WellInterventionPressureControl Manual 2015 08

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Well Intervention Pressure Control
CONTENTS
1.0 WELL CONTROL GENERAL ............................................................................................................ 9
1.1 PRESSURE ............................................................................................................................................... 9

1.1.4 Derivation of the constant 0.433.................................................................................................... 10
1.1.2 Specific Gravity .............................................................................................................................. 10
1.1.3 Derivation of the constant 0.052.................................................................................................... 10
1.1.4 Formation Gradient ....................................................................................................................... 12
1.2 GASSES ................................................................................................................................................. 12
1.2.1 Pressure exerted by a column of gas .............................................................................................. 12
1.2.2 Hydrostatic Pressure Exerted by a column of gas ........................................................................... 15
1.3 FORMATION PRESSURE......................................................................................................................... 15
1.3.1 Circulating Pressure ....................................................................................................................... 16
1.4 VOLUMES ............................................................................................................................................. 18
1.4.1 Tubing Closed end Displacement ................................................................................................... 20
1.1.2 Bottoms Up / Full Circulation ......................................................................................................... 20
2.0 REASONS FOR WELL INTERVENTIONS.................................................................................. 21
2.1 GENERAL .............................................................................................................................................. 21

2.1.1 Tubing Blockage ............................................................................................................................ 21
2.1.2 Excessive Water or Gas Production ................................................................................................ 22
2.1.3 Control of Gas Production.............................................................................................................. 24
2.1.4 Mechanical Failure ........................................................................................................................ 25
2.1.5 Stimulation of Low Production Wells ............................................................................................. 26
2.1.6 Partially Depleted Reservoirs ......................................................................................................... 27
2.1.7 Sand Control.................................................................................................................................. 27
3.0 COMPLETIONS ............................................................................................................................... 29
3.1 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF A COMPLETION .......................................................... 30
3.2 COMPLETION EQUIPMENT.................................................................................................................... 30

3.2.1 Tubing ........................................................................................................................................... 31
3.2.2 Wireline re-entry guide.................................................................................................................. 32
3.2.3 Blast Joints .................................................................................................................................... 32
3.2.4 Protection Joint ............................................................................................................................. 33
3.2.5 Perforated Joints ........................................................................................................................... 33
3.2.6 Landing Nipples ............................................................................................................................. 33
3.2.7 Flow Couplings .............................................................................................................................. 34
3.3 FLOW CONTROL DEVICES ...................................................................................................................... 34
3.3.1 Tubing Hanger Plugs ...................................................................................................................... 35
3.3.2 Wireline Type Plugs ....................................................................................................................... 35
3.3.3 Threaded plugs.............................................................................................................................. 35
3.3.4 Blanking Plugs ............................................................................................................................... 36
3.3.5 Pump Through Plugs...................................................................................................................... 36
3.3.6 Check Valves (Standing Valves) ...................................................................................................... 36
3.3.7 Pump Open Plugs .......................................................................................................................... 36
Rev. June 15, 2015 Syllabus Update.
© Caledonia Training and Consultancy Ltd. 2015. All Rights Reserved. 2

3.3.8 Expendable Plugs........................................................................................................................... 36

3.3.10 Cycle Plugs .................................................................................................................................. 36
3.3.9 Ice Plugs (Freeze Method) ............................................................................................................. 37
3.4 PACKERS ............................................................................................................................................... 37
3.4.1 Retrievable Packers ....................................................................................................................... 38
3.4.2 Permanent Packers........................................................................................................................ 38
3.4.3 Retrievable Packer Accessories ...................................................................................................... 38
3.4.4 Permanent Packer Accessories ...................................................................................................... 39
3.5 CIRCULATION DEVICES .......................................................................................................................... 43
3.5.1 Sliding Side Doors .......................................................................................................................... 43
3.5.2 Side Pocket Mandrels .................................................................................................................... 45
3.5.2.1 Gas Lift Valves ........................................................................................................................ 45
3.5.2.2 Dummy Valves ....................................................................................................................... 45
3.5.2.3 Chemical Injection Valves ....................................................................................................... 45
3.5.2.4 Circulating Valves ................................................................................................................... 46
3.5.2.5 Differential Dump Kill Valves................................................................................................... 46
3.5.2.6 Equalising Dummy Valves ....................................................................................................... 46
3.6 SUB-SURFACE SAFETY VALVES (SSSV) .................................................................................................... 49
3.7 TYPES OF SUB-SURFACE SAFETY VALVES ............................................................................................... 49
3.7.1 SCSSSV .......................................................................................................................................... 50
3.7.2 Pressure-Differential Safety Valves ................................................................................................ 50
3.7.3 Ambient Safety Valves (Pressure operated) ................................................................................... 50
3.7.4 Injection Valve............................................................................................................................... 51
3.7.5 Surface Controlled Sub-Surface Safety Valve .................................................................................. 51
3.7.6 Wireline Retrievable SCSSV ............................................................................................................ 52
3.7.7 Running in hole ............................................................................................................................. 53
3.7.8 Tubing Retrievable SCSSV .............................................................................................................. 55
3.7.9 Running in Hole ............................................................................................................................. 55
3.7.10 Leak Off Testing (Inflow Testing) .................................................................................................. 55
3.7.11 Reliability .................................................................................................................................... 56
3.7.12 Annular Safety Valves .................................................................................................................. 57
3.8 SCSSV SETTING DEPTHS ........................................................................................................................ 58
3.9 SURFACE CONTROL MANIFOLDS ........................................................................................................... 58
4.0 CHRISTMAS TREES ....................................................................................................................... 61
4.1 Christmas Tree Valves ........................................................................................................................... 62

4.1.1 Master Valves................................................................................................................................ 62
4.1.2 Lower Master Valve ....................................................................................................................... 63
4.1.3 Upper Master Valve....................................................................................................................... 63
4.1.4 Swab Valve .................................................................................................................................... 63
4.1.5 Flow Wing Valve ............................................................................................................................ 63
4.1.6 Kill Wing Valve (NASA) ................................................................................................................... 63
4.2 TYPES OF CHRISTMAS TREE ................................................................................................................... 64
4.2.1 Composite trees ............................................................................................................................ 64
4.2.2 Solid Block Tree ............................................................................................................................. 64
4.2.3 Horizontal Xmas Tree (HXT) ........................................................................................................... 64
4.4 SURFACE EQUIPMENT - GENERAL ......................................................................................................... 67

4.4.1 Chokes .......................................................................................................................................... 67

4.4.2 Fixed Choke ................................................................................................................................... 67
4.4.3 Adjustable Choke........................................................................................................................... 67
4.5 EQUIPMENT AND RISER CONNECTIONS................................................................................................. 67
4.5.1 Quick Unions ................................................................................................................................. 68
4.5.2 Clamp Connections........................................................................................................................ 68
4.5.3 Flange connections ........................................................................................................................ 69
4.5.4 Design ........................................................................................................................................... 70
4.5.5 Type ‘6B’ Flanges ........................................................................................................................... 70
5.0 BARRIER PHILOSOPHY ............................................................................................................... 71
5.1 BARRIER CLASSIFICATION...................................................................................................................... 71

5.1.1 Containment Devices..................................................................................................................... 71
5.2 TYPES OF MECHANICAL BARRIER .......................................................................................................... 72
5.2.1 Closed Barriers .............................................................................................................................. 72
5.2.2 Closable Barriers............................................................................................................................ 72
5.2.3 Hydrostatic Barriers ....................................................................................................................... 72
5.3 BARRIER ENVELOPES ............................................................................................................................ 72
5.3.1 Barrier Testing and Inflow Testing.................................................................................................. 74
5.4 PRODUCTION WELL KILL PROCEDURES .................................................................................................. 74
5.4.1 Forward Circulation ....................................................................................................................... 77
5.4.2 Reverse Circulation ........................................................................................................................ 78
5.4.3 Bullheading ................................................................................................................................... 83
5.4.4 Gas Wells or Gas Filled Tubing ....................................................................................................... 84
5.4.5 Lubricate and Bleed ....................................................................................................................... 84
5.5 THIEF ZONES......................................................................................................................................... 85
5.6 WORKOVER FLUIDS .............................................................................................................................. 85
5.6.1 Solids Bearing Fluids ...................................................................................................................... 86
5.6.2 Speciality Completion Fluids .......................................................................................................... 86
5.6.3 Solids Free Completion Fluids ........................................................................................................ 86
5.6.4 Composition of Brines ................................................................................................................... 87
5.6.5 Brine Selection .............................................................................................................................. 87
5.7 HYDRATES ............................................................................................................................................ 88
6.0 WIRELINE ........................................................................................................................................ 91
6.1 SLICKLINE ............................................................................................................................................. 92

6.2 SURFACE EQUIPMENT........................................................................................................................... 93
6.2.1 Power Units................................................................................................................................... 93
6.2.1.1 Zone 1 .................................................................................................................................... 93
6.2.1.2 Zone 2 .................................................................................................................................... 94
6.2.2 Winch............................................................................................................................................ 94
6.3 PRESSURE CONTROL EQUIPMENT ......................................................................................................... 95
6.3.1 Stuffing Box ................................................................................................................................... 95
6.3.2 Quick Unions ................................................................................................................................. 98
6.3.3 Lubricator...................................................................................................................................... 98

6.3.4 Blow Out Preventer’s..................................................................................................................... 99

6.3.5 Hydraulic Tool Catcher................................................................................................................. 102
6.3.6 Chemical Injection Sub ................................................................................................................ 102
6.3.7 Cutter Valves ............................................................................................................................... 102
6.4 WIRELINE BARRIER PHILOSOPHY ....................................................................................... 102
6.5 RISERS AND CONNECTIONS ................................................................................................................. 103

6.6 OPERATIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 103
6.7 CONTINGENCIES ................................................................................................................................. 104
6.7.1 Leak In Surface Equipment Above The BOP .................................................................................. 104
6.7.2 Wire Pulled Out Of Rope Socket................................................................................................... 104
6.7.3 Power Pack Failure ...................................................................................................................... 105
6.8 WELL CONTROL PROBLEMS................................................................................................................. 105
6.8.1 Hydrate Plugging ......................................................................................................................... 105
6.8.2 Fishing......................................................................................................................................... 105
6.8.3 Swabbing .................................................................................................................................... 105
6.9 ELECTRIC LINE..................................................................................................................................... 105
6.9.1 Tractors....................................................................................................................................... 106
6.10 BRAIDED LINE ................................................................................................................................... 106
6.10.1 Braided Line Pressure Control Equipment .................................................................................. 107
6.10.2 Grease Injection Head ............................................................................................................... 107
6.10.3 Flow Tubes ................................................................................................................................ 107
6.10.4 Pack Off ..................................................................................................................................... 107
6.10.5 Line Wiper ................................................................................................................................. 108
6.10.6 Safety Check Union.................................................................................................................... 108
6.10.7 Dual Braided Line BOP ............................................................................................................... 108
6.11 OPERATIONS..................................................................................................................................... 109
6.11.1 Contingencies ............................................................................................................................ 110
6.12 EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION ............................................................................................................ 111
7.0 COILED TUBING ........................................................................................................................... 113
7.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................................................ 113

