Urtica leptophylla

Fig. 6 Urtica magellanica

In India it is used as diuretic, anti-rheumatic, astringent, anthelminthic, for jaundice

and kidney hemorrhages (Joshi et al. 2010). In Pakistan, the species is used for
headache, fever, flu, myalgia (Sher et al. 2016), and as emollient (Ur-Rahman et al.
2018). In the Caucasus, Urtica dioica is used as antiseptic, for burns, hypertension,
to increase hemoglobin, for joint pain, and for nervous system problems
(Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b, c,
2017a, b, 2018). One of the few species is sold as medicinal plants in markets
(Bussmann et al. 2017c).
Urtica echinata: Chile: Relieves stiffness of joints caused by arthritis and rheuma-
tism. (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003). Ecuador: Used against
muscle pain (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: Stinging
nettles are used to treat hematoma, wounds, arthritis, rheumatism cough, bronchitis,
and flu (Monigatti et al. 2013).
Urtica magellanica: Peru: Used for blood purification, fever, rheumatism, arthritis,
blood circulation, hemorrhages, hair loss, asthma, hemorrhoids, and inflammation
(general) (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b). Nettles are among the
most commonly sold medicinal plants in Peruvian markets (Bussmann et al. 2007c,
d, 2009; Revene et al. 2008).
Urtica urens: Ecuador: Used against neurological pain and as blood purifier (Béjar
et al. 2001; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). In Peru, used for vaginal
cleansing and prostate problems (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b).
Nettles are among the most commonly sold medicinal plants in Peruvian markets
(Bussmann et al. 2007c, d, 2009; Revene et al. 2008).
Urtica massaica is used as antimalarial in Kenya (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006a).,
against cold (Njoroge and Bussmann 2006b), for back pain in women, and as
aphrodisiac (Njoroge and Bussmann 2009).
Local Food Uses
Urtrica dioica: The leaves are eaten as vegetable in Nepal (Kunwar and Bussmann
2008). Also widely eaten like spinach, and pickled, in the Caucasus (Batsatsashvili
et al. 2017; Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b, c, 2017a, b, 2018).
Urtica urens: This plant is used in Colombia to promote urinary activity, especially
to prevent the formation of stones and inflammations of the urinary tract. It is also
used in the treatment of rheumatic conditions. The decoction of the plant is used to
treat skin diseases and in the relief of allergies such as urticaria; it is used in all
allergies. The root is used to treat enlarged prostates and promotes urination. The
leaves are used internally as a diuretic and externally to relieve osteomuscular pain.
The fruits are crushed and applied as a poultice to treat skin problems and rheumatic
conditions. When the farmers want the chickens to hatch eggs, they whip them in the
belly with the fresh plant and after a few days, the chicken is at a temperature to
brood (Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1974;
Giraldo Quintero et al. 2015a, b; Ministerio de Protección Socia. 2008; Pérez
Arbeláez 1996).
Urtica urens: In curing ceremonies in Peru, it is used to treat bad air/mal aire, fright/
susto, luck in business, casting away bad luck, fright in children/susto en niños
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b; 2015a, b).
References
Tchelidze D, Aleksanyan A, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Urtica dioica
L. In: Bussmann RW, editor. Ethnobotany of the Caucasus. Cham: Springer International
Publishing; 2017.
Béjar E, Bussmann RW, Roa C, Sharon D. Medicinal herbs of southern ecuador – hierbas
medicinales del sur ecuatoriano. San Diego, Latino Herbal Press; 2001. 340 p.
XXVII; 2017. 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
amongst patients at Clinica Anticona in El Porvenir, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007c;5:185–99.
amongst patients at Clinica Anticona in El Porvenir, Peru. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007d;5:185–99.
2014;12:237–313.
016-0110-2.

Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Medicinal and food plants of Svaneti and Lechkhumi, Sakartvelo
(Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Med Aromat Plants. 2016c;5:266. https://doi.org/10.4172/
2167-0412.1000266.
Khutsishvili M, Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plant and fungal use in Tusheti, Khevsureti and
Pshavi, Sakartvelo (Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Acta Soc Bot Pol. 2017a;86(2):3517.
https://doi.org/10.5586/asbp.3517.
Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Ethnobotany of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Sakartvelo (Republic of Geor-
gia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017b;16(1):7–24.
Batsatsashvili K, Hart RE. Plants in the spa – the medicinal plant market of Borjomi, Sakartvelo
(Republic of Georgia), Caucasus. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2017c;16(1):25–34.
D.C. NOVA. 2015a;13(23):73–80.
D.C. NOVA. 2015b;13(23):73–80.
in Kumaun Himalaya. Medi Aromat Plant Sci Biotechnol. 2010;4(special issue 1):43–6.
2008;4:24.
Knowl. 2009;8(2):262–9.
Pérez Arbeláez E. Plantas útiles de Colombia. 5a. ed. Bogotá: Fondo FEN Colombia, DAMA,
Revene Z, Bussmann RW, Sharon D. From sierra to coast: Tracing the supply of medicinal plants in
northern peru – a plant collector’s tale. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2008;6:15–22.

Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Valeriana convallarioides (Schmale)
B.B. Larsen
Valeriana decussata Ruiz & Pav.
Valeriana microphylla Kunth
Valeriana micropterina Wedd.
Valeriana nivalis Wedd.
Valeriana officinalis L.
Valeriana pilosa Ruiz & Pav.
Valeriana plantaginea Kunth
Valeriana rigida Ruiz & Pav.
Valeriana scandens L.
Valeriana urbanii Phil.
CAPRIFOLIACEAE

Synonyms
Valeriana convallarioides (Schmale) B.B. Larsen: Phyllactis convallarioides

Schmale
Valeriana decussata Ruiz & Pav.: Valeriana clematoides Graebn.; Valeriana
melanocarpa Killip; Valeriana polemonioides Kunth
Valeriana microphylla Kunth: Valeriana alophis Graebn.; Valeriana amphilophia
Graebn.; Valeriana bonplandiana Wedd.; Valeriana gonatolophis Graebn.;
Valeriana hieronymii Graebn.; Valeriana organifolia Turcz.; Valeriana revoluta
Diels

Valeriana micropterina Wedd.: Valeriana poterioides P. Graebn.; Valeriana

thalictroides Graebn.
Valeriana nivalis Wedd.: Valeriana altoandina Cabrera.
Valeriana officinalis L.: Valeriana alternifolia Bunge; Valeriana alternifolia
fo. angustifolia (Kom.) Kitag.; Valerana alternifolia fo. verticillata (Kom.)
S.X. Li; Valeriana alternifolia var. angustifolia (Kom.) S.H. Li; Valeriana baltica
Pleijel; Valeriana chinensis Kreyer ex Kom.; Valeriana coreana Briq.; Valeriana
coreana subsp. leiocarpa (Kitag.) Vorosch.; Valeriana dubia Bunge; Valeriana
exaltata J.C. Mikan; Valeriana fauriei Briq.; Valeriana fauriei var. leiocarpa
(Kitag.) Kitag.; Valeriana leiocarpa Kitag.; Valeriana nipponica Nakai ex Kitag.;
Valeriana officinalis subsp. baltica Á. Löve & D. Löve; Valeriana officinalis subsp.
exaltata Soó; Valeriana officinalis var. latifolia Briq.; Valeriana palustris Kreyer;
Valeriana pseudofficinalis C.Y. Cheng & H.B. Chen; Valeriana stubendorfii
fo. angustifolia Kom.; Valeriana stubendorfii fo. verticillata Kom.; Valeriana
stubebdorfii Kreyer ex Kom.; Valeriana subbipinnatifolia A.I. Baranov; Valeriana
tianschanica Kreyer ex Hand.-Mazz.
Valeriana pilosa Ruiz & Pav.: Valeriana longifolia Kunth; Valeriana longifolia var.
pilosa (Ruiz & Pav.) Wedd.
Valeriana rigida Ruiz & Pav.: Phyllactis rigida (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.
Valeriana scandens L.: Valeriana bonariensis Speg.; Valeriana candolleana Gard-
ner; Valeriana phaseoli A. Braun; Valeriana scandens var. angustiloba Müll. Arg.;
Valeriana scandens var. genuina Müll. Arg.; Valeriana volubilis Sessé & Moc.
Ex DC.
Valeriana urbanii Phil.: Valeriana grisebachiana Borsini
Local Names
Valeriana convallarioides: Ecuador: Valeriana grande, Lirio

Valeriana decussata: Ecuador: Valeriana
Valeriana microphylla: Spanish: Valeriana
Valeriana micropterina: Bolivia: Valeriana (Spanish); Ecuador: Valeriana grande
rosada
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero
Valeriana convallarioides (Schmale) B.B. Larsen . . . 1877
Fig. 1 Valeriana bracteata

(Caprifoliaceae),
Pampalarama, Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana).
Valeriana nivalis: Chile: Wji, K’jata, Lechuguilla, Maransel, Maransela, Maransel

macho, Cursunera
Valeriana officinalis: Spanish: Valeriana
Valeriana plantaginea: Colombia: Chicudia atashi; Ecuador: Valeriana lirio
pequeño; Peru: Hornamo morado, Hornamo caballo, Horno morado
Valeriana rigida: Peru: Hornamo estrella, Siete sabios, Valeriana estrella, Valeriana,
Hierba de la estrella
Valeriana scandens: Spanish: Valeriana
Valeriana urbanii: Chile: Waje, Waji, Maransela hembra, Maransela del cerro
Botany and Ecology
Valeriana convallarioides: Root very stout, up to 2 cm. thick; leaves oblong-

spatulate, 6–12 cm. long, 1.5–3 cm. wide, subobtuse, entire, or obscurely crenulate
toward the apex, coriaceous, conspicuously parallel-nerved, ciliate, and sparingly
pilose in the lower half, glabrescent in the upper; peduncles 10–20 cm. long; bracts
several, slightly connate; flowers in a compact cyme, sessile; corolla tube 3–4 mm.
long, the limb 3–4 lobed, the lobes obtuse; fruit elliptic, 3–4 mm. long, glabrous
Valeriana decussata: Plant scandent, suffrutescent toward the base, the stem stout,
villosulous or at length glabrous; leaves opposite or fascicled at the nodes, short-
petioled, imparipinnate, the leaflets 2–3-jugate, lanceolate, linear-lanceolate, or
ovate-lanceolate, acute or acuminate, remotely denticulate or entire, scaberulous
above, sparingly to densely cano-tomentose beneath, the terminal leaflet 2–6 cm.
long, larger than the lateral ones; panicle up to 40 cm. long, trichotomous and
repeatedly dichotomous, the branches spreading or ascending; bractlets acute; fruit
ovate, 1.5–2 mm. long, 3-nerved on one face, 1-nerved on the other, densely
pubescent, black when mature, the pappus 10-rayed (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995) (Figs. 4 and 5).

