Essentials of Music Technology Mark Ballora Penn State University Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458cuarter Music and Acoustics What Is the Difference Between Musical Sound and Noise? Although every generation has a subjective answer to this question, the differ- ence can also be quantified. Musical sounds typically have a pitch; pitched wave forms are periodic, which means that the sound wave generated by a musical instrument repeats regularly. Noise is aperiodic, which means that there is no repeating pattern to the wave form and no perceptible pitch to the sound. Both types of sound are illustrated in Figure 2-1. The periodic wave is a sine wave, which was discussed in the last chapter. The noise wave shows a type of noise called white noise, meaning that all values are completely random. As opposed to-a periodic wave, there is no correlation from one point to another in a white noise wave. Although sine waves are helpful as demonstrations due to their simple hat- ‘monic behavior, sine wave sounds are virtually nonexistent in nature. Soft whistling ‘comes close. So do the sounds from tuning forks, high notes played on the recorder, and the tone that accompanies test patlerns displayed when television stations stop broadcasting at night. Properties of Musical Sound A musical event can be described by four properties. Each can be described sub- Jectvely or objectively Subjective Objective Pitch Frequency Volume Amplitude /power/intensity Timbre Overtone content/frequency response/spectrum Duration in beats Duration in time This chapter focuses on each of these properties v718 Chapter? Musicand Acoustics Figure 2-1 repeats Music and Noise ‘A musical sound Ie _ regularly erode, repeating | Noise nas no repeating pattems Frequency/Pitch Frequency describes how often a periodic wave repeats itself. It is measured in cycles per second or hertz (Hz), named after the physicist, Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894), Pitch is correlated with frequency: higher frequencies prochce higher perceived pitches, while lower frequencies produce lower perceived pitches The wavelength (N) or period, te distance between corresponding points on the wave, isthe inverse of frequency. In Chapter 1, the speed of sound was de- fined as 1000 feet per second (344 meters per second). The wavelength can be calculated by dividing the speed of sound, ¢, by frequency, f 2 ‘An example is shown in Figure 2-2. As another example, the pitch middle A is 440 Hz (\ = 2.3 ft ‘Thus, longer wavelengths correspond to lower frequencies and pitches, while shorter wavelengths correspond to higher frequencies and pitches, This reation- ship is seen often: longer piano strings are used forthe bass notes, longer organ pipes are used for lower notes, larger bells produce lower pitches than small bells, and so on. The maximum frequency range audible to humans is from 20 Hz (\ = 50 ft) to 20,000 He, or 20 kHz (\ = 0.05 f). This upper limit lowers with age; 16-17 kHz is closer to the norm for most adults who do not have hearing impairments Asan aside, sound wavelengths are significantly larger than light wavelengths. This explains why people can hear sounds around corners but cannot see objects around ther, Recall the discussion in the last chapter on reflection and refraction ‘of waves. The long wavelengths of sounds, particularly those in lower ranges, can easily refract around corners, thus remaining audible. Light wavelengths, in con- trast, are far too small to refract around any visible surface, and thus objects nor ‘mally are not visible if they are behind an obstacle.Frequency/Pitch Figure 2-2 a Wavelength ote ‘One second 1000 vse 2oyclsec 300 Weye Frequency Is Objective, Pitch Is Subjective 9 Frequency isa precise and objective measurement. In contrast, pitch, the assignment of anote name to a frequency, is arbitrary, While 440 Hz is commonly equated with the pitch middle A, many orchestras tune to a frequency of 444 for added “bite” to the sound. In the appendix of Hermann Helmholtz’s seminal On the Sensations of Tone, there is a table tiled “Historical Pitches from Lowest to Highest” in which European church bells that sound the pitch A are listed according to frequency, date, and country. The range of frequencies ranges from 370 Hz to 567.3 Hz, showing that tuning references are a matter of convention, and not a fixed measurement. Human Pitch Perception Is Logarithmic ‘This is a critical point concerning the relationship of perceived pitch to frequency. Equivalent pitch intervals are not perceived over equivalent changes in frequency (such as adding a certain number of cycles per second to any given frequency), but rather by equivalent changes in the value of an exponent that describes a fre- quency. Logarithms will be described more completely inthe section “Loudness.” For now, simply consider a logarithm to be the same as an exponent, with the distinction that an exponent is an integer, while a logarithm may be a decimal value. Integers are numbers within the set of positive whole numbers (1, 2, 3), negative whole numbers (~1, ~2, ~3), and zero (0) The top part of