Opening pawn centers arise as both players develop their pieces and fight for control of the center.

The center pawns

form a framework or structure around which the pieces move. It is important to understand the different types of pawn
centers that can occur, and how to play them. The pawn center determines the style of the game, and what strategies will
work best.

There are fluid pawn centers and fixed pawn centers. Every game starts with a fluid pawn center. The center pawns are
free to move, and as they move, the pawn structure takes shape.

1) Mobile: Center pawns are not blocked and not open to exchange. Either player may advance a pawn to create a
dynamic pawn center.

2) Dynamic: One or more pairs of pawns are open to exchange. The coming play will decide how the dynamic pawn
center changes into a fixed pawn center.

3) Dominant: One player has more center pawns than the other player. Generally, the more center pawns you have, the
better control of the center you have. It is always your goal to have a dominant pawn center if you can, but it usually does
not happen unless the other player allows it or makes an opening mistake.

Eventually, a fluid pawn center settles into a fixed pawn center. When the center pawns are either blocked or captured, a
fixed pawn center emerges. The fixed pawn center determines the pace and style of the game.

It is your duty in the opening to guide the pawn center into one that suits your style of play. Some players are aggressive
and attacking by nature. They prefer a fast, tactical game and should play for an open pawn center. Other players are
passive and defensive by nature. They prefer a slow, positional game and should play for a closed pawn center. Still other
players are some of both. They prefer a medium pace, all-around game and should play for a semi-closed pawn center.
Once you know your style of play, you can steer your games into the type of pawn center that suits you best.

1) Open: All or nearly all of the center pawns are gone. There are no blocked pawns. This leads to a fast, tactical game
favoring an aggressive, attacking player. The best strategy here is to develop your pieces quickly, castle your king to
safety, and prepare for tactical battles and mating attacks. If you waste time, you could lose material or be checkmated in
the opening.

2) Closed: Two or more pairs of center pawns are blocked. This leads to a slow, positional game favoring a passive,
defensive player. Since the center is blocked, the best strategy is to maneuver your pieces around the center and prepare
for a pawn break on either side of the board. You have time to build your position because tactics and attacks come more
slowly.

3) Semi-Closed (or Semi-Open): One pair of center pawns are blocked. This leads to a medium pace, all-around game
favoring a flexible, versatile player. The best strategy here is to occupy or attack the center squares to improve your
control in the center. Look for an opportunity to advance your center pawns and take more space, or to establish a
dominant pawn center. Sometimes a semi-closed pawn center will transition into an open pawn center or a closed pawn
center.

Sometimes the pawn center stays fluid until the midgame, or throughout the whole game. The threat of converting to a
fixed pawn center is always there, though. Pressure from one player may force the other player into advancing a mobile
center or resolving a dynamic center. Remember, it is your job to steer the pawn center into one that suits your style of
play.

How to Formulate a Plan in Chess

An old chess cliche' is "planlessness is punished."

The ability to evaluate a position and to formulate a plan is one of the most worthwhile
things to learn in chess. Unfortunately it is an ability that most class players lack a great deal
of understanding on. The following page is a great place to start ones study on how to
formulate a plan.

So just what is a plan? Let's look at a definition.

"Planning is the process by which a player utilizes the advantages and minimizes the
drawbacks of his position. In order to promise success, planning is thus always based on a
diagnosis of the existing characteristics of the position; it is therefore most difficult when the
position is evenly balanced, and easiest when there is only one plan to satisfy the demands of
the position." --Harry Golombek in Encyclopedia of Chess. Quote taken from, "How to
Reassess Your Chess" by J. Silman pg. 25.

Ok so now we know what a plan is. How do we go about making one?

According to IM Jeremy Silman in his classic book, "How to Reassess Your Chess", the goal
of chess is to try to create favorable imbalances in the position and plan your game around
those factors.

So then, just what is an "Imbalance"?

An imbalance is any difference between the white and black positions.

Here is a list of the 7 major Imbalances in a chess position;

1. Minor Pieces
2. Pawn Structure
3. Space
4. Material
5. Open Lines and Weak Squares
6. Development
7. Initiative

How to Formulate a Plan:

1. Determine the Imbalances in the Position

2. Figure out which side of the board has imbalances that are favorable to your position
or the side where you can create them e.g. kingside, center, or queenside.
3. Fantasize about the best squares for your pieces
4. Select candidate moves based on these factors
5. Calculate to make sure it works.

Remember First Find a Plan then Develop your Forces around it!