7.1.1 History ........................................................................................................................................ 113
7.2 GROWTH OF THE BUSINESS ................................................................................................................ 117
7.3 OFFSHORE WEIGHT AND SPACE LIMITATIONS ..................................................................................... 118
7.4 COILED TUBING EQUIPMENT .............................................................................................................. 118
7.4.1 Surface Equipment ...................................................................................................................... 118
7.4.2 Power Unit .................................................................................................................................. 118
7.4.3 Control Cabin .............................................................................................................................. 119
7.4.4 Tubing Reel ................................................................................................................................. 119
7.4.5 Injector Head............................................................................................................................... 119
7.5 PRESSURE CONTROL EQUIPMENT ....................................................................................................... 121
7.5.1 Strippers...................................................................................................................................... 121
7.5.2 Ram Type BOP’s .......................................................................................................................... 123

7.5.3 Quad BOP.................................................................................................................................... 124

7.5.4 Combi ......................................................................................................................................... 127
7.5.5 Triple BOP’s ................................................................................................................................. 128
7.5.6 Annular BOP’s ............................................................................................................................. 129
7.6 RISERS AND CONNECTIONS ................................................................................................................. 130
7.7 DEPLOYMENT SYSTEMS ...................................................................................................................... 131
7.9 WORKOVER AND COMPLETION APPLICATIONS ................................................................................... 132
7.9.1 Removing Sand or Fill from a Wellbore ........................................................................................ 133
7.9.2 Unloading a well with Nitrogen N2............................................................................................... 133
7.9.3 Fracturing / Acidizing ................................................................................................................... 133
7.7.2 Lifting Frame ............................................................................................................................... 133
7.7.3 Support Frames ........................................................................................................................... 134
7.8 OTHER DOWNHOLE TOOLS ................................................................................................................. 134
7.8.1 Release Joints .............................................................................................................................. 135
7.8.2 Ball Operated Shear Sub (BOSS) ................................................................................................... 135
7.8.3 Hydraulic Disconnect ................................................................................................................... 135
7.8.4 Tension Disconnect ..................................................................................................................... 135
7.10 OPERATIONS..................................................................................................................................... 136
7.11 CONTINGENCIES ............................................................................................................................... 137
7.11.1 DHSV ......................................................................................................................................... 137
7.11.2 Coiled Tubing Pinhole ................................................................................................................ 137
7.11.3 Coiled Tubing Parted ................................................................................................................. 137
7.11.4 Check Valve Failure.................................................................................................................... 138
7.11.5 Coiled Tubing Collapse ............................................................................................................... 138
7.11.6 Coiled Tubing Runaway.............................................................................................................. 138
7.11.7 Stuck Coiled Tubing ................................................................................................................... 138
7.11.8 Surface Equipment Leaks ........................................................................................................... 139
7.11.9 Power Pack Failure .................................................................................................................... 139
7.11.10 General Muster Alarm ............................................................................................................. 139
7.11.11 Standby Personnel ................................................................................................................... 139
7.11.12 Abandon Alarm developing from Muster alarm........................................................................ 139
7.11.13 Abandon Alarm without Muster Alarm first ............................................................................. 140
8.0 SNUBBING ...................................................................................................................................... 141
8.2 SURFACE EQUIPMENT......................................................................................................................... 148

8.2.1 Hydraulic Jack.............................................................................................................................. 148
8.2.2 Guide tubes ................................................................................................................................. 148
8.2.3 Access Window (work window) ................................................................................................... 148
8.2.4 Slips ............................................................................................................................................ 149
8.2.5 Rotary Table ................................................................................................................................ 149
8.2.6 Work Basket ................................................................................................................................ 149
8.2.7 Counter Balance .......................................................................................................................... 150
8.2.8 Power Pack.................................................................................................................................. 150
8.2.9 Power Tongs................................................................................................................................ 150
8.2.10 Other Equipment ....................................................................................................................... 150
8.3 PRESSURE CONTROL EQUIPMENT ....................................................................................................... 151
8.3.1 Stripper Bowl............................................................................................................................... 151

8.3.2 Annular BOP ................................................................................................................................ 151

8.3.3 Stripping BOP’s ............................................................................................................................ 153
8.3.4 Stripping Ram Seals ..................................................................................................................... 153
8.3.5 Safety Ram (pipe ram) ................................................................................................................. 154
8.3.6 Blind / Shear Ram ........................................................................................................................ 154
8.3.7 Shear Seal (safety head) .............................................................................................................. 155
8.3.8 Snubbing Back Pressure Valves (BPVs’) ........................................................................................ 155
8.3.9 Nipple Profile .............................................................................................................................. 155
8.3.10 Spacer Spool.............................................................................................................................. 155
8.3.11 Equalising Loop.......................................................................................................................... 156
8.3.12 Bleed Off Line ............................................................................................................................ 157
8.3.13 Cameron U BOP ......................................................................................................................... 157
8.3.14 Risers and Connections .............................................................................................................. 157
8.3.15 BOP Control Skid ....................................................................................................................... 157
8.4 BARRIER PHILOSOPHY (SNUBBING) ..................................................................................................... 158
8.4.1 Containment Devices in the Workstring ....................................................................................... 159
8.4.2 Pump Down Plug and Nipple........................................................................................................ 159
8.4.3 Stabbing Valve............................................................................................................................. 159
8.4.4 Full Opening Safety Valve ............................................................................................................ 160
8.4.6 Surface Lines and Manifolds ........................................................................................................ 160
8.6 Calculation of the Balance Point.......................................................................................................... 162
8.6.1 Crossing the Balance Point........................................................................................................... 163
8.6.2 Pulling Out of Hole ...................................................................................................................... 164
8.6.3 Job Suspension ............................................................................................................................ 164
8.6.4 ESD Systems ................................................................................................................................ 164
8.6.5 Dry Gas Wells .............................................................................................................................. 164
8.6 COMBINED WIRELINE / SNUBBING OPERATIONS................................................................................. 165
9.0 SUB-SEA INTERVENTION.......................................................................................................... 169
9.1 BARRIER PHILOSOPHY (SUB-SEA) ........................................................................................................ 169

9.2 REASONS FOR UN-LATCHING .............................................................................................................. 169
9.2.1 Common general components (7”) .............................................................................................. 170
9.3 SUBSEA SAFETY SYSTEM ..................................................................................................................... 170
9.4 GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS (DRILLING SIDE) ............................................................................................ 173
9.4.1 Drilling BOP ................................................................................................................................. 173
9.4.2 LMRP........................................................................................................................................... 174
9.5 FLEX JOINTS ........................................................................................................................................ 176
9.6 MARINE RISER .................................................................................................................................... 177
9.7 TELESCOPIC JOINT .............................................................................................................................. 178
9.8 GENERAL DESCRIPTION LANDING STRING ........................................................................................... 178
9.8.1 THRT (Tubing hanger running tool/URT) ...................................................................................... 178
9.8.2 Slick Joint. (Ported Slick Joint) ...................................................................................................... 178
9.8.3 SSTT Lower Valve......................................................................................................................... 179
9.8.4 SSTT Upper Valve ........................................................................................................................ 179
9.8.5 SSTT Latch Assembly.................................................................................................................... 180
9.8.6 SSTT Shear Joint .......................................................................................................................... 180

9.8.7 SSTT Bleed off Valve / Vent Sleeve ............................................................................................... 180

9.8.8 Retainer Valve ............................................................................................................................. 181
9.8.9 Annular Spacer Joint .................................................................................................................... 181
9.8.10 Annular Slick Joint ..................................................................................................................... 181
9.8.11 Landing String Tubing ................................................................................................................ 181
9.8.12 Lubricator Valve Assembly ......................................................................................................... 182
9.9 SURFACE TEST TREE (FLOWHEAD) ....................................................................................................... 182
9.9.1 Master Valve ............................................................................................................................... 182
9.9.2 Swivel.......................................................................................................................................... 182
9.9.3 Swab Valve .................................................................................................................................. 182
9.9.4 Kill Wing Valve............................................................................................................................. 182
9.9.5 Production Wing Valve ................................................................................................................ 183
9.9.6 Space Out (Dummy Run) .................................................................................................................. 187
9.10 SSTT ESD’s ........................................................................................................................................ 192
10.0 WELL CONTROL EVENT.......................................................................................................... 195

10.1 IMPACT OF A WELL CONTROL INCEDENT ...................................................................................... 195
10.1.1 Personal Wellbeing .................................................................................................................... 195
10.1.2 Personal Injury .......................................................................................................................... 195
10.1.3 Employment .............................................................................................................................. 196
10.1.4 Environment.............................................................................................................................. 196
10.1.5 Reputation ................................................................................................................................ 197
10.1.6 Society ...................................................................................................................................... 197
10.2 EFFECTS OF A WELL CONTROL INCEDENT .......................................................................................... 197
10.2.1 Capital Loss ............................................................................................................................... 197
10.2.2 Over Regulation......................................................................................................................... 198
10.2.3 Suspension of Drilling ................................................................................................................ 198
10.2.4 Environmental Limits ................................................................................................................. 198
10.3 WELL CONTROL TRAINING AND ASSESSMENT ................................................................................... 199
10.4 Pre-Operational Planning .................................................................................................................. 199
10.4.1 Joint Operations Manual............................................................................................................ 199
10.4.2 Tool Box Talk or JSA ................................................................................................................... 199
10.4.3 Handover .................................................................................................................................. 200

