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13 MGR Eco Compress
13 MGR Eco Compress
PAPER 1.3
MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS
SYLLABUS
Unit 1 Managerial economics: Meaning, nature and scope;
Economic theory and managerial economic; Managerial
economics and business decision making; Role of
managerial economics.
Unit 2 Demand Analysis: Meaning, types and determinants of
demand.
Unit 3 Cost Concepts: Cost function and cost output
relationship; Economics and diseconomies of scale;
Cost control and cost reduction.
Unit 4 Production Functions: Pricing and output decisions
under competitive conditions; Government control over
pricing; Price discrimination; Price discount and
differentials.
Unit 5 Profit: Measurement of profit; Profit planning and
forecasting; Profit maximization; Cost volume profit
analysis; Investment analysis.
Unit 6 National Income: Business cycle; Inflation and deflation;
Balance of payment; Their implications in managerial
decision.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
CONTENTS
0. SYLLABUS MgrEco-1300.doc
1. NATURE & SCOPE OF MANAGERIAL MgrEco-1301.doc
ECONOMICS
2. DEMAND ANALYSIS MgrEco-1302.doc
3. COST CONCEPTS MgrEco-1303.doc
4. PRODUCTION FUNCTION MgrEco-1304.doc
5. PROFIT MgrEco-1305.doc
6. NATIONAL INCOME MgrEco-1306.doc
LESSON – 1
DEFINITION
According to McNair the Merriam, Managerial Economics consists of
the use of economic modes of thought to analyse business situations.
Spencer and Siegelman have defined Managerial Economics as
“the integration of economic theory with business practice for the
purpose of facilitating decision-making and forward planning by
management.”
The above definitions suggest that Managerial economics is the
discipline, which deals with the application of economic theory to
business management. Managerial Economics thus lies on the margin
between economics and business management and serves as the
bridge between the two disciplines. The following Figure 1.1 shows
the relationship between economics, business management and
managerial economics.
APPLICATION OF ECONOMICS TO BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
The application of economics to business management or the
integration of economic theory with business practice, as Spencer
and Siegelman have put it, has the following aspects :
• Reconciling traditional theoretical concepts of
economics in relation to the actual business behavior
and conditions: In economic theory, the technique of analysis
is that of model building. This involves making some
assumptions and, drawing conclusions on the basis of the
assumptions about the behavior of the firms. The assumptions,
however, make the theory of the firm unrealistic since it fails to
provide a satisfactory explanation of what the firms actually do.
Hence, there is need to reconcile the theoretical principles
based on simplified assumptions with actual business practice
and develop appropriate extensions and reformulation of
economic theory. For example, it is usually assumed that firms
aim at maximising profits. Based on this, the theory of the firm
suggests how much the firm will produce and at what price it
would sell. In practice, however, firms do not always aim at
maximum profits (as they may think of diversifying or
introducing new product etc.) To that extent, the theory of the
firm fails to provide a satisfactory explanation of the firm’s
actual behavior. Moreover, in actual business language, certain
terms like profits and costs have accounting concepts as
distinguished from economic concepts. In managerial
economics, an attempt is made to merge the accounting
concepts with the economics, an attempt is made to merge the
accounting concepts with the economic concepts. This helps in
a more effective use of financial data related to profits and
costs to suit the needs of decision-making and forward
planning.
• Estimating economic relationships: This involves the
measurement of various types of elasticities of demand such as
price elasticity, income elasticity, cross-elasticity, promotional
elasticity and cost-output relationships. The estimates of these
economic relationships are to be used for the purpose of
forecasting.
• Predicting relevant economic quantities: Economic
quantities such as profit, demand, production, costs, pricing
and capital are predicated in numerical terms together with
their probabilities. As the business manager has to work in an
environment of uncertainty, the future needs to be foreseen so
that in the light of the predicted estimates, decision-making
and forward planning may be possible.
• Using economic quantities in decision-making and
forward planning: This involves formulating business policies
for establishing future business plans. This nature of economic
forecasting indicates the degree of probability of various
possible outcomes, i.e., losses or gains that will occur as a
result of following each one of the available strategies. Thus, a
quantified picture gets set up, that indicates the number of
courses open, their possible outcomes and the quantified
probability of each outcome. Keeping this picture in view, the
business manager is able to decide about which strategy
should be chosen.
• Understanding significant external forces: Applying
economic theory to business management also involves
understanding the important external forces that constitute the
business environment and with which a business must adjust.
Business cycles, fluctuations in national income and
government policies pertaining to taxation, foreign trade,
labour relations, antimonopoly measures, industrial licensing
and price controls are typical examples. The business manager
has to appraise the relevance and impact of these external
forces in relation to the particular business unit and its business
policies.
While it appeared in the first instance that the order will result
in a loss of Rs. 1,000, it now appears that it will lead to an addition of
Rs. 1,500 (Rs. 5,000- Rs. 3,500) to profit. Incremental reasoning does
not mean that the firm should accept all orders at prices, which cover
merely their incremental costs. The acceptance of the Rs. 5,000 order
depends upon the existence of idle capacity and labour that would go
unutilised in the absence of more profitable opportunities. Earley’s
study of “excellently managed” large firms suggests that progressive
corporations do make formal use of incremental analysis. It is,
however, impossible to generalise on the use of incremental principle,
since the observed behaviour is variable.
IIIustration
Suppose there is a firm with temporary idle capacity. An order for
5,000 units comes to management’s attention. The customer is
willing to pay Rs. 4.00 per unit or Rs. 20,000 for the whole lot but not
more. The short-run incremental cost (ignoring the fixed cost) is only
Rs. 3.00. Therefore, the contribution to overhead and profit is Re.
1.00 per unit (Rs. 5,000 for the lot. However, the long-run
repercussions of the order ought to be taken into account are as
follows:
• If the management commits itself with too much of business at
lower prices or with a small contribution, it may not have
sufficient capacity to take up business with higher
contributions when the opportunity arises. The management
may be compelled to consider the question of expansion of
capacity and in such cases; even the so-called fixed costs may
become variable.
• If any particular set of customers come to know about this low
price, they may demand a similar low price. Such customers
may complain of being treated unfairly and feel discriminated.
In response, they may opt to patronise manufacturers with
more decent views on pricing. The reduction or prices under
conditions of excess capacity may adversely affect the image
of the company in the minds of its clientele, which will in turn
affect its sales.
It is, therefore, important to give due consideration to the time
perspective. The principle of time perspective may be stated as
under: ‘A decision should take into account both the short-run and
long-run effects on revenues and costs and maintain the right
balance between the long-run and short-run perspectives.”
Haynes, Mote and Paul have cited the case of a printing
company. This company pursued the policy of never quoting prices
below full cost though it often experienced idle capacity and the
management was fully aware that the incremental cost was far below
full cost. This was because the management realised that the long-
run repercussions of pricing below full cost would make up for any
short-run gain. The management felt that the reduction in rates for
some customers might have an undesirable effect on customer
goodwill particularly among regular customers not benefiting from
price reductions. It wanted to avoid crating such an “image” of the
firm that it exploited the market when demand was favorable but
which was willing to negotiate prices downward when demand was
unfavorable.
4. Discounting Principle
One of the fundamental ideas in economics is that a rupee tomorrow
is worth less than a rupee today. This seems similar to the saying that
a bird in hand is worth two in the bush. A simple example would make
this point clear. Suppose a person is offered a choice to make
between a gift of Rs. 100 today or Rs. 100 next year. Naturally he will
choose the Rs. 100 today.
This is true for two reasons. First, the future is uncertain and
there may be uncertainty in getting Rs. 100 if the present opportunity
is not availed of. Secondly, even if he is sure to receive the gift in
future, today’s Rs. 100 can be invested so as to earn interest, say, at
8 percent so that. one year after the Rs. 100 of today will become Rs.
108 whereas if he does not accept Rs. 100 today, he will get Rs. 100
only in the next year. Naturally, he would prefer the first alternative
because he is likely to gain by Rs. 8 in future. Another way of saying
the same thing is that the value of Rs. 100 after one year is not equal
to the value of Rs. 100 of today but less than that. To find out how
much money today is equal to Rs. 100 would earn if one decides to
invest the money. Suppose the rate of interest is 8 percent. Then we
shall have to discount Rs. 100 at 8 per cent in order to ascertain how
much money today will become Rs. 100 one year after. The formula
is:
Rs. 100
1+i
V=
where,
V = present value
i = rate of interest.
Now, applying the formula, we get
Rs. 100
1+i
V=
100
1.08
=
5. Equi-marginal Principle
This principle deals with the allocation of the available resource
among the alternative activities. According to this principle, an input
should be allocated in such a way that the value added by the last
unit is the same in all cases. This generalisation is called the equi-
marginal principle.
Suppose a firm has 100 units of labour at its disposal. The firm
is engaged in four activities, which need labour services, viz., A, B, C
and D. It can enhance any one of these activities by adding more
labour but sacrificing in return the cost of other activities. If the value
of the marginal product is higher in one activity than another, then it
should be assumed that an optimum allocation has not been attained.
Hence it would, be profitable to shift labour from low marginal value
activity to high marginal value activity, thus increasing the total value
of all products taken together. For example, if the values of certain
two activities are as follows:
Value of Marginal Product of labour
Activity A = Rs. 20
Activity B = Rs. 30
In this case it will be profitable to shift labour from A to activity
B thereby expanding activity B and reducing activity A. The optimum
will be reach when the value of the marginal product is equal in all
the four activities or, when in symbolic terms:
VMPLA = VMPLB = VMPLC = VMPLD
Where the subscripts indicate labour in respective activities.
Certain aspects of the equi-marginal principle need
clarifications, which are as follows:
• First, the values of marginal products are net of incremental
costs. In activity B, we may add one unit of labour with an
increase in physical output of 100 units. Each unit is worth 50
paise so that the 100 units will sell for Rs. 50. But the increased
output consumes raw materials, fuel and other inputs so that
variable costs in activity B (not counting the labour cost) are
higher. Let us say that the incremental costs are Rs. 30 leaving
a net addition of Rs. 20. The value of the marginal product
relevant for our purpose is thus Rs. 20.
• Secondly, if the revenues resulting from the addition of labour
are to occur in future, these revenues should be discounted
before comparisons in the alternative activities are possible.
Activity A may produce revenue immediately but activities B, C
and D may take 2, 3 and 5 years respectively. Here the
discounting of these revenues will make them equivalent.
• Thirdly, the measurement of value of the marginal product may
have to be corrected if the expansion of an activity requires an
alternative reduction in the prices of the output. If activity B
represents the production of radios and it is not possible to sell
more radios without a reduction in price, it is necessary to
make adjustment for the fall in price.
• Fourthly, the equi-marginal principle may break under
sociological pressures. For instance, du to inertia, activities are
continued simply because they exist. Similarly, due to their
empire building ambitions, managers may keep on expanding
activities to fulfil their desire for power. Department, which are
already over-budgeted often, use some of their excess
resources to build up propaganda machines (public relations
offices) to win additional support. Governmental agencies are
more prone to bureaucratic self-perpetuation and inertia.
CONCLUSION
The various gaps between the economic theory of the firm and the
actual decision-making process at the firm level are many in number.
They do, however, stress that economic theory seriously needs major
fixing up and substantial changes are in progress for creating better
and different models. Thus the classical economic concepts like those
of rational man is undergoing important changes; the notion of
satisfying is pushing aside the aim of maximisation and newer lines
and patterns of thoughts are being developed for finding improved
applications to managerial decision-making. A strong emphasis is laid
on quantitative model building, experimentation and empirical
investigation and newer techniques and concepts, such as linear
programming, game theory, statistical decision-making, etc., are
being applied to revolutionise the approaches to problem solving in
business and economics.
Specific Functions
The managerial economists can play a further role, which can cover
the following specific functions as revealed by a survey pertaining to
Brittain conducted by K.J.W. Alexander and Alexander G. Kemp:
• Sales forecasting.
• Industrial market research.
• Economic analysis of competing companies.
• Pricing problems of industry.
• Capital projects.
• Production programmes.
• Security / Investment analysis and forecasts.
• Advice on trade and public relations.
• Advice on primary commodities.
• Advice on foreign exchange.
• Economic analysis of agriculture.
• Analysis of underdeveloped economics.
• Environmental forecasting.
The managerial economist has to gather economic data, analyse
all relevant information about the business environment and prepare
position papers on issues facing the firm and the industry. In the case
of industries prone to rapid theological advances, the manager may
have to make continuous assessment of tl1e impact of changing
technology. The manager' may need to evaluate the capital budget in
the light of short and long-range financial, profit and market
potentialities. Very often, he also needs to prepare speeches for the
corporate executives. It is thus clear that in practice, managerial
economists perform many and various functions. However, of all
these, the marketing functions, i.e., sales force listing an industrial
market research, are the most important.
For this purpose, the managers may collect statistical records of
the sales performance of their own business and those rehiring to
their rivals, carry out analysis of these records and report on trends
in demand, their market shares, and the relative efficiency of their
retail outlets. Thus, while carrying out heir functions, the managers
may have to undertake detailed statistical analysis. There are, of
course, differences in the relative importance of· the various
functions performed from firm to firm and in the degree of
sophistication of the methods used in performing these functions. But
there is no doubt that the job of a managerial economist requires
alertness and the ability to work uriderpressure.
Economic Intelligence
Besides these functions involving sophisticated analysis, managerial
economist may also provide general intelligence service. Thus the
economist may supply the management with economic information of
general interest such as competitors
prices and products, tax rates, tariff rates, etc.
Indian Context
In the Indian context, a managerial economist is expected to perform
the following functions:
• Macro-forecasting for
demand and supply.
• Production planning at macro and micro levels.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is managerial economics? How does it differ from
traditional economics?
