INTERNATIONAL DIPLOMA IN PRE & PRIMARY TEACHERS TRAINING

Chapter 2:
Principles And Approaches Of Early Childhood Education

There are certain principles and approaches to teach young children that connect teaching to learning.
Teaching is all about sharing and promoting knowledge, nurturing a culture of the same and building
connections between various fields of knowledge. It is also about creating the meaning, enhancing
understanding and connecting theory with practice.

Learning is a process which brings together cognitive, emotional and environmental influences to shape
a person’s life. It results in experiences through which a person may acquire, enhance or even make
changes in his or her views, knowledge and skills. The process of learning focuses on the results of
learning, which comprises of theories of learning. The theories of learning help us to understand how
people and animals learn. These theories have two major values – one, to provide us with vocabulary
and conceptual frameworks and secondly, suggesting ways of finding solutions to problems. They do not
provide us with solutions to problems but provide us with information that can help us to find solutions.

MARIA MONTESSORI’S APPROACH TO TEACHING

Maria Montessori, born in Ancona, Italy in 1870, was the first lady in Italy to graduate from medical
school in 1896. Her clinical observation of children during her medical practice helped her understand
how children learn and led her to conclude that they learn from the environment in which they find
themselves. She developed her unique method of educating children by observing how effortlessly
children learn from their surroundings and their never-ending interest in handling materials. Therefore,
she developed such materials which could be used by children to learn naturally, without the help from
elders. Thus her realisation those children teach themselves, influenced her methods and materials for
training children, her ideas of reforming education, psychology, educational methodology, methods of
teaching as well as of teacher-training.

Principles of Montessori Method

According to Montessori, learning is a ‘self-directed’ process that is based on some fundamental laws of
human nature. The children can learn by themselves in the presence of a suitable environment. The
adult’s role in this process is to provide children with such an environment and to keep it intact. Some

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key qualities that an adult must have to become successfully a part of the learning process are
observation, preparedness and a sense of individual liberty.

The teaching methods commonly associated with the Montessori Method are:

· Teachers must design such activities and tasks which involve all the different kinds of intelligence in an
individual student, i.e. kinaesthetic, spatial, and musical, inter as well as intrapersonal, linguistic,
intuitive and logical. Children should get the opportunities to hone each of these through the activities
and tasks they involve themselves in.

· A classroom under this system consists of not more than 30-35 children and 1-2 teachers. The entire
process is divided into 3-year span so that children get to be with the same teacher for at least three
consecutive years. The classroom is usually divided into centre stations which are grouped by category
like daily living materials, sensorial materials, academic materials, artistic materials and so on. These
materials are kept arranged in the same place throughout the school year, so that children do not face
difficulties while finding things.

·The materials used in the classroom are also unique to the Montessori system. Whenever any new
material is introduced, the teacher first demonstrates to the children how it should be used. Then the
children are given the material and asked to use it in the same way as demonstrated. If the teacher finds
that a child is using it the wrong way or for a wrong purpose, he or she again demonstrates the proper
use of the material to the child. For example, if the children are given sheets of paper, pencils and
crayons and shown how to use them to draw and colour something, they are expected to use them for
that very purpose and for nothing else. If a child needs help regarding their use, the teacher guides him
or her by showing how to use these things properly.

The Montessori Method, unlike most other methods, offers a lot of freedom to the child to use their
own observation and skills to learn new things. It helps the child to become more self-sufficient and
independent.

Given below is a list of things that Montessori herself observed in children:

·Children like to repeat exercises that they have learnt, in order to master them.

·They like to be given choices and to make their own choice.

·They like to test themselves (their own knowledge or skill).

·They like the challenge of having to come up with a solution by them self.

·They like to analyse movements in terms of how they are made and whether they look good.

·They enjoy silent exercises.

·They like to practise good manners in social environment.

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·They like an environment in which everything is ordered and familiar because it makes them feel safe
and secure.

·They rely on their senses to explore and learn things by themselves.

·They like to contribute to keeping themselves clean, by washing themselves, for instance.

·They learn to write first and then to read books.

EQUIPMENTS
ENTS USED IN THE MONTESSORI SYSTEM

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FROEBEL’S KINDERGARTEN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

As another great educator of children, Friedrich Froebel, the founder of the Kindergarten system of
education, believed, play is like the highest form of spirituality in young children and is an instinct that
all children have. Play is a young child’s best resource for learning. So Froebel sought to help children,
learn by providing them with materials that would serve both as playthings and tools for learning (like:
shaped wooden bricks, balls and so on). In this way, children could play and learn at the same time
about important concepts like space, shapes, matter and so on.

