ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT & CONTROL

UNIT 2: SIGNAL CONDITIONING

2.1 Concept of Signal Conditioning

Signal conditioning is a process of data acquisition, and an instrument called a signal

conditioner is used to perform this process. This instrument converts one type of electrical
or mechanical signal (input-signal) into another (output-signal). The purpose is to amplify
and convert this signal into an easy to read and compatible form for data-acquisition or
machine-control.
A signal conditioner helps to provide precise measurements, which are essential for
accurate data acquisition and machine-control. These instruments can perform an
additional number of different functions.
For example, thermocouple signals have very small voltage levels that must be amplified
before they can be digitized. Other sensors, such as resistance temperature detectors
(RTDs), accelerometers, and strain gauges require excitation to operate. All of these
preparation technologies are forms of signal conditioning.

Functions of a Signal Conditioner :

Signal Conversion
The main function of a signal conditioner is to pick up the signal and convert it into a higher
level of electrical signal. Signal conversion is often used by industrial applications that use a
wide range of sensors to perform measurements. Due to the different sensors being
employed, the signals generated may need to be converted to be usable for the instruments
they are connected too. Any sensor signal is capable of being converted to any standard
process signal.

Linearization
Certain signal conditioners can perform linearization when the signals produced by a sensor
do not have a straight-line relationship with the physical measurement. This is the process
of interpreting the signal from the software and it is common for thermocouple signals. This
method is used to reach higher accuracy because every sensor is not completely linear. The
parameters for the linearization are evaluated during the sensor-calibration and mentioned
in the calibration protocol of the sensor.

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Amplifying
The next step is signal amplification and the process of increasing the signal for processing
or digitization. There are two ways that signal amplification can be performed; by increasing
the resolution of the input signal, or by increasing the signal-to-noise ratio.
Signal conditioning uses a range of different amplifiers for different purposes, including
instrumentation amplifiers, which are optimised for use with DC signals, and are
characterized by high input impedance, high common mode rejection ratio (CMRR), and
high gain. Another example of a signal conditioner used for amplification would be an
isolation amplifier, which is designed to isolate high DC levels from the device while passing
small AC or differential signal.

Filtering
Another important function of a signal conditioner is filtering, and this is where the signal
frequency spectrum is filtered to only include the valid data and block any noise. The filters
can be made from either passive and active components or digital algorithm. A passive filter
only uses capacitors, resistors, and inductors with a maximum gain of one. An active filter
uses passive components in addition to active components such as operational amplifiers
and transistors. State of the art signal conditioners use digital filters because they are easy
to adjust and no hardware is required. A digital filter is a mathematical filter used to
manipulate a signal, such as blocking or passing a particular frequency range. They use logic
components such as ASICs, FPGAs or in the form of a sequential program with a signal
processor.

Evaluation and Smart-functions

To provide additional benefits for the user and the process, modern signal conditioners have
extra functions for signal evaluation and measurement data preprocessing. This helps to
monitor and evaluate warning and alarms directly via an electrical switching output rapidly.
Additional Smart-functions like an internal calculated channel can handle mathematical
functions, like adding of sensor-signals, up to technological operations like a PID-controller.
These functions help to get a fast reacting system and reduce the load from the machine
control.

Interfaces
Signal converters have to transmit the sensor signals via standard interfaces and protocols
to the machine control. These interfaces can be analog or digital. Common analog interfaces
are voltage (+/-10V) or current signals (+/-20mA) which are easy to handle but every signal
needs a separate wiring. Modern digital interfaces are designed as Ethernet-based bus-
interfaces (Profinet, Ethercat, Ethernet/IP) and allow the connection of several components
with only one wire. This reduces the wiring and also allows additional information to be
transmitted, such as diagnostic information of the components, which is very important for
reducing down-times and speed up maintenance.