2. Discuss the nature and scopeofmanagerial economics.
3. Show the significance of economic analysis in business
decisions.
4. Managerial Economics is perspective rather than descriptive in
character? Examine this statement.
5. Assess the contribution and limitations of economic analysis to
business decision-making.
6. Briefly explain the five principles, which are basic to the entire
gamut of managerial economics.
7. Explain the role of marginal analysis in determining optimal
solution if managerial economics. How does it compare with
break-even analysis?
8.Discuss some of the important economic concepts and
techniques that help busirless management.
9. Explain the various functions of a managerial economist. How
can he best serve the management?
LESSON – 2
DEMAND ANALYSIS
MEANING OF DEMAND
TYPES OF DEMAND
The demand for various kinds of goods is generally classified on
the basis of kinds of consumers, suppliers of goods, nature of
goods, duration of consumption goods, interdependence of
demand, period of demand and nature of use of goods
(intermediate or final), The major classifications of demand are as
follows:
• Individual and market demand
• Demand for firm's prodtictand industry's products
• Autonomous and derived demand
• Demand for durable and non-durable goods
• Short-term and long-term demand
Complementary Goods
A good is said to be a complement for another when it complements
the use of the other or when the two goods are used together in such
a way that their demand changes (increases or decreases)
simultaneously. For example, petrol is a complement to car and
scooter, butter and jam to bread, milk and sugar to tea and 1 coffee,
mattress to cot, etc. Two goods are termed as complementary to
each other -i if an increase in the price of one causes a decrease in
demand for the other. By definition, there is an inverse relation
between the demand for a good and the price of its complement. For
instance, an increase in the price of petrol causes a decrease in the
demand for car and other petrol-run vehicles and vice versa while
other thing's remaining constant. The nature of relationship between
the demand
for a product and the price of its complement is given in Figure 2.2.
3. Consume's Income
Income is the basic determinant of market demand since it
determines the purchasing power of a consumer. Therefore,
people with higher current disposable income spend a larger
amount on goods and services than those with lower income.
Income-demand relationship is of more varied nature than that
between demand and its other determinants. While other
determinants of demand, e.g., product's own price and the price
ohts substitutes, are more significant in the short-run, income as a
determinant of demand is equally important in both short run and
long run. Before proceeding further to discuss income-demand
relationships, it will be useful to note that consumer goods of
different nature have different kinds of relationship with
consumers having different levels of income. Hence, the managers
need to be fully aware of the kinds of goods they are dealing with
and their relationship with the income of consumers, particularly
about the assessment of both existing and prospective demand for
a product.
For the purpose of income-demand analysis, goods and serv:ices
maybe grouped under four broad categories, which ate: (a) essential
consumer goods, (b) inferior goods, (c) normal goods, and (d)
prestige or luxury goods. To understand all these terms, it is essential
to understand the relationship between income and different kinds of
goods.
Esscntial Consumcr Goods (ECG): The goods and services of
this category are called 'basic needs' and are consumed by all
persons of a society such as food-grains, salt, vegetable oils,
matches, cooking fuel, a minimum clothing and housing.
Quantity demanded for these goods increases with increase in
consumer's income but only up to certain limit, even though
the total expenditure may increase in accordance with the
quality of goods consumed, other factors remaining the same.
The relationship between goods of this category and
consumer's income is shown by the curve ECG in Figure 2.3. As
the curve shows, consumer's demand for essential goods
increases only until his income rises to OY2. It tends to saturate
beyond this level of income.
Inferior goods: Inferior goods are those goods whose demand
decreases with the increase in consumer's income. For
example millet is inferior to wheat and rice; bidi (indigenous
cigarette) is inferior to cigarette, coarse, textiles are inferior to
refined ones, kerosene is inferior to cooking gas and travelling
by bus is inferior to travelling by taxi. The relation between
income and demand for an inferior good is shown by the curve
IG in Figure 2.3 under the assumption that other determinants
of demand remain the same demand for such goods rises only
up to a certain level of income, i.e., OY1 and declines as income
increases beyond this level.
Normal goods: Normal goods are those goods whose demand
increases with increaseiri the consumer income. For example,
clothings, household furniture and automobiles. The relation
between income and demand for normal goods is shown by the
curve NG in Figure 2.3. As the curve shows, demand for such
goods increases with the increases in consumer income but at
different rates at different levels of income. Demand for normal
goods increases rapidly with the increase in the consumer's
income but slows down with further increase in income. It
should be noted froms Figure 2.3 that up to certain level of
income (YI) the relation between income and demand for all
type of goods is similar. The difference is of only degree. The
relation becomes distinctly different beyond YI level of income.
Therefore, it is important to view the income-demand relations
in the light of the nature of product and the level fconsumer's
income.
5. Advertisel11ent Expenditure
Advertisement costs are incurred with the objective of increasing the
demand for the goods. This is done in the following ways:
• By informing the potential consumers about the availability of
the goods.
• By showing its superiority to the rival goods.
• By influencing consumers' choice against the rival goods, and
• By setting fashions and changing tastes.
The impact of such effects shifts the demand curve upward to the
right.
In other words, when other factors' remain same, the expenditure
on advertisement increases the volume of sales to the same extent.
The relation between advertisement outlay and sales is shown in
Figure 2.4.
Assumptions
Therelatiqnship between demand and advertisement cost as shown
in Figure 2.4 is based on the following assumptions:
• Consumers are fairly sensitive and responsive to various modes
of advertisement.
• The rival firms do not react to the advertisements made by a
firm.
• The level of demand has not already reached the saturation
point. Advertisement beyond this point will make only marginal
impact on demand.
• Per unit cost of advertisement added to the price does not
make the price prohibitive for consumers, as compared
particularly to the price of substitutes.
• Others determinants of demand, e.g., income and tastes, etc.,
are not operating in the reverse direction.
In the absence of these conditions, the advertisement effect on
sales may be unpredictable.
6. Consumers’ Expectations
Consumers’ expectations regarding the future prices, income and
supply position of goods play an important role in determining the
demand for goods and services in the short run. If consumers expect
a rise in the price of a storable good, they would buy more of it at its
current price with a view to avoiding the possibility of price rise
future. On the contrary, if consumers expect a fall in the price of
certain goods, they postpone their purchase with a view to take
advantage of lower prices in future, mainly in case of non-essential
goods. This behaviour of consumers reduces the current demand for
the goods whose prices are expected to decrease in future. Similarly,
an expected increase in income increases the demand for a product.
For example, announcement of ‘dearness allowance’, bonus and
revision of pay scale induces increase in current purchases. Besides,
if scarcity of certain goods is expected by the consumers on account
of reported fall in future production, strikes on a large scale and
diversion of civil supplies towards the military use causes the current
demand for such goods to increase more if their prices show an
upward trend. Consumer demand more for future consumption and
profiteers demand more to make money out of expected scarcity.
7. Demonstration Effect
When new goods or new models of existing ones appear in the
market, rich people buy them first. For instance, when a new model
of car appears in the market, rich people would mostly be the first
buyer, Colour TV sets and VCRs were first seen in the houses of the
rich families some people buy new goods or new models of goods
because they have genuine need for them. Some others do so
because they want to exhibit their affluence. But once new goods
come in fashion, many households buy them not because they have
a genuine need for them but because their neighbors have bought
the same goods. The purchase made by the latter category of the
buyers are made out of such feelings' as jealousy, competition,
equality in the peer group, social inferiority and the desire to raise
their social status. Purchases made on account of these factors are
the result of what economists call 'demonstration effect' or the
'Band-wagon-effect.' These effects have a positive effect on demand.
On the contrary, when goods become the thing of common use,
some people, mostly rich, decrease or give up the consumption of
such goods. This is known as 'Snob Effect'. It has a negative effect'on
the demand
for the related goods.
8. Consumer-Gredit Facility
Availability of credit to the cansumers fram the sellers, banks,
relatians and friends encourages the conSumers to buy more than
what they would buy in the aosence of credit availability. Therefore,
the consumers who can borrow more can consume more than those
who cannot borrow. Credit facility affects mostly the demand"for
durable goods, particularly those, which require bulk payment at the
time of purchase. The car-loan facility may be one reason why Delhi
has more cars than Calcutta, Chennai and Mumbai. Therefore, the
managers who are assessing the prospective demand for their
goods should take into account the availability of credit to the
consumers.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Give short note on 'Demand Analysis'.
2. What are the determinants of market demand for a good? How
do the changes in the following factors affect the demand for a
good?
A. Price
B. Income
C. Price of the substitute
D. Advertisement
E. Population.
Also describe the nature of relationship between demand for a
good and these factors (consider one factor at a time assuming
other factors to remain constant).
3. Explain different types of determinants of demand.
LESSON - 3
COST CONCEPTS
CONCEPT OF COST
Variable costs are those, which vary with the variation in the total
output. They are a function of output. Variable costs inclue cost of
raw materials, running cost on fixed capital, such as fuel, repairs,
routine maintenance expenditure, direct labour charges associated
with the level of output and the costs of all other inputs that vary
with the output.
We have so far discussed the cost concepts that are related to the
working of the firm and those which are used in the cost-benefit
analysis of the business decision process. There are, however,
certain other costs, which arise due to functioning of the firm but do
not normally appear in business decisions. Such costs are neither
explicitly borne by the firms. The costs of this category are borne by-
the society. Thus, the total cost generated by a firm's working may
be divided into two categories:
• Those paid out or provided for by the firms,
• Those not paid or borne by the firm.
The costs that are not borne by the firm include use of resouces
freely available and the disutility created in the process of production.
The costs of the former category are known as private costs and of
the latter category are known as external or social costs. A few
examples of social cost are: Mathura Oil Refinery discharging its
wastage in the Yamuna River causes water pollution. Mills and
factories located in city cause air pollution by emitting smoke.
Similarly, plying cars, buses, trucks, etc., cause both air and noise
pollution; Such pollutions cause tremendous health hazards, which
involve health cost to the society as it whole Thes'e costs are termed
external costs from the firm's point of view and social cost from the
society's point of view. The relevance of the social costs lies in
understandipg the overall impact of firm's working on the society as a
whole and in working out the social cost of private gains. A further
distinction between private cost and social cost therefore, requires
discussion.
Private costs are those, which are actually incurred or provided
by an individual or a firm on the purchase of goods and services from
the market. For a firm, all the actual costs both explicit and implicit
are private costs. Private costs are the internalised cost that is
incorporated in the firm's total cost of production.
Social costs, on thehand refer to the total cost for the society
on account of production ofa commodity. Social cost can be the
private cost or the external cost. It includes the cost of resources for
which the firm is not compelled to pay a price such as rivers and
lakes, the public, utility services like roadways and drainage system,
the cost in the form of disutility created in through air, water and
noise pollution. This category is generally assumed to be equal to
total private and public expenditures. The private and public
expenditures, however, serve only as an indicator of public disutility.
They do not give exact measure of the public disutility or the social
costs.
COST-OUTPUT RELATIONS
The previous section discussed the variou cost concepts, which help
in the business decisions. The following section contains the
discussion of the behaviour of costs in relation to the change in
output. This is, in fact, the theory of production cost.
TC TFC + TVC
AC = Q = Q
TFC
AFC = Q
TVC
AVC = Q
∆TC aTC
MC = or
∆Q aQ
(4)
Since ∆TC = ∆TFC + ∆TVC and, in the short-run, ∆TFC = 0,
therefore, ∆TC=∆TVC
∆TVC.
TFC (8)
Q
AFC =
As defined above,
TVC
Q
AVC =
Q= 9
Thus, the critical value of Q=9. This can be verified from Table
3.1
Average Cost (AC)
The average cost in defined as
TC
AC = Q
10+6Q-09Q2+0.05Q3
(12a)
AC =
Q
10
= Q + 6-0.9Q+0.05Q2
The SAC curves can be derived from the data given in the STC
schedule, from STC function or straightaway from the LTC-curve.
Similarly, LAC can be derived from LTC-schedule, LTC function or
from LTC-curve. The relationship between LTC and output, and
between LAC and output can now be easily derived. It is obvious.
from the LTC that the long-run cost-output relationship is similar to
the short-run cost-output relationship. With the subsequent increase
in the output, LTC first increases at a decreasing rate, and then at an
increasing rate. As a result, LAC initially decreases until the optimum
utilisation of the second plant and then it begins to increase. From
these relations are drawn the 'laws of returns to scale'. When the
scale of the firm expands, unit cost of production initially decreases,
but it ultimately increases as shown in Figure 3.3 (b).
The long-run marginal, cost curve (LMC) is derived from the short-run
marginal cost curves (SMCs). The derivation of LMC is illustrated in
Figure 3.4 in which SAC3'and LAC arethe same as'in Figure 3.3(b). To
derive the LMC3, consider the points of tangency between SAC3 and
the LAC, i.e., points A, Band C. In the long-run production planning,
these points determine the output levels at the different levels of
production. For example, if we draw perpendiculars from points A,
Band C to the X-axis, the corresponding output levels will be OQ1 OQ2
and OQ3 The perpendicular AQ1 intersects the SMC1 at point M. It
means that at output BQ2, LMC, is MQ1. If output increases to OQ2,
LMC rises to BQ2. Similarly, CQ3 measures the LMC at output OQ3. A
curve drawn through points M3B and N, as shown by the LMC,
represents the behaviour of the marginal cost in the long run. This
curve is known as the long-run marginal cost curve, LMC. It shows the
trends in the marginal cost in response to the change in the scale of
production.
Economies of Scale
Marshall classified the economies of large-scale production into two
types:
1. ExternalEconomies
2. Internal Economies
External Economies are those, which are available to all the
firms in an industry, for example, the construction of a railway line in
a certain region, which would reduce transport cost for all the firms,
the discovery of a new machine, which can be purchased by all the
firms, the emergence of repair industries, rise of industries utilising
by-products, and the establishment of special technical schools for
training skilled labour and research institutes, etc. These economies
arise from the expansion in the size of an industry involving an
increase in the number and size of the firms engaged in it.