(Caprifoliaceae), Uchumarca,

Fig. 4 Valeriana hirtella

Valeriana microphylla: A small shrub ca. 40 cm. tall with branches mostly above
the base. The stems are pubescent and pink tinged. The leaves are opposite, each pair
at a right angle to the next, crowded on the stem and held erect so that they cover
Fig. 5 Valeriana hirtella

Fig. 6 Valeriana lyrata

it. The leaves are small, hairless, curved, and egg shaped, ca. 1.5 cm. long with a
strong midvein. They are crowded on the erect stems; often, they have blackish
purple bases. Most branches originate well above the base. The inflorescence is at the
top of the stem, from which small white to pink flowers are disposed in clusters in
short branches grouped in 2s and 3s often forming a pyramidal head. The clusters
may open further with maturity. The flowers may be 2 cm. in diameter and the sepals
are often dark purple. Occurs commonly in the Andean Cordillera of Ecuador and
northern Peru at elevations ca. 3400 m, in forest fragments and paramos (Macbride
Valeriana micropterina: Plant essentially glabrous throughout, cespitose, the root

thick; stems erect, 15–40 cm. high, leafless or with 1–2 pairs of pinnate, sessile
leaves; basal leaves numerous, linear or linear-lanceolate in general outline, 4–15 cm
long, including a petiole nearly as long as the blade, imparipinnate, the leaflets
12–15-jugate, opposite or subalternate, subequal, ovate, or lanceolate, 3–10 mm
long, 2–4 mm wide, obtuse or subacute, sessile or short-petiolulate; flowers in dense
heads forming an interrupted spike, rarely the lower heads on short branches; flowers
polygamo-dioecious, the pistillate ones smaller than the others; fruit ovate, obscurely
3-nerved on one face and 1-nerved on the other, the pappus 10-rayed (Macbride and
Valeriana nivalis: Plant cespitose, the root thick, branched above; stems several,
erect, 5–10 (rarely up to 20) cm high, glabrous; leaves mainly basal, oblong-
spatulate or obovate-spatulate, the blade 1.5–3 cm long, subabruptly tapering to
the petiole, 5–13 mm wide, obtuse or rarely subacute, entire or obscurely serrulate,
coriaceous, glabrous; flowers in dense, solitary, terminal, globose heads up to 2 cm
in diameter, often 1–2 pairs of similar but smaller, peduncled heads below the
terminal one; bractlets broadly oblong-obovate, 3–4 mm wide; fruit ovate-oblong,
glabrous, obscurely nerved, the pappus 6-rayed (Macbride and Weberbauer
1936–1995).
Valeriana pilosa: Plant erect, about 30 cm high, the rootstock thickened; stem
pilose, often very sparingly so or glabrescent; basal leaves numerous, linear-
lanceolate or narrowly spatulate, 10–15 cm long, 0.5–1.5 cm wide, acuminate or
subobtuse, tapering to a poorly defined, sheathing petiole, glabrescent or faintly
pilose, the cauline leaves linear, 1–4 cm long; inflorescence narrow, trichotomously
few-branched, the flowers in dense clusters; bractlets obovate; fruit 1.5–2 rnm long,
glabrous, obscurely 3-nerved on one face and 1-nerved on the other, the pappus
6-rayed, pilose (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12).
Valeriana plantaginea: An erect herb with a rosette of leaves ca. 1 m tall and borne
from a stout rootstock with old leaf bases remaining intact. The leaves are lance to
spatula shaped and ca. 15 cm long with triangular tips and an impressed midvein.
The inflorescence stalk is stout, purple tinged near the rare pairs of stem leaves. The
stem leaves are ca. 1.5 cm long and borne on the stem without stalks. The flowers are
pale lily-colored and crowded onto branchlets grouped in 2s or 3s at the top, together
forming a pyramidal head. Occurs in partial shade of rocky, paramo grass and
shrublands of Ecuador and Peru at elevations ca. 3000–4300 m (Macbride and
Valeriana rigida: A tufted and stemless plant with dense whorls of leaves forming a
rosette in which many leaves lay against the soil. The leaves are odorous, lance
shaped with triangular tips, rigid with a prominent midvein, and hairless. A round-
topped head of flowers set nested in the whorl of leaves. Each flower has a narrow
petal tube, disposed with 3 petals, each being triangular. The flowers are white.
Occurs in wet areas of shrubby paramos of Ecuador and northern Peru from 3000 to
4500 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 15, 16, and 17).
Valeriana scandens: A slender, herbaceous vine, glabrous throughout; leaves trifo-
liolate, long-petiolate, membranous, the leaflets repand or sinuate dentate, rarely
Fig. 7 Valeriana pilosa

(Caprifoliaceae), Cajamarca,





Fig. 13 Valeriana
plantaginea (Caprifoliaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 14 Valeriana
plantaginea (Caprifoliaceae),
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 15 Valeriana rigida



entire, the terminal one broadly ovate, rounded or cordate at the base, the lateral ones
lanceolate-ovate, oblique; panicles axillary and terminal, lax, diffuse; fruit about
3 mm long, strongly 3-nerved on one face and 1-nerved on the other, glabrous, the
pappus 10-rayed. Widely distributed in the warmer parts of the American tropics
Valeriana officinalis: Perennial. Rhizome very short, indistinct, rarely up to
1–1.5 cm long, with numerous funiform fibrous roots and, often, depending on
soil conditions with more or less prominent underground or, less frequently, on
surface stolons (f. stolonifera), from 0.5 to 20 cm long, forming daughter plants at
apex. Stems solitary or several, straight and stout, cylindrical, hollow, simple,
branched only in inflorescence, greatly varied in size, from 10 to 200 cm, but usually
40–100 cm high, and up to 2 cm in diameter near base, sulcate, pubescent mainly in
lower part and along nodes with short, coarse hairs or completely glabrous, green or
violet red in lower third, with 4–7 (up to 14) leaf nodes. Leaves usually opposite, but
occasionally alternate (f. alternifolia) and sometimes in whorls of 3–4 (f. verticillata)
even on the same plant, lower leaves petiolate, upper sessile, odd pinnate, with 1–13,
but usually with 3–9 pairs of lobes (segments), terminal lobe especially in lower
cauline leaves, often larger and broader than lateral lobes, and on longer petioles, in
which case leaf lyrate-pinnate, first leaves of sprouts and shoots rosettes, whereas
occasionally lower cauline leaves undivided, sometimes all leaves completely
undivided or only with isolated, short, asymmetric lobes (var. integrifolia Ldb.);
lobes (segments) on short petioles, sessile, or decurrent along rachis of leaf (espe-
cially upper segments), from broadly ovate (and often nonequilateral) to narrowly
linear (f. angustifolia), obtuse, or acute completely entire or dentate, teeth minute
and isolated or coarse and remote, on both sides or only on one (often lower) margin;
moreover, on the same plant, shape of segments varies greatly in leaves from base to
apex of plant; in basal leaves segments always broader and more prominent dentate
than upper leaves, and in upper cauline leaves segments narrow, linear or lanceolate,
sessile and mostly entire; leaves glabrous or pubescent in varying degrees with very
short, less noticeable or long, setaceous, appressed or upright hairs, predominantly
along veins and beneath, but always more or less ciliate or setoseciliate along margin
of segments; veins thin and less noticeable beneath at places (in shady plants), or
coarse, sharply projecting in form of ribs; size of leaves varying to the same extent as
size of entire plant; lower basal leaves attain half the height of plant, segments of
leaves in largest specimens 10 cm long and 6–7 cm wide. Inflorescence mostly large,
corymbose, with one terminal or, often with additional 2–3 pairs of axillary trichot-
omous lateral cymes, lax and broad, flat or compact and spherical, at nodes setosely
pubescent, somewhat expanded at fruiting. Bracteoles linear-lanceolate, lanceolate
or ovate-lanceolate, herbaceous, always more or less coarsely ciliate along scarious
margin. Corolla usually 4–5 mm long, infundibuliform, from purely white to dark
pink and smoky violet. Fruits oblong or oblongovate, 2.5–4.5 mm long and
1–1.8 mm wide, completely glabrous or strongly or weakly pubescent on both
sides or only one side, with 10–12-rayed pappus, almost one and a half times as
long as achene. Introduced. Grows naturally in littoral and inundated meadows,
along riverbanks and marshes, in riparian forests, forest edges, and fields, also under
the canopy of broad-leaved forests, in scrub in gullies and steppe groves, meadow,
and mixed-herb steppes.
Valeriana convallarioides: Ecuador: Used to treat yellow fever (Béjar et al. 2001;
Valeriana decussata: Ecuador: Used to treat heart and nervous system problems
Valeriana microphylla: This plant is used in Colombia as a sedative and to treat
neuroses. (García Barriga 1975). Ecuador: Used to treat bone pain and cramps
Valeriana micropterina: Bolivia: Root used to treat heartache, nerves, stress,
tranquilizer, cramps, gastritis/ulcers, prostate, kidney infection, and for “air” (cul-
tural disease) (Bussmann et al. 2016a, 2016b; Justo and Moraes 2015; Macía et al.
2005).
Valeriana nivalis: The aerial parts are consumed in Chile as an infusion used against
fever, tuberculosis, and for uterine conditions. A plaster of the leaves relieves the
bruises or sores and sore feet (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Valeriana officinalis: This type of Valerian is in Colombia used as pain reliever,
antispasmodic, sedative, antiflatulent, to relieve colic, to reduce anxiety, nervous
tension, insomnia, and headache. Externally it is applied to relieve skin irritations,
rashes, and to treat inflamed joints. The roots are used in cases of hysteria and other
nervous disorders (Díaz 2003; Martínez Correa and Montes 2017; Ministerio de
Protección Social 2008). Ecuador: The root is used to regulate the heart rate and as a
tranquilizer (unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Colombia:
Inflorescence used to treat bronchial diseases, cough; root used to treat anxiety,
epilepsy, seizures, hypochondria, vertigo, headache, indigestion, mouth infections,
spasms, throat inflammation, toothache, menopause, and as sedative and tranquilizer
(Bussmann et al. 2018). Widely used medicinal plant species in Eurasia, e.g., the
Caucasus, and used for cough, heart problems, nerves, pleuritis, and pneumonia
Valeriana pilosa: Peru: Used for insomnia, headaches, and nervous system prob-
lems (Monigatti et al. 2013).
Valeriana plantaginea: The Cogui Indians of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in
Colombia use it to relieve abdominal pain (Carbonó-Delahoz and Dib-Diazgranados
2013). Ecuador: Used to treat bone pain and cramps (Béjar et al. 2001; Bussmann
and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: Used to treat menstrual pain, bone pain, arthritis
and rheumatism (Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b; Bussmann and Sharon 2006b,
2007b, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a, b). Sold in local markets (Bussmann et al.
2007, 2008, 2009).
Valeriana rigida: Peru: Used to treat insomnia, nerves, headache, menopause;
contusions, mental disorders, schizophrenia, and cerebral pain and used as relaxant
and sleep aid (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b; Bussmann et al. 2010a, b). Sold
in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007, 2008, 2009).
Valeriana scandens: This plant is used in in Colombia for the treatment of anxiety
and insomnia. (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra-Gómez et al.
2012; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008).
Valeriana urbanii: Chile: Poultices of the leaves are used to heal wounds, broken
bones, inflammations, and gangrene (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
Valeriana species are used medicinally worldwide. Valeriana wallichii is used in
India to treat hysteria, hypochondriasis, nervous problems, and itch (Joshi et al.
2010); Valerian hartwickii for urinary disorders, joint pain, and wounds (Bhat et al.
2013). Valeriana jatamansii is one of the most important medicinal plants in the
Himalaya. It is used in Nepal for headaches, eye problems, indigestion, wounds, as
analgesic, carmative, antispasmodic, antiseptic, expectorant, diuretic and sedative,
and anthelminthic (Kunwar and Bussmann Kunwar and Bussmann 2008), and in
India for wounds and blisters (Bhat et al. 2015), for abdominal pain, colics, cough,
colds, wounds, boils, skin diseases, and headache (Singh et al. 2017). In Pakistan,
the species is used for epilepsy and neurosis (Sher et al. 2016).
Local Food Uses
Valeriana nivalis: Chile: The aerial pàrts are edible (Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Valeriana microphylla: Ecuador: Used to treat mal aire/bad air (Béjar et al. 2001;
Valeriana nivalis: Chile: Forage use (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro
2003).
Valeriana plantaginea: Ecuador: Used to treat mal aire/bad air (Béjar et al. 2001;
Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). Peru: Used in healing ceremonies to treat mal
aire/bad air and for protection (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b, 2015a, b;
Bussmann et al. 2010b).
Valeriana rigida: Peru: Used as fragrance, for good luck, to always shine, for
spiritual flowering, good luck, bad air/mal aire, and success (Bussmann and Sharon
2006b, 2007b; Bussmann et al. 2010b).
References
Medicinales del Sur Ecuatoriano., 340p. San Diego: Latino Herbal Press; 2001.
Bhat JA, Kumar M, Bussmann RW. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in
Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2013;9(1):1.
2015;172:133–44.
Rev Peru Biol. 2010b;17(2):331–46.
9789962-2-2.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008;6:351–61.
Pharmacol. 2010b;4(9):580–629.
Bussmann RW, Paniagua-Zambrana NY, Sikharulidze S, Kikvidze Z, Kikodze, D, Jinjikhadze T,
loss of diversity – Ethnobotanical travels in the Georgian Caucasus. Ethnobot Res Appl.
2014;12:237–313.
016-0110-2.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Carbonó-Delahoz E, Dib-Diazgranados JC. Plantas medicinales usadas por los Cogui en el río
Palomino, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Colombia). Caldasia. 2013;35(2):333–50.
Ecol Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
2008;4:24.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.

Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
2017;13(49) https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0178-3.
Sher H, Bussmann RW, Har, R, de Boer HJ. Traditional use of medicinal plants among the Kalasha,
2016;188:57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.04.059
Verbena bonariensis L.
Verbena litoralis Kunth
Verbena officinalis L.
VERBENACEAE

Synonyms
Verbena bonariensis L.: Verbena bonariensis L. fo. albiflora, Verbena bonariensis

L. var. brevibracteata, Verbena bonariensis L. var. conglomerata Briq.; Verbena
litoralis Kunth var. brasiliensis, Verbena litoralis Kunth var. brevibracteata, Ver-
bena incompta P.W. Michael, Verbena elongata Salisb., Verbena trichotoma
Moench
R. W. Bussmann (*)
J. Echeverría
C. Romero
e-mail: romero.carito@gmail.com; carolina.romero@mobot.org

Verbena litoralis Kunth: Verbena affinis M. Martens & Galeotti; Verbena

approximata Briq.; Verbena bonariensis var. brevibracteata Kuntze; Verbena
bonariensis var. litoralis) Kunth) Gillies & Hook. ex Hook.; Verbena bonariensis
var. littoralis Hook. ex C. Müll.; Verbena brasiliensis Vell.; Verbena caracasana
Kunth; Verbena hansenii Greene; Verbena lanceolata Willd. ex Spreng.; Verbena
litoralis var. albiflora Moldenke; Verbena litoralis var. brasiliensis (Vell.) Briq.;
Verbena litoralis var. caracasana (Kunth) Briq.; Verbena litoralis var. glabrior
Benth.; Verbena litoralis var. leptostachya Schauer; Verbena litoralis var.
pycnostachya Schauer; Verbena nudiflora Nutt. ex Turcz.; Verbena parviflora
Larrañaga
Verbena officinalis L.: Verbena domingensis fo. foliosa Moldenke; Verbena
domingensis Urb.; Verbena domingensis var. cubensis Moldenke; Verbena officinalis
var. prostrata Gren. & Godf.; Verbena officinalis var. spuria (L.) Hook.; Verbena
riparia Raf. ex Small & A. Heller; Verbena russellii Moldenke; Verbena setosa
M. Martens & Galeotti; Verbena spuria L.; Verbena tenuispicata Stapf.; Verbena
urticifolia var. riparia (Raf. ex Small & A. Heller) Britton
Local Names
Verbena bonariensis: Chile: Verbena

Verbena litoralis: Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Peru: Verbena, Verbena negra
Verbena officinalis: Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Peru: Verbena
Botany and Ecology
Verbena bonariensis: Herb, stems square in cross-section (quadrangular) and

roughly hairy (scabrous) and sometimes develops a slightly woody base. Oppo-
sitely arranged leaves are stalkless (sessile) with bases that slightly clasp the
branches, with elongated (lanceolate), narrowly oval (elliptic) or oblong blades
(4–22 cm long and 6–70 mm wide) with pointed tips (acute or acuminate apices).
Their margins are irregularly toothed, particularly towards the tip of the leaf
blade. The upper surfaces of the leaves, like the stems, are coarsely hairy and
rough to touch (scabrous), while their undersides are densely softly hairy (tomen-
tose). The numerous small tubular flowers are densely arranged into branched,
finger-like, clusters at tips of the stems. These clusters (corymbs) are made up of
4–10 slightly elongated spikes 1–4 cm long. The stalks (peduncles) of these
clusters and the small bracts below each flower are covered with short sticky
(glandular) hairs as well as longer stiff hairs. Each flower has five small sepals
(2.5–3.5 mm long) that are fused together at the base into a tube (calyx tube). The
five bluish, purple, or lavender-pink petals are also fused together into a tube
(corolla tube) about twice as long as the sepals (6–7 mm long), but their tips are
Verbena bonariensis L. . . . 1893
Fig. 1 Verbena glandularia (Verbenaceae), Vegas de Chela, Chile. (Photo Lucas Burchard
Señoret)
separated into five spreading petal lobes (about 2 mm long). Flowering occurs
mainly during the rainy seasons. The small fruit separate into four brown seeds
(mericarps or nutlets) when mature. These are 1.5–1.8 mm long, elongated in
shape. Sea level to 2100 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 1).
Verbena litoralis / Verbena offcinalis: Perennial; stem erect, branching, 30–70 cm
long, its faces covered with appressed hairs; leaves ovate, ovate-oblong, oblong-
lanceolate, or oblong, 4–8.5 cm long, 1–4 cm wide, sessile cuneately tapering at
base, pinnatisect; the median trisect, large-dentate, with obtuse teeth; the upper
oblong, incised-crenate or (terminal) entire. Flowers numerous in sparse, thin,
terminal, 3–14 cm long, 0.3 cm wide axillary spikes, clustered in large, 12–20
(23) cm long, 7–13 cm wide panicle; bracts ovate or lanceolate, 2 mm long, 1 mm
wide, acute, shorter than calyx; calyx covered with sparse hairs, 2.5 mm long,
1.5 mm wide, teeth short, 0.5 mm long, acute; corolla pale lilac, 5–5.5 mm long,
nearly twice as long as calyx, its tube cylindrical, 3.5–4 mm long, 1.2 mm wide, the
limb 5-lobed, lobes unequal, three larger, 1.2 mm long, 1.7 mm wide, 2 slightly
smaller, 1 mm long, 1.5 mm wide; stamens 4; ovary oblong, 0.6 mm long, 0.3 mm
wide, style and stigma short; nutlets oblonglinear, dihedral-inflated, longitudinally
rugose, 1.8–2 mm long, 0.5–0.7 mm wide, shiny, reticulate-rugose, brown in upper
part, inside covered with dense white appressed scales. Forest edges, meadows,
glades, ravines, old riverbeds, and coastlines. In mountains up to 1200 m above sea
level. A weed of gardens, kitchen gardens, and roadsides (Figs. 2, 3, and 4).
Fig. 2 Verbena littoralis

Verbena bonariensis: The aerial parts consumed as an infusion mixed with salt and
alcohol are used to relieve wounds or pains of internal blows and cough (Rodriguez
et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003), lesions, wounds, dermatitis, ulcers, rashes,
and menstrual disorders. Prepared in decoction or infusion is used to lower fever. If
this decoction is administered in rectal lavages or in the form of tisane, it serves to
cure typhus. The juice extracted from the root of the Verbena is used against mild
cases of cholera. The macerated leaves and stems are used in the rebound of bile,
headaches, and liver diseases. Likewise, they are useful in the treatment of yellow
fever and typhoid fever and are commonly used to prevent excessive sweating,
against infections, and as general tonics. The decoction of the flowers is used to
regularize menstruation and as a tonic of the uterus (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-
Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de
Verbena litoralis: This plant is used in Colombia as an anti-infective, anti-inflam-
matory, for the treatment of gastrointestinal and liver problems, diarrhea, malaria,
fever, parasitism, and cough. It is also used in case of contus (Fonnegra-Gómez and
Fig. 3 Verbena officinalis