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2.2 BLOCK DIAGARAM OF AC & DC SIGNAL CONDITIONING AND WORKING

A.C. SIGNAL CONDITIONING SYSTEM

The block diagram of a.c. signal conditioning system is shown in the Fig

WORKING

This is carrier type a.c. signal conditioning system. The transducer used is variable resistance
or variable inductance transducer. The carrier oscillator generates a carrier signal of the
frequency of about 50 Hz to 200 kHz. The carrier frequencies are higher and are at least 5 to
10 times the signal frequencies. The bridge output is amplitude modulated carrier frequency
signal. The a.c. amplifier is used to amplify this signal.

A separate power supply is required for the a.c. amplifier. The amplified signal is
demodulated using phase sensitive demodulator. The advantage of using phase sensitive
demodulator is that the polarity of d.c. output indicates the direction of the parameter
change in the bridge output. Unless and until spurious and noise signals modulate the
carrier, they will not affect the data signal quality and till then are not important. Active
filters are used to reject mains frequency pick up. This prevents the overloading of a.c.
amplifier. Filtering out of carrier frequency components of the data signal is done by phase
sensitive demodulator.

The applications of such system are in use with variable reactance transducers and for the
systems where signals are required to be transmitted through long cables, to connect the
transducers to the signal conditioning system. This type of signal conditioning includes the
circuits like sample and hold, multiplexers, analog to digital converters etc.

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D.C. SIGNAL CONDITIONING SYSTEM

WORKING

The resistance transducers are commonly used for the d.c. systems. The resistance
transducers like strain gauge forms one or more arms of a wheatstone bridge circuit. A
separate d.c. supply is required for the bridge. The bridge is balanced using potentiometer
and can be calibrated for unbalanced conditions. This is the function of Cdlibration and
zeroing network. Then there is d.c. amplifier which also requires separate d.c. supply.

The d.c. amplifier must have following characteristics:

1. Balanced differential inputs.
2. High common mode rejection ratio. (CMRR)
3. Hlgh input impedance. 4. Good thermal and long term stability.
The d.c. system has following advantages:
1. It is easy to calibrate at low frequencies.
2. It is able to recover from an overload condition.

But the main disadvantage of d.c. system is that it suffers from the problems of drift.The
low frequency spurious unwanted signals are available alongwith the required data signal.
For overcoming this, low drift d.c. amplifiers are required. The output of d.c. amplifier is
given to a low pass filter. The function of low pass filter is to elliminate unwanted high
frequency components or noise from the required data signzd. Thus the output of low pass
filter is the required data signal. Thus the output of low pass filter is the required d.c. output
from the d.c. signal conditioning system

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The first stage is the input device which is nothing but a transducer which converts
measurand into an usable form i.e. electrical signal. In other words, the quantity measured
is encoded as an electrical signal. The next stage modifies the electrical signal in the form
suitable for the output or read-out devices. Generally the most frequently used electronic
circuits are amplifiers, with parameter adjustments and automatic compensation circuits
specially used for temperature variation. of the input device and non-linearities of the input
device.

The output is obtained from read-out devices such as meter, recorder, printer,display units
etc. In general, the quantity which is measured by using transducer can be encoded in
different ways. For example, as a physical or chemical quantity or property, as a
characteristics of the electrical signal, as a number. The property or different characteristics
used to represent a data is called data domain. The electronic aided measurement system
represents the measurement of physical quantity faithfully in the analog or digital form of it
obtained from the signal conditioning circuits. For passive transducers, the signal
conditioning circuit mainly' includes excitation and amplification circuitry, while for active
transducers, only amplification circuitry is needed and the excitation is not needed.
Depending on the type of the excitation either a.c. or d.c. source, we have a.c. signal
conditioning system and d.c. signal conditioning system.

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 2.2.1 V to I Converter

An op-amp is implemented to simply convert the voltage signal to corresponding current

signal. The Op-amp used for this purpose is IC LM741. This Op-amp is designed to hold the
precise amount of current by applying the voltage which is essential to sustain that current
through out the circuit. They are of two types that are explained in detail below.