Internal Ecnomies are the economies, which are available to a
particular firm and give it an advantage over other firms engaged in
the industry. Internal economies arise from the expansion of the size
of a particular firm. From the managerial point of view, internal
economies are more important as they can be affected by managerial
decisions of an individual firm to change its size or scale.
Then,
M1 V1 2/3
M0 = V0 = (20) 2/3 = 1.59
M1 = 1.59 M0
World Sdale
With re·cent trends towards globalisation of industries in India, the
concept of "World Scale" has emerged. The term 'World Scale' refers
to that scale or size of the enterprise, which is large enough to enable
the firm to reap various large-scale economies so as to compete
successfully on the world basis with global rivals. Thus Reliance
Industries Limited has recently announced to build a world scale
polyester facility at Hnzira and a cracker project with capacity
expanding from earlier 40,000 tonnes·to the world scale of 7,50,000
tonnes per annum.
Diseconomies of Scale
Economies of increasing size do not continue indefinitely. After a
certain point, any further expansion of the size leads to diseconomies
of scale. For example, after the division of labour has reached its
most efficient point, further increase in the number of workers will
lead to a duplication of workers. There will be too many workers per
machine for really efficient production. Moreover, the problem of co-
ordination of different processes may become difficult. There may be
divergence of views concerning policy problems among specialists in
management
and reconciliation may be difficult to arrive. Decision-making process
becomes slow resulting in missed opportunities. There may be too
much of formality, too many individuals between the managers and
workers, and supervision may' become difficult. The management
problems thus get out of hand with consequent adverse effects on
managerial efficiency.
The limit of scale economics is also often explained in terms of
the possible loss of control and consequent inefficiency. With the
growth in the size of the firm, the control by those at the top
becomes weaker. Adding one more hierarchical level removes the
superior further away from the subordinates. Again, as the firm
expands, the incidence of wrong judgements increases and errors in
judgement become costly.
Last be not the least, is the limitation where the larger the plant,
the larger is the attendant risks of loss from technological changes
as technologies are changing fast in modern times.
Diseconomies of Scale and Empirical Evidence
Large petro-chemical plants achieve economies in both full usage
and in utilisation of a wider range ofby-products, which would
otherwise, be wasted. But above 5,00,000 tonnes, diseconomies of
scale sets in because of the following occurrences:
Economies of Scope
This concept is of recent development and is different from the
concept of economies of scale. Here, the cost efficiency in production
process is brought out by variety rather than volume, that is, the cost
advantages follow from variety of output, for example, product
diversification within the given scale of plant as against increase in
volume of production or scale 6f output. A firm can add new and
newer products if the size of plant and type of technology make it
possible. Here, the firm will enjoy scope-economies instead of scale
economies.
Cost Control
The long-run prosperity of a firm depends upon its ability to eam
sustaid profits. Profit depends upon the difference between the
selling price and the cost of production. Very often, the selling price is
not within the control of a firm but many costs are under its control.
The firm should therefore aim at doing whatever is done at the
minimum cost. In fact, cost control is ail essential element for the
successful operation of a business, Cost control by management
means a search for better and more economical ways of completing
each operation. In effect, cost control would mean a reduction in the
percentage of costs and, in turn, an increase in the percentage of
profits. Naturally, cost control is and will continue to be of perpetual
concern to the industry.
Cost control has two aspects' such as a reduction in specific
expenses and a more efficient use of every rupee spent. For
example, if sales can be increased with the same amount of
expenditure, say, on advertising and saTesmen, the cost as a
percentage of sales is cut down. In practice, cost control will
ultimately be achieved by looking into both these aspects and it is
impossible to assess the contribution, which each has made to the
overall savings. Potential savings in individual businesses will,
however, vary between wide extremes depending upon the levels of
efficiency already achieved before cost controls are introduced.
It is useful to bear in mind the following rules covering cost control
activities:
• It is easier to keep costs down than it is to bring costs down.
• There is more profit in cost control when business is. good than
when I business is bad. Therefore, one should not be slack when
conditions are good.
Cost control helps a firm to improve its profitability and
competitiveness. Profits may be drastically reduced despite a large
and increasing sales volume in the absence of cost control. A big
sales volume does not necessarily mean a big profit. On the other
hand, it may create a false sense of prosperity while in reality;
increasing costs are eating up profits. Profit is in danger-when good
merchantdising and cost control do not go hand in hand. Cost control
may also help a firm in reducing its costs and thus reduce its prices. A
reduction in prices of a firm would lead to an increase in its
competitiveness. The aspect is of particular relevance to Indian
conditions because of high costs, India is being priced out of the
world markets.
• Costs are controlled at the points where they are incurred and
at the time of occurrence of events, and
• At the same time they may be uncontrolled at some points.
It is, therefore, necessary to understand the difference
between controllable and uncontrollable costs. The variances may
also be controllable and uncontrollable. For example, if the material
cost variance is due to rise in prices, it is not within the control of the
production manager. But if the variance is due to greater usage,
control action is certainly possible on his part. The higher
management can also deCide whether or not they should intervene
in the matter. Sometimes, variances may be so significant that a
complete reapRraisal of the standard costs themselves may be
needed.
For example, if the variances are always favourable, it may
point to the fact that the standards have not been properly fixed.
Standard costing can also provide the means for actual and standard
cost comparison by type of expense, by departments or cost centres.
Yields and spoilage can be compared with the standard allowance for
loss. Labour operations and overheads also can be checked for
efficiency. Flexible budgets constitute yet another effective technique
of cost control, especially control of factory overheads. Flexible
budgets, also known as variable budgets; provide a basis for
determining costs that are anticipated at various levels of activity. It
provides a flexible standard for comparing the costs of an actual
volume of activity with the cost that should be or should have been.
The variances can then be analysed and necessary action can be
taken in the matter. Table 3.3 gives a specimen flexible budget.
Ratio Analysis
RatIo is a statistical yardstick that provides a measure of the
relationship betweeri two figures. This relationship may be expressed
as a rate (costs per rupee of sales), as a per cent (cost of sales as a
percentage of sales), or as a quotient (sales as a certain number of
time the inventory). Ratios are commonly used in the analysis of
operations because the use of absolute figures might be misleading.
Ratios provide standards of comparison for appraising the
performance of a business firm. They can be used for cost control
purposes in two ways:
1. Materials
There area number of ways that help in reducing the cost ofmatenals.
Ifbuying is done properly, a firm avails itself of quantity discounts.
While buying from a particular source, in addition to the cost of
materials, consideration should be given to freight charges. In some
cases, lower prices of materials may be offset by higher freiight to
the firm's godown. Whiie buying, one may attempt to buy from the
cheapbt source by inviting bids. At times, it may be possible to have
more economical substitutes for raw materials that the firm is using.
Many a times, improvell1ent in product design may lead to reduction
in material usage. It is desirable to concentrate attention on the
areas where saving potential is the highest.
Another area, which needs examination in this respect, is
whether to make or buy components from outside source. Very often
firm may find it advantageous to manufacture certain parts and
components in one's own factory rather than buying them. Yet in
many cases there are specific advantages in purchasing spares and
components from outside because suppliers may deliver goods at low
cost with high quality. For example, Ford and Chrysler of the US Auto
Industry purchase their components from outside source. But General
Motors could not do so because the firm has its own departments for
handling the process of production. This type of firm is referred as
vertically integrated firm where it owns the various aspects of making
seIling and delivering a product Hind Cycles, which has now been
taken over by the Government, manufactures all its components. But
manufacturers of Hero and Avon Cycles purchased most of their
components from outside source and successfully competed with
Hind Cycles.
Continuous Research and Development (R & D) may also lead
to a reduction in raw material costs. For example, Asian Paints made
high savings in costs of raw materials by its phenomenal success on
Research and Development front, by manufacturing synthetic resins
for captive consumption. Total materials consumed as a ratio of value
of production fell from 67.66 per cent in 1973 to 60-67 per cent in
1977. General Motors have reduced the weight of their cars to make
them more fuel-efficient. Better utilisation of materials' may also save
the cost of materials by avoiding wastes in storing, handling and
processing. Some of the factors, responsible for excessive wastage of
materials are: lack of laid down requirements for raw materials, bad
process planning, rejects due to faulty materials or poor
workmanship, lack of proper tools, jigs and fixtures, poor quality of
materials, loose packing, careless and negligent handling and
careless storage.
Exploration of the possibilities of the use of standardised parts
and components and the utilisation of waste and by-products, may
also lead to a significant reduction in the cost of materials.
2. Labour
Reduction in wages for reducing labour costs is out of question. On
the other hand, wages might have to be increased to provide
incentives to workers. Yet there is good scope for reduction in the
wage cost per unit. A reduction in labour costs is possible by proper
selection and training, improvement in productivity and by
automation, where possible. A study by cn (Confederation of Indian
Industry) showed that Hero Cycles improved their productivity per
employee by 6.4 per cent. 'Purolators' were able to increase their
productivity by 100 per cent. Work· study might result in a lot of
savings by reducing overtime and idle time and providing better
workloads. Labour productivity might increase if frequent change of
tools is avoided. Improvement in working conditions may reduce
absenteeism and thus reduce costs per unit. Scrutiny of overtime
may reveal substantial scope for savings.
All efforts must be made to redllce wastage of human effort.
Wastage of human effort may be due to lack of co-ordination among
various departments by having more workers than necessary, ·under-
utilisation of existing manpower, shortage of materials, improper
scheduling, absenteeism, poor methods and poor morale. For
example, Metal Box adopted a Voluntary Severance Scheme in 1975-
76 to reduce their work force by 950 workers after they faced a huge
operating loss ofRs. 2.4 crores. General Motors eliminated 14,000
white-collar jobs through attrition to reduce cost. Japan's big 5 steel
producers announced substantial retrenchment programmes and
workers co-operated with the management. Attempts must be made
to secure co-operation of employees in cost reduction by inviting
suggestions from them. These suggestions should be carefully
examined and implemented if found satisfactory. Hindustan Lever
has a suggestion box scheme and employees who come out with
good suggestions receive awards. These suggestions may either lead
to savings or improve safety and work convenJence. The basic idea is
to motivate workers and make them perceive working in the firm as a
participative endeavour.
3. Overheads
Factory overheads may be reduced by proper selection of equipment,
effective utilisation of space and .equipment, proper maintenance of
equipment and reduction in power cost, lighting cost, etc. For
example, fluorescent lighting can reduce lighting cost. Faulty designs
may lead to excessive use of materials or multiplicity of components,
waste of steam, electricity, gas, lubricants, etc. A British team invited
by the Government of India to report on standards of fuel efficiency
in Indian industry found that fuel wastages might be as high as an
average of 25 per cent. Keeping them in check even in the face of
increasing sales may reduce overhead costs per unit. For example,
Metal Box maintained their fixed costs in 1976-77 even when there
was an increase in sales of over 18 per cent.
Taking advantage of truck or wagonloads may reduce
transportation cost. Careful planning of movements may also save
transportation cost. Another point to be examined is whether it would
be economical to use one's own transport or hire a transport. For
reasons of economy, many transport companies hire trucks rather
than owning them. This is because purchase and maintemince of
trucks can be more expensive. By chartering vehicles the problems of
maintenance is left to the owner who in turn Cuts cost for the firm.
Thus by keeping a smaller work force on rolls and by introducing a
contract rate linked to a safe delivery schedule it is possible to ensure
speedy point-to-point delivery of goods. Many firms now prefer to use
private taxis rather than have their own staff cars.
Reduction of wastes in general can also reduce manufacturing
costs considerably. Of course, a certain amount of waste and spoilage
is unavoidable because employees do make mistakes, machines do
get out of order and sometimes raw materials are faulty. However,
attempts can be made to reduce these mistakes and faulty handling
to the minimum. The normal figure for the waste and spoilage
depends upon the complexity of the product, the age of the
manufacturing plant, and the skill and experience of the workers.
Once normal wastage is found out, production reports must be
watched carefully to find out whether the wastages are excessive.
Wastes can be reduced considerably by educating operators in the
causes and cures of the wastes. Bad debt losses can be reduced
considerably by selecting customers carefully, and keeping an eye on
the receivables. Concentrating on areas and media can reduce
advertising costs, which give the best results.
Selling costs can be controlled by improving the supervision and
training of salesmen, rearrangement of sales territories, replanting
salesmen's routes and calls and redirecting of the sales efforts, to
achieve a more economic product mix. It may be possible to save
selling costs by the use of warehouses, making bulk shipments to the
warehouses and giving faster deliveries to the customers.
Centralisation, reduction, clerical and accounting work may also lead
to cost savings. A look at the telephone bills and the communication
cost in general may also reveal areas for substantial savings. For
example a telegram may be sent in place of a trunk call.
There are indirect taxes, which also tend to raise the overall
costs of production in India. Excise duties and saies taxes also
heighten the impact of indirect taxes on the cost of production. India
is perhaps the only country where basic raw materials carry heavy
excise duties. According to an estimate by Mr. S. Moolgaokar,
Chairman, TELCO, as much as Rs. 25 crores of working capital is
locked up in inventories and work-in-progress with TELCO and its
suppliers solely due to the present tax structure.
Until recent times the Indian industrialists operated in a
sheltered domestic market. They were protected against foreign
competition by import controls and against domestic competition due
to industrial licensing. So long as this sellers' market prevailed
competition among sellers was absent and there was no compelling
reason for the industrialists to pay any attention to cost reduction.