R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Verbena officinalis

R.W. Bussmann and
Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1975; Ministerio
de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Peru: Used to treat fever, intestinal fever, as laxative, for stomach pain, cholera,
wounds, herpes, and liver problems (Monigatti et al. 2013). Also used to remedy
fever, fungus hyperactivity, ADHD, inflammation, wounds (cleansing), blood puri-

fication, colic, and colds (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007; 2015a, b).
Verbena officinalis: Traditionally used in Colombia for the treatment of bronchitis,
colds, colic, eczema, insomnia, neuralgia, abdominal distension, headache, inflam-
mation, cough, and as anthelmintic, antispasmodic, healing, anti-inflammatory,
antihemorrhagic, expectorant, and to reduce fever (Díaz 2003; Ministerio de Pro-
tección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Peru: Verbena is an extremely important
plant in Peruvian traditional healing and has very wide applications. Also to remedy
fever, fungus, hyperactivity, ADHD, inflammation, wounds (cleansing), blood puri-
fication, colic, and colds (Bussmann and Sharon 2006; Bussmann and Sharon 2007;
Bussmann and Glenn 2010a, b, c, d, 2011a, b; Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b).
Always found in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007; Bussmann et al. 2008a,
2009a). The species has antibacterial activity (Bussmann et al. 2008a, b, 2009b,
2010a, b, 2011a, b). More recently, it is used to treat diabetes and cancer (Bussmann
and Glenn 2011a, b, c). Sometimes the species is added to emollients (Bussmann
et al. 2015).
Local Food Uses
The roots are added to pickled cucumbers for their special aroma. In Peru the species
are used for ritual healing (Bussmann et al. 2010c).
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010c;17(2):331–46.
Peruvian ethnomedicine. Arnaldoa. 2010d;17(2):255–70.
of diabetes and cancer in Northern Peru. J Med Plant Res. 2011c;5(31):6916–30.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Appl. 2008a;6:351–61.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Diaz D, Cardenas R, Chait G, Castro M, Regalado S, Del Toro C,
Malca G, Perez AF, Glenn A. Antibacterial activity of medicinal plant species in Northern Peru.
Arnaldoa. 2009b;16(1):93–103.
(4):742–53.
Pharmacol. 2010c;4(9):580–629.
2015;69:83–8.
Alcaldía de Medellín; 2012.. 305 pp.
(2):450–64.
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Vicia faba L.
FABACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Vicia faba L.: Faba bona Medik.; Faba faba (L.) House; Faba major Desf.; Faba
minor Roxb.; Faba sativa Bernh.; Faba vulgaris Moench; Orobus faba Brot.; Vicia
equina Steud.; Vicia esculenta Salisb.; Vicia vulgaris Gray
Local Names
Bolivia: Haba (Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005; Bussmann et al. 2016); Colombia:
Haba (Spanish) (Bussmann et al. 2018); Ecuador: Haba (Spanish) (de la Torre et al.
2008); English: Faba bean
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero
e-mail: romero.carito@gmail.com; carolina.romero@mobot.org

Botany and Ecology
Annual herb, plant 10–100 cm high (sometimes taller); stems erect, few branched,
tetrahedral, thick, glabrous; rachis ending in an awn; stipules large, up to 20 mm
long, ovate-triangular, more or less dentate, often with brown spot; leaflets of lower
leaves 1-paired, of others 2—3 -paired, elliptic or oblong, 4–8 cm long, 2–4 cm
wide, slightly fleshy, obtuse, mucronate. Flowers 2–4(6), in axillary short racemes,
subsessile, 2–3.5 mm long, with faint pleasant aroma; calyx tubular, teeth lanceolate,
long-acuminate, the upper shorter, attached; petals white; standard with violet
stripes; wings with black spot; pods at first ascending, later spreading, oblong-
cylindrical, 5–10(20) cm long, 1.5–4 cm wide, short-pubescent, glabrous at sutures,
brown when ripe, valves of ripe pods coriaceous; seeds 4–8, large, 1.2–2 cm in
diameter, usually flattened, oval, yellow or dark brown, sometimes of another color,
hilum elliptic, very short. Cultivated in gardens or in fields, sometimes escaped. The
origin of Vicia faba has not been precisely determined. Some botanists believe the
plant originated in North Africa while others say India (Fig. 1).
Bolivia: Flowers, fresh or dried, are used to treat eye irritation and cough (Macía
et al. 2005; Bussmann et al. 2016)
Colombia: In Colombia the stems, leaves, and flowers are used in juice and with
sugar as a remedy to cure pneumonia, bronchopneumonia, and other pulmonary
conditions (García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Seeds are used for burns and
healing wounds (Bussmann et al. 2018).
Ecuador: The leaves, crushed and mixed with other plants, treat inflammations,
headache, fever, and “relapses” (Kichwa de la Sierra-Tungurahua, Chimborazo). It is
used to treat purulent wounds and swelling (Mestiza-Pichincha) (de La Torre et al.
2008).
Fig. 1 Vicia faba (Fabaceae),

field in Svaneti, Georgia.
Vicia faba L. 1901
Local Food Uses
In South America, the species widely planted and eaten (Bussmann et al. 2016,
2018), it is, however, only rarely used for human consumption in Europe, due to
prevalence of Favism especially in the Mediterranean. The species is sometimes
planted in far eastern Europe (Bussmann et al. 2014).
Ecuador: The cooked fruit is edible (Eastern Kichwa, Shuar-Pastaza). The seeds are
edible, they are used to prepare sweet laundry, soups, among other foods, and to
produce flour (Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Loja; unspecified ethnic group –
Pichincha, Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008) (Figs. 2 and 3).
Ecuador: The leaves and stem are used as animal fodder, such as cattle (Kichwa de
la Sierra-Cotopaxi; unspecified ethnicity – Pichincha) (de la Torre et al. 2008). The
plant nitrifies the soil (unspecified ethnicity-Azuay, Cañar) (de la Torre et al. 2008).

harvest, Chicani, Bolivia.

harvest, Chicani, Bolivia.
References
2014;12:237–313.
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
Viola odorata L.
Viola tricolor L.
VIOLACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Viola tricolor L.: Viola macedonica Boiss. & Heldr.; Viola tricolor var.
hortensis DC.
Local Names
Viola odorata: Spanish: Violeta

Viola tricolor: Spanish: Pensamiento
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Viola odorata: Perennials; rhizome rather thick, short-jointed; stolons to 20–35 cm

long, shorter and sturdier than in V. odorata, mostly subterranean flowering in the
first year and then rooting and producing leaf-rosette and flowers; leaves round-
reniform, cordate, or broadly cordate-ovate, broadest in lower third, with deeply
cordate base, obtuse, or acutish at apex, crenate, puberulent, light green; petioles to
20–25 cm long, covered with hairs; stipules to 23 cm long, elongate-lanceolate, pale
green, long-fimbriate, subglabrous; flowers large, blue or pale violet, white at center
to middle of petals; peduncle with two large fimbriate bracts at middle of peduncle or
just below; sepals oblong, obtuse, rather short appendages appressed to peduncle;
petals elongate-obovate or (lower petal) broad-obovate, lateral bearded and like the
lower notched; spur whitish, 3–4 mm long, thick; ovary glabrous; style with
horizontal beak; capsule large, globose, with scattered short hairs (Figs. 1 and 2).
Viola tricolor: Annual or biennial herbs, 8–50 cm tall, dark green; stems erect or
mostly ascending, simple or branched, often strongly branched from base, rather
uniformly covered all over with short but fairly sturdy retrorse hairs; leaves
6–75 mm long, 5–20 mm broad, with 3–6 marginal obtuse or subobtuse teeth on
each side, short-hairy especially on margins and on midrib beneath; stipules some-
what more hairy than leaves, 3–30 mm long, pinnatipartite, with large, mostly
foliaceous terminal segment and with 0-3 inner and 3-6 outer lateral segments;
lower leaves broad-ovate, ovate-triangular or oblong-ovate, petiole longer than
lamina, this slightly notched, rounded or shortly cuneate at base; middle leaves
oblong-lanceolate, obtuse-tipped, gradually narrowed at base to indistinct petiole,
obtusely serrate; peduncles 3–12 cm long, with scattered short hairs in lower part,
glabrous above; sepals linear or oblong-lanceolate, 1.5–5 mm broad, margin rather
longciliate; appendages suboval or rhomboid, angular, 1.5–4 mm long, 1.5–2.5 mm
broad, irregularly toothed; corolla 18–27 mm long; lower petal 12–18 mm long
including spur, 7–15 mm broad, slightly curved spur 3.5–6 mm long; upper petals
obovate, mostly dark bluish-violet, less often pale violet; lateral petal oval, over-
lapping upper and similarly colored or lighter, with 1-3 dark nectariferous stripes at
base; lower petal triangular, with rounded margins, always yellow at base with 5-7
dark stripes, margin violet, often pale; spur bluish, rarely bluish-violet; capsule
oblong-ovoid, 7–10 mm long; seeds obovoid, ca. 1.5 mm long, yellowish-brown.
June–August. Dry meadows, margins and openings of mixed and coniferous woods,
rarely in open deciduous woods, alder groves, as weed in fallow fields. Widely
planted (Figs. 3 and 4).
Viola odorata: The roots of Violeta prepared in decoction serve in Colombia as

expectorants and sometimes as emetic. Violet leaves are used to reduce fever. The
flowers soften the cough, fluidize the secretions of the respiratory tract, and facilitate
expectoration. Flowers and leaves are used in the treatment of bronchitis, cough, and
Viola odorata L. . . . 1905
Fig. 1 Viola odorata

(Violaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia
Fig. 2 Viola odorata

(Violaceae), Tbilisi, Georgia
Fig. 3 Viola tricolor

(Violaceae), Cappadokia,
Turkey (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 4 Viola x wittrockiana