Froebel’s most important concern was about children learning through play in the safety of their homes.
Therefore, the schools that he later designed for young children had proper provisions for the care and
development of children. His approach to education, which he labelled as ‘self-activity’ and which
allowed children a lot of freedom regarding individual interests and learning through exploration, is still

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important as a system of educating children. In his kindergarten approach, the teacher plays the role of
a guide instead of that of a lecturer.

The basic features of Froebel’s Kindergarten system are as follows:

· Physical activity.

· Development of physical agility and sensory perceptions.

· Creative expression.

· Exploration of ideas and concepts.

· The pleasure of singing and music.

· Experience of living as a social creature

· Satisfaction of the mind and soul

THE KINDERGARTEN CURRICULUM

The materials, gifts and occupations that Froebel devised for children were meant to stimulate the child
in such a way as to cause them to learn fundamental concepts. The materials and gifts were
fundamental forms that had, in addition to their actual physical forms, a hidden meaning. They are:

• Six soft, coloured balls

• Wooden cylinders, spheres and cubes
• A large cube divided into eight smaller cubes
• A large cube divided into eight oblong blocks
• A large cube divided into twenty-one whole, six half and twelve quarter cubes

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• A large cube divided into eighteen whole oblongs

• Quadrangular and triangular tablets for arranging figures
• Sticks and whole and half wire-rings for outlining figures
• Various materials for drawing, paper-folding, perforating, embroidery and so on

Besides the materials mentioned above, there were also provisions for other materials like clay, cloth
etc. which the children could use for being creative. The activities for children were such that they
encouraged them to work in pairs or small groups so that they could learn social values and how to
socialise in a miniature social setting in the classroom.

These games and physical activities as well as music lessons catered to the physical as well as aesthetic
development of these children. In this way Froebel’s kindergarten system helped children to grow into
able-bodied, intelligent, social individuals who were ready to step into a larger world.

JEAN PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

The renowned Swiss psychologist and biologist, Jean Piaget (1896-1980), famous for his highly
remarkable model of learning and development, discovered that children reasoned differently at
different stages and periods of learning and that all individuals passed through four invariable stages of
cognitive development. The only variable in the entire process is the age at which different individuals
attain each individual stage. The four stages are, namely, sensor motor, preoperational, concrete
operational and formal operational.

Sensor motor Stage- The key features of this stage are:

The child uses its senses and motor abilities to experience and learn from the environment, at a
tremendous pace in a relatively short amount of time.

The development of the idea of object permanence in the child’s brain by which it starts to understand
that things continue to exist even if they cannot be seen or heard.

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The child’s responses are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.

The child uses its innate abilities like looking, sucking, grasping etc. to learn about the environment.

The span of this stage is from 0-2 years of age.

Pre-operational Stage – The key features of this stage are:

• During this stage children begin to engage in symbolic play and learn to use symbols, though
they still cannot understand concrete logic.

• Language development

• Ego-centrism or an obsession with the self and inability to understand the views of other people
due to a child’s inability to understand logic or use information

• Role-playing and pretending by which children tend to act like an elder by imitating him or her
and attaching symbolic or imaginary meaning to commonplace objects, like pretending that a
piece of furniture is a horse.

• This stage extends from 2-7 years of age.

Concrete Operational Stage – The key features of this stage are:

• Development of Inductive Logic, which involves going from specific information to general
understanding, which helps a child to understand concrete ideas and events, though he still
faces difficulty in understanding abstract ideas.

• The idea of Reversibility (actions can be reversed and different concepts can be connected).

• Development of the idea of Conservation by which a child comes to realise that change in
appearance or shape doesn’t essentially change a thing.

• The disappearance of ego-centrism

• This stage extends from 7-11 years of age

Formal Operational Stage–The key features of this are:

• The child begins to develop an understanding of abstract concepts and ideas.

• Development of Deductive Logic, use of systematic planning and usage of logic to come up with
creative solutions to problems which are the major steps associated with this stage.

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• This stage starts from around 12 years of age and extends into adulthood.

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS ASSOCIATED WITH PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY

Schema – A schema is a physical or mental action associated with acquiring knowledge. In Piaget’s view,
a schema includes both the category of knowledge and the process of acquiring the same. Schemas help
us understand and interpret the world. As we continue to gain more experience, our previously existing
schemas are modified, added to or even changed to give us a broader understanding of the universe.

Assimilation – The process of adding to already existing schemas by absorbing new information is called
assimilation. It helps us understand more about our surroundings.