Cost consciousness was thus by and large absent in India. The price
fixation for products under price control ensured that the rise in costs
was fully reflected in the prices. This made it possible for the
industrialists to pass on any increase in costs to the consumers.
However, now with the advent of recession tendencies, and
liberalisation in licensing policies, the Indian industrialist is compelled
to pay greater attention to cost reduction and cost control.
APPENDIX - I
Calculation of Variances
The difference between the standard cost and the comparable actual,
cost for the same element and for the same period is known as cost
variance. The total of the variances consequently represents the
difference between the actual profits and the standard profits, i.e.,
the profits that ought to have been made. The variances are said to
be favourable or credit Variances when the actual performance
exceeds the standard performance or the actual costs are lower than
the standard costs. On the other hand, the variances are
unfavourableor debit variances when the actual, performance falls
short of the standard performance or the actual costs exceed the
standard costs. All variances must state the direction of the variance
as well as the amoUnt. Calculation of cost variances is an important
feature of standard costing. The formulae for calculating the various
variances are given below:
Labour CostVariance
(Actual Hours x Actual Rate)-(Standard Hours x Standard Rate)
or, (AH x AR) - (SH x SR)
APPENDIX II
Cost Control Drive in Coal India Limited (Cll)
Distributors' Discounts
Quantity Discounts
Cash Discounts
Cash discounts are price reductions based on promptness of
payment. An example of discount can be "2 per yent off if paid in ten
days, full invoice price in 30 days." In practice, the size of cash
discount may vary widely. Cash discount is a convenient device to
identify and overcome bad credit risks. In certain trades where credit
risk is high, cash discount would be high. If a buyer decides to
purchase goods on credit, this reflects his weak bargaining position,
and he has to pay a higher price by forgoing the cash discount.
There is another way to look at cash dis.counts. Though cash
discounts encourage prompt payment, yet allowing of cash discount
also involves certain costs.
These costs have to be compared with the cost of carrying the
account, viz., locking up of working capital, expense of operating a
credit and collection department- and risk of bad debts and
alternative ways of attaining prompt settlements. By prompt
collections, manufacturers reduce their working capital requirements
and thus save their interest costs. However, allowing discounts may
involve paying 36.5 per cent in order to save 15 per cent. Thus it is
the reduction in collection expenses and in risks rather than savings
on interest, which should be the guiding consideration for cash·
discounts. The main point of distinction between cash discounts and
quantity discounts is that the former are price reductions based on
promptness ·of payment whereas the latter are price reductions
depending on the quantities purchased (physical units or rupee value
of the quantity purchased). As such, cash discounts induce prompt
payments or collections whereas quantity discounts induce buying in
large quantities.
Time Differentials
Charging different prices on the basis of time is another kind of price
discrimination. Here the objective of the seller is to take advantage of
the fact that buyer' demand elasticity varies over time. Two broad
types of time differentials may be distinguished:
• Clock-time differentials,
• Calendar-time differentials.
Clock-time Differentials: When different prices are charged for
the sMne service or commodity at different times within a 24 hours
period, the price differentials are known as clock-time differentials.
The common examples of these are the differences between the day
and night rates on trunk calls, differences between morning and
regular shows in cinema houses, and different tates charged' for
electricity sold to industrial users during peak load hours (day time)
and offpeak load hours. In the case of telephone services, day timing
is the period of more inelastic demand and the night time is the more
elastic demand period. Two conditions, which make the clock-time
differentials profitable are as follows:
FOB factory pricing: It implies that the buyer pays all the
freight and is responsible for the risks occurring during transport
except those that are assumed by the carrier. The advantages of
FOB factory pricing are as follows:
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain with illustration the distinction between the following:
A. Fixed cost and variable costs
B. Acquisition cost and opportunity cost.
2. What is opportunity cost? Give some examples. How are these
costs relevant for managerial decisions?
3. When MC changes, AC changes (a) at the sane rate, (b) as a
higher rate, or (c) at a lower rate? Illustrate your answer with
the help of diagrams.
The point worth noting here is that the law does not state that
each and every increase in the amount of the variable factor that is
employed in the production process will yield diminishing marginal
returns. It is, however, possible that preliminary increases in the
amount of a variable factor may yield increasing marginal returns.
While increasing the amount of the variable factor, a point will " be
reached though, where the; marginal increases in total output or the
marginal retums will begin declining.
Stage II
The stage II is depicted by the figure in the range from X2 to X3. In
othcr words, stage II begins where the average product of the
variable factor is maximised. It continues till the point at which total
product is maximised and marginal product is zero. Here, TP rises at
diminishing rate. This stage is thus, called the stage of diminishing
returns, where a firm decides its level of production.
Stage III
Finally, we have stage III, which is depicted by the area beyond X3
where the total product curve starts decreasing. Here, too much
variable input is being used as related to the available fixed inputs
and thus variable inputs' are overutilized. The efficiency of both
variable inputs and fixed inputs decline through out this stage. In this
range, the marginal product of the variable factor is negative. It
starts from the point where MP is nil and TP is maximum and covers
the whole range of negative marginal productivity. The following
Table 4.2 shows the various stages.
Stage II is Rational
Only stage II is rational and denotes the relevant range-within which a
rationai firm should operate. In Stage I, it is profitable for the fiim to
keep on increasing the use of labour and in Stage, III, MP is negative
and hence it is inadvisable to use additional labour. The firm,
therefore, has a strong incentive to expand through Stage I into
Stage II.
Isoquants
An isoquant is also known as an 'iso-product curve', 'equal product
curve' or a 'production indifferent curve'. These curves show the
various combinations of two variable inputs resulting in the same
level of output. Table 4.3 shows how different pairs of labour and
capital result in the same output.
Substitutability of Inputs
An important assumption regarding the isoquant diagram is that the
inputs can be substituted for each other. For example a particular
combination of X and Y results in output quantity of 600 units. By
moving along the isoquant 600, one finds other quantities of the
inputs resulting in the same output. Let us suppose that X
represents labour and Y represents machinery. If the quantity of the
labour (X) is reduced, the quantity of machinery (Y) must be
increased in order to produce the same output. The following Figure
4.2 shows a typical isoquant.
Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution (MRTS)
The slope of the isoquant has a technical name; Marginal Rate of
Technical Substitution (MRTS) or sometimes, the marginal rate of
substitution in prodtltioti.) Thus, in terms of inputs of capital
services K and Labour L.
MRTS = aK/dL
MRTS is similar to MRS, I.e., Marginal Rate of Substitution, (which
is slope, of an indifference curve).
Types of Isoquants
Isoquants assume different shapes depending upon the degree of
substitutability of inputs under consideration. Based on this the
types of isoquants can be enlisted as follows:
• Linear Isoquants: In the case of linearisoquants, there is
perfect substitutability of inputs. For example, a given output say 100
units can be produced by using only capital or only labour or by a
number of combinations of labour and capital, say 1 unit of labour
and 5 units of capital, or 2 units of labour and 3 units of capital, and
so on. Likewise, a giyen power plant that is equipped to burn either
oil or gas, for producing various amounts of electric power can do so
by burning either gas or oil, or varying amounts of each. Gas and oil
are perfect substitutes here. Hence, the isoquants are straight lines.
The following Figure 4.3 shows the isoquant for oil and gas.
Isocost Curves
In this connection, one has to consider yet another but important
diagram consisting of isocost curves. Here also, the axes represent
quantities of the inputs X and Y. Suppose that the prices of the inputs
are given, and there are no quantity discounts for the firm to get
larger quantities at lower prices. The next step will be to plot the
various quantities of X and Y which may be obtained from the given
monetary outlays. Figure 4.10 shows the resulting isocost curyes,
which are straight lines under the assumption made here. One isocost
showing the quantities of X and Y that can be purchased for Rs. 1,000
and another isocost curve showing the quantities of X and Y which
can be purchased for an expenditure of Rs. 2,000 and so on.
Now we can easily superimpose the isocost diagram on the
isoquant diagram (as the axes in both the cases represent the same
variables). With the help of Figure 4.11, it can be ascertained that the
maximum output for a given outlay, is say Rs. 2,000. The isoquant
tangent represents this maximum output, which is possible with this
outlay, to the isocost curve. The optimum combination of inputs is
represented by point E, the point of tangency. At this point, the
marginal rate6f substitution (MRS, sometimes known as the rate of
technical substitution), between the inputs is equal to the ratio
between the prices of the inputs.
Likewise, in order to mini mise the cost for a given output, one
may again refer to the isoquant and isocost curves in Figure 4.11. In
this case one moves along the isoquant representing the desired
output. It should be clear that the minimum cost for this input is
represented by isocost line tangent to the isoquant.
• The equation allows for decreasing marginal product but not for
both inerellsing and decreasing marginal products.
• The elasticity of production is not constant at all points along
the curve as in a power function, but declineswiih input
magnitude.
• The equaItion never allows fotan increasing marginal product
Cobb-Douglas Function
A very popular production function, which deserves special mention,
is the CobbI Douglas function. It relates output in American
manufacturing industries from 1899 to 1922 to labour and capital
inputs, taking the form.
P = bLaC1 - a
Where,
P = Total output
L=Index of employment of labour in manufacturing
C = Index of fixed capital in manufacturing.
The exponents ‘a’ and ‘1 – a’ are the elasticity of production
that is, ‘a’ and ‘1- a’ measure the percentage rexsponse of output to
percentage changes in labour and capital respectively. The function
estimated for the USA by Cobb and Douglas is:
P = 1.01L.75C25
R2 = .94.09
This production function shows that a 1 per cent change in
labour input, with the capital remaining constant, is associated with a
0.75 per cent change in output. Similarly, a 1 per cent change in
capital, with the labour remaining constant, is associated with a 0.25
per cent change in output. The coefficient of determination (R2)
means that 94 per cent of the variations on the dependent variable
(P) were accounted for, by the variations in the independent variables
(L and C).
An inportant point to note is that the Cobb-Douglas function
indicates constant returns to scale. That is, if factors of production
are each increased by 1 per cent, the output will increase by 1 per
cent. In other words, one can assume constant avberage and
marginal production costs for the US industries during the period. The
following Figure 4.13 shows the graph of Cobb-Douglas production.
Criticism
• The production function ordianrily discussed in economics is a
rigorously developed micro-economic concept. However, Douglas and
his colleagues, estimated production function for nation’s economies
for manufacturing sectors and even for industries. Thus they
“transferred” strictly micro- economic concept to a macro-econornic
setting, without sufficiently justifying their act on logical economic
grounds. Therefore, the result of their studies, in the form of
equations which they derived, may be incorrect, and hence the
interpretations based on their equations are uncertain.
IIIustration
Suppose the production function is:
0= 0.196 H 0.880 N 1.815
Where,
0= output oftransformers in terms of kilovolt-ampere (kVA)
produced
H = average hours worked per day
N = number of men.
Now, to derive the input combinations for an output level of
1,200 kVA, we will have to set the above equation equal to 1,200:
1,200 = 0.196 H 0.880 N 1.815
Then, substituting any value of H (or N) in the equation, we can
obtain the associated value of N (or H). We compute below the
number of hours required (H) for an output of 1,200 kVA, if 38 men
are employed.
• Perfect competition.
• Imperfect competition
o Monopolistic competition
Main Features
The main features of perfect competition are as follows:
• There are a large number of buyers and sellers. Each seller
must be small and the quantity supplied by any ne seller must
be so insignificant that no increase or decrease in his output
can appreciably affect the total supply and the market price.
So also, each buyer must be small and the quantity bought by
any of the buyers should be so insignificant that no increase
or decrease in his purchases can· appreciably affect the total
demand and the price. As a result, each seller will accept the
market price as it is. So also each buyer will regard the price
as determined by forces beyond his control.
• Each competitor offers a homogenous product, i.e. the
products are similar to ach other in terms of quality, size,
design and colour. Thus one product could be substituted for
the other if the price is lower. Again, the commodity dealt in
must be supplied in quantity.
• There is no obstacle with regard to entry or exit of the firms.
When these aforesaid three conditions arc fulfilled there is a
market condition that can be defined as a pure competitive
market.
• The market iil which the commodity is bought and sold is well
organised and trading is continuous. Therefore, buyers and
sellers are well informed about the price of the commodities.
• There are many competitors (whether buyers or sellers), each
acting independently. There must be no restraint upon the
independence of any seller or buyer, either by custom,
contract, collusion, and fear of reprisals by the competitors, or
by the imposition of government control.
• The market price is flexible over a period of time. In other
words, it rises or falls constantly in response to the changing
conditions of supply and demand.
• All the firms have equal access to production technologies and
techniques.
• There are no patents, proprietary designs or special skills that
allow an individual firm to do the job better than its
competitors.
• Firms also have equal access to all their inputs, which are
available on similar terms.
Thus, perfect competition in an extreme case and is rarely to
be found. Actual competition always departs from the ideal of
perfection Perfect competition is a mere concept, a standard by
which to measure the varying degrees of imperfect competition.
Sometimes, a distinction is made between perfect competition
and pure I competition. But the line of distinction drawn between the
two is very fine. That is why many economists have preferred to use
the two terms synonymously. Hence, from managerial viewpoint,
there does not seem to be any difference between the two. The
underlying presumption in a free competition (close to perfect
cmpetition) is that it social interest interest unless the contrary can
be proved. Competition safeguards the consumer against exploitation
by providing the buyer with alternatives, and makes it unnecessary
for the state to intervene by regulating process and production in
order to protect him.
Determination of Price
The forces of demand and supply determine prices under perfect
competition. The equilibrium price is obtained at the intersection of
demand and supply curves as shown in following Figure 4.14. The
equilibrium price will change only with changes in forces of demand
and supply.