1.0 WELL CONTROL GENERAL

The minute by minute well control during intervention operations is achieved by means of surface
equipment. The various pressure containment devices are either mechanical barriers or hydrostatic
barriers. (Fluid barriers)
There can be times during or before an intervention operation when it is required to kill the well
using a column of kill fluid. In this case, it is called a fluid barrier or a hydrostatic barrier. A fluid
barrier may be used together with one or more mechanical barriers i.e. a full column of kill fluid,
deep set positive plug and tubing hanger plug may be considered necessary prior to removing a
Xmas tree.
From time to time well servicing personnel may become involved in well control operations and may
have to perform simple downhole pressure and volume calculations.
1.1 PRESSURE
The hydrostatic pressure of a fluid is a direct function of DEPTH & DENSITY.
The basic principles of well control are to be found in the science of hydrostatics which deals with
the forces generated by a column of static fluid. These forces are due to the effect of gravity.
The unit of depth throughout this manual will be in FEET (ft.)
The unit of density will be in POUNDS PER (US) GALLON (ppg)
The unit of pressure will be POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH (psi)
When a fluid of a given density is measured over a given unit depth, the pressure exerted is known
as the PRESSURE GRADIENT. The pressure gradient is expressed in POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH PER
FOOT (psi/ft.).
Fresh water has a pressure gradient of 0.433 psi/ft. If this fluid was used in a vertical 10,000 ft. well,
it would exert a pressure of:
0.433 psi/ft. x 10,000 ft. = 4330 psi. Gradient x depth = pressure
From studies of the US gulf coast, it has been shown that the normal formation pressure gradient of
the salt water found in the pore spaces of the rocks is 0.465 psi/ft.
To calculate the hydrostatic pressure of any column of fluid, we must know the depth (ft.) and the
pressure gradient of the fluid (psi/ft.)
The depth used to calculate pressure is the True Vertical Depth (TVD). Measured Depth (MD) is used
to calculate volume.
Measured Depth is also called:
 Along Hole below Drill Floor (AHBDF)
 Below Drill Floor (BDF)
 Below Rotary Table (BRT)
 Below Kelly Bushing (BKB)

 Below Rotary Table Kelly Bushing (BRTKB)
1.1.4 Derivation of the constant 0.433

If a cubic foot is filled with fresh water then it will weigh 62.4 lbs since the density of fresh water is
62.4 pounds/cubic foot.
In order to find out the pressure exerted by one foot

of this fluid on one square inch of area, divide 62.4 by
the number of square inches on the base of a cubic
foot. 12”  12” = 144 square inches.
62.4  144 = 0.433 psi/foot = Gradient
To find the pressure at the bottom of a well 10,000 ft.

deep, filled with fresh water, multiply gradient by
true vertical depth = 0.433 psi/ft. by 10,000 ft. to find
4330 psi. Gradient x Depth = pressure
If a new fluid had a specific gravity of 2, it would be

twice as heavy as fresh water = (0.433  2) = 0.866
psi/foot.
Cubic Foot
1.1.2 Specific Gravity

Specific Gravity (SG) is used to define the density of a solid or liquid. The specific gravity of a fluid is a
ratio of the density of a fluid to that of a reference fluid. E.g. Fresh Water is the reference fluid for
liquids and solids. Fresh water has a specific gravity of 1 and so, any substance (liquid or solid) with a
specific gravity of less than 1, is lighter than fresh water. Conversely, any substance with a specific
gravity more than 1 is heavier than fresh water.
1.1.3 Derivation of the constant 0.052

If a cubic foot is filled with a fluid weighing 1 pound per gallon (ppg), it will hold is 7.48 US gallons.
The weight of this fluid is therefore 7.48 pounds per cubic foot.
In order to find out what is the pressure exerted by one foot of depth of this fluid on one square inch
of area, we must divide 7.48 by the number of square inches on the base of a cubic foot. 12 x 12 =
144 square inches
7.48  144  0.0519 psi / ft .
From this calculation you can see that the fluid has a pressure gradient of 0.0519 psi/ft. This figure is
rounded up to 0.052 psi/ft.
This constant is used to find the pressure gradient of fluids that have a density in ppg.

EXAMPLE
Calculate the BHP if a 10,000 ft. well is filled with 10ppg fluid.
Solution:
10 ppg is not a friendly unit for calculating BHP so we need to convert ppg to a gradient.
Multiply gradient by TVD to find pressure.
To convert 10ppg to gradient, multiply ppg by 0.052
A 10ppg fluid has a pressure gradient of 10  0.052 = 0.52 psi/ft.
The hydrostatic pressure exerted by a column of 10ppg fluid at 10,000ft. = 10 x 0.052 x 10000 =
5200psi.
Fluid density (weight/gal) x 0.052 x TVD = Hydrostatic Pressure
PPG x 0.052 = Gradient
Gradient (psi/ft ) x TVD (ft.) = Hydrostatic pressure
Hydrostatic Pressure (psi) = TVD (ft.) x Pressure Gradient (psi/ft.)
To convert gradient to ppg you need to divide gradient by 0.052
Gradient÷ 0.052 = PPG
REMEMBER
To calculate Hydrostatic Pressure use the Fluid Gradient x True Vertical Depth.

1.1.4 Formation Gradient

Formation pressure or Formation Gradient is the pressure of the fluids contained in the pores of a
formation rock at any point in the reservoir.
Formation Pressure= Formation Gradient  TVD
1.2 GASSES
All gases and liquids exert a hydrostatic pressure. The hydrostatic pressure in a column of liquid
depends only on the vertical distance from the surface and the density of the liquid.
In any well where there is gas present, there will be an associated wellhead shut in pressure. This is
often called by different names:
 CITHP - Closed In Tubing Head Pressure
 CIWHP - Closed in Well Head Pressure
 SITHP - Shut In Tubing Head Pressure
 SIWHP - Shut In Well Head Pressure
Gas (and any liquid present in the well) will always exert a hydrostatic pressure on the formation.
The total pressure in a live gas well has both a hydrostatic element and a shut in element as shown.
P (Shut in) + P (Hydrostatic) = P (total) or Shut in press + hydrostatic press = Formation pressure
Unlike a liquid, the density of a gas and its hydrostatic pressure is a function of pressure.
The specific gravity (SG) of a gas is measured at standard reference conditions taken to be 600 F. at
atmospheric pressure. The reference density is that of air, which is given as 1.0.
1.2.1 Pressure exerted by a column of gas

The table on the following page gives correction factors that can be used to calculate the hydrostatic
pressure of a long column of gas. To use this table, the Specific Gravity (SG) of the gas must be
known.
From the depth in the left-hand column and the specific gravity at the top, find the correction factor
Cf.
P gas = Cf  Shut in pressure.
Where P is the total pressure at the given depth.
Pressure = hydrostatic pressure + Shut in pressure = formation pressure
Therefore Hydrostatic pressure = (Cf-1) x Shut in pressure.

EXAMPLE
Find the pressure at 7000 feet in a gas well with 0.8 SG gas.
SITHP = 1500 psi.

From the table, the correction factor is 1.214
Total pressure at 7000 ft. = 1500 x 1.214 = 1821 psi.
U-Tube Effect


1.2.2 Hydrostatic Pressure Exerted by a column of gas

(Cf-1) x Shut in pressure = Hp gas
Using the correction factor from the previous example
(0.214) x1500 = 321 psi = the pressure exerted by a column of gas at 7000 ft.
EXAMPLE
A vertical production well is shut in with a plug set in the tailpipe (below the packer) at 10,325 ft.
There is oil at 3500 ft. and a gas cap to surface. The gradient of the oil is 0.357 psi/ft. and the gas
gravity is 0.6 SG. The annulus is full of completion brine with a gradient of 0.499psi/ft. The Shut in
pressure is 1200 psi, there is zero psi in the annulus.
The sliding sleeve at 10,000 ft. is to be opened to allow circulation of kill brine before starting a work
over operation. The manufacturer of the sliding sleeve recommends that the pressure across the
sleeve is equalised before attempting to open it.
What should be done to the Shut in pressure before opening the sleeve?
SOLUTION
In order to have the pressure differential across the sleeve at zero, the pressure in the tubing at the
sleeve and the pressure in the annulus at the sleeve must be the same.
Pressure in the tubing at the sleeve = hydrostatic (oil) + P (gas)
Calculate the Hydrostatic pressure of the gas:
P (gas) = (1.075 - 1)  1200 = 90 psi. (1.075 is the gas correction factor).
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure of the oil:
P (oil) = (10000 – 3500) x 0.357 = 2320.5 psi
Therefore the total of the pressures on the tubing side is:
Shut in Pressure + P (oil) + P (gas) = 1200 + 2320.5 + 90 = 3610.5 psi.
Calculate the Hydrostatic pressure of the brine:
P (brine) = 10000  0.499 = 4990 psi.
The hydrostatic pressure from the brine is 4990 psi.
So the difference in pressure between the tubing and the annulus at the sleeve = 4990 -3610.5 =
1379.5 psi, acting from the annulus to the tubing
In order to equalise the pressure at the sleeve the Shut in pressure must be increased by 1379.5 psi
= 2579.5psi.
NOTE: The calculations were made at the TVD depth of the sliding sleeve.
1.3 FORMATION PRESSURE

The formation pressure is the pressure which exists at the “bottom” of a well due to the naturally
occurring pressure of the formation. In a producing well that has been shut in, the sum of the

pressures in the wellbore (surface shut in pressure plus the hydrostatic pressures of the gas and
fluid) will be equal to the formation pressure.
Formation Pressure = Formation Gradient x TVD
Shut in Well Head Pressure (SIWHP) = Formation Pressure – wellbore hydrostatic
In a well that has been killed by a column of fluid, the well is said to be in balance when the
hydrostatic pressure of the column of fluid is equal to the formation pressure. If the hydrostatic
pressure of the fluid is less than the formation pressure, the well is underbalanced and cannot be
considered killed. If the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid is greater than the formation pressure, the
well is overbalanced and there is a probability of fluid invading the formation. This can then lead to
an under balanced condition in many wells.
To become an effective barrier, a column of kill fluid must exert a slightly greater hydrostatic
pressure than the formation pressure (it must be overbalanced)
Because of the overbalance, some kill fluids may be lost to the formation and will require lost
circulation materials (e.g. sized salt particles or Calcium Carbonate) to prevent fluid loss so that a full
column of fluid can be maintained.
1.3.1 Circulating Pressure

In any situation where fluid is being circulated around a well, for example during a Coiled Tubing
clean-out operation, there are additional pressures caused by the circulating fluid.
Pressure losses occur in the surface lines, the pipe, nozzles in the BHA and in the annulus.
For most intervention operation, the surface line pressure losses are not a significant amount. The
losses in small strings of pipe like Coiled Tubing and Snubbing work-strings can be very significant
and are often the limiting factor in pumping operations. Losses through the nozzles of any jetting
sub or mill may be significant and there will be losses due to the friction of the fluid in the annulus
around the intervention pipe.
If the annular capacity between the intervention pipe and the completion is small, these losses can
be many hundreds of psi. This annular pressure loss acts on the formation and can easily cause the
well to be overbalanced during circulation operations, circulating pressure = hydrostatic pressure +
annular pressure loss. This is usually called the Bottom Hole Circulating Pressure (BHCP).