(Violaceae), garden, Chicani,
Bolivia (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
whooping cough (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; García Barriga 1975a,

b; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Viola tricolor: Thought to have depurative properties and is used in Colombia to
combat skin conditions such as eczema, fungal infections, acne, and itching. It also
acts as an expectorant, diuretic, and antispasmodic. It is used to treat bronchitis and
cough.
The entire plant, including the flowers, is used as a blood purifier, as an expectorant
and as a des-inflammatory. (García Barriga 1975b; Ministerio de Protección Social
2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In Peru used for heart problems, insomnia, nerve pain,
and epilepsy (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b). Viola canescens is used
in India as expectorant, diaphoretic, blood purifier, for respiratory and pulmonary
problems, to relief ear pain, and for skin ailments (Joshi et al. 2010). In Pakistan
Viola pilosa serves to improve eyesight. Hormonal imbalance in women, and
gastritis (Sher et al. 2016).
Viola tricolor is used in Peru in spiritual healing for pain of love, to forget pain,
fright/susto, bad air/mal aire (Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b;
Bussmann et al. 2010a; Bussmann and Glenn 2011). A common plant sold in
local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007), and often used together with other species
References
Viola odorata L. . . . 1907
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010a;4(9):580–629.
Instituto de Ciencias Naturales. Universidad Nacional; 1975a. 538 pp.
de Ciencias Naturales. Universidad Nacional; 1975b. 497 pp.
Vitis vinifera L.
VITACEAE

Carolina Romero
Local Names
Spanish: Colombia: Mata de uva, Parra, Vid (Colombia)
Botany and Ecology
Climbers up to 30(43) m tall, with stem up to 1.5 m in circumference; bark usually

peeling in strips, branches brown-red to brown-yellow, glabrous or simple-hairy or
flocculose, thinly furrowed, nodes usually with septum; leaves orbicular, pentagonal
or reniform, entire, 3–5-lobed or dissected, sometimes nearly pinnatisect (var.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

laciniosa (L.) Asch.), 5–20 cm in diameter, usually with narrow acutely angular,
sometimes closed petiolar incision, cordate at base, irregularly and usually obtusely
dentate at margin, glabrous or short-hirsute or long cobwebby, sometimes pubes-
cence mixed on individual plants, usually more hairy beneath, sparsely weak-hairy
to tomentose. Flowers bisexual or functionally pistillate then with short recurved
sterile stamens (purely staminate flowers rare, with stelliform-spreading corolla),
arranged in compound loose or more or less dense panicles, sometimes with tendrils,
racemes varying in shape, from cylindrical to cylindrical-conical, often winged; fruit
much variable, 6–22 mm long, globose, flattened, oval, elliptic, oblong, ovoid to
obovoid or irregularly shaped, very variable in color: black-violet, purple, dark red,
pink, yellowish, green or greenish, with thick or mucilaginous juicy pulp, usually
sweet or sourish; seeds 3–4, averagely 2(6–7) mm long, pyriform or ovoid, beaked,
chalaza appearing at about upper third of seed, rarely seeds absent. Flowering
May–June, fruiting August–September. Among the older cultivated plants of Eur-
asia, the cultivation of grapes dates at least 8000 years back in the Caucasus
(Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2018; Mehdiyeva et al. 2017)
(Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18).
Fig. 1 Vitis vinifera

(Vitaceae), Mstkheta,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Vitis vinifera 1911

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

(Vitaceae), Cappadokia,
Turkey. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

(Vitaceae), Svaneti, Georgia.
Vitis vinifera 1913

(Vitaceae), traditional Qvevri
(wine amphorae),
Ethnographic Museum
R.W. Bussmann and

(Vitaceae), grape relief on
cathedral, Mstkheta, Georgia.

(Vitaceae), Pinot grapes,
Duisi, Pankisi gorge, Georgia.

(Vitaceae), Adessa grapes,
Imereti, Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Vitis vinifera 1915

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and
The leaves of the vine are used in Colombia as a tonic in the vascular system, as a
constrictor of blood vessels, healing, anti-inflammatory, anti-hemorrhagic, and as a
diuretic. The leaves are used to treat venous insufficiency, hemorrhoids, and capil-
lary fragility; they are also used in decoction to cure diarrhea. Fruits (grapes) are
laxatives. Raisins or dried grapes serve as expectorants and anti-inflammatories
(García Barriga 1975; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez
1996). In Peru grapes are used to treat bronchial problems, and as laxative
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann and Glenn 2010). Vitis
vinifera is an introduced invasive species in Madagascar, where it is used to treat
urine retention and prostate problems (Rabearivony et al. 2015).

R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 13 Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), Samtskhe, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann and N.Y. Paniagua-
Zambrana)
Vitis vinifera 1917

(Vitaceae), home-made wine,
R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and
Local Food Uses
The fruits are widely eaten, and used to make wine. The leaves are used for food
(dolma). (Bussmann 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018; Mehdiyeva
et al. 2017) (Figs. 19, 20, 21, and 22).

R.W. Bussmann and

(Vitaceae), Samtskhe,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Vitis vinifera 1919

(Vitaceae), Cappadokia,
Turkey. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

(Vitaceae), grape leaves for
sale, Cappadokia, Turkey.

(Vitaceae), grape leaves used
for traditional dolma,
R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and

R.W. Bussmann and
Vitis vinifera 1921
References
XXVII; 2017. 746 p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1.
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
2014;12:237–313.
016-0110-2.
Mehdiyeva N, Alizade V, Paniagua Zambrana NY, Bussmann RW. Vitis sylvestris C. C. Gmel. In:
2017.
Werneria aretioides Wedd.
Werneria glaberrima Phil.
Werneria heteroloba Wedd.
Werneria nubigena Kunth
Werneria pumila Kunth
Werneria pygmaea Gillies ex Hook. & Arn.
Xenophyllum ciliolatum (A. Gray) V.A. Funk
Xenophyllum humile (Kunth) V.A. Funk
Xenophyllum incisum (Phil.) V.A. Funk
Xenophyllum poposum (Phil.) V.A. Funk
Xenophyllum weddellii (Phil.) V.A. Funk
ASTERACEAE

Javier Echeverría
Synonyms
Werneria nubigena Kunth: Werneria disticha Kunth; Werneria dombeyana

(Wedd.) Hieron; Werneria mocinniana DC.; Werneria nubigena var. dombeyana
Wedd.; Werneria stuebelii Hieron
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Werneria pumila Kunth: Werneria acerosifolia Hieron; Werneria calyculata

Turcz.; Werneria caulescens Grieseb.; Werneria densa Benth.; Werneria villosa
A. Gray
Werneria pygmaea Gillies ex Hook. & Arn.: Werneria apiculata Sch. Bip.;
Werneria brachypappa Sch. Bip.; Werneria brachypappus Phil.; Werneria
cochlearis Grieseb.; Werneria cornea S.F. Blake; Werneria denticulata S.F. Blake;
Werneria graminifolia Benth.; Werneria minima Walp.; Werneria rhizoma J. Rémy
Xenophyllum ciliolatum (A. Gray) V.A. Funk: Werneria ciliolata A. Gray,
Werneria juniperina Hieron
Chile: Pupusa, poposa, yaretilla.
Xenophyllum humile (Kunth) V.A. Funk: Werneria articulata S.F. Blake;
Werneria glandulosa Klatt.; Werneria humilis fo. articulata (S.F. Blake) Rockh.;
Werneria humilis Kunth; Werneria lehmannii Hieron; Werneria lehmannii Klatt
Xenophyllum incisum (Phil.) V.A. Funk: Werneria incisa Phil.
Xenophyllum poposum (Phil.) V.A. Funk: Werneria lorentziana Hieron.; Werneria
poposa Phil.
Xenophyllum weddellii (Phil.) V.A. Funk: Werneria weddellii Phil., Werneria
decumbens Hieron.
Local Names
Werneria aretioides: Chile: Yaretilla, Yareta hembra, Taksataks, Anki de cerro,

Warianke, Anke, Moñe, Moñi
Werneria glaberrima: Chile: Maransel, Maransel macho, Comida de vizcacha,
Maransela, Maransela hembra, Warillch’u
Werneria heteroloba: Bolivia: Marancela (Spanish), Jank’o warmi (Aymara)
Werneria nubigena: Bolivia: Jank’o warmi, Janukara (Aymara); Ecuador: Chicoria
blanca (Spanish) (de la Torre et al. 2008); Peru: Hierba de la señorita
Werneria pygmaea: Peru: Hierba del halago
Werneria villosa: Peru: Hierba del oro
Werneria sp. Ecuador: Clavel Amarillo de sepa, Clavel; Amarillo de yuca
Xenophyllum ciliolatum: Chile: Pupusa, Poposa, Yaretilla
Xenophyllum incisum: Chile: Pupusa del agua, Pupusa, Pupusa del campo
Xenophyllum poposum: Chile: Jasuaso, Jasoaso, Asoaso, Pupusa
Xenophyllum weddellii: Chile: Poposa, Pupusa, Purapura
J. Echeverría
Werneria aretioides Wedd. . . . 1925
Botany and Ecology
Werneria aretioides: Perennial herb with underground stems developed centrifu-

gally forming small flat cushions or plates. Rosette leaves. White marginal flowers,
ligulate and the tubular and yellow centrals. Inflorescence in solitary chapters.
4000–5000 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Werneria glaberrima: Plant up to 8 cm high, forming lax lawns, between rocks,
creeping rhizome. Linear leaves, somewhat spatulate towards the apex, of
2.3–7.8 cm 1.5–2 mm, conduplicated, apex obtuse to subacute, base somewhat
enlarged, membranous. Frames radiated, solitary, barely sticking out of the leaves.
Involucre flared, 1.4–1.7 cm, formed by 9–16 lanceolate bracts, fused at the base,
glabrous, acute apex; white about 16, white; numerous disc florets. Pappus white,
achenes glabrous, 3.5 mm. 3500–4600 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995)
(Figs. 1 and 2).
Werneria heteroloba: Perennial herb, small, prostrate, native to the highlands of
Peru, Bolivia, NW Argentina and N of Chile, in wetlands and bofedales of the
altiplano, 3900–4800 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
Fig. 1 Werneria glaberrima