• If demand rises then price goes up and vice versa. For example,
in Figure. 4.15, the demand curve shifts. upwards, to the right from
DD to D’D’ whereas the supply curve remains the same. As a result,
the price goes up from OP to OP1. Thus, the sales increase from OQ to
OQ1. If supply rises then the price decreases and vice versa. For
example, in Figure. 4.16, the supply curve shifts downward to the
right from SS to S’S’ while the demand curve remains unchanged.
The result is that price falls from OP to OP1. Dul the sales increase
from OQ to OQ1. The following Figures 4.15 and 4.16 shows shift in
demand curve and shift in supply curve due to increase in price,
respectively.
• In the same way the following will occur when there is a shift in
the supply curve
o The price will rise less or fall less if demand curve is elastic
o The price will rise more or fall more if demand curve is inelastic.
Marshall defined short period as "a period long enough for the
supplies of a commodity to be altered by increase or decrease in
current output but not long enough for the fixed equipment to be
changed to produce a larger or a smaller output." In other words; the
short-run cost curve remains the same. Here, the supply curve would
be a slopmg lme, moving upward Irom left to right thereby indicating
that as price goes up, supply increases.
• In the long period, firms would see more profitable uses for
their plants and would decide not to replace capital output as it
wears out. This would reduce equipment still further and permit
some recovery in price.
Illustration
To take an example, in Figure 4.23 DD shows the demand for fish
whereas SS, S'S', and S"S" represent the market-period, short-period
and long-period supply curves respectively. Suppose the demand for
fish in the market shifts to D'D'.
In pure competition, the firm has to accept the given market price.
At this given price, it can sell all the products, which it desires but at
any higherprice, it cannot sell anything. If the market price is below
its cost, it has to either take the loss or withdraw from the market. As
a result, any single firm in a purely competitive situation has to adjust
its production and sales policies to the given market price. However,
the market prices arc determined through the mutual consent of all
the individual competitive buyers and sellers together. But any
individual firm has no control over the price. Since a purely
competitive seller has no control over the price at which he sells, his
average marginal revenue schedule is infinitely elastic. In perfect
competition, marginal revenue is equal to the average re.xenue,
because every unit is sold at the same market price, irrespective of
the' quantity sold. Graphically, a horizontal line at the market price
represents it. As expansion of sales does not require any reduction in
the price at all; the greater the quantity sold, the larger is the
revenue. Under ordinary circumstances, the owner· of a linn will not
question whether to produce or not to produce. Rather he will have to
decide whether it will be bettcr to producc, say, 10,000 units or
11,000 units. In order to answer this question, hc will compare thc
incremental cost and tIll' incremental revenue resulting (i'om thc
altcrnative courses of action. To express in technical terms, the
maximum profit (or the minimum loss) position can be attained by
in.creasing output so long as the marginal revenue continues to
exceed the marginal cost. When marginal cost is above the marginal
revenue, an increase in output would reduce profits and it would be
better to decrease the output. If the amount of marginal rcvenuc is
greater than the marginal cost, it would be beneficial to increase the
output. Thus, profit is maximised, or the loss is minimised, by
increasing the output just up to the point a.t which marginal cost
equals marginal revenue.
The amount that a particular firm offers for scale in the short-run at
different prices for its product depends upon the cost conditions of
the firm. In case there is any price that is lower than the lowest
variable cost per unit, the firm will have to be shut down. It would not
be useful to operate even in the short run at a price lower than this,
sincc variablc costs are not covered. It is not held, however, that in
the short run, the average total costs play no role in the output
decisions of the prbfit-.seeking entrepreneur. This is because the
fixed costs, which are a component of the average total costs, would
remain unaffected by the decision to shut down.
Equilibrium of Industry
The short-term and long-term adjustment processes can be clearly
identified by understanding the concept of equilibrium of an industry.
These are explained as follow.
Meaning of Industry
The term industries are sometimes used in a broad sense so as to
include all the producers of a similar type of commodity such as
vanaspati industry or cigarette industry. It is sometimes used in a
narrow sense to include only the producers of commodities, which
are identical from the point of view of purchasers such as wheat or
more precisely still a particular grade of wheat. In a purely
competitive industry, however, the commodity is uniform and there is
no product differentiation, even in the slightest way. As such, under
perfect competition, an industry may be said to consist of all firms
producing a uniform commodity. It may be further added that a firm,
which produces more than one product, may be said to participate in
more than one industry. Strictly speaking, different brands of
cigarettes may be regarded as different commodities because there
are set consumer preferences for one brand over another. Yet, these
consumer preferences are so slight that for many purposes all the
standard brands may be regarded as one commodity and the
industry as a whole, for example, the cigarette industry. Of course,
the industry is said to be characterised by product differentiation as
different brands have different characteristics to attract consumers.
2. Potential Competition
Causes of Monopoly
A firm under this market situation can choose to sell many units at a
lower price or fewer units at a higher price. For maximisation of profit
or minirnisation of loss, a monopolistic firm would minimise or reduce
the use of inputs and outputs to the level at which the marginal
revenue equals the marginal cost. However, there is a significant
difference between a purely competitive firm and a monopoly. The
difference lies in the fact that for a purely competitive firm, marginal
revenue equals the average revenue while in a monopolistic firm,
marginal revenue is less than the average revenue. Therefore, a
monopolist in purely competitive firm can only produce up to the
point where average revenue equals the marginal cost. This can be
understood with the help of the Figures 4.24 and 4.25 are givefl
below:
Disadvantages of Monopoly
MONOPSONY
It is a market situation in which there is single buyer to buy the
commodities but there may be many sellers to sell the identical or
homogeneous commodity.
Features of Monopsony
The essential features of monopsony are as follows:
• There is only onc buyer or the goods or services.
• Rivalry from buyers, who offer the close substitutes of the
product, is so remote to make it insignificant.
Costs of Monopsonists
The monopsonist must choose between paying higher wages that will
enable him to employ more workers or limiting his working force to
the analler number workers, who can be employed at lower wages.
This means that when additional worker is added to the labour force,
an employer has to bear both, I wage of the new worker and also the
total increase in the wages to be paid to t old employees at the new
rate. Thus, in monopsonistic market situation, margir expenditure of
each input level exceeds average expenditure (Table I aild Figu 4.26).
Suppose a tailor employs six workers at Rs. 500 per month. To have I
additional worker, he must pay Rs. 550 per month to each worker. If
he employs the seventh worker, his total costs, thus, will increase by
Rs. 850. To represent the position graphically, two curves are needed,
one to show the average expenditur and the other to show the
marginal expenditure. The marginal expenditure (ME) is consistently
higher than the average expenditure (AE) and the slope of thl
marginal expenditure cutve is steeper than that of the average
expenditure curve.
Price Discrimination
Price discrimination, may be defined as the practice by a seller of
charging different prices to thL: samc buyer or to different buyers for
the same commodity or service without corresponding difference in
the cost. It is also known as differential pricing. Differences in rates
are somewhat related to the in costs. For example, it may cost less to
serve one class of customers than another to sell in large quantities
than in smaller lots. !frates or prices are proportional to cost, some
buyers will pay more and others less, but this will not take place in
price discrimination. In such a situation, charging uniform price will
amount to discriminat ion. There arc three classes of price
discrimination, which are as follows:
First-degree discrimination: The seller charges, the same
buyer a different price, for euch unit bought. For exumple,
prices that are determined by bargaining with individual
customers or prices, which are quoted for tenders floated by
government authorities.
Second degree discrimination: The seller charges different
prices for blocks of units, instead of, for individual units. For
example, different rates charged by an ekctrieity undertaking
for light and fan, for domestic power and for industrial use.
• Third degree discrimination: The seller segregates buyers
according to income, geographic location, individual tastes, kinds of
uses for the product, etc. and charges different prices to each group
or market despite of charging equivalent costs from them. If the
demand elasticities among different buyers are unequal, it will be
profitable for the seller to put the buyer into separate classes
according to elasticity and thereby, to charge each class a different
price. It is also referred as market segmentation and involves dividing
the total market into homogeneous sub-groups according to some
economic criterion, usually the demand elasticity.
Market Segmentation
Haynes, Mote and Paul have identified certain criteria according to
which market segmentation is practised. These criteria are given
below:
Objectives
The objectives of pricc discrimination are as follows:
Here, the prices, sales and total costs are the same as they
were in Table 4.5. But the monopolist divides his customers into
separate groups and charges different prices from each group. The
basis of dividing the customers is as follows:
When price is Rs. 9 per unit, 100 units are sold, when the price is
Rs. 8 per unit, 200 units are sold. This means that 100 units can be
sold for Rs. 9 per unit and another 100 for Rs. 9 per unit. Similarly, by
charging Rs. 7 per unit, the monopolist can sell another 100 units. In
this way, other categories have also been formed as shown in column
3. Column 4 gives revenue from each category, which is calculated
by multiplying the figures of column 3 with the corresponding figures
of column 1. Column 5 gives tot21 revenue obtained by selling goods
to various categories of the customers. Column 6 gives total cost and
column 7 gives profit or loss.
APPENDIX 1
PROFIT
MEANNING
Profit means different things to different people. The word ‘profit’ has
different meanings to business, accountants, tax collectors workers
and economists. In a general sense, profit is regarded as income of
the equity shareholders. Similarly wages getting accumulated of a
labor, rent accruing to the owners of any land or building and interest
getting due to the investors of capital of a business, are a kind of
profit for labours, land owners and investors. To an account, profit
means the excess of revenue over all paid out costs including both
manufacturing and overhead expenses. It is much similar to net
profit. In accountancy, profit or business income means profit of a
business including its non allowance expenses. In economic, Profit is
called pure profit, which may be defined as a residual left after all
contractual costs have been met, including the transfer costs of
management insurable risks, depreciation and payment to
shareholders, sufficient to maintain investment at its current level.
Therefore pure profit can be calculated with the help of following
formula.
Pure Profit = Total Revenue - (explicit costs + implicit costs).
Economic or pure profit also makes provision for insurable risks,
depreciation and necessary minimum payments to shareholders to
prevent them from withdrawing their capital. Pure profit is considered
to be a short – term phenomenon. It does not exist in the long run,
especially under perfectly conditions. Because of this, they may
either be positive or negative for a single firm in a single year.
The concept of economic profit differs from that of accounting
profit Economic profit takes into account also the implicit or imputed
costs. The implicit cost is also called opportunity cost. If an
entrepreneur uses his labor in his own business, he foregoes his
income or salary, which he might have earned by working as a
manager in another firm. Similarly, by using assets like and building
and his own business, he foregoes the market rent, which might have
earned otherwise. All these foregone incomes such as interest, salary
and rent, are called opportunity costs or transfer costs. Accounting
profit does not consider the opportunity cost.
MONOPLOY PROFIT
Monopoly is a market situation in which there is a single seller of a
commodity without a close substitute. Monopoly may arise due to
economies of scale, sole ownership of raw materials, legal sanction,
protection, mergers and take–overs. A monopolist may earn pure
profit, which is also called monopoly profit in the case of a monopoly,
and maintain it in the long run by using its monopoly powers.
Monopoly powers are as follows:-
• Powers to control supply and price.
• Powers to prevent the entry of competitors by reducing the
prices.
The Monopoly powers help a monopoly firm to make pure profit
or monopoly profit. In such cases, monopoly is the source of pure
profit.
Profit is also affeckd by the way capital gains and losses are
treated in accounting. According to Dean, "a sound accounting policy
to follow concerning windfalls is never to record them until they are
turned into cash by a purchase or sale of assets, since it is never
clear until then exactly how large they are". But, in practice, some
firms do not record capital gains until it is realised in money terms,
but they do write off capital losses from the current profit. The use of
different policies result in different profits. But an economist is not
concerned with the accounting practice or principle, which is followed
in recording the past events. An economist is concerned mainly with
what happens in future. According to an economist, the management
should be aware of the approximate magnitude of such windfalls
before they are accepted by the accountants. This would be helpful in
taking the right decision with respect of those assets, which are
affected by the use of policies given by the economists.
• The secondary or the second order condition states that the first
order condition must show the decreasing MR and rising MC.
The secondary condition is fulfilled only when both the MC is
rising as well as the MR is decreasing. This condition is
illustrated by point P2 in Figure 5.1.
Let us suppose that the total revenue and total cost functions
are, respectively given as below:
TR = TC = f (Q)
where, Q = quantity produced and sold.
Substituting total revenue and total cost functions In Equation
(I), profit function can be written as below:
TP = f(Q)TR - f(Q)TC (2)
With the help of equation (2), The first order condition and the
secondary. Condition can be understood easily.
First-order Condition
The first-order condition of maximising a function is that the first
derivative of the profit function must be equal to zero. By
differentiating the total profit function and equating it to zero, the
following equation is obtained:
aTP aTR aTC
aQ = aQ - aQ =0
(3)
This condition holds only when
aTR aTC
aQ = aQ
In Equation (3), the term aTR/aQ is the slope of the total
revenue curve, which is equal to the marginal revenue (MR).
Similarly, the term aTC/aQ is the slope of the total cost curve,
which is equal to the marginal cost (MC). Thus, the first-order
condition for profit maximisation can be stated as:
MR=MC
The first-order condition is also called necessary condition, as it
is so important that its non-fulfilment results in non-occurrence of
the secondary condition and thereby the profit maximisation
objective is not attained.
Second-order Condition
The second-order condition of profit maxirnisation requires that the
first order condition is satisfied under rising MC and decreasing MR.