Example
In the example, if pressure gauges could be located around the
circulating system, they might well read as shown.
Pressure loss in surface line = 4525 - 4500 = 25 psi.
Pressure loss in pipe = 4500 - 1600 = 2900 psi.
Pressure loss across jet sub = 1600 - 300 = 1300 psi.
Pressure loss in annulus = 300 - 0 = 300 psi.
The pressure loss in the annulus is the only one that acts on the formation.
Notes:

1.4 VOLUMES
Occasionally, well services personnel may have to calculate volumes for pumping operations or for
well kill.
In nearly all cases, these figures can be obtained from industry standard tables of pipe capacities,
annular volumes, etc.
It is important to remember that all volume calculations must be done using the measured depth
(MD) of the hole.
If tables are not available, the following formula may be used to calculate capacity.
The capacity of a section of pipe in bbl/ft. is

C = D2  1029.4 Where D = diameter in inches.
The capacity of an annular space in bbl/ft. is

C = (Casing ID2 – Tubing OD2) 1029.4 (OD & ID are diameters in inches)
Having obtained the capacity of a length of pipe from tables or from calculation, the total fluid
volume can be easily calculated by
Fluid volume = capacity x length.
Capacity is in bbl/ft.
Length is in ft. MD.
It may be necessary to calculate the time it will take to pump a given volume of fluid.
Time to pump = volume  pump rate/min.
Some pump rates are given in strokes/min, the pump output (bbls/stroke) will be known. This is
usually in the region 0.117 bbls/stroke, depending on the liner size. A pump operating at 40
strokes/min will deliver 40 x 0.117 = 4.68 bpm
Hydrostatic/Volume Example
The following information has been gathered from a gas well:
TVD 6500 ft.
MD 10000 ft.
Formation Gradient 0.573 psi/foot
Gas gradient 0.07 psi/ft.
Calculate the Formation Pressure
Calculate maximum surface pressure

Solution
Formation Pressure = Formation Gradient x TVD
(In the example the Gradient is expressed as a Formation Gradient)
Formation Pressure = 0.573 x 6500 = 3724.5 psi
Hydrostatic pressure exerted by the gas column = Gas Gradient  TVD
= 0.07 x 6500 = 455 psi
Surface pressure = Formation Pressure-Hydrostatic pressure due to the gas column
=3724.5 psi – 455 psi = 3269.5 psi
Or
Formation gradient – Gas gradient x TVD = (0.573 – 0.07) x 6500 = 3269.5
What would be the weight of fluid required to balance formation pressure Gradient = Pressure
 Depth = 3724.5  6500 = 0.573 psi/ft.
Calculate wt./gallon
PPG = Wt./ft.  Constant = 0.573  0 052 = 11.02 ppg.
Kill Weight fluid = 11.02 ppg. Or
Formation gradient  0.052 = 0.573  0.052 = 11.02 ppg

Additional information is provided as follows:
Casing capacity 0.04049 bbls/ft.
Tubing depth 10,000 ft. MD
Tubing capacity 0.00829 bbls/ft.
Tubing closed end displacement 0.01190 bbls/ft.
Pump displacement 0.0899 bbls/stroke
How many strokes are required to displace the tubing string?
How many strokes are required to displace the entire wellbore?
Solution
(There are several methods available to perform this type of calculation)
Tubing capacity = 0.00829 x 10,000 ft. MD = 82.9 bbls
Pump displacement = 0.0899 bbls/stroke
Strokes required to displace the tubing = 82.9  0.0899 = 922 strokes

1.4.1 Tubing Closed end Displacement

Tubing closed end displacement is the volume of fluid displaced by the tubing volume (volume of the
steel plus the volume of the tubing contents.) when the tubing is placed in the casing bore to make
an annulus.
The strokes required to displace the entire wellbore by circulating will be equal to the strokes
required to displace the volume contained in the casing less the volume displaced from the casing by
the tubing weight (and contents.) + Strokes used to displace the tubing
Calculate closed end displacement
Closed end displacement = Tubing OD2 1029.4

(Casing capacity-Tubing closed end displacement) = Annular Capacity
Annular capacity x MD (or MD shoe) = Annulus capacity (bbls)
Annular capacity  Pump rate = strokes to displace the annulus by circulating
= (casing capacity– tubing closed end displacement) =0.04049 – 0.01190
= 0.02859 bbls/ft.
= .02859 x 10,000 ft. = 286 bbls (in the annulus)
= (286 bbls  0.0899 bbls/stroke) =3180 strokes in the annulus
= 3180 strokes to displace annulus by circulating.
Strokes to displace the entire wellbore = 3180 + strokes to displace the tubing = 3180 + 922 (tubing
strokes)
Strokes to displace the entire wellbore by circulating = 4102
1.1.2 Bottoms Up / Full Circulation

Bottoms Up is an expression meaning the circulation from the drill bit to the shale shakers i.e. bit to
shaker (drilling) or from the circulation point to surface via the annulus (intervention). Bottoms up
will equal the time it takes to displace the annulus.
(Annular capacity x MD) / pump rate in bbls/min
Full Circulation
(Tubing capacity x MD) / pump rate in bbls/min
Time required for a full circulation = time to displace the annulus + time to displace the tubing.

2.0 REASONS FOR WELL INTERVENTIONS
2.1 GENERAL
Many servicing operations can be conducted by rig workovers, however live well intervention is
preferred since killing a well risks fluid invasion of the formation, thereby causing potential
formation damage.
The primary objective of well intervention operations is the management of wells to provide
optimum well production. This is achieved by conducting live well remedial operations, obtaining
downhole reservoir data or preparation of the well for a dead well work over (if live well servicing
cannot solve a problem). Occasionally, gathering of downhole reservoir data is a secondary objective
when an intervention is planned for other reasons.
This data is usually to provide well information on lateral and vertical movement, current location of
oil, water and gas and identifying the producing zones.
There are many reasons for remedial live well intervention well operations, most notably to:
 Remove obstructions to flow such as tubing blockage with sand, wax or asphalt.
 Eliminate excessive water or gas production.
 Repair mechanical failure.
 Improve production through well stimulation, re-completions or multiple completions on

low productivity wells.
 Enhance production by conducting well stimulation such as hydraulic fractures on high

productivity wells.
Increase production by bringing other additional potentially productive zones on

stream.
Before a well is entered, a complete analysis must be made of the current well status, the reasons
for work carefully established, the associated risks identified and appropriate contingency measures
planned in the event of operational failure.
All oil and gas wells will encounter some impairment to production during their producing life and
well service operations need to be planned, either, to rectify or improve the conditions within the
wellbore. Therefore, common servicing operations such as cleaning out fill, re-perforating, chemical
treating, acidizing, fracturing or a combination of these techniques are routinely carried out to
enhance production.
2.1.1 Tubing Blockage

Tubing blockage is generally caused by sand, wax and asphalt production, or scale and can usually be
remedied with a well clean out operation. Some of these problems can be prevented, or at least
alleviated, by treating the formation with regular chemical inhibition treatments, pumped into the
formation from surface.

Severe formation scaling can occur if injection water is not treated to be compatible with the
formation fluids.
Tubing blockage is one of the most commonly experienced production problems and is remedied by
clean out operations conducted by snubbing or coiled tubing (CT) intervention although dead well
work over may also be considered. The use of snubbing or CT is more desirable as they can be
carried out without killing the well. CT is preferred as it is relatively low cost, is easily organised and
very effective when used in conjunction with modern jetting or clean-out tools (especially with the
larger CT sizes which allow higher pump rates). In most circumstances, flowing the well helps with
the efficiency of the clean out.
Wax build-up can be removed by ‘Hot Oiling’. This is a simple treatment consisting of pumping
heated oil from surface at a temperature sufficiently high to melt the wax. This can also be done by
circulation of hot oil through CT, which is preferred, as it prevents any fluids being pumped to the
formation. Asphalt can also be removed in a similar manner by pumping solvents rather than hot oil.
Some well clean outs may be accomplished with wireline methods using tools such as gauge cutters
which can remove wax from tubing walls and bailing to remove sand or other blockages, provided
the amount to be removed is relatively small. It is often easier to use wireline, even if it may be less
efficient, as many platforms are already equipped with permanent wireline units or they can be
easily mobilised. CT takes longer to rig up and deploy which are considerations that need to be taken
into account during the evaluation process. However in general, most operations can more
efficiently be accomplished using CT and it is sometimes the only option if the well is high angle or
horizontal. The general limit for wireline operations is circa 70° from vertical but this may vary
according to well build up angles and the types of tools to be run.
Hydraulic Work Over units (HWO) may also be considered but they are generally slower and
therefore more costly in comparison to CT. However, in some circumstances, e.g. where there is not
enough space for a CT injector or the reel due to the size of the rig or where large size pipe is
required for work on horizontal wells, Hydraulic Work Over may be the alternative.
Notes:
2.1.2 Excessive Water or Gas Production

As an oil zone is depleted, the gas/oil or water/oil interfaces will move vertically in the formation.
This may result in increasing undesired water or gas production.