Señoret)
Fig. 2 Werneria glaberrima

Señoret)
Werneria nubigena: An herb to 20 cm tall. The leaves arranged in a rosette at the

base, and the leaf bases bear dense wooly hairs. The old leaves are persistent. Each
leaf is linear and succulent with a prominent midvein. The flower heads are borne
single on a short thick flower stalk, often close to the ground. The flower head is
surrounded by a whorl of ca. 20 lance-shaped bracts. The ca. 20 ray florets have
showy white lance-shaped petals, each with two prominent and inset veins. The
bottom of the petals is pink. The disc florets are numerous and bright yellow with
style branches that curl outward. The outer florets open before those in the center.
Occurs in alpine slopes from Mexico to Bolivia at elevations between 3200 and
4000 m (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Werneria pumila: Low herbs up to 5 cm high, grow alone or in small groups. Leaves that
form a rosette that grows flush with the ground, up to 4 cm long, elongated and narrow.
Inflorescence, a head of about 2.5 cm in diameter, the reddish-brown bracts. Flowers of
two types: the marginal ones (around 20) irregular; they present a striking ligule up to
15 mm long, yellow, the internal ones (numerous) are tubular and with 5 teeth, yellow
fruits with a crown of white trichomes (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 7).
Fig. 3 Werneria nubigena




Fig. 7 Werneria pinnatifida

Señoret)
Fig. 8 Werneria pygmaea

(Asteraceae), Tocorpuri,
Señoret)
Werneria pygmaea: Creeping herbs with horizontal rhizomes or obliques of variable

size. Leaves arranged spirally, forming rosettes up to 5 cm high, linear sheets of
1–3 cm long, consistency chartaceous. Inflorescences in solitary heads at ground level,
2.5 cm diameter. Flowers of two types: the marginal ones (around 14) are irregular and
present a ligule up to 15 mm long, white, the internal ones (around 25) are short,
tubular, and with 5 teeth, yellow color. Fruit with a crown of trichomes 10 mm long,
white (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 8).
Xenophyllum ciliolatum: Aromatic herb, leaves imbricate, sessile, triangular, carnose,
3 mm long, laciniate-denticulate, capitula solitary, sessile at apex of branchlets, invo-
lucre purple, ligules few, 5–10 cm, yellow. 4000–5200 m (Beltrán 2016).
Xenophyllum humile: Plants in very compact pads, up to 1 m in diameter. Spiral
sheets and very tight, terete, up to 2 cm long, very narrow and thick, green with tips
yellowish Inflorescences in solitary heads at ground level, up to 1 cm in diameter
meter. Flowers of two types: marginal flowers around 12, irregular, ligulate, the
ligule white the disc flowers around 25, are short, tubular, yellow, with 5 teeth
(Beltrán 2016).
Xenophyllum incisum: Herb, leaves glabrous, crowded, cylindrical, at apex shortly
tridentate, 4 mm long, capitula sessile, involucre cylindric-campanulate, 7 mm,
phyllaries ovate-linear, obtuse. 4300–4400 m (Beltrán 2016).
Xenophyllum poposum: Sub-shrub, creeping, branched, forming lawns or cushions
of between 3–10 cm high; with branched rhizomes. Leaves imbricate, linear,
between 5 and 8 mm long, sheathing at the base, obtuse at the apex, entire at the
margin, glabrous. Terminal inflorescences; chapters with involucre between 5 and
8 mm high, filarias from 8 to 10, linear-oblong, obtuse, welded together halfway.
Marginal flowers between 6 and 8 per chapter, white corollas, long ligules; tubular
flowers ca. 25, with yellow or liliaceous corollas, between 9 and 11 mm long. Fruit:
achene oblong, between 2 and 3 mm long, side, with yellowish vilano. 3500–5300 m
(Beltrán 2016).
Xenophyllum weddellii: Stems and leaves forming non-compact aggregates
smaller than 0.4 m diameter The simple leaves with whole apex and the white marginal
flowers are characteristic of this species. 4000–5000 m (Beltrán 2016).
Werneria aretioides: In Chile the root is used to wash the hair making it grow. The
infusion of aerial parts is used for stomach pain (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and
Castro 2003).
Werneria glaberrima: In Chile the root mixed with Fabiana denudata and guano de
waicho (Agriornis sp.) is used to relieve back pains, sprains, bruises, and broken
bones. The root alone mixed with alcohol applied as a plaster is also used to relieve
pain in the waist, knees, and inner bruises. It is also a good remedy for uterine
conditions. The infusion of the aerial parts is used against the cold, problems of the
uterus during pregnancy and renal affections (Peñaloza et al. 2013; Rodriguez et al.
Werneria heteroloba: Bolivia: Fresh root, stems, and leaves used to treat uterus
prolapse and kidney infection (Bussmann et al. 2016).
Werneria nubigena: Bolivia: Fresh root, stems, and leaves used to treat inflam-
mation, Quirwación (pain on the sole of the feet), uterus problems, vaginal
bleeding, cancer, and cold (Bussmann et al. 2016). Ecuador: The root is used
to treat diseases of the digestive system (Mestiza-Pichincha). It is used as a
sweetener, cleanser, and tonic (Unspecified ethnic group-Azuay, Cañar) (de la
Torre et al. 2008).
Werneria sp. is used in Ecuador to treat yellow fever (Bussmann and Sharon
2006a).
Xenophyllum ciliolatum: In Chile the infusion of the aerial parts is used against
stomach pain and “soroche” (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
Xenophyllum incisum: In Chile the infusion of the aerial parts is used against
stomach pain, ulcers, and puna disease. All the plant mixed with Lampaya
medicinalis is used to bathe to fight muscular problems and headaches (Rodriguez
Xenophyllum poposum: In Chile used as a medicinal infusion for stomach pain. It is
marketed to lower the swelling of the stomach and as anti-flatulence (González and
Xenophyllum weddellii: In Chile used as a medicinal infusion for stomach pain. It is
marketed to lower the swelling of the stomach and as anti-flatulence (González and
Werneria and Xenophyllum species have no antibacterial activity. However, all
extracts have show considerable toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011a, b).
Local Food Uses
Xenophyllum poposum: In Chile also drunk as tea or as mate (González and Molina
Xenophyllum weddellii: In Chile drunk as tea or as mate (Beltrán 2016; Rodriguez
Werneria aretioides: In Chile the plant has forage use (Rodriguez et al. 2018;
Werneria pygmaea is used in Peru in spiritual healing for good business, protection,
good fortune, good health spiritual flowering (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007,
2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2010a). Often found in local markets (Bussmann et al.
2007). Normally used in addition to other species (Bussmann et al. 2010b).
Werneria villosa is used in Peru in spiritual healing so that all goes well in the life of
a person, home, good luck, big enterprise, personal, good business, protection, good
fortune, good health (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann et al.
2010a). Often found in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). Normally used in
addition to other species (Bussmann et al. 2010b).
Xenophyllum humile is used in Peru in healing ceremonies for the inducement of
love in men and women, for a woman to find a good man, making the feelings of
men and women clearer (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007, 2015a, b; Bussmann
et al. 2010a). Often found in local markets (Bussmann et al. 2007). Normally used in
addition to other species (Bussmann et al. 2010b).
References
Beltrán H. Sinópsis del Género Xenophyllum (Asteraceae: Senecioneae) del Perú. Arnaldoa.
2016;23(1):351–62.
978-0-9789962-3-9.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Pharmacol. 2010b;4(9):580–629.
de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M. P, Macía MJ, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas
González JS, Molina JJ. Flora nativa de la región de Arica y Parinacota. Arica, Chile: Ediciones
Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
Xanthium spinosum L.
ASTERACEAE

Rainer W. Bussmann
Synonyms
Xanthium spinosum L.: Acanthoxanthium spinosum (L.) E. Fourn.; Xanthium

ambrosioides Hook. & Arn.; Zanthium catharticum Kunth; Xanthium
cloessplateaum D.Z. Ma; Xanthium spinosum var. inerme Bel
Local Names
Bolivia: Amor Seco. Anu’chapi; Chile: Cola de caballo, Cepacaballo, Cetacaballo,

Cepicaballo, Cepa de caballo
J. Echeverría
R. W. Bussmann (*)

Botany and Ecology
Erect and much-branched annual herbaceous plant usually growing 30–100 cm tall,
but occasionally reaching up to 1.2 m in height, with spines at the base of the leaves.
The stems are greenish-yellow when young and are covered with fine hairs (finely
pubescent). They are armed with spines that occur singly or in pairs at the base of
each leaf stalk (in the leaf axils). These spines are usually three-pronged from near
their bases and may appear to be several spines at first glance. They are yellow or
greenish-white in color with prongs 15–50 mm long. The alternately arranged leaves
(2–10 cm long and 6–30 mm wide) are borne on stalks (petioles) up to 30 mm long.
The lower leaves are usually irregularly three-lobed, or occasionally with five lobes,
with the middle lobe much larger than the others. However, on upper leaves the side
lobes may be insignificant or absent, thereby giving the leaf blade an elongated
(lanceolate) shape. The leaf upper surfaces are dark green and shiny with prominent
whitish-colored veins, while their undersides are pale green or whitish in color with a
dense covering of downy hairs. Separate male and female (unisexual) flower-heads
are produced on different parts of the same plant (this species is monoecious). Male
flower-heads consist of numerous tiny flowers (i.e., florets) that are arranged in dense
rounded clusters. These male flower-heads are borne at the tips of the stems and
are yellowish or creamy-white in color. The greenish-colored female flower-heads
are borne singly or in small clusters in the upper leaf forks (i.e., axils), usually below
the male flower-heads. The fruit (8–15 mm long and 4–6 mm wide) is greenish when
young, later becoming yellowish or straw-colored, then eventually brownish as it
matures. It is an oval-shaped (i.e., ellipsoid) “burr” containing two seeds. These
“burrs” are stalkless (i.e., sessile), finely hairy, and covered in numerous small
hooked spines (2–3 mm long). They also have two small, straight, spines or
“beaks” at the tip (1–2 mm long), which may be difficult to distinguish from the
hooked spines. Fruits are mostly formed during late summer and autumn. The brown
or black seeds (about 10 mm long) are flattened, and one of each pair is slightly
larger than the other. Sea level to 3000 m (Figs. 1, 2 and 3).
Bolivia: The plant is used to treat mouth ulcers, chickenpox, malaria, measles,
scarlet fever, for blood cleansing, fever, cancer, cough, flu, mucus in the lungs,
and acne (Bussmann et al. 2016), as well as afts, hangover, stomach pain, muscular
pain, measles, and sterility (Quiroga et al. 2012). In Chile the infusion of the leaves
ingested for a month is used to treat bad blood, painful pimples, pimples and facial
blemishes, allergies, and smallpox. The infusion of the root is used for stomach pain
and urine disease (Rodriguez et al. 2018; Villagrán and Castro 2003).
The plant is widely used in the Himalayan region, where it has been introduced.
In Nepal the seed powder is used to remedy earache, diarrhea, and skin infection
(Kunwar et al. 2009); in Northern Indian Benghal boils, wound infection, as
cooling agent, for eye diseases, head ache, herpes, malaria, piles, rheumatism,
Xanthium spinosum L. 1935
Fig. 1 Xanthium spinosum