This condition is illustrated in Fig. I. The MC and MR curves are the
usual marginal cost and marginal revenue curves, respectively. MC
and MR curves intersect at two points, PI and P2. Thus, the first order
condition is satisfied at both the points but mathematically, the
second order condition requires that its second derivative of the profit
function is negative. When second derivative of profit function is
negative, it shows that the total profit curve has bent downward after
reaching the highest point on the profit scale. The second derivative
of the total profit function is given as:
But it requires:
a2TR a2TC
aQ2 - aQ2 <0
a2TR a2TC
aQ2 < aQ2 <0
Since & TR/aQ2 is the slope of MR and & a2 TC/aQ2 is the slope of
MC, the second-order condition can also be written as:
aMR aMC
Q - Q <0
Or
a(100 – 40) a(Q)
aQ aQ
- <0
- 4 – 1 <0
Thus, the second-order condition is also satisfied at output 20.
where,
The following arc the important criteria that are considered while
selling the standards for a reasonable profit.
• Either the profit goals are set in terms of total net profit for the
divisions or they should be restricted to their share in the total net
profit.
• Determination of divisional profits when there is a vertical
integration. The most appropriate profit standard of divisional
performance is calculated by deducting current expenses from
revenue of the firm.
Profit is essential for survival of a business. In the absence of
profits, the organisations will use up their own capital and close
down. It also helps in replacing obsolete machinery and equipment
and thus ensures the continuity of a business.
Conclusion
Profit maximisation is the most popular hypothesis in economic
analysis, but there are many other important objectives, which are
not to be avoided by any firm. Modem business firms pursue multiple
objectives. The economists consider a number of alternative
objectives of business firms. The main factor behind the multiplicity
of the objectives, especially in case of large business firms, is the
separation of management from the- ownership. Moreover, profit
maximisatjon hypothesis is based on time. The empirical evidence
against this hypothesis is not conclU3ive and unambiguous. The
alternative hypotheses are also not so strong to repiace the profit
maximisation hypothesis. In addition to it, profit maximisation
hypothesis has a greater explanatory and predictive power than any
of the alternative hypotheses. Therefore, profil maximisation
hypothesis still fornls the basis of firms' behaviour.
In other words, the company would not make any loss or profit at
a sales volume of 5,000 units as shown below:
Sales RS.20,000
Cost of goods sold:
Variable cost @
Rs 10,000
Rs.2.00
Fixed costs Rs. 10,000 Rs.20,OOO
Net Profit Nil
Example 2:
Sales Rs. 10,000
Variable costs Rs. 6,000
Fixed costs RS. 3,000
With the help of given information, calculate net profit.
3,000
0.4 = Rs. 7 500
Solution.
Increase in sales 19,000 - 15,000 = Rs. 4,000
Increase in profit 1,200 - 400 = Rs. 800
Increase in variable costs 4,000 - 800 = Rs. 3,200
Over sales of Rs. 4,000, variable costs are Rs. 3,200.
Hence VC per rupee of sale is 3,200 + 4,000 = 0.80.
Fixed costs will be as under:
Variable cost 15,000 x 0.80 12,000
Profit 400
VC + Profit 12,400
Sales value 15,000
Fixed cost 2,600
FC
Contribution margin ratio
Now, BEP =
2,600
= 0.2 = Rs. 13,000
40 - 30 1
Table ---x 100 = - xl 00 = 25 per cent
40 4
50 - 40 1
---x 100 = - xl 00 = 20 per cent
50 5
70 - 50 2
---x 100 = -x 100 = 28.57 per cent
70 7
25.28 % say 25 %
--
Break-even Charts
Break-even analysis is very commonly presented by means of
break even charts. Break-even charts are also known as profit-
graphs. A break-even chart prepared on the basis of example 1 above
is given in Figure 5.2. In this figure, units of product are shown on the
horizontal axis OX while revenues and costs are shown on the vertical
axis OY. The fixed costs of Rs. 10,000 are shown by a straight line
parallel to the horizontal axis. Variable costs are then plotted over
and above the fixed costs. The resultant line is the total cost line,
combining both variable and fixed costs. There is no variable cost line
in the graph. The vertical distance between the fixed cost and th~
total cost lines represents variable costs. The total cost at any point is
the SU!TI of Rs. 10,000 plus Rs. 2.00 per unit of variable cost
multiplied by the number of units sold at that point. Total revenue at
any point is the unit price of Rs. 4.00 multiplied by the number of
units sold. The break-even point corresponds to the point of
intersection of the total revenue and the total cost lines. A
perpendicular from the BEP to the horizontal axis shows the break-
even point in units of the product. Dropping a perpendicular from BEP
to the vertical axis shows the break-even sales value in rupees. The
firm would suffer a loss at any point below the BEP. Total costs are
more than total revenue. Above the BEP, total revenue exceeds total
costs and the firm makes profits. Since profit or loss occurs between
costs and revenue lines, the space between them is known as the
profit zone, which is to the right of the BEP, and the loss zone, which
is to the len of the BEP. The following Figure 5.2 shows Break-even
Chart.
Profit-Volume Analysis
Assumptions
1. All costs are either variable or fixed over the entire range of the
volume of production. But in practice, this assumption may not
hold well over the entire range of production.
2. All revenue is variable in nature. This assumption may Lot be
valid in all cases such as the case where lower prices are
charged to large customers.
3. The volume of sales and the volume of production are equal.
The total products, produced by the firm, are sold and here is
no change in the closing inventory. In practice, sales and
production volumes may differ significantly. However, these
assumptions are not so unrealistic so as to weaken the validity
of the break-even analysis.
4. In the case of multi-product firms, the product-mix shoulu be
stable. Fora multi-product firm, the BEP is determined by
dividing total fixed costs by an average ratio of variable profit,
also called contribution to'sales. If each product has the same
contribution ratio, the BEP is not affected by changes in the
product-mix.
However, if different products have different contribution ratios,
shift in the product-mix may cause a shift in the break-even point. In
real life, the assumption of stable product-mix is somewhat
unrealistic.
Safety Margin
The break-even chart helps the management to know the profits
generated at the various levels of sales. But while deciding the
volume at which the firm would operate, apart from the demand, the
management should consider the safety margin associated with the
proposed volume. The safety margin refers to the extent to which the
firm can afford a decline in sales before it starts occurring losses. The
formula to determine the safety margin is:
(Sales – BEP) x 100
Safety Margin = Sales
= 25%
Change in Price
The management is also faced with a problem whether to reduce the
prices or not. The management will have to consider a number of
points before taking a decision related to the change in the prices. A
reduction in price results in a reduction in the contribution margin as
well. This means that the volume of sales will have to be increased to
maintain the previous level of profit. The higher the reduction in the
contribution margin, the higher will be the increase in sales needed
to maintain the previous level of profit. However, reduction in prices
may not always lead to an equal increase in the sales volume, which
is affected by the elasticity of demand. But the information about
elasticity of demand may not be easily available. Breakeven analysis
helps the management to know the required sales volume to
maintain the previous level of profit. On the basis of this knowledge
and experience, it becomes much easier for -the management to
judge whether the required increase it sales will be feasible or not.
The formula to determine the new sales volume to maintain the same
level of profit, given a reduction in price, would be as under:
FC + P
Qn = SPn - VC
where Qn = New volume of sales
FC = Fixed cost
P = Profit
SPn = New selling price
VC = Variable cost per unit (n denotes new)
Example 6(a): Continuing with the same example 6, if we
propose a reduction of 10 per cent in price from Rs. 4.00 to Rs. 3.60,
the new sales volume needed to maintain the previous profit ofRs.
6,000 will be:
10, 000 + 6,000 16, 000
3.60 – 2.00 = 1.60 = 10,000 units
Change in Costs
Break-even analysis' helps to analyse the changes in variable
cost and fixed cost, which are explained as follows.
Change in variable cost: An increase in variable costs leads
to a reduction in the contribution margin. In such a situation, a firm
determines the total sales volume needed to maintain the prescnt
profits withcut any increase in price. A firm also determines the price
lhut should be set to maintain the present level of profit without any
change in sales volume. The formulae to determine the new quantity
or the new selling price, given a change in variable costs, are:
1. The new quantity will be:
FC +P
Qn = SP - VC n
2.
FCn – FC
SPn = SP + Q
Expansion of Capacity
1. How will the expansion of the firm's capacity will affect the
break-even point?
In order to arrive at the data to plot on the figure, the sales, cost
and profit at either 100 per cent or nil capacity for both existing and
expanded plants should be calculated:
As can be seen from Figure 5.4, the break-even point for both the
plants lies above 70 per cent capacity utilisation. The capacity
utilisation of the expanded plant, which gives the same profit as 100
per cent capacity utilisation of the existing plant, can be easily found.
At 92 per cent of capacity utilisation, the expanded plant will give a
profit of Rs. 6,60,000.
Rs. 60 - 40
60 x 30% = 0.10
Rs. 100 - 60
100 x 20% = 0.08
Thus, the contribution ratio is 0.38, by adding 0.10, 0.08 and 0.20.
Total contribution = Rs. 2,50,000 x 0.38 = Rs. 95,000.
Profit = Rs. 95,000 - Rs. 75,000 = Rs. 20,000.
Profit on the proposed product line would be as under:
Rs. 60 - 40
60 x 50% = 0.17
Rs. 160 - 60
160 x 10% = 0.06
10,000
= 8-3
10,000
= 5 = 2,000
Choosing Promotion-mix
Sellers often use several methods of sales promotion, such as
personal selling, advertising, etc. But the proportion of all these
methods in the promotion mix varies from seller to seller. A retail
shop may have to consider whether or not to employ a certain
number, say, five additional salesmen. Similarly, a manufacturer may
have to decide if he should spend an additional sum of Rs. 20,000 on
advertising his product or not. Break-even analysis enables him to
take appropriate decisions by showing how the additional fixed costs
influence the break-even points. This can be explained with the help
of the following illustration:
Example 10: A manufacturer sells his product at Rs. 5 each.
Variable costs are Rs. 2 per unit and the fixed costs amount to Rs.
60,000. Find the following:
1. The break-even point.
2. The profit if the firm sells 30,000 units.
3. The BEP if the firm spends Rs. 3,000 on advertising.
60,000
= 5-2 = 20,000 units
Profit = Total revenue - Fixed cost - Variable cost
= (5 x 30,000) - 60,000 - (2 x 30,000)
= 1,50,000 - 60,000 - 60,000
= Rs.30,000
63,000
= 5-2 = 21,000 units
63,000 + 30,000
= 3
93,000
= 3 = 31,000 units
Equipment Selection
Break-even analysis can also be used to compare different ways
o(doing jobs. For instance, use of simple machines, is usually best for
small quantities. But when bigger quantities are to be produced,
faster but usually costlier machines are to be employed. Sometimes,
a choice is to be made in between three or more methods, depending
upon the most economical one. The following example explains how
to determine these ranges.
Example 11: A manufacturer has to choose from amongst three
machines for his factory. The conditions, which he wants to be
fulfilled regarding the three machines, are as follows:
1. An automatic machine which will add Rs. 20,000 a year to his
fixed costs but the variable costs per unit will be only 40 p.
2. A semi-automatic machine which will add Rs. 8,000 a year to
his fixed costs but variable cost$ per unit will be Rs. 2 and
3. A hand-operated machine which will add only Rs. 2,000 a year
to his fixed costs but will cause variable costs per unit of Rs. 4.
Calculate the range of output over which automatic, semi-
automatic and hand-operated machines would be most economical.
How would you choose between hand-operated and automatic
machines, supposing the semi automatic machine does not exist?
Solution. The cost formulae for the three machines would be,
Production planning
The total expenses for one week are estimatcd at Rs. 21,400. Find
out the production plan, which the, company should follow. How
much profit shall be earned by following this production plan?
Solution. The contributions of Cloth X and Yare Re. 0.60 and Re.
0.80 per metre respectively, which are calculated by subtracting
variable cost of each from selling price. Hence, priority should be
gi~en to the production of cloth Y as it contributes more towards
meeting the fixed cost. The maximum of cloth Y that can be sold is
40,000 metres, which would require 10,000 hours. However, the total
hours available are 9,600. Hence, the maximum of cloth Y that can
be produced is 38,400 metres (9,600 x 4). The production plan to be
followed is given below:
_._--
Cloth X Nil
Cloth Y 38,400 metres
This plan shall provide profits as shown below:
Total Revenue = Rs. 38,400 x 3.80 = Rs. 1,45,920
Total cost:
PROFIT FORECASTING
All those factors that control profits move in regular and related
patterns such as the rate of output, prices, wages, material costs and
efficiency, which are all inter-related by their connections with the
national markets and also by their interactions in business activity.
Theories of business cycles are based on the hypothesis, which is
shown by the national values of production, employment, wages and
prices during any fluctuation in business activities. There is no clear
pattern in detailed analysis. These patterns helps in increasing the
possibility that the profits of a business firm, can be forecast directly
by finding a relation to key variables. The need is to find a direct
functional relation between profits of a business firm and activities at
national level that shows statistical signi ticance.
In practice, these three approaches need not be mutually
exclusive. Theses approaches can also be used jointly for maximum
information. In projecting the profit and lo.ss statement, the
functional relations can be used, arising out of the ratio of cost to
output and to its other determinants. In the same way, by measuring
the impact of outside economic forces upon the firms' profit helps in
facilitating good spot guesses. It can also enhance the accuracy of
break-even analysis.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Distinguish between the following concepts or profit:
A. Accounting profit and economic profit.
B. Normal profit and monopoly profit.
C. Pure profit and opportunity cost.
2. Examine critically profit maximisation as the objective of
business firms. What are the alternative objectives of business
firms?
3. Explain the first and second order conditions of profit
maximisation.
Factor-Income Method
This method is also known as income method and factor-share
method. factorincome method is used when national economy is
considerl:d as a combination of factor-owners and users. Under this
method, the national income is calculated by adding up all the
inconlcs accruing to the basic factors of production used in producing
the national product. Factors of production are c1assi ficd as land,
labour, capital and organisation. Accordingly,
National income = Rent + Wages + Interest + Profits
However, it is conceptually very difficult in a modern economy to
make a distinction between earnings from land and capital and
between the (;arnings from ordinary labour and organisational efforts
including entrepreneurship. Therefore, for estimating national income
factors of production arc broadly grouped as labour lInd capital.