Excessive gas production leads to a premature decrease in reservoir pressure, hence reducing the
energy available to move the oil into the well bore and ultimately reducing the quantity of gas
necessary to lift the oil to surface.
When excessive water is produced, it leads to reduced oil production due to the increased
hydrostatic head in the tubing acting against the formation pressure, increased risk of corrosion and
production problems in handling and disposing of the water. It may also cause sand production that
can lead to erosion of completion and production equipment.
These problems can be controlled by the appropriate well intervention measures, as described
below.
Control of Water Production

There are different reasons for water problems:
 Fingering of water in stratified or layered reservoirs where the water production is

essentially from one zone.
 Advancing water level due to oil depletion.
Water coning in reservoirs where there is appreciable vertical permeability

When a rock becomes saturated with water, the relatively permeability to water increases in regard
to that of the other fluids. This leads to a self-aggravating cycle of increasing water flow.
Prior to running or planning operations for water control, production logs must be run to identify the
zones from which water is being produced. Once identified, this can usually be controlled by a
number of different methods depending on the specific well design and well conditions:
 Sand placement in the sump
 Setting a through tubing bridge plug
 Cement squeezing
 Chemical treatment to produce a gel block.
Sand placement in the sump may solve the problem in circumstances where there is sufficient height
of sand and the vertical permeability of the column of sand is high and blocks water flow.
Cement squeezes have probably been the commonest means of plugging off water producing zones
in the past utilising work over methods requiring the well to be killed, the completion to be pulled
before cementing d re-completing.
High production liner or mono-bore type completions have been specifically designed for through
tubing operations enabling water control by simply installing a through tubing bridge plug by
wireline or CT after which cement can be squeezed, if necessary
Cement squeezing by CT below regular packer style completions using modern through tubing
tooling, is now also common practice.
Water blocking by creating a gel at the formation is a much more recent development. This involves
pumping chemicals to the formation, which react after a period of time to form a gel. The viscosity

of the gel is so high that it remains in the formation pores, blocking the flow of water trapped behind
the gel. This method is usually expensive due to high chemical costs.
Plugging back water producing zones may on occasions require the well to be re-completed if the
packer has to be moved or if shallower zones need to be perforated and brought on stream.
Water Fingering Due to Heterogeneity’s
Advancing Oil/Water Contact Water Production by Coning
2.1.3 Control of Gas Production

The most common reason for excessive gas production is the growth of the gas cap as oil is
produced. The gas/oil contact will gradually move downward causing an increase in the production
of gas.
The common method of remedying excessive gas coning is to squeeze the gas producing zone and
deepen the well by re-perforating (converse to water coning). An alternative is to conduct a work
over where the well is plugged back and side-tracked with the new hole drilled horizontally through
the lower part of the reservoir avoiding the gas cap.
In a layered reservoir, gas producing zones can also usually be effectively squeezed off with cement.

Increasing Gas Cap during Oil Production
2.1.4 Mechanical Failure

Well service operations to repair mechanical completion failures are still relatively common in old
wells, however in new wells less servicing is required due to the increasing reliability of modern
completion equipment.
In the past, one of the most common reasons for working over a well was to replace downhole
safety valves that had failed. For this reason, engineers were inclined to install wireline retrievable
valves as they could easily be replaced using live well interventions by wireline methods, hence
avoiding the need to pull tubing. Nowadays, this is no longer the case as the reliability of tubing
retrievable valves has increased substantially and it is now the most commonly used valve.
Probably the most common reason for remedial mechanical operations today is tubing failure due to
erosion or corrosion.
Some completion failures can be repaired by wireline or CT methods but, in some circumstances, a
full work over programme to pull the tubing is necessary.
Typical failures are:
 Downhole safety valve mechanical failure or leak.
 Casing, packer or tubing leaks.
 Casing collapse.
 Tubing collapse.
 Cement failure.
 Gas lift failure or inefficiency.
 ESP or hydraulic pump failure.
Recovery of a fish unable to be recovered by intervention methods.

A full work over programme usually entails the placement of an overbalanced fluid against the
formation unless it can be isolated using a plug, e.g. a Wireline plug in a permanent packer tailpipe
or setting a through tubing plug in the casing above the producing zone(s).
2.1.5 Stimulation of Low Production Wells

There are many reasons why a well may have low productivity, such as:
 Formation damage
 Low permeability
 Pressure depletion
 Liquid hold up in a gas well
 Gas slip in an oil well
 Sand or other fill or debris
 Excessive water or gas production
 Mechanical failure
 Artificial lift failure
Formation damage and low permeability can sometimes be improved by stimulation operations such
as acidisation or hydraulic fracturing.
In oil or gas wells where there is liquid hold up or gas slip; this is often countered by installing
smaller diameter velocity strings. These may be coiled tubing strings installed inside the original
completion. This tubing reaches down into the sump and provides a smaller flow area to improve
liquid lift. These reeled strings are normally 2 3/8 inch, 2 7/8 inch or 3 1/2 inch OD and are run and
hung off on a wireline lock or similar device.
The tubing is snubbed into the well by normal CT methods from large reels after a lock mandrel has
been attached to the coil and RIH to setting depth.
The main disadvantage with this solution is the high weight of such large reels, which is often above
the lifting capacity of some offshore installations. Smaller, more manageable, reel sizes involve more
connections to make up offshore. These problems, however, are outweighed when set against the
costs of a full re-completion programme.
An artificial lift system is usually required in any low permeability well to give adequate production
rates. A work programme to re-complete this type of well is required once the well flow has reached
the minimum economic acceptable natural flow. If the well has already been on gas lift and it is no
longer efficient, then the gas lift design should be reviewed to optimise the existing gas lift
completion.

2.1.6 Partially Depleted Reservoirs

In a depleted oil reservoir, an effective artificial lift system can be installed to increase production. If
a well was originally planned and designed for gas lift and completed with gas lift mandrels in the
string then the gas lift valves are simply installed by wireline intervention. However, if a re-
completion is needed, a full dead well work over would be necessary. In high angle wells, gas lift
valves can be installed by coiled tubing methods.
Improved recovery by reservoir pressure maintenance is usually the best long-term approach to
increased production rates.
2.1.7 Sand Control

There are normally two solutions for controlling unconsolidated sand:
 Gravel pack
 Install a pre-packed screen (resins are occasionally used)
The drawback of having to implement such control measures is that they reduce productivity
typically by 10% to 15%.
The installation of a gravel pack involves a full work over and re-completion although new methods
using HWO unit have been developed.
For a successful gravel pack it is important to ensure that clean fluids (containing little or no
dispersal solids) are used on initial completion or when the gravel pack is installed. A second
requirement is that the gravel is correctly sized in relationship to the formation sand to prevent
further ingress or blind off. It also is desirable, if completing in a sand zone that is known to be
unconsolidated, that the gravel pack is installed immediately, as it is more difficult to install at a later
stage.
If an Open Hole (external) gravel pack is required the hole will need to be enlarged to about twice its
size by under-reaming first before the liner/screen is run. Properly sized gravel is placed outside the
screen by reverse circulation techniques. External gravel packs are utilised when high production
rates are required. Internal gravel cause reduced production rates.
The use of pre-packed screens has increased in recent years as they can often be installed in an
existing completed well avoiding re-completion; however they are more prone to blinding off as they
do not provide the same effectiveness as a regular gravel pack in controlling the production of fines.

Expandable Sand Screen
Notes:

3.0 COMPLETIONS
In the early 1900s, oil and gas wells were
commonly completed with only a string of
cemented casing. As deeper, multiple and
higher pressure reservoirs were encountered,
it was recognised that such completions
imposed limitations on well servicing and well
control and that downhole designs would
need to be changed to meet increasing needs
for zonal isolation, selectivity, re-entry and
control. This objective was achieved through
the development of downhole equipment.
Today, conventional oil and gas wells are

completed with a variety of downhole devices
designed to meet the functional and
production requirements of the well.
In simple terms “completion” refers to the

method chosen to finalize a newly drilled well
and will include:
 A method of providing
communication between the reservoir
and the wellbore
 Tubing and casing design
 A method of lifting well fluids to

surface
The installation of various components to allow efficient production, pressure testing, emergency
containment of reservoir fluids, reservoir monitoring and placement of barriers, well maintenance
and well kill procedures.
Notes:

3.1 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF A COMPLETION

Completion design involves the selection of
components to perform specific functions
dependent on the philosophy of the operating
company and, in some cases; the choice of
component is based on historic reasons and
preference.
Some basic functional requirements may include:
 The provision of optimum flowing conditions
 Protecting the casing from corrosive well

fluids
 Containment of reservoir fluids in an

emergency
 Chemical injection
 Well Killing requirements
 Routine intervention operations
 Tubing movement (compensation)
 Internal erosion
 Installation of barriers
3.2 COMPLETION EQUIPMENT

Most wells include at least one string of tubing in the
completion. Other items such as flow couplings,
circulation
devices, blast joints and packers are run as an
integral part
of the completion string or tailpipe.
Typical Oil Well Completion

3.2.1 Tubing
Tubing refers to the pipe used to create a flow conduit inside the wellbore, between the reservoir
and the wellhead. This flow conduit provides control of the produced fluid and facilitates wellbore
servicing operations such as wireline and pumping activities. Typically, tubing is run inside a casing
string or a liner but tubing can also be cemented in slim hole wells as the production tubing.
One or more strings of tubing may be used in a completion and this decision is a function of the
number of reservoirs to be produced, whether the fluids will be commingled or produced separately
and whether the reservoirs will be produced concurrently or sequentially.
The purpose of using tubing in a well is to convey the produced fluids from the producing zone to
the surface, or in some cases to convey fluids from the surface to the producing zone. It should
continue to do this effectively, safely and economically for the life of the well, so care must be taken
in its selection, protection and installation.
The tubing must retain the well fluids and keep them out of the annulus to protect the casing from
corrosion and well pressure which may be detrimental to future well operations such as workovers.
Tubing connections play a vital part in the function of the tubing. There are two types of connection
available; API and premium connections. API connections are tapered thread connections and rely
on thread compound to seal whereas the premium thread has at least one metal-to-metal seal.
Premium connections are generally used in high pressure wells.
Tubulars up to and including 41/2 ins. are classified as tubing, over 41/2 ins. are classified as casing. In
large capacity wells, casing size tubulars are often installed as the production conduit.
Tubing selection is governed by several factors:
 Anticipated well peak production rate
 Depth of well
 Casing sizes
 Well product
 Use of wireline tools and equipment
 Pressures/temperatures
 Tubing/annulus differential pressures
To meet various completion designs, there is a wide range of tubing sizes, wall
thickness (weights) and materials to provide resistance to tubing forces and
differing well environments. The best tubing selection is the cheapest tubing which
will withstand the external, internal and longitudinal forces it will be subjected to,
and resist all corrosive fluids in the well product.
Tubing in the main, is supplied in accordance with API specifications which have a
range of materials to resist most of the potential corrosive well conditions, but,
where deeper high pressure sour reservoirs are being developed, the API range is
not suitable. To fill this gap in the market, steel suppliers provide propriety grades.