(Asteraceae), Zugdidi,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
ringworm, tooth ache, ulcer, and urine complaints (Verma et al. 2007). Uses in
Pakistan include malaria, skin ulcers, spinal trauma, indigestion, smallpox, scrofu-
lous tumors, and odontalgia (Umair et al. 2019).
Bolivia: Used to treat cultural illnesses (Rage) (Bussmann et al. 2016); Chile: Due to
the presence of thorns, it is used as carnival whip (huasca). The participants in the
“challa” are whipped so that they keep the rhythm of the dance (Rodriguez et al.
References
Kunwar RM, Upreti Y, Burlakoti C, Chowdhary CL, Bussmann RW. Indigenous use and ethnophar-
macology of medicinal plants in Far-west Nepal. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2009;7:5–28.
Xanthium spinosum L. 1937

Chile. Gayana Bot. 2018;75(1):1–430.
riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2019;15:1–31. https://doi.org/
10.1186/s13002-019-0285-4.
Xylopia peruviana R.E. Fr.
ANNONACEAE

Carolina Romero
Local Names
Spanish: Colombia: Achón, Cujicabro, Fruta de burro, Fruta del capuchino,

Fruteburro, Fruto de burra, Guaruchí, Malagueto, Malagusta, Sembé, Senvé
Botany and Ecology
Leaves rigid, elliptic, short-cuspidate at the apex, short-acute at the base, glabrous
above, appressed-hairy beneath when young, soon glabrescent and very densely
reticulate, 6–11 cm long and 3–5 cm broad; flowers solitary in the axils of the leaves,
on pedicels 3–4 mm long; sepals connate to the middle, 4 mm long; flower buds conic,
densely ferruginous-sericeous; carpels numerous; monocarps obliquely cylindric,
apiculate, 2 cm long; seeds 4, often less (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995).
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

In Colombia the leaves and fruits prepared in decoction are used as healing, anti-
inflammatory, anti-hemorrhagic, and colic. The fruits are used as toners of the uterus
to correct menstrual cramps and as tonics of the digestive system (García Barriga
Xylopia humboldtiana is used for back pain, stomach pain, fatigue, urine retention,
and dizziness in Madagascar (Rabearivony et al. 2015).
Local Other Uses
Xylopia ligustrifolia for construction purposes and firewood in Bolivia (Paniagua

Zambrana et al. 2017).
References
org/10.1186/s13002-017-0179-2.
Zea mays L.
POACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Zea mays L.: Mays americana Baumg.; Mays zea Gaertn.; Mayzea cerealis Raf.;
Mayzea cerealis var. gigantea Raf.; Zea altissima C.C. Gmel. ex Steud.; Zea
americana Mill.; Zea canina S. Watson; Zea erythrolepis Bonaf.; Zea hirta Bonaf.;
Zea mais var. hirta (Bonaf.) Alef.; Zea maiz Vell.; Zea mays fo. variegata
(G. Nicholson) Beetle; Zea mays var. pennsylvanica Bonaf.; Zea mays var. praecox
Torr.; Zea mays var. saccharata (Sturtev.) L.H. Bailey; Zea mays var. variegata
G. Nichelson; Zea mays var. virginica Bonaf.; Zea saccharata Sturtev.; Zea segetalis
Salisb.; Zea vulgaris Mill.
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Local Names
Bolivia: Maíz blanco, Choclo (Spanish) (Macía et al. 2005; Justo Chipana and
Moraes 2015; Bussmann et al. 2016a); Ecuador: Pishu fintsumi (Chafi’ki), Piyo
(Tsafi’ki), Chukllu akcha, Sara (Kichwa), Sara maíz (Spanish-Kichwa), Ppu’ppu,
Zaquira ppu’ppu (A’ingae), Ahi huea, Haha huea, Huea, Huea repa, Kina huea,
Kinapo huea, Ma huea, nea huea, po’re huea (pai coca), kagingo (wao tededo), shaa
(shuar chicham), choclo, Maíz, Maíz amarillo, Maíz colorado, Maíz sesenta días,
Morocho, Pelo de choclo (Spanish), Corn, Indian corn, Maize (English) (de la Torre
et al. 2008); Peru: Espiga de maiz, Chuno de maiz, Maiz (Spanish); English: Corn,
Maize
Botany and Ecology
Annual. Culms 100–300 (< 500) cm tall, hard. Leaves linear-lanceolate, broad,
with ciliate margins; ligule ca. 5 mm long, ciliate. Staminate spikelets lanceolate.
6–8 mm long and 3 mm broad-glumes acute, downy; lemmas ciliate. Pistillate
spikelets short, obtuse with ciliate glumes and naked lemmas. Kernel, depending
on variety, round-elongated. Maize was domesticated in southern Mexico around
4000 BC. Early civilizations of the Americas depended on maize cultivation. When
the Europeans arrived in the Americas, maize had already spread from Chile to
Canada. Maize was reported for the first time in West Africa in 1498, 6 years after
Columbus discovered the West Indies. The Portuguese brought floury grain types
from Central and South America to São Tomé, from where they spread to the West
African coast. Portuguese and Arab traders introduced Caribbean flint maize types
into East Africa in the mid 1500s, from where they spread to southern Africa.
Through the trans-Saharan trade, the Arabs introduced the flinty types that had
been brought to northern Africa into sub-Saharan Africa. The flinty types still
predominate in northern parts of West Africa while the floury types prevail in the
southern parts, with some variation from this pattern. Maize had become a staple
food in East and southern Africa by the 1930s. Maize has now an extremely wide
distribution. It is grown from latitude 58 N in Canada and Russia, throughout the
tropics, to latitude 42 S in New Zealand and South America, and in areas below sea
level in the Caspian Plain up to areas as high as 3800 m in Bolivia and Peru. It is
grown in all countries of Africa, from the coast through savanna regions to the semi-
arid regions of West Africa, and from sea-level to the mid- and high-altitudes of East
and Central Africa (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
In Colombia the stigmas of cut and dried corn flowers are prepared in decoction or
infusion as a diuretic and in inflammations of the kidneys; they are also used
in diseases of the urinary bladder (Bussmann et al. 2018; Fonnegra-Gómez and
Zea mays L. 1943
Fig. 1 Zea mays (Poaceae),

garden, Cicani, Bolivia.



Zea mays L. 1945

ripe cobs, Madacascar. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

ripe cobs, Madacascar. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1974; Patiño
1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bolivia: Fresh or dried stigma of flowers are used to
treat heartache, for blood cleansing, hair growth, uterus problems, kidney infection,
prostate, for slimming, as diuretic, relaxing and for lightning stroke, as diuretic, and
for colds (Bussmann et al. 2016a; Justo Chipana and Moraes 2015; Macía et al.
2005; Quiroga et al. 2012). Ecuador: With the corn kernel, boiled and ground,
dough is made that is applied to remove tumors and to treat wounds, bumps, and
ulcers. The grain, roasted and put in water, is taken to treat diarrhea (Mestizo-
Pichincha). The whole plant and, especially, the hair the corn, infused and combined
with horsetail (Equisetum giganteum), cerote (Hesperomeles obtusifolia), and plan-
tain (Plantago major), is used to treat nerves and kidney conditions. The infusion of
this plant together with taraxaco (Taraxacum officinale), escancel, kasha cerraja
(Sonchus oleraceus), calaguala (Polypodiaceae), artichoke (Cynara cardunculus),
plantain (Plantago major), carrot, and a lemon, is used to treat liver conditions
(unspecified ethnicity-Imbabura). The hair of the corn, in infusion, is drunk as a
diuretic and to treat liver and kidney pain (Tsa’chi, Mestizo-Pichincha; unspecified
ethnic group-Chimborazo; Shuar-Pastaza). The decoction of corn hair is drunk to
treat symptoms of abortion (Kichwa de la Sierra-Imbabura, Cotopaxi). The infusion
is used in baths or is drunk to treat measles. The infusion of corn hair, together with
llaten (Plantago major), mallow (Malva sp.) and borage (Borago officinalis), is used
to treat tiredness, heart decay, liver and kidney pain (Kichwa de the Sierra-
Tungurahua). The cob, as ash and mixed with water, is taken in the case of minor
bleeding after delivery (Kichwa del Oriente-Napo) (Bussmann and Sharon 2015a;
de la Torre et al. 2008). Peru: Fresh stigma of flowers are used to treat kidney
inflammations, inflammation (internal); dried seeds are used to treat chills, pain in
the lungs, kidney inflammation, general inflammations, for relaxation for angry
people; fresh leaves used to treat bad digestion, heart burn, and stomach acid
(Bussmann and Sharon 2006, 2015b; Bussmann et al. 2007, 2010; Bussmann and
Glenn 2010a, b, 2011; Monigatti et al. 2013). Maize is sold in markets everywhere
(Bussmann et al. 2007, 2009). Medicinally the species is normally used in mixture
with other plants (Bussmann et al. 2010). The medicinal use for urinary problems
has spread around the globe, and is widely practiced, e.g., in Eurasia (Bussmann
2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b), or Madagascar (Rabearivony et al. 2015;
Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015). There it is also used for stomachache (Rakotoarivelo
et al. 2015), gonorrhea (Razafindraibe et al. 2013), hepatitis, and kidney stones
(Randriamiharisoa et al. 2015). In Kenya the species is employed top treaty boils
(Njoroge and Bussmann 2007), and diarrhea, especially in veterinary medicine
(Njoroge and Bussmann 2006).
Local Food Uses
Widely eaten everywhere in Central and South America. Colombia: Widely eaten
cooked, and ground into flour (Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra
Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1974; Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996).
Ecuador: The fruit, cooked, roasted, roasted, or fried, is edible. It is used to prepare
chicha de jora, cakes, canguil (popcorn), and to obtain flour with which bread,
coladas, and tortillas are prepared or cooked in corn husks or “huaycundo”
(Bromeliaceae). The cofanes (Sucumbíos) use it to prepare chicha together with
Bactris gasipaes or Musa x paradisiaca. The Kichwa of the East (Napo) use it to
prepare chicha mixed with that of Manihot esculenta, Mauritia flexuosa, and
Oenocarpus bataua. In addition, edible oil is extracted from the fruit. It has been
the basis for pre and post-Columbian American food (Chachi-Esmeraldas; Mestiza-
Guayas; Tsa’chi-Pichincha; Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi, Loja; Cofán, Secoya-
Sucumbíos; Kichwa del Oriente, Shuar-Napo, Pastaza; Wao-Napo; unspecified
ethnic group-Guayas, Pichincha, Bolívar, Cañar, Azuay, Others (Coast and Sierra
Region, Central Interandina Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008) (Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
and 12).
Zea mays L. 1947

seeds for sale, market in
R.W. Bussmann and

cobs, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and

harvested cobs, Pshavi,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Fig. 10 Zea mays (Poaceae).