Accordingly, national income is supposed to originate from two
primary factors, viz., labour and capital. However, in some activities,
labour and capital are jointly supplied and it is difficult to separate
labour and capital from the total earnings of the supplier. Such
incomes are termed as mixed incomes. Thus, the total factor-incomes
are grouped under three categories:
• Labour incomes
• Capital income
• Mixed incomes.
Labour Income: Labour incomes included in the national income
have five components:
• Net rents from land and buildings including imputed net rents
on owneroccupied dwellings
• Royalties
• Profits of government enterprises.
The data for the first two incomes is obtained from the firms'
accounts submitted for taxation purposes. There exist difference in
definition of profit for national accounting purposes and taxation
purposes. Therefore, it is necessary to make some adjm.ments in
the income-tax data for obtaining these incomes. The income-tax
data adjustments generally pertain to (i) Excessive allowance of
depreciation made by tax authorities, (ii) Elimination of capital gains
and losses since these do not reflect the changes in current income,
and (iii) Elimination of under 0,' overvaluation of ir:ventories on
book-value,
Mixed Income: Mixed incomes include income from (a) fanning
(b) sole proprietorship (not included ,Ilnder profit or capital income)
(c) other professions such as legal and l.ledical practices,
consultancy services, trading and transporting. Mixed income also
includes incomes of those who earn their living through various
sources such as wages, rent on own property and interest on own
capital.
All the three kinds of incomes, viz., labour incomes, capital
incomes and Inixed incomes added together give the measure of
national income by factorincome method.
Expendit4re Method
• Second Method: Under this method the value of all the products
finally disposed of are computed and added up to arrive at the
total national expenditure. Under the second method, the
following items are considered
ο Private consumer goods and services
ο Private investment goods
ο Public goods and services
ο Net investment from aboard.
This method is extensively used because the requisite da!J
required by this method can be collected with greater ease and
accuracy.
Choice of Methods
After the NIC, the task of estimating national income was taken
over by the Central Statistical Organisation (CSO). Until 1967, the
CSO followed the methodology laid down by the NIC. Thereafter, the
CSO adopted a relatively improved methodology and procedure,
which had become possible due to increased availability of data. The
improvements pertain mainly to the industrial classification of the
activities. The CSO publishes its estimates in its publication Estimates
of National Income.
Methodology
(i) Agriculture (ii) Forestry and logging (iii) rishing. (iv) Mining and
quarrying (v) Large-scale manufacturing (vi) Small-scale
manufacturing (vii) Construction (viii) Electricity, gas and water
supply (ix) Transport and communication (x) Real estate and
dwellings (xi) Public Administration and Defence (xii) Other services
and (xiii) External transactions. The national income is estimated at
both constant ar.d current prices.
Indirect
5. Taxes 947 3,455 13,586 58,205 77,653
Less
Subsideis
Gross 6,16,504
6. National 15,182 39,424 122,772 4,65,82
Product 7
(GNP)
= (1 + 4)
Net National 14,242 36,503 1,10,68 5,44,935
7. Profit (NNP) 5 4,13,94
= (6-2) 3
GDP (at 16,201 43,163 1,36,01 705,566
8. market 3 5,30,86
prices) 5
= (1+5)
GNP (at 16,129 42,879 1,36,35 9,31,016
9. Market 8 5,24,032
price) = (8 +
3)
NDP (at 15,261 40,292 1,23,92 6,63,997
10. Market 6 4,78,98
price) = (8 – 1
2)
NNP (at 15,189 39,958 1,24,27 6,22,588
11. market 1 4,72,14
price) = (9 – 8
2)
Source : CMIE, Basic Statistics Relating to Indian Economy, Aug 1994
Table 13.3
Tavie 6.3: Annual Average Growth Rate of GNP and GDP (AT
Current Prices)(% share in GDP)
Period GNP (%) GDP (%)
1950-51 to 1960-61 4.08 4.09
1960-61 to 1970-71 3.74 3.78
1970-71 to 1980-81 3.47 3.34
1980-81 to 1990-91 5.57 5.76
1990-91 to 1994,-95 3:95 4.08
1950-51 to 1994-95 4.04 4.07
-- -----------
Inflation and Deflation
The term 'inflation' is used in many senses and it is difficult to give a
generally accepted, precise and scientific definition of the term.
Popularly, inflation refers 1O a rise in price level. Kemmerer states,
"Inflation is too much money and deposit currency that is too much
currency in relation to the physical volume of business being done."
This is what Coulburn also means when he defines inflation as, "Too
much money chasing too few goods". According to T.E. Gregory,
inflation is "abnormal increase in the quantity of money".
The implication in these definitions is that prices rise due to an
increase in the volume of money as compared to the supply of
goods. This is the quantity approach to the rise in the price level.
However, it should be noted that prices may rise due to other factors
also such as rise in wages and profits. Besides, there can be an
inflationary pressure on prices without actually rising of the prices.
Keynesian Definition
Kl:YlH:S rdales inl1ation to a price level that comes into existence
after the stage of full employment. While, the quantity approach
emphasises the volume of money to be responsible for rise in the
price level. Keynes distinguishes between two types of rise in prices
(a) rise in prices accompanied by increase in production (h) rise in
prices not accompanied by incrl:ase in production. If an economy is
working at a low level, with a large number of unemployed men and
unutilised resources then expansion of money or some other. factors
leading to an increase in demand will result not only in a rise in the
price level but also rise in the volume of goods and services in an
economy. This will continue until all unemployed men tind
employment arid capital and other resources are more fully utilised,
i.e., the stage of full employment. Beyond this stage, however, any
increase in the volume of money or rise in demand will lead to a rise
in prices but lIO corresponding rise in production or employment.
Keynes states that the initial rise in prices up to the stage of full
employment is a good thing far the country 'since there is an
increase in. output and employment. Reflation or partial inflation is
used to designate such a rise in the price level. The rise in prices
aller the stage of full employment is bad far the country since there
is no corresponding increase in production or employment. Inflation
is used to express such a rise in the price level. Therefore, inllation
refers
to a rise in the price level after full employment has been attained.
(
According to Keynes, "inflation" can be applied to an
underdeveloped country like India where unemployment of men and
resources exist side by side with inflationary rise in prices. This is
due to the existence of bottlenecks, such as limited amount of
capital, machinery, transport facilities and absence of technical
know-how. As a result of these bottlenecks and shortages, a rise in
the price level may not lead to increase output beyond a certain
stage, even though the country may not have reached the stage of
full employment. We can distinguish between three kinds of inflation
on the basis of their causes, viz., demand-pull, cost-push and
sectoral inflation.
Demand-pull Inflation
The most common cal;lse for inflation is the pressure of ever-rising
demand on a stagnant or less rapidly increasing supply of goods and
services. The expansion in aggregate demand may be due to rapidly
increasing private investment or expanding government expenditure
for war or economic development. At a time whe.n demand is
expanding and exerting pressure on prices'cattempts are made to
expand production. However, this may not be possible either due to
nonavailability o(uqemployed resources or shortages of transport,
power, capital and equipment. Expansion in aggregate demand,
after the level of full employment, results into rf~e in the price level.
In a developing economy I ike India, resources are used for growth,
for creating fixed assets and production of consumer goods.
Necessarily, large expenditure will create. large money income and
large demand but without a corresponding increase in supply of real
output.
Cost-push Inflation
In certain circumstances, prices are pushed up by wage increases,
forced upon the economy by labour leaders under the threat of strike.
Costs can also be raised by manufacturers through a system of fixing
a higher margin of profit. The common man generally blames
profiteers, speculators, hoards and others for pushing up the costs
and prices. Again, the government is responsible for raising the costs
by imposing new taxes and continuously raising the tax rates of
existing commodity. Therefore, rising rates of commodity taxes, in a
sellers market, will enable the producers to raise the prices by the full
amount of taxes. Under conditions of rising prices, business and
industrial units find it easy to pass on the burden of higher wages to
the consumers by raising the prices. 1 II us, rise in wages; profit
margin and taxation are responsible for cost-push inflation.
In periods when wages, prices and aggregate demand are all
rising and creating an inflationary situation, it is d-ifficult to find out
active and passive factor. In many cases, it is neither demand-pull
inflation nor cOSt-push inflation, but it is a combination of both.
However, it is possible and often useful to separate the dominant
factors. If aggregate de~and is responsible for the inflationary
situation, it may persist so long as excess demand persists and in the
extreme case, it may develop into hyperint1alion cwn thoug.h (osl-
push fOt'\'l'S nl".' nhsl'llt. t)11 the other hand, cost-push inllation
cannot pcrsist for long, unless thcrc is increase ill aggrcg:llc <lClll:1I\
(1. I r illf1ntillll is cOlllrolled lilnllip"l1llllli\('lilry IIIll! 1i""'111 Ill,'lli",h,
aimcd at controlling aggregate dCllland then we have demand-pull
inllation. Un thc other hand, if wages and prices continue to rise even
whcn demand ceases to grow, we have cost-push int1ation.
On Distribution of Income
It is true that in times of general rise in the price level, if all groups of
prices, such as agricultural prices, industrial prices, prices of
minerals, wages, rent and profit rise in the same direction and by the
same extent, there will be no net effect on any section of people in
the community. For example, if the prices of goods and services,
which a worker quys rises by 50 per cent and if the wage of the
worker also rises by 50 per cent then there is no change in the real
income of the worker, i:e., his standard of living will remain constant.
However, in practice, all prices do not move in same direction and- by
saine percentage. Hence, some classes of reople in the community
are affected more favourably than others. This is explained as
follows:
Control of Inflation
Inflation should be controlled in the beginning stage, otherwise it wiil
take the shape of hyper-inflation which will completely run the
country. The different methods used to control inflation are known as
anti-inflationary measures. These measures attempt mainly at
reducing aggregate demand for goods and services on the basic
assumption that inflationary rise in prices is due to an excess of
demand over a given supply of goods and services. Anti-inflationary
measures are of four types:
• Monetary policy
• Fiscal policy
• Other methods
Monetary Policy
It is the policy of the central bank of the country, which is the
supreme monetary and banking authority in a country. The central
bank may use such methods as the bank rate, open market
operations, the reserve ratio and selective controls in order to
control the credit creation operation of commercial banks and thus
restrict the amounts of bank deposits in the country. 'this is known
as tight money policy. .\ Monetary policy to control inflation is
based on the assumption that a rise in prices is due to a larger
demand for goods and services, which is the direct result of
expansion of bank credit. To the extent this is true, the central
bank's policy wi}1 be successful.
Fiscal Policy
It is the policy of a government with regard to taxation,
expenditure and public borrowing. It has a very important influence
on business and economic activity. Taxes determine the size or the
volume of disposable income in the hands of the public. The proper
tax policy to control inflation will avoid tax cuts, introduce new
taxes and raise the rates of existing taxes. The purpose being to
reduce the volume of purchasing power in the hands of the public
and thus reduces their demand. A precisely similar effect will be
achieved if voluntary or compulsory savings are increased. Savings
will reduce current demand for goods and thus reduce the
inflationary rise in prices.
As an anti-inflationary measure, government expenditure
should be reduced. This .indicates that demand for goods and
services will be further reduced. This policy of increasing public
revenue through taxation and decreasing public expenditure is
known as surplus budgeting. However, there is one important
difficulty is this policy. It may be easy to increase revenue in times
of inflation when people have more money ineome !:Jut difficult to
reduce public expenditure. During war as well as during a period of
development expenditure it is absolutely impossible to reduce the
planned expenditure. If the government has already taken up a
scheme or a group of schemes, it is ruinous to give them up in the
middle.; Therefore, public expenditure cannot be used as an anti-
inflationary measure. Lastly, public debt, i.e., the debt of the
government may be managed in such a way that the supply of
money in the country may be controlled. The government should
avoid paying back any of its previous loans during inflation so as to
prevent an increase in the circulation of moneY: Moreover, ifthe
government manages to get a surplus budget it should be used to
cancel public debt held by the central bank. The result will be anti-
inflationary since money taken from the public and commercial
banks is being cancelled out and is removed from circulation. But
the problem is how to get abudgct surplus, \vhich is extremely
difficult, if not impossible.
Other Methods
Bottleneck Inflation
It is interesting to observe that Keynes himself visualised the
possibility of an inflationary situation even before full employ·.lent
was reached. Such: a situation can arise even in advanced countries,
if there are difficulties in perfect G\lasticity of supply of goods and
services. It is possible that full employment is not reached but even
then, there is no scope for increased production. The factors
responsible for imperfect ela<;ticity of supply are law of diminishing
returns, absence of homogeneous factors and unemployed resources,
which cannot be used to increase production. All these factors are
lumped together and are known as bottlenecks. As monetary demand
increases with the increase in money supply, supply of goods does
not increase in proportion, due to imperfect elasticity. The difficulties
or handicaps, which prevent supply from increasing in the face of
rising demand, are known as bottlenecks. The result is that the cost
of production is pushed up and price level is raised. Apart from these,
other bottlenecks are as follows:
Deflation
I I' prices an; abnormally high, it is indeed desirable to have a fall in
prices. Such a fall in the price level is good for the community, as it
will not lead to a fall in the level of production or employment. The
process designed to reverse the inllationary trend in prices, without
creating unemployment, is generally known as disinflation. But if
prices fall from the level of full employment, then income and
employment will be adversely affected and this situation is termed as
deflation. The foll0wing Figure 6.1. shows if the price level continues
to rise even after the stage of full employment has been reached, it
is cnlled intlntiol\. Decline in prkt' level as a result of anti-inl1ationary
measures is known as disinflation. If prices litll below 1'1111
OlllploYlIlt'lll. lho ~illlr,li\l11 i~ ~\nlh'd 11011,,111111. Whllt'
11IC111lhlll IIIII,II\'~ excess demand over the avai lable supply.
uel1l1tion implies dcticiency of dcmand to lift what is supplied. While
inflation means rise in money incomes, deflation stands for fall in
money incomes.