These grades are usually high chrome steels up to 24% chrome designed for various
high temperature and sour well conditions.
For ease of identification, tubing is colour coded to API specification. Some specialist
supplier's steels are not covered by the code and provide their own specific codes.
3.2.2 Wireline re-entry guide

A wireline re-entry guide is used for the safe re-entry of wireline tools from the casing or liner back
into the tubing string. It is attached to the end of the production string or packer tailpipe assembly
and has a chamfered lead in with a full inside diameter.
Wireline re-entry guides are generally available in two forms:
 Bell Guide
 Mule-Shoe
The Bell Guide has a 45° lead in taper to guide wireline tools back into the tubing. This type of guide
has a relatively large outside diameter, and is used in completions where the end of the tubing does
not need to pass through any casing obstacles such as liner laps.
The Mule Shoe guide has the same function as the Bell Guide but features a 45° angle cut on one
side of the guide. The primary purpose of this angle is to guide the tubing past any obstructions in
the wellbore when the tubing is being run. If the tubing hangs up on the liner lap or on the top of the
packer, rotation of the tubing should allow the mule shoe guide to kick back into the wellbore.
Mule Wireline Entry Guide Bell Guide

3.2.3 Blast Joints
Fluids entering the tubing from the perforations may display a jetting behaviour. This fluid-jetting
may abrade the tubing string at the point of entry, ultimately causing tubing failure.
Blast joints are joints of pipe with a wall thickness greater than the tubing. These joints are installed
opposite the casing perforations (non-gravel packed) where external cutting or abrasive action
occurs caused by produced well fluids or sand. They are heavy-walled tubulars available usually in
10, 15, and 20 ft. lengths. They should be long enough to extend at least 8 ft. either side of a
perforated interval for a safety margin Blast joints delay failure from erosion at the point of entry
and are similar to flow couplings which are discussed later.

Blast joints are usually manufactured from a heat treated alloy such as 415H. Tungsten carbide or
stellite is sometimes used.
3.2.4 Protection Joint

This equipment is not normally in use today. It consisted of a single joint of tubing used to prevent
downhole gauges from buffeting in the flow stream. The protection joint was installed directly below
the gauge hanger landing nipple in the tailpipe and was long enough to accommodate the longest
BHP toolstring run in the well.
3.2.5 Perforated Joints

In wells where flowing velocities are high, a restriction in the tubing, such as a gauge hanger, can
cause false pressure and temperature readings. Vibrations in the tool can cause extensive damage to
delicate instruments. To provide an alternative flow path, a perforated joint is installed above the
gauge hanger nipple and allows unrestricted flow around the gauge. The perforated joint is normally
a tubing joint drilled with sufficient holes to provide a flow area greater than that in the tubing
above.
3.2.6 Landing Nipples

Landing nipples, also known as wireline or seating nipples are short sections of thick-walled tubulars
machined internally to provide a locking profile and at least one packing bore. They are supplied in
ranges to suit most tubing sizes and weights with API or premium connections and are available in
three basic types:
 No-Go or Non-Selective
 Selective
 Ported (SVLN)
The landing nipple is designed to provide a profile at a specific point in the completion to locate, lock
and seal subsurface flow controls. Their primary purpose is for receiving flow control devices.
The flow control devices are locked into the nipple using lock mandrels with locking dogs in matching
profiles. The flow control devices seal within the nipple bore using elastomeric seals, usually Chevron
seals.
The non-selective nipple is a locating device and receives a locking device that uses a No-Go for
location (positioning) purposes. This requires that the OD of the locking device is slightly larger than
the No-Go diameter of the nipple. The No-Go diameter is usually a small shoulder located below the
packing bore (bottom No-Go) but in some designs, the top of the packing bore itself is used as the
No-Go. Only one No-Go landing nipple of a particular size should be used in a completion string.
The No-Go restriction determines the largest size of equipment that can run through the device and
provides a positive location for setting. They are widely used in high angle wells where wireline tool
manipulation is difficult and weight indicator sensitivity is reduced.
When the lock mandrel has located the no-go, it is in the correct position to allow the locking dogs
to be jarred into the locked position.

Selective
In the selective system, the locking devices are designed with the same key profile as the nipples and
selection of the nipple is determined by the operation of the running tool and the setting procedure.
The selective design is full bore and allows the installation of several nipples of the same size.
Industry Standard Landing Nipple Profiles
3.2.7 Flow Couplings

Flow couplings, are heavy-walled tubulars installed above or below any completion component
causing a restriction to flow which may cause flow turbulence such as wireline nipples, SSDs, SCSSV
landing nipples etc. and combat internal erosion.
They are manufactured from harder materials and have a thicker wall thickness than the tubulars
they protect so that, if erosion is experienced, the flow coupling will still maintain pressure integrity
over the projected life of the well.
In higher velocity wells, such as high pressure gas wells or injection wells, a flow coupling may also
be placed below restrictions.
3.3 FLOW CONTROL DEVICES

Flow Control is defined as the ability to regulate or prevent the flow of fluids or gases in the
wellbore.
Tubing hanger plugs. Flow couplings, are heavy-walled tubulars installed above or below any
completion component causing a restriction to flow which may cause flow turbulence such as
wireline nipples, SSDs, SCSSV landing nipples etc. and combat internal erosion.

They are manufactured from harder materials and have a thicker wall thickness than the tubulars
they protect so that, if erosion is experienced, the flow coupling will still maintain pressure integrity
over the projected life of the well.
In higher velocity wells, such as high pressure gas wells or injection wells, a flow coupling may also
be placed below restrictions.
3.3.1 Tubing Hanger Plugs

The innermost hanger, the tubing hanger, usually has a profile for locating a Tubing Hanger Plug
(THP) or Back Pressure Valve (BPV) or Two Way Check Valve (TWCV). These all perform the same
function i.e. seal off the top of the well below the Xmas tree to allow the tree to be tested, repaired
or removed.
These well containment devices can be run into the tubing hanger with the well under pressure and
used as mechanical barriers required before removing a Xmas tree.
There are two basic types of tubing hanger plugs, wireline plug type and a type that is mechanically
screwed into the hanger.
3.3.2 Wireline Type Plugs

The wireline plugs are run into the profile and locked in the tubing hanger. The various types of plug:
 Seal off the wellbore from below but still allow pumping through from above (BPVs),
 Seal off in both directions (Positive Plugs) and that will seal off in either but allow slow
pumping through the valve from above (Tics).
These plugs can be run and pulled with a wireline unit or by using a special lubricator which does the
same job but is operated manually using rods whilst still containing the well pressure.
3.3.3 Threaded plugs

These plugs are screwed into a threaded section of the tubing hanger
where they seal externally. They are run and pulled using a special
lubricator (Polished Rod Lubricator) that contains the wellbore
pressure whist the plug or valve is being run or pulled.
H type Back Pressure Valve

3.3.4 Blanking Plugs

Blanking plugs are set in nipples to shut off the flow of fluids. A true blanking plug has no fluid
bypass facility making running procedures slow. Bypass blanking plugs allow fluid bypass and may
require one or two runs to set them. Before these plugs are pulled they should be equalised above
and below.
3.3.5 Pump Through Plugs

Pump through Plugs hold pressure from below and are used to isolate the well below their location
in the wellbore. These plugs can be pumped through for well kill operations etc.
3.3.6 Check Valves (Standing Valves)

Standing valves or check valves (not to be confused with the check valves which form part of a coil
tubing or snubbing Bottom Hole Assembly) are run and set in a nipple and are designed to hold
pressure from above only. They are used for pressure testing the tubing above them and for setting
packers.
The valve can be recovered as soon as pressure testing or packer setting operations are complete.
This type of valve is usually fitted with an equalising valve that will shear prior to pulling.
Check valves will normally only require one wireline trip for running and retrieval since the wireline
remains latched during packer setting or pressure testing operations.
3.3.7 Pump Open Plugs

Pump Open Plugs are positive plugs but can be
pumped open by applying excess surface
pressure. They serve as temporary tubing plugs
that can be pumped open for production
without having to be retrieved by wireline. POP
also negate the need to bail sand or debris to
mechanically equalise the plug before POOH.
3.3.8 Expendable Plugs

This is a plugging device run as an integral part of the tubing. It can be used to set a hydraulic set
packer or to test the tubing string. When the plug is expended, the plugging material disintegrates
leaving a full tubing I.D.
3.3.10 Cycle Plugs

Pressure cycle plugs are similar to Pump Open Plugs but with this design the plug opens after
pressure above the plug has been cycled a pre-set number of times (up to 20) and to a pre-set
pressure. This cycling offers better protection against premature opening. These plugs can be run
into a nipple on a lock mandrel or they can be pre-installed prior to running the completion.

3.3.9 Ice Plugs (Freeze Method)

This (non-routine) type of plug is classified as a mechanical plug and is set using the Freeze Method.
An ice plug is made in the wellhead or other surface component. The process of making ice plugs
involves chemicals like glycol, heat exchangers, dry ice, liquid nitrogen and static fresh water. The
process is very slow and it may take up to 18 hours for an ice plug to form.
3.4 PACKERS
A packer is a device used to provide a seal between the tubing and the casing and provides a sealed
tubing/casing annulus. This seal is created in conjunction with the completion tubulars and isolates
the annulus from the casing below the packer. It allows the flow of reservoir fluids from the
producing formation to be contained within the tubing up to the surface and prevents the
production casing from being exposed to well pressure and corrosion from well effluents or injection
fluids.
Packers are usually set just above the top perforations and remain in the well during normal well
production.
Service packers such as those used in well testing and cement squeezing etc. are used temporarily
and retrieved for re-use or milled.
A packer consists of:
 Case hardened slips to bite into the casing wall and hold the packer in position against
pressure and tubing forces.
 Packing elements that seal against the casing.
In general, packers are classified in two groups:
 Retrievable
 Permanent

3.4.1 Retrievable Packers

These are generally run into the wellbore on the production tubing string. As the name implies,
retrievable packers can be recovered from the well after setting by pulling it with the completion
string.
3.4.2 Permanent Packers

These are installed in the wellbore usually independent of the production tubing string. A permanent
packer may be considered as an integral part of the casing.
The tubing can be released from the packer leaving the packer set in the well. Tubing can
subsequently be run back and re-sealed in the packer.
Permanent packers are not attached to the production tubing and can only be removed from the
well by milling operations.
3.4.3 Retrievable Packer Accessories
Travel Joints (Telescoping or Expansion joints)

A travel joint is used with a retrievable packer to compensate for tubing movement due to
temperature and/or pressure changes during treating or production.
Production Packer Images Curtesy of Weatherford UK