When considering your plan always remember the following:

"The 2 KEY ELEMENTS in chess are CENTRALIZATION and MOBILITY" --from the
book "Planning" by GM Neil Mcdonald.
When we are looking for the best squares for our pieces in concert with our plan, based on
positional imbalances, remember to place them where they influence the center and where
they have the most mobility.

"A piece that controls one key central square can be more important than a piece that controls
many squares on the wing. And a piece that takes place in a concerted action is far more
valuable than a piece that is "beautifully placed" in isolation.--GM McDonald.

This position is taken from Silman's book "Amateur's Mind". It is an opening from a
Hedgehog formation. From here the student is asked to analyze the position and to formulate
a plan. It is White to Move.

I considered white to be better due to the fact that he has a central pawn on c4 and a greater
command of space. White also has a lead in development, which is temporary. Blacks
weakness is his backward pawn on d6 and he would certainly like to play ...d5. This cannot
be done right away however as he gives me the e5 square for my knight and after cxd5 I will
have too many attackers on d5 especially if I bring my rook to d1.

So what is a good plan for white then based on the noted imbalances in the position?

I noticed 2 ideas which are both discussed in Silman's book. One is to increase whites
advantage in the center with an immediate 1. e4 controlling d5 and/or playing for an attack
on the backward d6 pawn. The position definately demands central play as thats where
whites advantages lie.

If you have an advantage you must make use of it or you will lose it! When you have a lead
in development you must find the opponents weakest point and put pressure on it. So I would
choose the plan beginning with 1. Rd1 intending b3 and Ba3 with clear play against the
target of the backward pawn. Silman notes that white might then try Ng5 intending to trade
off white squared bishops. The better developed sides attack is difficult to parry because
black is not fully mobilized.
So in the above example we see how one should think during a game. First the position is
analyzed noting the major imbalances, which in this case was the white advatange in space
and in the center, as well as his lead in development, and the pawn weakness-backward pawn
on d6. We also see the key elements of centralization and mobilization in play in pursuing
that advantage.

Not all plans will be so clear but this is exactly how one should think during a game.

It will be helpful to commit the following sets of rules to memory and apply them in your
games when formulating a plan.

The following Sets of Rules are from IM J. Silman's book, "The Amateur's Mind: Turning
Chess Misconceptions into Chess Mastery." These rules should be viewed as guidelines
that should be considered when analyzing a positon and contemplating a plan. However
every position is unique and one doesnt want to fall into rote thinking, don't play
mechanically and blindly follow some set rule, but consider these rules and think creatively
about the position.

10 Rules of Minor Pieces

1. Both Bishops and Knights are worth 3 points each

2. Bishops are best in open positions where pawns dont block their diagnols.
3. Bishops are stronger in endgames due to its long range abilities.
4. The term "Bad Bishop" means that your Bishop is situated on the same color as your
center pawns.
5. A Bishops weakness is its "one color" weakness, that is why the Bishop-pair is highly
valued negating this weakness.
6. Knights excel in closed positions with locked pawns.
7. Knights usually stand better in the center of the board.
8. Knights need outpost squares or "support points" to be effective. They are the
strongest on the 5th and 6th rank, if entrenched on the 6th rank it can be nearly equal
to a rook.
9. Knights are superior to Bishops in endgames where all of the pawns are on one side
of the board since the long range power of the bishop has no meaning and the knight
can go to squares of either color.
10. The way to beat Knights is to deprive them of any advanced support points, if this is
accomplished they are inferior to Bishops.
Here is an example of using the Rule of Minor Piece Imbalances form Silman's book. White
can make the black knight a useless piece and allow his bishop-pair to domintate the ending
using Rule 10.

White to Move. Hort played 1. g5! taking away f6 from the black knight. 1...Bc8 2. g4! Now
both blacks king and bishop are deprived of h5 and f5. Black was reduced to utter passivity
and white controlled the board and eventually won.

Rules of the Center

1. A full pawn center gives its owner territory and control of key central squares.
2. Once you own a full pawn center strive to make it indestructible. If you achieve this
your center will crimp your opponent for the rest of the game.
3. Don't advance the center too early, every pawn move leaves weak squares in its wake.
Only advance when it gives you a tactical advantage!
4. If your opponent has a full pawn center you must strive to attack and undermine it.
5. If center pawns get traded then it creates open files for rooks.
6. IF the center becomes locked then play switches to the wings.
7. With a closed center , you know which side to play on by noting the direction that
your pawns point. The pawns point to the area where you have more space, and that is
the side you want to control.
8. A wide open center allows you to attack with pieces. A closed center generally means
that you must attack with pawns (this enables you to grab space and open files for
your rooks.)
Here is a classic example of how to make use of the powerful center as given in "Planning"
by GM McDonald. White pieces are all efficiently developed and he has a strong pawn
center. Using Center Rule number 3 white understands that he must put his center to use at
the right moment. If he fails to do so he will lose his advantage as black will play moves
like ...Ng6, ...Qb6, ...Rad8 completing his development and achieving a possible defensive
position.