As the name indicates, the load resistor is floating in this converter circuit. That is, the resistor
RL is not linked to ground. The voltage, VIN which is the input voltage is given to the non-
inverting input terminal. The inverting input terminal is driven by the feedback voltage which
is across the RL resistor.

This feedback voltage is

determined by the load current
and it is in series with the VD,
which is the input difference
voltage. So this circuit is also
known as current series
negative feedback amplifier.

From the above equation, it is

clear that the load current
depends on the input voltage
and the input resistance. That is,
the load current,, which is the
input voltage. The load current

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is controlled by the resistor, R. Here, the proportionality constant is 1/R. So, this converter
circuit is also known as Trans-Conductance Amplifier. Other name of this circuit is Voltage
Controlled Current Source.

The type of load may be resistive, capacitive or non-linear load. The type of load has no role in
the above equation. When the load connected is capacitor then it will get charge or discharge
at a steady rate. Due to this reason, the converter circuit is used for the production of saw
tooth and triangular wave forms.

Applications

 Low voltage ac and dc voltmeters

 Diode match finders
 LED and Zener diode testers

2.2.2 I to V Converter
A current to voltage converter circuit produces output voltage with respect to input
current. An I to V converter is used to convert varying current into equivalent output
voltage. This circuit is very much useful when the measuring instrument can measure only
voltages not the current and we want to measure the output current.

Open – loop gain A of the op-amp is very large. Input impedance of the op amp is very high.

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Sensitivity of the I – V converter :

 The output voltage V0 = -RFIin.

 Hence the gain of this converter is equal to -RF. The magnitude of the gain (i.e) is
also called as sensitivity of I to V converter.
 The amount of change in output volt ∆V0 for a given change in the input current ∆Iin
is decide by the sensitivity of I-V converter.
 By keeping RF variable, it is possible to vary the sensitivity as per the requirements.

Applications of I – V converter :

 One of the most common use of the current to voltage converter is

o Digital to analog Converter (DAC)
o Sensing current through Photodetector such as photocell, photodiodes and
photovoltaic cells.
o Photoconductive devices produce a current that is proportional to an incident
energy or light (i.e) It can be used to detect the light.

2.2.3 V to F Converter
The Voltage to frequency converter is accepting voltage input and converting it into
frequency. The voltage to frequency converter works on the principle of current integrator
and comparator. The Voltage to frequency converter in the first stage integrate the dc
voltage input and that is converted in to a ramp signal that signal is compared with a
comparator which provides either +V or –V output and that is again feed back to the
integrator so the integrator output is a triangular wave .The slope of the triangular wave or
ramp signal is proportional to the input analog voltage. The comparator section compares
the integrator output with zero reference and generates the square wave.

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2.3 INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER

An instrumentation amplifier is one kind of IC (integrated circuit), mainly used for

amplifying a signal. This amplifier comes under the family of the differential amplifier
because it increases the disparity among two inputs. The main function of this amplifier is to
diminish surplus noise that is chosen by the circuit. The capacity to refuse noise is familiar to
every IC pins which are known as the CMRR (common-mode rejection ratio).
The instrumentation amplifier IC is an essential component in the designing of the circuit
due to its characteristics like high CMRR, open-loop gain is high, low drift as well as low DC
offset, etc.

Requirements of a Good Instrumentation Amplifier

 An instrumentation amplifier is usually employed to amplify low-level signals,

rejecting noise and interference signals. Therefore, a good instrumentation amplifier
has to meet the following specifications:
 Finite, Accurate and Stable Gain: Since the instrumentation amplifiers are required
to amplify very low-level signals from the transducer device, high and finite gain is
the basic requirement. The gain also needs to be accurate and the closed-loop gain

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 must be stable.