3.4.4 Permanent Packer Accessories

An important aspect in a completion with a permanent packer is the tubing/packer seal. As the
packer in effect becomes part of the casing after it is set, the tubing must connect to the packer in a
manner so that it can be released. This connection whether it is a straight stab in, latched or
otherwise, must have a seal to isolate the annulus from well fluids and pressures. This seal usually
consists of a number of seal elements to cater for tubing movement.
Seal elements are classified into two groups:
 Premium
 Non-premium
The premium group is used in severe or sour well conditions i.e. H2S, CO2 etc. and are normally ‘V’
type-packing stacks containing various packing materials resistant to the particular environment. The
non-premium seals are for sweet service and can be either ‘V’ type packing stacks or moulded
rubber elements.
Locator Tubing Seal Assemblies

Locator tubing seal assemblies and Tubing Seal Extensions, are fitted with a series of external seals
providing an effective seal between the tubing and packer bore. They also have a No-Go type locator
for locating in the packer. Locator seal assemblies are normally spaced out so that they can
accommodate both upward and downward tubing movement caused by changes in temperature
and pressure.
Seal Bore Extensions

A seal bore extension is used to provide additional seal bore length when a longer seal assembly is
run to accommodate greater tubing movement. The seal bore extension is run below the packer and
has the same ID as the packer.
Anchor Tubing Seal Assemblies

Anchor tubing seal assemblies, are used where it is necessary to anchor the tubing to a permanent
packer while retaining the option to unlatch when required.
Anchor latches are normally used where well conditions require the tubing to be landed in tension
or where insufficient weight is available to prevent seal movement.
Polished Bore Receptacles (PBR)

A PBR is simply a seal receptacle attached to the top of a permanent packer or liner hanger packer in
which the seal assembly lands. The through bore can be made larger than the packer, to provide a
larger flow area through the seal assembly.
Tubing Seal Receptacles

A TSR is an inverted version of a PBR, a polished OD male member is attached to the top of the
packer and the female (or overshot) is attached to the tubing. The seals are contained in the female
member so that they are recovered when pulling the tubing.
Permanent Packer Accessories

Polished Bore Receptacle

Tubing Seal Receptacle

3.5 CIRCULATION DEVICES
3.5.1 Sliding Side Doors

Sliding Side Doors (SSDs) or Sliding Sleeves were originally designed for zone selection purposes
however they are used as well control devices and can be installed in the tubing above the packer to
provide a means of circulating or communicating between the tubing and the annulus when the
sleeve is moved to the open position.
SSDs are also used to:
 Bring a well into production after drilling or work over by circulating the completion fluid out
of the tubing and replacing it with a lighter under balanced fluid.
 Kill a well prior to pulling the tubing in a work over operation.
 Select / isolate zones
The application of SSDs as a circulation device means they must be positioned as close as possible to
the packer, normally within 100 ft. above the packer.
SSDs are available in versions that open by shifting an inner sleeve, either upwards or downwards by
using the appropriate shifting tool. When there are more than one SSD in a well, the sleeves may be
opened and closed with selective shifting tools without disturbance of sleeves higher up in the
string.
Note: Tubing and annulus pressures must be equalised before an SSD is opened to prevent wireline
tools being blown up or down the tubing. When used as circulation devices they must be fully open
during circulation activities.
Camco XO (Shift Down to Open) SSD
Some operators will not install a SSD above the packer because it will introduce additional potential
leak paths and seal failure can lead to a work over although a pack-off can be installed as a
temporary solution. The top sub of the SSD incorporates a nipple profile and the bottom sub has a
polished bore to enable the installation of the pack-off, sometimes also termed a straddle or
isolation sleeve.
Operators who do not include SSD’s as a circulation path may prefer to use a tubing punch when a
circulation path is required.

Sliding Side Door Component Parts

3.5.2 Side Pocket Mandrels

The Side Pocket Mandrel was originally designed for gas lift completions to provide a means of
injecting gas from the casing-tubing annulus to the tubing via a gas lift valve. However, Side Pocket
Mandrels can be used as circulating devices during well control activities.
The Side Pocket Mandrel is a special receptacle with a receiving chamber parallel to the flow
chamber and connects to the tubing above and below and leaves the bore of the mandrel open for
production or intervention. The parallel receiving chamber is offset from the string and is used to
house a number of flow control devices such as:
 Gas lift valves
 Gauges
 Dummy valves
 Chemical injection valves
 Circulation valves
 Differential dump kill valves
3.5.2.1 Gas Lift Valves

There are many different designs of gas lift valves for various applications. They range from simple
orifice valves to pressure operated bellows type valves. However, they all contain check valves to
prevent tubing to annulus flow. These check valves may leak after a period of use and should never
be relied on as barriers in a well control situation. They should be replaced with dummy valves and
the tubing pressure tested to confirm integrity.
3.5.2.2 Dummy Valves

These are tubing/annulus isolation valves installed in place of the circulating valves when circulation
is not required, for pressure testing the tubing from both sides during installation of the completion,
or when well service operations are required.
3.5.2.3 Chemical Injection Valves

Designed to control the flow of chemicals injected into the production fluid at the depth of the valve.
A spring provides the force necessary to maintain the valve in the fail-safe closed position. Reverse
flow check valves, which prevent backflow and circulation from the tubing to the casing, are
included as an integral part of the valve assembly.
Injection chemicals enter the valve from the annulus in an open injection system. (This requires the
annulus to be full of the desired chemical. An alternative method is to run an injection line from
surface to the SPM.)
When the hydraulic pressure of the injected chemicals overcomes the pre-set tension in the valve
spring plus the pressure in the tubing, the valve opens. Chemicals then flow through the crossover
seat in the valve and into the tubing.

3.5.2.4 Circulating Valves

A circulating valve is recommended to be installed in any SPM whenever a circulating operation is to
be carried out. The circulating valve is designed to enable circulation of fluid through the SPM
without damaging the pocket.
The valve allows fluid to be dispersed from both ends allowing circulation of fluid at a minimal
pressure drop. Some valves permit circulation from the casing into the tubing only and others to
circulate fluid from the tubing
into the casing only.
If a circulating valve is not used

when circulating, the pocket will
flow cut and a work over would
be required to replace the SPM.
3.5.2.5 Differential Dump Kill

Valves
Differential dump/kill valves are
designed to provide a means of
communication between the casing annulus and the tubing when an appropriate differential
pressure occurs. Below a pre-set differential pressure, the valve acts as a dummy valve since it uses a
moveable piston to block off the circulating ports in the valve and the side pocket mandrel.
The differential pressure necessary to open the valve will depend on the type and number of shear
screws installed. The valve will only open when the casing annulus pressure is increased by the
differential (the shear screw rating) above the tubing pressure. An increase in tubing pressure above
the casing annulus pressure will not open the valve. After opening, the piston is locked in the up
position and fluids can flow freely in either direction. The hydrostatic pressure from the column of
annulus fluid will kill the well and remedial operations can be planned.
3.5.2.6 Equalising Dummy Valves

The equalisation valve is designed to equalise pressure between tubing and casing and/or to
circulate fluid before pulling the valve from the SPM.
The valve has two sets of packing that straddle and pack off the casing ports in the SPM. The tubing
and annulus are isolated from each other until a pulling tool operates the equalising device.
Pressures equalise through a port before the valve and latch is retrieved.

Side Pocket Mandrel (SPM)

Types of SPM Valves

3.6 SUB-SURFACE SAFETY VALVES (SSSV)

The modern sub-surface safety valve was developed from the earliest low technology versions
produced in the 1930's. The initial demand was for a downhole valve that would permit flow during
normal conditions, but would isolate formation pressure from the wellhead to prevent damage or
destruction. This valve would be installed downhole in the production string for use in an
emergency.
The first safety valve to be developed was a Sub-Surface Controlled Safety Valve (SSCSV) and was a
poppet type valve with a mushroom shaped valve/seat system. Compared with today's valves, this
simple poppet type valve had several disadvantages; restricted flow area, tortuous flow paths, low
differential pressure rating and calibration difficulties. Despite these limitations the valve operated
successfully and other versions were developed with less tortuous flow paths such as the ball and
flapper valve.
From this beginning, the Surface Controlled Sub-Surface Safety Valve (SCSSV) was developed in the
late 1950's. This moved the point of control from downhole to surface. This design provided large
flow areas, remote control of opening and closing, and responsiveness to a wide variety of abnormal
surface conditions (fire, line rupture, etc.). Initial demand for this valve was slow due to its higher
cost and the problems associated in successfully installing the hydraulic control line; hence its usage
was low until the late 1960's.
The SCSSV is controlled by control line pressure supplied from a surface control system, which is
ideally suited to manual or automatic operation; the latter pioneered the sophisticated emergency
shut-down systems used today. The versatility of the valve allows it to be used in specialised
applications as well as in conventional systems.
SCSSVs are available with ball or flapper type closure mechanisms although modern designs utilize
the flapper type.
In addition to the type of closure mechanism, SCSSVs can be further subdivided into four main
categories:
 Wireline or tubing retrievable
 Non-equalizing or self-equalizing
 Concentric or rod piston
 Single control line or dual balanced line
A valve may have any combination of these features depending on well conditions and the
completion design.
3.7 TYPES OF SUB-SURFACE SAFETY VALVES

Fail-safe Sub-Surface Safety Valves are designed to hold pressure from below and can be pumped
through from above when they are closed. They are installed for use in an emergency to protect
personnel, property and the environment in the event of an uncontrolled well flow (blow-out)
caused by collision, equipment failure, human error, fire, leakage or sabotage. Whether safety valves
are required in a particular operating area depends on the location of the wells, on company
operating policy and/or government legislation.