In the above position with White to Move, Rubinstein played 1. d5! taking tactical advantage
of his center to create a passed pawn! The central advance should be clear as the white rook
on d1 is opposite the black queen on d8, and the abscence of blacks light-squared bishop
(imbalance) means that whites light-squared bishop on c4 increaces in power by the opening
of lines (note that the white queen on f3 bears down on f7). Also we see the player with the 2
bishops will benefit by the opening of lines (see Minor Piece Rules number 2 and 4).

The game continued 13...exd5 14. exd5, Qb6 (if 15...cxd5 then 15. Nxd5, Nxd5 16. Bxd5
(threatening Bxf7+) 16...Qb6 17. Bxb7 wins a pawn for white.) 15. d6 and white has
converted his strong center into another advantage- a passed pawn.

3 Rules of Space

1. When you have more space it is usually a good idea to avoid exchanges.
2. If you have less space an exchange or two will give you more room to manuever.
3. A spatial advantage is permanent, a long term advantage. You don't have to be in a
hurry to utilize it. Take your time.
White to Move. If one evaluates this position properly it is easy to see that white has a space
advantage. Using Space Rule number 1 we want to avoid the exchange of knights that is
currently possible.

What would you play? If you chose 1. hxg5 your advantage will be neutralized as after
...hxg5 black will be able to challenge the h-file and trade off rooks, and the h-file is the only
entry point into the enemy position based on the closed nature of the center.

What to do? See space Rule number 3. Take your time. Firstly using rule 1 we play 1. Nc3 to
avoid the exchange and prepare the knight to hop into the hole on d5 clearly the best square
for this knight that he can get to. See Minor Piece Rules number 6,7, and 8.

Then the simple and effective plan is to USE YOUR SPACE ADVANTAGE on the h-file.
Black has only 2 squares he can use on that file. White triples on the h-file and black cannot
challenge the h-file, then he opens the h-file after taking his time and preparing his battery
there first.

Reti played 1. Nc3!, Rh8 2. Rh3! -using his space advantage on the side of the board he has
to play on. 2...Rbg8 3. Rbh1, Qd8 4. Nd5! (threatening Kg3, hxg5 and Rh7+) 4...gxh4 5.
Rxh4, Kf7 6. Kf2, Qf8 7. Rxh6, Rxh6 8. Rxh6, Qg7 9. Qa5! and black resigned as white
threatens 10. Qc7+ and mate following.

IM Silman discusses the positives and negatives of weak pawns but doesn't lay out a set of
guidelines for them as he does for our previous Imbalances. Here I have laid out such a set of
rules based on his discussion of them from his book, "Amateur's Mind."

15 Rules of Pawn Structure Defects

1. A weak pawn is only weak if it can be attacked.

 2. Weak pawns must be restrained and/or blockaded before they can be effectively
attacked.
3. The weak square in front of a backward pawn is often a greater problem than the
pawn itself.
4. A backward pawn acts a guard to a more advanced pawn that can be used to block
enemy pieces and control important squares. A backward pawn is not bad if the
square in front of it is well defended.
5. Play to win a weak square by trading off its defenders.
6. Doubled pawns reduce their flexibility. It is most often the forward doubled pawn that
is the weakest.
7. Creation of doubled pawns lead to open files for rooks and increased square control.
8. An isolated pawn is most vulnerable on a half open file.
9. The creation of a isolated pawn may bestow upon its possessor the use of a newly
created half open file.
10. An isolated d-pawn gives its owner plenty of space for his pieces, and open files for
his rooks. The player who possesses this pawn must seek dynamic play with his
pieces.
11. The traditional 'c' and 'd' hanging pawns control many important central squares, offer
an advantage in space and offer play on the half open 'b' and 'e' files.
12. Hanging pawns are weak if the other side is able to circumvent any dynamic tactical
advance of the pawn duo, since the pawns would then be immobile and he would then
be able to train all his power on them as targets.
13. A protected pass pawn is not always an advantage if the square in front of it can be
controlled for a very long time (blockaded).
14. A passed pawn is very strong if its owner has play elsewhere, it is then good
insurance in an endgame.
15. A passed pawn is also strong if the squares in front of it are cleared for its advance.