cobs in market, Tbilisi,
Georgia. (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
Maize straw is often used as cattle fodder. The cob-spathes are used for straw hats,
and various small articles, such as little baskets, money boxes, and similar objects.
Ash of the burnt stem is sometimes a substitute for salt. The cob is made into
Zea mays L. 1949

cobs in market, La paz (Photo
R.W. Bussmann and
pipe-bowls. In southern Africa the incinerated cob is included in a snuff (Fonnegra-

Patiño 1964; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Ecuador: The stem is used to produce coal
(unspecified ethnic group-Pichincha, Others (Costa Region)) (de la Torre et al.
2008). The inflorescence, leaves, fruits and stem are used as forage for guinea
pigs, pigs, cattle, and poultry (Tsa’chi-Pichincha; Kichwa de la Sierra-Cotopaxi,
Loja; Shuar-Napo; unspecified ethnic group-Guayas, Pichincha, Cañar, Azuay,
Others (Costa Region)) (de la Torre et al. 2008). Bees visit the flowers of this species
(unspecified ethnicity-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008). It is used to obtain cellulose to
make cardboard, cellulose acetate, and nitrocellulose. From the germ of the grain,
absolute alcohol and oil used to make soap, glycerin, explosives, and vulcanized oil
are obtained (unspecified ethnic group-Other (Coast Region)). The leaves are used to
wrap corn flour preparations (Kichwa de la Sierra-Loja) (de la Torre et al. 2008).
References
XXVII; 2017. 746p. ISBN 978-3-319-49411-1.
female health. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010a;6(30):1–12.
Rev Peru Biol. 2010b;17(2):331–46.
Bussmann RW, Glenn A. Traditional medicinal plants used in Northern Peru for kidney problems
and urinary infections. Arnaldoa. 2011;18(1):77–94.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Bussmann RW, Sharon D, Lopez A. Blending traditional and western medicine: medicinal plant
2007;5:185–99.
2014;12:237–313.
(Sakartvelo), Caucasus. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2016b;12:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/
s13002-016-0110-2.
plant markets of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2018;14(1):1–47. https://doi.org/
10.1186/s13002-018-0241-8.
de la Torre L, Navarrete H, Muriel M P, Macía J, Balslev H, editors. Enciclopedia de las Plantas
Corregimientos de Medellín. Medellín: Historias de vidas y plantas. Universidad de Antioquia –
Ecología en Bolivia. 2015;50(2):66–90.
(2):450–64.
2006;108:332–9.
Zea mays L. 1951

2015;11:60.
2013;9:73.
Zingiber officinale Roscoe
ZINGIBERACEAE

Carolina Romero
Synonyms
Zingiber officinale Roscoe: Amomum zingiber L.; Curcuma longifolia Wall.;

Zingiber aromaticum Noronha; Zingiber majus Rumph.; Zingiber missionis Wall.;
Zingiber sichuanense Z.Y. Zhu, S.L. Zhang & S.X. Chen; Zingiber zingiber (L.)
H. Karst.
Local Names
Bolivia, Colombia, Chile, Peru: Ajenjible, Jengibre, Gingembre, Gengibre; Quion,

Kion
R. W. Bussmann (*)
C. Romero

Botany and Ecology
Perennial herb, 50–80 cm tall, with alternate, lanceolate to linear-lanceolate leaves

arranged in 2 rows, sessile. Leaf blade length 2–4 mm, 15–30 cm long, 1.5–2.2 cm
wide, apex acuminate, base narrow, glabrous. Flower spikes 15–25 cm long, flowers
oval-shaped, 4–5 cm long, sepals ovate, about 2.5 cm long, pale green, with a pale
yellow edge, and a small pointed tip. Calyx tube up to 1 cm long with 3 short tines,
corolla yellow-green, tube length 2–2.5 cm, lobes 3, lanceolate, less than 2 cm in
length, median lobes of oblong petals oblong-ovate, shorter than corolla lobes, with
purple stripes and yellowish spots, ovate on both sides, with purple margins; stamen
1, dark purple, ovary 3-locular, glabrous. The majority of seeds are black. Flowering
in August (Fig. 1).
In Colombia the ginger rhizome is used to treat inflammations, rheumatism, gastro-

intestinal disorders, inflammation of the pleura, to prevent excessive sweating, as
antiflatulent, against stomach cramps, to promote the secretion of saliva, digestion,
against vomiting, and the spasms. It is also used for the treatment of diarrhea,
indigestion, cough, colds, and lack of appetite. Applied externally it is used to
relieve pain caused by neuralgia and trauma (Arias Alzate 1962; Martínez Correa
Fig. 1 Zingiber officinale

(Zingiberaceae), garden,
R.W. Bussmann and
N.Y. Paniagua Zambrana)
Zingiber officinale Roscoe 1955
and Martínez 2017; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). In
Peru ginger is used to treat colds, cough, and bronchitis (Bussmann and Sharon 2006,
2015a, b; Bussmann et al. 2007). In Peru ginger is used to treat colds, cough, and
bronchitis (Bussmann and Sharon 2006; Bussmann and Glenn 2010, 2011; Bussmann
and Sharon 2015a, b). It is sold in markets everywhere (Bussmann et al. 2007). Ginger
has well studied antibacterial activities, and no toxicity (Bussmann et al. 2011a, b). In
Madagascar the species is used to treat nausea during pregnancy and to help expelling
the placenta after birth (Razafindraibe et al. 2013).
Local Food Uses
Wide culinary use as spice.
References
Rev Peru Biol. 2010;17(2):331–46.
978-0-9960231-2-2.
9960231-3-9.
Turbo. 2017. 136 pp.
2013;9:73.

AA - Ethnobotany of The Andes - COMPLETE

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Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions

More information about this series at: https://www.springer.com/series/15885

Ethnobotany of the Andes

With 1411 Figures

ISSN 2523-7489 ISSN 2523-7497 (electronic)

Part I Regions ........................................... 1

Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions: Andes – Bolivia, Chile, Peru . . . . . 3

Part II Plant Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Acaena magellanica (Lam.) Vahl ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Agave americana L. AGAVACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Apium graveolens L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Bellardia trixago (L.) All. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

Calceolaria bartsiifolia Wedd. Calceolaria buchtieniana Kraenzl.

Cetraria islandica (L.) Ach. PARMELIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513

Cheilanthes myriophylla Desv. Cheilanthes pruinata Kaulf.

Chorizanthe commissuralis J. Remy POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

Chuquiraga atacamensis Kuntze Chuquiraga jussieui J.F. Gmel.

Cicer arietinum L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549

Cistanthe amarantoides (Phil.) Carolin ex Hershkovitz Cistanthe

Clusia lechleri Rusby Clusia minor L. Clusia pachamamae Zenteno

Coffea arabica L. RUBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583

Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist Conyza deserticola Phil.

Cydonia oblonga Mill. ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671

Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675

Cynara cardunculus L. ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681

Daucus carota L. Daucus montanus Humb. & Bonpl. ex Spreng.

Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl BRASSICACEAE ............. 697

Desmodium molliculum (Kunth) DC. Desmodium triﬂorum (L.) DC.

Dianthus caryophyllus L. Dianthus plumarius L. CARYOPHYLLACEAE . . . 707

Dictyocaryum lamarckianum (Mart.) H. Wendl. ARECACEAE ......... 715

Dioscorea tambillensis R. Knuth Dioscorea triﬁda L. f.

Diplostephium cinereum Cuatrec. Diplostephium gynoxyoides

Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene. POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745

Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. SAPINDACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749

Drimys granadensis L. f. WINTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755

Dunalia spinosa (Meyen) Dammer SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759

Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants

Echinopsis pachanoi (Britton & Rose) Friedrich & G.D. Rowley

Ficus carica L. Ficus insipida Willd. MORACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851

Hedera helix L. ARALIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933

Inga edulis Mart. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977

Jarava leptostachya (Griseb.) F. Rojas POACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005

Lilium candidum L. LILIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085

Maytenus krukovii A.C. Sm. Maytenus laevis Reissek EBENACEAE . . . . . 1185

Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1275

Oxychloe andina Phil. JUNCACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1353

Pimpinella anisum L. APIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1449

Pisum sativum L. FABACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1465

Plantago australis Lam. Plantago lanceolata L. Plantago linearis

Plukenetia carolis-vegae Bussmann, Paniagua Zambrana & Téllez

Polylepis pacensis M. Kessler & Schmidt-Leb. Polylepis racemosa

Portulaca oleracea L. PORTULACACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1515

Prosopis alba Griseb. Prosopis laevigata (Humb. & Bonpl.

Pseudognaphalium dysodes (Spreng.) S. E. Freire, Bayón &

Psidium guajava L. Psidium guineense Sw. MYRTACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1537

Pycnophyllum bryoides (Phil.) Rohrb. Pycnophyllum macropetalum

Pyrethrum parthenium (L.) Sm ASTERACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1549

Raphanus sativus L. BRASSICACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1553

Reyesia juniperoides (Werderm.) D’Arcy SOLANACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1561

Rheum ofﬁcinale Baill. Rheum palmatum L. POLYGONACEAE . . . . . . . . . 1563

Ricinus communis L. EUPHORBIACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1569

Rosa centifolia L. Rosa odorata (Andrews) Sweet ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . 1577

Rubus robustus C. Presl ROSACEAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1581