INTRODUCTION A fuel is a combustible substance eet the main constituent, which Pree aintig carbon as heat. During the process of combustion of a fuel a i of carbon, hydrogen, ¢te., combine with celica simultaneous liberation of heat, oxygen with 1 C +0, —>CO, + 94k cals IH; + Op —>2H20 + 68:5 k cals. The main source of fuel is coal and crude petroleum oil. e are stored fuels available in earth’s crust and are nerally called fossil fuels, because they were formed from ssilised remains of plants and animals. CHARACTERISTICS (oR) REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD FUEL It should be cheap and readily available. It should be safe and economical for storage and transport. It should not undergo spontaneous combustion. It should have higher calorific value. It should have moderate ignition temperature. The combustion should be easily controllable. It should have low moisture content, because the moisture content reduces the calorific value.Engineering Che, emia 8. The products of combustion shoutg : Rot harmful 9. It should have low non-combustible mar, ler content. oe SUSE ciassieicarion OF FUELS 1. Based on occurrence fuels are classified into two ty ‘Pes, Primary fuels: It occurs in nature as such Ny eg., coal, petroleum, natural gas. 2, Secondary fuels: It is derived fr ‘ ry P om primary fuel, e.g. coke, gasoline, coal gas. II. Based on their physical state both primary and fuels may be further sub-classified into three types. “y 1. Solid fuels, ¢g., coal, coke. 2. Liquid fuels eg., gasoline, diesel. 3, Gaseous fuels eg., coal gas, natural gas the classification is summarised as follows. 7 (eg., wood, coal) (eg., petroleum oil) (eg., Natural gas) diesel, kerosene) (eg, coal gas, watt #8) (eg., coke, charcoal) (B+joe CALORIFIC VALUE The efficiency of a fuel can be understood by its calorific yalue. The calorific value of a fuel is defined as “the total amount of heat liberated, when a unit mass of fuel is burnt completely.” Units of calorific values The quantity of heat can be measured by the following | units:12.2 < Engineerin, Chem, 1. Calorie. 2. Kilocalorie. 3. British Thermal Unit (B.T.U), 4. Centigrade Heat Unit (CHU), Calorie: It is defined as the amount of heat rep: ‘0 raise the temperature of I gram of water thrush rea to 16°C).calorific value solid 4 Clean and free dust} from dust and Highest calorific value than solid and liquid fuels. Can be controlled by controlling air supply. Burn in slight excess of air. Highest used in engine. Clean and no smoke or dust particles. Highly inflammable, greater risk.KNOCKING Definition ; ; Knocking is a kind of explosion due to rapid pre rise occurring in an IC engine. 11.121 Causes of knocking in S.! (Spark Ignition) Engine [Petrol engines] In a petrol engine. a mixture of gasoline vapour and air at 1:17 ratio is used as fuel. This mixture is compressed and ignited by an elec. spark. The products of oxidation _Teaction oo increases the pressure and pushes the piston down the finder. If the combustion proceeds in a regular way, there is problem in knocking. But in some cases, the rate of combustio, (oxidation) will not be uniform due to unwanted chem constituents of gasoline. The rate of ignition of the gradually increases and the final portion of the fuel-air gets ignited instantaneously producing an explosive 0 known as “Knocking”. Knocking property of the fuel red the efficiency of engine. So a good gasoline should knocking. % 2 Chemical structure and knocking ; a The knocking tendency of fuel hydrocarbons 1 i depends on their chemical structures. The knocking tendene decreases in the following order. Straight chain paraffins > Branched chain paraffins ° Cycloparaffins > Olefins > Aromatics. Thus olefins of the same carbon-chain length poss better anti-knock properties than the corresponding pat|. blending petrol of high octane number with petrol of 1ow octane number, so that the octane number of the latter an be improved. i 2. the addition of anti-knock agents Jike Tetra-Ethy! teed’ (TEL): 3, now a@ days aromatic phosphates are used as sntiknock agent because it avoids lead pollution. OCTANE NUMBER or OCTANE RATING Octane number is introduced to express the knocking characteristics of petrol. It