In the above position who stands better and why? Try to figure out what blacks best plan
should be then click on the diagram to see how one GM handled the position as black.
Principles of Development

A lead in development is defined as having more pieces into active play than your opponent.
A lead in development is a dynamic rather than a static advantage as eventually your
opponent will catch up if you do not seize the intiative.

1. A lead in development means you must find some sort of aggressive act. Quiet play
puts no pressure on the opponent and allows him to get his forces out.
2. A lead in development means the most in open positions. If you have more pieces out
than your opponent and the position is wide open (or even semi-open) don't hesitate
to attack.
3. If the enemy king is still in the center and you have a lead in development, consider
these factors an invitation to rip the opponent's head off.
4. A closed position often nullifies a lead in development because the blocked files stop
you from making any real penetration into the enemy position.

It is white's move in the above position. Many a master would play the greedy 8. Qxb7 which
allows black a possible exchange of Queens. Many computers want to play 8. Bxf7+, Qxf7 9.
Qxb7 Bc5 10. Qxa8, 0-0 and black has a huge lead in development and a strong counter-
attack. White has a much simpler and better possibility. What is it? Click on the diagram
above to find out.

The following example shows how to seize the initiative when one possess a lead in
development.
In the above game taken from "Attack with Julian Hodgson Vol. 1 Section: The Lead in
Development" white has advantages in the center, and a lead in development. How does he
take advantage of those dynamic factors? Simple. He opens lines. White played 16. e5! and
after 16...dxe5 17. dxe5 Ne6 18. Ne4 had a strong attack. In the game Jackson took the
second pawn (black had little choice) with 18...Bxe5 19. Nxe6, Bxe6 (19...Qxe6 20. Bc4!
wins) 20. Bc4, Qc7 21. Nd6!!, Bxd6 22. Rxe6+ with a crushing attack.

Anticipating the Opponents Plans

One serious problem most class players have as compared to strong experts and masters is
the lack of considering their opponents plans when formulating their own plans.

The following test position was used in "Amateur's Mind" by Silman.

You are white in this position with white to move. Try to determine the imbalances in the
position and formulate a plan, and remember to consider your opponent's plan or you will
lose any hope of the intiative! Write down your thoughts then click on the diagram to see
how a famous GM handled the white pieces.

Conclusions:

When formulating a plan one must consider the differences in the position. One should then
formulate a plan based on the favorable imbalances in the position. Determine the side of the
board you should play on and then formulate your plan around these considerations.

Here a couple of final test positions from "Amateur's Mind", a book I highly recommend for
the aspiring club player as it helps you identify the weaknesses in your game and how to
improve your strategic thinking:
In the diagram above write down the imbalances in the above position. It is black to play.
Ask yourself what is blacks best move, and what should be his plan. To see both what I wrote
and what IM Silman said click HERE.

In the final test diagram (below) Black appears to have an excellent position. Is this true? It's
white to move. What should he do?

Write down the imbalances while analyzing the position and come up with a plan for white in
this position. After you have finished click HERE to find out whites best idea.
(a) Closed KP centre, Tension form (Ruy Lopez)

The tension may even be added to by Black playing ...c5, analogous to the Tchigorin line. In the
long term, the adjacent central Pawns should confer a space advantage, so exchanges should be
avoided by the side trying to maintain them.
Black may resolve the tension by playing ...e5xd4 (c3xd4) which results in an unbalanced position
where White has an extra central Pawn (b).

(b) Double Pawn centre, KP unopposed

These adjacent Pawns in a more open position confer a bigger advantage but in a more open
position may be more vulnerable to attack e.g. along the e-file.
White may resolve the tension in the first formation, by playing either d4-d5 (giving a closed
centre (c) with an advanced d-Pawn), or by playing d4xe5 (...d6xe5) with a balanced, semi-open KP
centre (d).
(c) Closed centre with advanced d-Pawn.

The advanced d-Pawn gives a space advantage, particularly on the Queen's-side. To play for a win
the c-Pawn and maybe b-Pawn should be advanced, to sieze more space and perhaps open lines
on that side. The opponent may consider an advance of the f-Pawn to undermine the d-Pawn and
counter-attack on the King's-side.