Effects of Deflation
The following are the adverse effects of deflation:
Methods of Control
Anti-deflation measures are the opposite of those, which are used to
combat inflation. Monetary policy aimed at controlling deflation
consists of using the discount rate, open-market operations and other
weapons of control available to the central bank of a country to raise
volume of credit of commercial banks. This policy is known as cheap
money policy. This is based on an idea that with the increase in the
volume of credit, there will be an increase in investment, production
and employment. However, monetary policy is basically weak, for it
assumes that the volume of credit can be expanded by the central
bank. This may not be so, because even when commercial banks are
prepared to lend more to businesses to enable them to expand their
investment, the latter may not be willing to do so for fear of possible
failure of their investments.
Fiscal policy to fight deflation is known as deficit financing, i.e.,
expenditure in excess of tax revenues. On one hand government
attempts to reduce the level of taxation to provide large amount of
purchasing power with the public. While, on the 'other hand, the
government increases its expenditure on public work programmes
such as irrigation, construction of roads and railways. By this
programme government will (:I) provide employment for those who
may be thrown out of employment in the private sector, (b) add tei
national wealth, and (c) counteract the deficiency of private demand
for goods and services. The budget deficit can be financed through
borrowing from the public of their idle cash balances or banks. The
basic idea of fiscal policy is to expand demand for goods or to
counteract the decline in private demand. Therefore, fiscal policy is
the most important policy for economic stabilisation.
Other measures to control deflation include price support
programmes, i.e., to prevent prices from falling beyond certain levels
and lowering wage and other costs to bring adjustment between
price and cost of production. Price support programme has been
extensively used in the USA in recent years but it is very difficult to
carry it through. The government will have to fix the prices below
which the commodities will not be sold and undertake to buy the
surplus stocks" It is difficult for the government to secure the
necessary funds for such transactions as well as to devise ways and
means to dispose of the surplus stocks in other countries. Therefore,
the best solution for deflation is to have a ready programme of public
works to be implemented as and when unemployment makes its
appearance.
• The government may use the tax system to mop up the surplus
purchasing power with people; this will reduce C + I by the same
amount as the increase in government expenditure.
Deflationary Gap
Stagflation
From the above definition, it should ,be clear that trade cy~les is
rhythmic fluctuations of the economy, that is, periods of prosperity
followed by periods of depression. However, the waves of prosperity
and depression need not always be of the same length and
amplitude. Further, trade cycles varied tremendously in magnitude.
Whde some have smaller cyclical fluctuations in economic activity,
others have great intensity of fluctuations. Expansion in some cycles
reaches the full employment level and stays there. However, in some
cycles, the peak is reached even before full employment. Sometimes,
the cyclical fluctuations may be prolonged for one reason or the
other.
The American Economic Association emphasised the following
important characteristics of trade cycle:
This is one of the earliest theories of trade cycle and has been stated
in different forms at different times. Such "Yell-known names as
Malthus, Marx and Hobson are associated with this theory. According
to this theory, in free capitalist society rich people have large
incomes but they are unable to spend all their incomes and hence
they save automatically. These savings are usually invested in
industry and hence they increase the volume of goods produced. At
the same time, the majority of people in the country have low
incomes and consequently have low propensity to consume. Thus,
consumption is not increasing correspondingly to production. As a
result, the market is flooded with goods and will be followed
bY,depression unless prices fall to a very low level in order to allow
the goods to be carried oll the market. The fundamental idea of the
under-consumption theory is based upon the conflict, which arises
from the double effect, that saving has on consumption and
production. It is the decrease in the demand lor and the increase in
t.he supply of consumer goods as a res'jlt of saving which seems to
create under-consumption and over-production.
Like all other theories of trade cycles, this theory too is not free
from defects. It does not explain complete trade cycle. It is pointed
out that the theory concentrates too much on over-saving and its
related evils and too little on the others. It considers savings
automatically linding their way into investments while in reality this is
not so. The availability of savings does not guide entrepreneurs in t!
lt.:ir investment policies. Thus, a mere increase in savings is
insufficient to explain occurrence of a boom.
• Hawtrey's theory would have been all right in those days when
the gold standard was universal and when the volume of money
supply was fixed to gold reserves. Currency and credit could expand
only when gold reserves increases. These days, gold standard does
not exist clnd, therefore, Hawtrey's theory is really weak.
Suppose the economy is at point P in the Figure 6,6 and at this .point,
a certain invention is introduced. As a result, there is burst of
autonomous investment, which may be short-lived. But the induced
investment will push output and employment upward along the path
marked PP1, away from the EE' line. Th,e upward trend touches full
employment ceiling at PI and cannot ~ise further. At the most, the
expansion can "creep along" the' ceiling but only for a limited time.
When the path has encountered the edling, it must bounce off from it
and begin to move in a downward direction.
The downward swing is gradual along the path P2RRI and rapid
along P2RR2. At first, the downward swing may appear. to be
gradual but, in practice, it will be rapid. The reason is that once the
decline in output is initiated, it gathers momentum and tends to
proceed at a fast rdte. Hicks give a monetary explanation to this
phenomenon. As the downward movement starts, it becomes
increasingly di fficult to sell goods and consequently the burden of
fixed cost becomcs oppressive. Therefore, firm after firm becomes
bankrupt and liquidity preference records a sudden and abrupt rise
and reacts most adversely on credit situation. At [he same time the
stringent conditions in the credit market, forces business activity to
fall to the lowest ebb and thereby aggravate the situation. Thus,
Hicks' theory of trade cycles makes use of multiplier and
acceleration principles, which are combined, to the fluctuations of
autonomous and induced investment. It is induced investment,
which is finally rcsponsibleJor the upward push and downward swing
of output and income of prices and employment.
Criticism
Definition
Purpose
Current Account
Capital Account
As mentioned earlier, the items entered in the capital account of
balance of payments are those items, which affect the existing stock
of capital of the country. The broad categories of capital account
items are: (a) short-term capital movements; (b) long-term capital
movements; and (c) changes in the gold and exchange reserves.
Short-term capital movements include (i) purchase of shortterm
securities such as treasury. bills, commercial bills and acceptance
bills, etc.; (ii) speculative purchase of foreign currency; and (iii) cash
balances held by foreigners for suchfeasons as fear of war and
political instability. An item of short-term capital results often from
the net balances (positive or negative) in the Cljrrent Account. Long-
term capital movements include: (i) direct investment in shares,
bonds, real estate and physical assets such as plant, building and
equipments, in which investors hold a controlling power; (ii) portfolio
investments including all other stocks and bonds such as government
securities, securities of firms which do not entitle the holder with a
controlling power; and (iii) amortisation of capital, i.e., repurchase
and resale of securities carlier sold to or purchased from the
foreigners. Direct export or import of capital goods fall under the
category of direct investment. It should be noted that export of
capital is a debit item whereas export of merchandise is a credit item.
Export of goods result in inflow of foreign currency, which is an
addition to the circular flow of money income, whereas export of
capital results in outflow of foreign exchange which, amounts to
withdrawal from the foreign exchange reserves. Geld and foreign
exchange reserves make the third major category of items in the
capital account. Gofd and foreign exchange reserves are maintained
to stabilise the exchange rate of the home currency and to make
payments to the creditors in case there exists payment deficits on all
other accounts.
Imbalances
Monetary Policy
The instruments of mon~tary policy include discount 01" bank rate
policy, open market operations, statutory reserve ratios and selective
credit controls. Of these, first two instruments are adopted in the
context of balance of payment policy. This however should not mean
that other instruments are not relevant. The government is free to
choose any or all of these instruments amI adopt them
simultttneously.
To solve the problem of deficit in the balance of payments, a 'tight
maney policy' or 'dear money.p6Iicy' is ,idoptl:d. Under 'dear money'
policy, central Ilwlll:lar'y Clulil()ritics raise "[ilc discount rate.
Consequently, under nonna1 conditions, the demand 'for institutional
funds for investment decreases. With the fall in investment and
through its multiplier effect, income of the people decreases. lf
lnarginal propensity to consume is greater than zero, demand for
goods and services decreases. The decrease in demand also implies
a simultaneous decrease in imports while other things remain same.
This is how 'a tight money policy' corrects deficit in balance of
payments.
The effcacy of 'tig:,t money policy' is however doubtful under
following conditions: (i) when rates of returns are much higher than
the increased bank rate due to inflationary conditions, (ii) when
investors have already affected their investment in anticipation of
increase in the rate of interest. The tight money policy is then
combined with open market operation, i.e., sale of government bonds
and securities. These two instruments together help to reduce
demand for capital and other goods. Therefore, if all goes well then
the deficit in the balance of payments is bound to decrease.
Fiscal Policy
Fiscal policy as a tool of income regulation includes vanatlon in
taxation and public expenditure. Taxation reduces household
disposable income. Direct taxes directly transfer the houseilOld
income to the public reserves while indirectlaxes serve the same
purpose through increased prices of the taxed commodities. Direct
taxes reduce personal savings directly in a greater amount while
indirect taxe~ do it in a relatively smaller amount. Taxation reduces
the disposable income ofthe household and thereby the aggregate
demand including the demand for imports. Taxation also helps to
curtail investment by taxing capital at progressive rates.
For these reasons, exchange control remains the last resort for the
countries under severe str<lin of balancc or payments dclicits. The
e:-:ch:\llge contn)1 is qid to possess a superior effectiveness in
providing solutions to the deficit problem. Besides, it insulates an
economy against thc impact of eeonOl'nir. nlleluOItioliS i'1' "~I
foreign countries. Another positive advantage or exchange control
lies II' \lS cfrcctivcness in dealing with the problem or capital
movements. The governlllCnl'S I monopoly over the roreign exchange
can eflectively stop or reduce the eapit:li t"i movements by simply
refusing to release foreign exchange for capital transrcr. Many
countries, i.e., Germany, Denmark and Argentina, adopted exchange
control during 1930s because of this advantage. Although the
exchange control is positively a superior method of dealing with
disequilibrium in th~ balance of payments, it docs not pro' -ide a
perman<.:nt solution to the basic cau~es of deficit problem.
Exchange control may no doubt provide solution to balance of payment
deficits, but it also creates following problems:
are not consis fent with each other. The multiplicity of inconsistent exchange
rates occom;;;s inevitable when countries having trade surplus and deficits
fix up official r;llt's frnlll timc to time dq1l'ndin!-,- nn their requirelllents
,ll1d
1ll,Iintain it througharbitrary rules. Exchange rates beconie multiple
also because 'exchange arbitrage', i.e., the simultaneous purchase
and sale of exchange in di fferent markets, becomes impossible.
Under the multiple exchange rate system, there may be a dual
exchange rate policy. In dual exchange rate policy, there is an official
rate for permissible private transactions and official transactions and
a market rate for all other kinds of transactions. However, the
multiple exchange rate system has its own shortcomings .. The
system adds complexity and uncertainty to international
transactions. Besides, it requires efficient and honest administrative
machinery in the absence of which it often leads to inefficient use of
resources. It is, therefore, desirable for the deficit countries to first
evaluate the consequence:>, efficacy and pract'::ability of exchanre
control and then decide on the course of action. It has been
suggested that exchange control, if adopted, should be moderate and
as temporary measure until the basic solution to the problems of
balance of payments deficit is obtaired. The exchange control
problem does not provide permanent solution to the balance-of-
payments deficit and therefore, it should be adopted only with proper
understanding.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
I. What is the relevance of national income statistics in business
decisions?
2. What kinds of business decisions are influenced by the change
in national income?
3. Describe the various methods of measuring national income.
How is a method chosen for measurfng national income?
4. Distinguish between net-product method and factor-income
method.
Which of these methods is followed in India?
5. What is value-added? Explain the value-added method of
estimating national income.
6. Define inflation. Explain its effect on (a) total output, and (b)
distribution of income between, different economic classes.
7. What are the causes of price inflation? Is it inevitable in the
course of economic developm.ent?
8. What is an inflationary gap? Explain methods used to close this
gap.
9. Distinguish clearly between demand-pull, cost-push and
sectoral infl~ltion.
10."Inflation is unjust and in~quitable and deflation is
inexpedient." Discuss this statement fully.
11.What is meant by a trade cycle? Describe carefully the di
fTcrcnt phuses of a trade cycle.
12: Distinguish trade cycles from other economic fluctuations.
What, in your opinion; is the most adequate explanation of a
trade cycle?
13.Describe the various phases of the trade cycle. What courses
can the Government ~dopt to control a boom?
14."T,he business cycle is purely a monetary phenomenon."
~iscuss.
15.Discuss the view that innovations alone cannot explain the
phenomenon of trade cycles without a substantial monetary
explanation.
16.Define balance of payments. If balances of payments always
balance, how is the deficit or surplus in balance of payments
known?
17.What are the causes of different kinds of disequilibrium in the
balance of payments? Suggest measure to correct an adverse
balance of payments.
18.What is the purpose of exchange control? Examine the efficacy
of exchange control as a measure to correct adverse balance
of payments.
19.What is meant by devaluation? What are the conditions for its
effectiveness as a corrective measure of un favourable balance
of payments?
20. What is the difference hetween balance of trade and balance of
payment?
QUESTION PAPER
Paper 1.3: MANAGI;:HIAL ECONOMICS
SECTION -B
(4 x 15 = 60)
Answer any Four questions