has been found that n-heptane knocks very badly and hence, its anti-knock value has been On the other hand, iso-octane gives very little its anti-knock value has been given 100. umber is defined as ‘the percentage of so-octane present in a mixture of iso-octane and n-heptane.” Buia me CH; a I Bie eC ~ CH cH, CH3 ~ CHy = CH, — CHa — CH, ~ CH, ~ CH; n= heptane (Octane number = 0) ek aoapis COMPRESSED NATURAL Gas (cNG) nv the natural gas is compressed, it is called ¢ ompressed (CNG). The primary component Present in CNG gqural Gas i i i Natu It is mainly derived from natural gas is @ P tte natural gas can either be stored in a tank of a vehicle natural gas (CNG) at 3,000 or 3,600 psi or as ® “<4 natural gas (LNG) at typically 20-150 psi. The average composition of CNG is as followsProperties I CNG is the cheapest, cleanest and least eny impacting alternative fuel x Sneed Chere renmesty Vehicles powered by ¢ NC. produce legs and hydrocarbon CHC) emission, Arbommonenide % It is less expensive than petrol and diesel, 4 The ignition temperature of CNG is about Ssqre 5 CNG requires more air for ignition, Uses CNG is used to run an automobile vehicle just like LPG. Advantages of CNG over LPG CNG is preferred because for the following advantages. CNG produces less pollutants than LPG. CNG is cheaper and cleaner than LPG. 1. 3. The octane rating of CNG is high, hence the thermal — efficiency is more. ad 4. It does not evolve sulphur and nitrogen gases. 5, It mixes very easily with air than the other gaseous 6. Noise level is much less than diesel. a ‘ +. CNG vehicle limit 40% less of nitrogen oxide, 90% le of hydrocarbons, 25% less of CO. 11.17.1 Comparison of emission levels b CNG-driven vehicles and petrol driven——— - _ eee youerteD PETROLEUM GAS (LPG) a by-produc! 1 or by cracking of h oS Find butarte: ft can be readily liquefied under «re ie can be economically stored and transported in 2 9 erage composition of LPG is as follows r » frac s ; itl wt 4 during fractional distillation eavy oil, It consts' nee "gore oO ¢ is about 25,000 keal/m® its calorifite valu 1. tis used as a domestic and industrial fuel also used as a motor fuel. of LPG over other gaseous fuels LPG consists of hydrocarbons, so it burns “eleanly without leaving any residue. rific value than The LPG (hydrocarbons) has higher calor the other gaseous fuels containing Hy oF CO. The calorific value is 7 times higher than coal gas and 3 times higher than natural gas. LPG is characterized by high thermal efficiency and heating rate. It is easy to manipulate. ~ Comparatively it is less of health hazard, even in case of leakage. 6. Needs little care for maintenance. CO, so it is Jess hazardous. 2 tis 1. It is free from.11.32 a Enginooring ch Disadvantages of LPG over other 9ASe0us fuels a 1 Due to its faint odour, leakage cannot be casif ‘ j y detecteg 2 Its octane value is low, . 7 3 Handling must be done under high pressure 4. LPG is suitable only for the engines work; tid compression ratio, nm high, aie PRODUCER GAS It is a mixture of CO & N> with small : nw a ie Its average composition is as follows, Its calorific value is about 1300 kcal/m’. os Manufacture The reactor used for the manufacture of p known as gas producer. It consists of a tall steel of which is lined with refractory bricks. It is p cup and cone feeder at the top and a side opening gas exit. At the bottom, it is provided with a passing air and steam (fig 11,4). 5 When a mixture of air and steam is p hot coke maintained at about 1100°C in a gas is produced. Various Reactions The reactions of producer gas production can be into four zones as follows.=~ Producer gas outlet Refractory brick lining Coal at 1000°C Exit for ash Fig. 11.4 Manufacture of producer gas y Ash Zone This is incoming air and, 2 Combustion (or) Oxidation Zone This is the zone next to ash zone. Here the coke is oxidised to CO and CO. Both the reactions are exothermic Hence, the temperature of the bed reaches around 1,100°C. the lowest zone consists mainly of ash. The steam mixture is preheated in this zone. C+%40,—SCO ; exothermic E C+O, —>C0, ; exothermic 3, Reduction Zone This is the middle zone. Here both CO, and steam are reduced. Cr CO, —>2C0 ; endothermic < +H,0 —>CO +H) ; endothermic19.24 Ei The above reactions are endothermic. Hence the of the coke bed falls to 1000°C. epee 4. Distillation (or) Drying Zone This is the uppet most layer of the coke beg i pone (400- 800°C) the incoming coke is heated thie outgoing gases. OY the Uses 1. It is used as a reducing agent in metallurgical | operations. 