(d) Balanced, semi-open KP centre

This is a very common formation in KP openings. If neither side can achieve a sharp advance of the
f-Pawn, play will be dominated by piece play on either wing. There are natural posts for Knights on
d5 and f5 (d4 and f4 for Black), and if Black's c-Pawn has pushed to c5 earlier, the d5 point is even
more attractive. Control of the d-file is a good idea but can usually be countered, resulting in
exchanges. Occupation of the mutual outposts f5 and f4 by Knights is less straightforward to
counter, and while your opponent is sorting out that threat, it may be that you can get the d-file
then.
If Black anticipates the d3-d4 advance with ...d7-d5, after e4xd5 and ...Nf6xd5 we have a semi-
open unbalanced KP centre (e), typical of the Steinitz variation of the Ruy Lopez with colours
reversed.
(e) Semi-open unbalanced KP centre.

The e-Pawn confers a space advantage and attacking prospects on the King's-side, which may be
added to by f2-f4. The e-Pawn is exposed on the half-open file, and should be restrained (e.g.
by ...Re8) from breaking open lines for the attack by e4-e5. Black's break ...d6-d5 is a natural plan
to dissolve the centre.
If neither side ventures d4/...d5, then we have a balanced, closed KP centre (f).

(f) balanced, closed KP centre

Unless one side or the other goes for a pawn break we get a slow game where play on the wings is
dominant: on the Queen's-side we may see a pawn rush, but on the King's-side we are more likely
to see more modest plans like the occupation of f5 or f4 by a Knight.
The flexibility of the Bishop's Opening is such that you can end up playing any of these Pawn
formations, and playing each side of the unbalanced ones [a,b,c and e] as either White or Black!
Interestingly, White often ends up playing against a Black preponderance in the centre. Let's see:

Variations with (a) Closed KP centre, Tension form (Ruy Lopez)

1. e4 e5 2. Bc4 Bc5 3. Nf3 Nc6 4. c3 Bb6 5. d4 Qe7 6. O-O d6 [closed Giuoco Piano]
1. e4 e5 2. Bc4 Nf6 3. d3 c6 4. Nf3 d5 5. Bb3 Bd6 [Paulsen's Defence with ...d5]
Variations with (b) Double Pawn centre, KP unopposed
1. e4 e5 2. Bc4 Nf6 3. d3 Nc6 4. Nf3 Bc5 5. c3 d6 6. O-O O-O 7. Nbd2 a6 8. Bb3 Be6 9. Nc4 h6 10.
Re1 Ne7 11. d4 exd4 12. cxd4 Ba7 [Speelman-Yusupov, 1989/90]
1. e4 e5 2. Bc4 Nf6 3. d3 c6 4. Nf3 d5 5. Bb3 Bd6 6. Nc3 Be6 7. Bg5 Qa5 8. O-O Nbd7 9. exd5
cxd5[Nunn-Murey, 1982]

Variations with (c) Closed centre with advanced d-Pawn.

1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 d6 3.Bc4 Be7 4.d3 Nf6 5.c3 0-0 6.0-0 c6 7.Bb3 Be6 8.Bc2 h6 9.Re1 Nbd7 10.Nbd2
Qc7 11.d4 Rfe8 12.h3 Nf8 13.c4 Ng6 14.d5 [Kasparov - Georgadze,1979]
1. e4 e5 2. Bc4 Nf6 3. d3 c6 4. Nf3 d5 5. Bb3 Bd6 6. Nc3 d4 [Nunn-Kortchnoi, 1981]

Variations with (d) Balanced, semi-open KP centre

1. e4 e5 2. Bc4 Nf6 3. d3 Nc6 4. Nf3 Be7 5. O-O O-O 6. Bb3 d6 7. c3 d5?! 8. Nbd2 a6 9. Qe2 dxe4
10. dxe4[Kosten-Cooper, 1989]

Variations with (e) Semi-open unbalanced KP centre.

1. e4 e5 2. Bc4 Nf6 3. d3 d5 4. exd5 Nxd5[Larsen-Berger, 1964]
1. e4 e5 2. Bc4 Nf6 3. d3 Be7 4. Nf3 d6 5. O-O c6 6. h3 Nbd7 7. a4 O-O 8. Re1 Nc5 9. Nc3 h6 10.
d4 exd4 11. Nxd4 [Vogt-Tseshkovsky, 1981]

Variations with (f) balanced, closed KP centre

1. e4 e5 2. Bc4 Nf6 3. d3 c6 4. Nf3 d6 [Paulsen's Defence with ...d6]

This flexibility and variety is the final clue to understanding the GM interest in the old Bishop's
opening - because it can be interpreted in a fully modern way by both sides.
[Examples of pawn formations]