Accommodation – The process by which existing schemas are modified or changed through the
absorption of new information is called accommodation. Accommodation may also lead to creation of
new schemas.

Adaptation – The process of assimilation and accommodation together result in a new process called
adaptation. Through adaptation, we learn to use acquired knowledge to deal with different and ever-
changing situations.

Classification – It is a process by which things having similar characteristics are grouped together.

Class Inclusion – It is a more advanced process by which classes of objects can be identified as being part
of a larger whole.

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Conservation – It is the realisation that objects stay the same in nature though they may be changed in
appearance or shape.

Decantation – It is the ability to modify one’s ideas of classification in favour of another classification
that is more fitting.

Ego-centrism – It is the process of viewing oneself as the centre of the universe and of, therefore, being
unable to appreciate or even understand other points of view or ideas.

THE REGGIO EMILIA APPROACH

The Reggio Emilia approach is an alternative method of pre-school and primary education founded by
Loris Malaguzzi (1920-1994), a teacher by profession. It is named after the city in Italy where this
approach was first developed.

This approach believes in teaching children through a strong sense of community. The aim of this
approach was to train children to be useful in daily life. The curriculum under this approach is self-
guided based on the interests of learners. The approach is based on the following set of principles:

• Children must enjoy some control over the direction of their learning.

• They should be able to learn through their senses by touching, listening, observing and moving.

• They must be allowed to explore their relationships with other children and material things in
their environment.

• They should have the freedom to express themselves in various creative ways.

Under this approach, children are believed to be bearers of knowledge and to have potential that must
have the freedom to develop. Therefore, the learning environment should be conducive to the children.
Also the children are believed to play the active role of apprentices and researchers instead of just

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passive learners. They are also viewed as active constructors of knowledge. So, much of the learning in
Reggio Emilia schools take place in the form of projects where children have opportunities to explore,
observe, hypothesize, experiment, question and discuss in order to clarify ideas and concepts. This
approach also focuses on the development of children as social beings through interactions with other
children, family, teachers and the community at large. The Reggio Emilia schools try to incorporate the
key ideas of educationists like Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE REGGIO EMILIA APPROACH

The children are given the freedom to learn according to their own interests and therefore, no strict and
pre-planned curriculum is followed. It is progressive with a purpose but doesn’t have scope and
sequence.

The drabness of colourless and small classrooms is believed to be limiting to the abilities of children. So,
classes are held in spacious rooms that are decorated with plants and well-lit. Some classrooms try to
limit the limitations of the classroom by encouraging students to interact and explore from the earliest
stages.

Since parents and friends play an important part in this system, they are encouraged to involve
themselves and actively participate in various activities and programmes including the framing of the
school curriculum.

Role of the Teacher - The teacher is seen as a co-learner, instead of an instructor. So, the materials used
in the classroom are designed to be instructional to both teachers and students. The learning
methodology focuses on using the senses to explore the environment. More importance is given to
practical learning the students and the teachers instead of on examinations, which are limited.

This approach gives parents and children the freedom to design the curriculum by incorporating
individual needs and perceptions. Children are encouraged to express themselves through writing,

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drawing and play-acting. Their work is shared with their peers who even revise their work as a means of
encouraging collective participation.

Role of the Environment - The environment plays a significant role in the instruction process. The
atmosphere in the classroom is kept rich in possibilities which can provoke children to explore and learn.
There are opportunities for problem-solving activities, cooperation, discussions and amicable disputes.
The work done by children, things they have collected and which have special importance to them as
well as indoor plants are decorated in the classroom at both children’s and adults’ eye-levels. The
classrooms also have common work tables and play-acting spaces where children from different
classrooms can come together and interact.

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The ‘hundred languages of children’ which refers to the many different ways children have of expressing
themselves under this system. The teachers provide children with multiple avenues of thinking,
experiencing, constructing, negotiating, developing and expressing their thoughts and feelings, with the
goal of helping adults and children understand each other better. As children proceed with their
exploration, creating hypotheses and testing them, they are encouraged to share their understanding
through any of the different symbolic ways available to them, like drawing, play-acting, writing and so
on. Teachers facilitate their work and encourage debates regarding the success of their symbolic
expression in expressing their true intent. Revision and repetition of activities are encouraged to get the
children to work collectively.

The Reggio Emilia approach thus reflects a constructivist approach to early education of children.

One of its most important aspects is the multiple ways of expression it encourages regarding children’s
needs, abilities and interests and the faith expressed in parents, teachers as well as children regarding
the shaping of the learning environment. This approach to learning is therefore as beneficial to adults as
it is to students.

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