 Easier Gain Adjustment: Apart from a finite and stable gain, variation in the gain
factor over a prescribed range of values is also necessary. The gain adjustment must
be easier and precise.
 High Input Impedance: To avoid the loading of input sources, the input impedance
of the instrumentation amplifier must be very high (ideally infinite).
 Low Output Impedance: The output impedance of a good instrumentation amplifier
must be very low (ideally zero), to avoid loading effect on the immediate next stage.
 High CMRR: The output from the transducer usually contains common mode signals,
when transmitted over long wires. A good instrumentation amplifier must amplify
only the differential input, completely rejecting common mode inputs. Thus, the
CMRR of the instrumentation amplifier must be ideally infinite.
 High Slew Rate: The slew rate of the instrumentation amplifier must be as high as
possible to provide maximum undistorted output voltage swing

Working of Instrumentation Amplifier

The output stage of the instrumentation amplifier is a difference amplifier, whose output
Vout is the amplified difference of the input signals applied to its input terminals. If the
outputs of op-amp 1 and op-amp 2 are Vo1 and Vo2 respectively, then the output of the
difference amplifier is given by,

Vout = (R3/R2)(Vo1-Vo2)

The expressions for Vo1 and Vo2 can be found in terms of the input voltages and
resistances. Consider the input stage of the instrumentation amplifier as shown in the figure
below.The potential at node A is the input voltage V1. Hence the potential at node B is also
V1, from the virtual short concept. Thus, the potential at node G is also V 1.The potential at
node D is the input voltage V2. Hence the potential at node C is also V2, from the virtual

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short. Thus, the potential at node H is also V2.Ideally the current to the input stage op-amps
is zero. Therefore the current I through the resistors R1, Rgain and R1 remains the same.

Applying Ohm’s law between the nodes E and F,

I = (Vo1-Vo2)/(R1+Rgain+R1) ——————— 1

I = (Vo1-Vo2)/(2R1+Rgain)

Since no current is flowing to the input of the op-amps 1 & 2, the current I between the
nodes G and H can be given as,

I = (VG-VH)/Rgain = (V1-V2)/Rgain ————————- 2

Equating equations 1 and 2,

(Vo1-Vo2)/(2R1+Rgain) = (V1-V2)/Rgain

(Vo1-Vo2) = (2R1+Rgain)(V1-V2)/Rgain —————— 3

The output of the difference amplifier is given as,

Vout = (R3/R2) (Vo1-Vo2)

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 Therefore, (Vo1 – Vo2) = (R2/R3)Vout

Substituting (Vo1 – Vo2) value in the equation 3, we get

(R2/R3)Vout = (2R1+Rgain)(V1-V2)/Rgain

i.e. Vout = (R3/R2){(2R1+Rgain)/Rgain}(V1-V2)

The above equation gives the output voltage of an instrumentation amplifier. The overall
gain of the amplifier is given by the term (R3/R2){(2R1+Rgain)/Rgain}.

Advantages of Instrumentation Amplifier

The advantages of the instrumentation amplifier include the following.

 The gain of a three op-amp instrumentation amplifier circuit can be easily varied by
adjusting the value of only one resistor Rgain.
 The gain of the amplifier depends only on the external resistors used.
 The input impedance is very high due to the emitter follower configurations of amplifiers
1 and 2
 The output impedance of the instrumentation amplifier is very low due to the difference
amplifier3.
 The CMRR of the op-amp 3 is very high and almost all of the common mode signal will be
rejected.

Applications of Instrumentation Amplifier

The applications of the instrumentation amplifier include the following.

 These amplifiers mainly involve where the accuracy of high differential gain is required,
strength must be preserved in noisy surroundings, as well as where huge common-mode
signals are there. Some of the applications are
 Instrumentation amplifiers are used in data acquisition from small
o/p transducers like thermocouples, strain gauges, measurements of Wheatstone bridge,
etc.
 These amplifiers are used in navigation, medical, radar, etc.
 These amplifiers are used to enhance the S/N ratio (signal to noise) in audio applications
like audio signals with low amplitude.
 These amplifiers are used for imaging as well as video data acquisition in the conditioning
of high-speed signal.
 These amplifiers are used in RF cable systems for amplification of the high-frequency
signal.

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