Figure 2-3 shows an example of this relationship with one of the primary axioms of music, which is that humans hear an equivalent pitch class with every doubling of frequency {the interval of an octave). That is, an oc- tave is traversed whenever the value of a descriptive exponent is increased by 1 Another example is shown in the bottom part of Figure 2-3, which illustrates the Construction of the chromatic scale used in Western music. “Twelve-tone equal temperament” refers to the frequency span of an octave being divided into 12 log- arithmically (and perceptually) equal increments, ‘Thus, an equally tempered octave may be constructed by the following steps: ' Choose a starting frequency. © Multiply it by 2”? for n = Oto 11. © Higher octaves may be created by doubling each frequency, © Lower octaves may be created by halving each frequency.20 Chapter? Musicand Acoustics Figure 2-3 ‘The Relationship of Perceived Pitch to Frequency Frequencies of Successive Octaves of Concert A ‘Twelve-Tone Equal Temperament a fa fo cleo | o lw] e e | w |] ao | ow 220 x 2 an 24am x 2 nx 20x22 an x 2% xo 2 a v0 220 2% ao 2%| 200 x 2 ee ee ee ee | “Any number tthe power ofzeo equals one, Loudness Loudness is correlated with three related but distinct measurements: = Power = Amplitude © Intensity Power Recall that as a sound wave travels, molecules themselves are not traveling with the sound wave, What is traveling is an expanding sphere of kinetic energy that dis Places molecules as it passes over them. The amount of energy contained in this wave, its power, correlates to its perceived loudness. ‘Air molecules, like any object, are set into motion when force is applied to them. The unit of measurement for force is the newton (N), named after the math. cmmatician and scientist Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727). A force of 1 newton ap- Plled to an object having a mass of 1 Iilogram causes the object to increase its spoed (accelerate) by 1 meter per second for as long as the force is applied. When an object has force applied to it and is displaced, work is performed, with work being defined as force times the distance the object moves: work = force x distance 22 Work, however, is irrespective of the time involved. Whether an object is moved quickly or slowly, the amount of work done is the same. The term power brings time into the equation. For example, when a book is pushed across a tabletop. it ‘may be moved slowly or quickly, In both cases, the same amount of work is done.The Decibel Scale Loudness But when the book is pushed quickly, more power is applied since the movem is completed in less time ‘The unit of measurement for power is watts, W, named after the engin dames Watt (1736-1819). One watt corresponds to 1 newton of work perforn per second. Power is defined as work time power = Now, since velocity is defined as velocity = ‘sia in agen direction time power may be rewritten in terms of velocity by combining Equations 2-2, 2 and 2-4: work _ force X distance time time power force X velocity Creating a useful scale of sound power levels is complicated by two fact For one thing, molecules are never completely motionless. There is always se degree of activity among neighboring molecules; there is no level of zero mo by which a given sound's power level may be described in absolute terms. Tt power levels are measured comparatively. The measurement is derived fro: ratio that compares the power of a given sound event to a threshold level of tonno power. However, even after determining a threshold, further complications re due to the wide range of audible power levels. The difference in wattage tween the softest perceptible sound and the threshold of pain is on the orde a millionfold, To make a more manageable scale of measurement, the scal therefore not only comparative but also logarithmic. The unit of measurer: is the decibel (dB), The next section will discuss logarithms and the nature of decibel scale. Any units of measurement are chosen as a matter of convenience, depending the scale of what is being measured. The distance from Los Angeles to New Y could be described accurately in terms of inches or centimeters, but such st Units are not terribly convenient to describe distances of this magnitude; mile kilometers are usually employed because that scale results in a more manage ‘number. This is not the case when the distance between stars is measured, distances of that scale, a larger unit of measurement, the light-yeat, is commry employed. By the same token, the distance between hair follicles may also be scribed in miles, but the resulting fractional number would be too small to have intuitive value. On smaller scales, inches, centimeters, millimeters, or microme ‘are more convenient. Measurement on a logarithmic scale was discussed briefly in the sectior pitch. It was explained that equivalent perceptual pitch changes correspon equivalent changes in an exponent that describes the difference between two quencies. Thus, a logarithmic perception of pitch is built into the human audi system. This section will detail further the nature of a logarithmic scale and he