2. It is also used for heating muffle furna open-hearth furnaces etc. ‘7 sie WATER GAS It is a mixture of COandH, with small amount N>. The average composition of water gas is as fo Its calorific value is about 2800 kcal/m? Manufacture The water gas producer consists of a tall steel ve inside with refractory bricks. It is provided with cup feeder at the top and a side opening for water gas exit, bottom it is provided with two inlet pipes for passing steam (Fig. 11.5)’ water gas passed alternatively over a —1000°C in a reactor. = water gas production involves the steam is passed through the red hot -Hy gases are produced. The reaction is >, the temperature of the coke bed falls. 7 Tn the second stage, in order to raise the temperature of the coke bed to 1000°C, the steam supply is temporarily cut off and air is blown in. The reaction is exothermic. C+0, —> CO, ; exothermic AH =~ ve1.36 - —__—Fngineering ©», Thus the steamerun ahd air blow are “tt ‘ternatively to maintain proper temperature "heey Uses 1. i is used for the production of Hy and ig synthesis of ammonia, 2. It is used to synthesis gasoline in Fischer--fy process, : 3. I is used as an illuminating gas and q fuel, 4. It is also used in the manufacture ots aleohol and carburetted water gas (water oil gas). siz POWER ALCOHOL When ethyl alcohol is blended with _ petro) concentration of 5-10%, it is called power alcohol, In, words absolute alcohol (100% ethyl alcohol) is also cay power alcohol. Ethyl alcohol is used in an internal comby (IC) engine. The addition of ethyl alcohol to petrol in its octane number. When ethyl alcohol is blended wi it is called E diesel. Manufacture = Manufacture of power alcohol involves the fi steps Manufacture of Ethyl alcohol " Ethyl alcohol can be synthesised by ferme carbohydrates (sugar material), Fermentation of — which is the residue left after the crystallization of yeast generates alcohol. This fermentation yields | 20% alcohol. 2 yeast if : ey ine CoH}20 —> 2CHjOH+2C0, Glucose (sugar) Ethyl aleohol :S07 ion of alcohol can be ine — distillation — yields rectified sf ional A UD to 97,605 ie of alcohol cannot be increased fy Spirit. The on ry di hs sere Constant boiling te ne constant boiling mixture has a i , ip lower bailing Point sl Conversion of ethyl alcohol into power alcohol 1, for the use itt TC engines, 100% alcohol (absotnie ae prepared by removing last traces of une, spirit. It can be done by the following two methods, @ Alcohol, containing traces of water, is distilled with benzene. When benzene passes over with a portion of alcohol and water, it leaves behind absolute (power) alcohol. (ii) Aleohol is distilled in the presence of dehydrating agent, which holds the water. Finally absolute aleohol is mixed with petrol at centration of 5-10% to get power alcohols. Power alcohol has a lower calorific values (7000 kcal/kg). It has high octane number (90). Its anti-knocking properties are good. It generates 10% more power than the gasoline of same quantity. Its compression ratio is also higher. It is used, as a very good fuel, in motors.1ae t hwineering © 17.21.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of power alcohol Advantages \ It is cheaper than petrol, 2 If any moisture is present, power alcohol absorby it 3. As ethyl alcohol contains oxygen atoms, complete combustion occurs, so emission of CO, hydrocarbon, particulates are reduced, saa Disadvantages 1. As the calorific value of power alcohol (7000 is lower than petrol (11,500 cal/gn), specially de engine is required, Output power is reduced upto 35%, 3. Due to its high surface tension, atomization of alcohol is difficult, so it causes starting trouble, 4. It may under go oxidation to give acetic acid, corrodes engine part. nm 5. As it contains oxygen atoms, the amount of air for combustion is less therefore, the eng! carburetor need to be modified. , leidae it