3.7.1 SCSSSV
Wireline Retrievable Surface Controlled Sub Surface Safety Valves are installed in regular wireline
type safety valve landing nipples using a lock mandrel.
Ported SCSSSV Landing Nipple (SVLN)
3.7.2 Pressure-Differential Safety Valves

This type of direct-controlled safety valve is a ‘normally open’ valve that utilises a pressure-
differential to provide the method of valve closure. Normally a spring holds a valve off-seat until the
well flow reaches a pre-determined rate.
This rate can be related to the pressure differential generated across an orifice or flow bean. When
this differential is reached or exceeded, a piston moves upwards against a pre-set spring force
closing the valve. Valves of this type are sometimes termed ‘storm chokes’.
There are two closing mechanisms available with these valves, i.e.:
 Ball
 Flapper
The valve is held open by a spring force that may be increased by adding spacers or changing the
spring. The relationship between flow rate and differential may be adjusted by changing the bean
size.
The valve when closed will remain in this position until pressure is applied at surface to equalise
across it when the spring will return to the open position.
NOTE: Pulling the valves should not be attempted unless pressures have been equalised and the
valve is open.
These valves are rarely in use today but a derivative, the Injection Valve, which is normally closed, is
widely used in injection wells. This injection valve opens when fluid or gas is injected and travels to
the fully open position when the predetermined minimum injection rate is reached, (refer to Sub-
Section on Injection Valves).
3.7.3 Ambient Safety Valves (Pressure operated)

This type of direct-controlled safety valve is a fail-safe closed valve which is pre-charged with a
calibrated dome (chamber) pressure prior to running. Ambient controlled valves will open when the
well pressure reaches the set point of the dome calibration. The valve will close when the flowing
pressure of the well, at the point of installation, drops below the pre-determined dome pressure.
Ambient type safety valves are also generally referred to as a ‘storm chokes’.

This type of valve is not limited by a flow bean which gives it a large internal diameter and, hence, a
large flow area making it suitable for high volume installations possibly producing abrasive fluids.
Ambient type safety valves are run with an equalising assembly to allow equalisation across the
valve should it close, and a lock mandrel to locate and lock the valve in the landing nipple.
Note: Pressure differential and ambient controlled sub-surface safety valves close on pre-
determined conditions. They do not offer control until these conditions exist. In addition, valve
settings may change if flow beans become cut. Surface controlled safety valves should be
considered in such cases.
3.7.4 Injection Valve

Injection valves are normally closed valves installed in injection wells. They act like check valves
allowing the passage of the injected fluid or gas but close when injection is ceased.
The closure mechanism is usually, either, a ball or flapper that opens when the differential pressure
from the injected medium equalises below the valve. As the injection rate is increased to the pre-
calculated rate, the differential acts on a choke bean and overcomes a spring to move the
mechanism to the fully open mode.
If the injection rate is insufficient or fluctuating, the mechanism will be damaged and may possibly
flow cut.
The flapper-type valve is the most popular as its operation is less complicated and is less prone to
damage if the injection rate is not high enough.
Note: An equalising sub should be installed between the lock mandrel and the regulator to
facilitate the equalisation of pressure.
3.7.5 Surface Controlled Sub-Surface Safety Valve

The SCSSV is a downhole safety device that can shut in a well in an emergency or provide a barrier
between the reservoir and the surface. As the name suggests, the valve can be controlled from the
surface by hydraulic pressure transmitted from a control panel through a control line to the safety
valve.
The remote operation of this type of valve from the surface can also be integrated with pilots,
emergency shut down (ESD) systems, and surface safety control manifolds. This flexibility of the
surface controlled safety valve design is its greatest advantage.
In the simplest system an SCSSV is a normally closed valve held open by control line pressure
supplied by a manifold at the surface, the pressure is maintained by hydraulic pumps controlled by a
pressure pilot installed at some strategic point at the wellhead. Damage to the wellhead or flow lines
cause a pressure monitor pilot to exhaust pneumatic pressure from a low pressure line which in turn
causes a relay to block control pressure to a three-way hydraulic controller resulting in hydraulic
pressure loss in the SCSSV control line. When this pressure is lost, the safety valve automatically
closes, shutting off all flow from the tubing.
There are two main categories of SCSSV:
 Wireline Retrievable

 Tubing Retrievable
Statistics have proven that the TRSV valve is more reliable than the WRSV and that the flapper is
more reliable than the ball mechanism, therefore the TRSV flapper valve is the most reliable of all.
SCSSVs utilise a ball or flapper type closure mechanism.

Both categories are supplied with or without internal equalising features. The equalising feature
allows the pressure to equalise across the valve so it can be re-opened. Valves without this feature
need to be equalised by applying pressure at surface.
The equalising valve has more operating parts and is less reliable than non-equalising valve,
however, with the latter, equalisation pressure is often difficult to provide and may be time
consuming.
DHSV Family Tree
3.7.6 Wireline Retrievable SCSSV

Wireline retrievable sub-surface safety valves are located and locked, using standard wireline
methods, in a dedicated safety valve landing nipple (SVLN).
When the safety valve is set in the nipple, the packing seals against the nipple bore below the port.
The packing section of the lock mandrel forms a seal above the port in the nipple. Control pressure,
introduced through the control line, enters the valve through the port in the housing and allows
pressure to be applied to open the valve.
Because a wireline retrievable SCSSV seats in a landing nipple installed in the production string, it
has a much smaller bore than a tubing retrievable SCSSV for the same size of tubing. Frequently,
wireline retrievable safety valves have to be pulled prior to wireline operations being carried out
below them, which have strong implications on well safety.
Compared to a tubing retrievable SCSSV, the wireline retrievable SCSSV is easy to replace in the case
of failure. Introducing a planned maintenance schedule in which valves are regularly pulled and

serviced can prevent most failures. However, during wireline entry operations there is also a safety
risk and care must be maintained at all times.
The components that are required for the installation of a wireline retrievable SCSSV are:
 Hydraulic control line
 Control line protectors
 Hydraulic control manifold
 Wireline retrievable safety valve
 Safety valve landing nipple
 Locking mandrel
 Wireline installation and retrieval tools for the locking mandrel
3.7.7 Running in hole

The valve is held open during RIH using a running tool and running prong. When the valve is run as
part of the completion, a flow tube or straddle is installed across the valve to hold it open. The
straddle is later retrieved using wireline methods.
The control line pressure circuit between the safety valve landing nipple and the surface manifold is
complete when the nipple seal bores are straddled by the elastomers on the valve body and the lock
mandrel.
Notes

Typical Wireline Retrievable SCSSV (Ball Type)
Weatherford’s Tubing Retrievable SCSSV (Flapper Type)

3.7.8 Tubing Retrievable SCSSV

Tubing retrievable safety valves operate using the same principle as wireline SCSSVs except all the
components are incorporated in one assembly which is installed in the completion string. Some later
models have rod pistons instead of concentric piston designs.
They also have both equalising and non-equalising versions and versions that enable the insertion of
a wireline valve inside the TRSV when the operating mechanism has failed. If the failure is due to a
leaking control line then this contingency measure is ineffective.
To enable the installation of the insert valve, the tubing retrievable valve needs to be ‘locked open’
or ‘locked out’; the reduced internal bore may adversely affect production rates but the well can be
safely shut in during an emergency.
The components required for a TRSV safety system are:
 Hydraulic control line
 Control line protectors
 Hydraulic control manifold
 Tubing retrievable safety valve for insert capability:
 Wireline safety valve
 Locking mandrel
 Wireline installation and retrieval tools for the locking mandrel
 Lock-out tool for the tubing retrievable valve.
3.7.9 Running in Hole

TRSSSVs are run held open using control line pressure and/or a hold open sleeve (straddle).
3.7.10 Leak Off Testing (Inflow Testing)

Leak off tests are performed immediately after Sub-Surface Safety Valves are installed. A typical leak
off test involves closing the production, kill and swab valves on the Xmas tree and bleeding off the
control line pressure to the Sub Surface Safety Valve. Tubing pressure is bled off slowly above the
valve to zero for a tubing retrievable valve and in 100 psi. (6.9 bar) stages for a wireline retrievable
valve.
The system is closed in again and tubing pressure monitored. If there is a rapid build-up, a major leak
is indicated or improper functioning of the valve; in this case the valve should be cycled and the test
repeated. After a specified shut-in period the tubing head pressure should be below a maximum
allowable pressure as specified by the operator’s leak off criteria although there is an API standard.
Note: It is extremely important that pressure data is fully and accurately recorded.
After initial installation, leak tests should be carried out periodically; this accomplishes three
functions:

 To test the integrity of the seal in the safety valve.
 To test that the lock mandrel in a wireline retrievable valve is still properly locked.
 To cycle the valve to prevent 'freezing' in wells where they have been sitting in either fully
open or fully closed position for extended periods of time.
Only authorised personnel should conduct all the above tests on all Sub-Surface Safety
Valves.
3.7.11 Reliability
Statistics on reliability indicate that Tubing Retrievable downhole safety valves are more reliable
than wireline retrievable valves. Mean times to failures are approximately 6 years for wireline valves
compared to 15 years for tubing retrievable valves. Tubing retrievable valves are also full bore giving
higher flow rates.
Insert Valves
Insert valves are small wireline retrievable valves which can be inserted through a “Locked Open”
failed tubing retrievable valve to provide continued production, although restricted, with a means of
shutting the well in, until a work over campaign is scheduled.
Typical wireline runs include:
 RIH to lock out the flapper valve.
 RIH with a communication tool and function the communication system to the open
position. This provides control line pressure to the valve.
 RIH and set the insert valve. The insert valve straddles the control line port to provide the
hydraulic pressure integrity required to function the valve.
Control Line Tubing Clamps

During the completion instillation both
the Tubing Retrievable SCSSV and
SVLN for the Wireline Retrievable
SCSSSV must have to control line
deployed. SCSSV are held open from
surface via a ¼” or 3/8” control line, running down the outside of the completion tubing. The control
line (Capillary) is connected to either the tubing retrievable or ported landing nipple, and deployed
along with the completion string. It is held securely against the tubing with clamps that will be
attached to the string at each coupling in order to secure and protect the control line/s.
If the completion is recovered at any point in the life of the well, we need to count to clamps to
ensure none have been lost or stuck somewhere that could later cause well control issues.

Typical annular Safety Valve System
3.7.12 Annular Safety Valves

The sub-surface safety valves discussed so far, i.e. tubing retrievable and wireline retrievable, only
provide control of the tubing. In these systems, no annular flow control exists.
The purpose of an annular safety valve is to seal the annulus between the tubing and the casing
immediately below the wellhead. This protects surface facilities and personnel in the event that
wellhead integrity is compromised.

The ASV is usually set just below the Sub Surface Safety Valve, as shallow as possible to limit the
volume of annular gas that would escape in the event of a wellhead failure. They prevent flow from
the annulus in gas lift completions.
Annulus safety valve systems are usually associated with completions where artificial lift or
secondary recovery methods are employed e.g. gas venting from an electric submersible pump
(ESP), hydraulic pump, or gas lift installations. Their application is to remove the potential hazard of
a large gas escape in the event there is an incident where the tubing hanger seal is breached. They
prevent flow from the annulus in gas lift installations.
There are a number of designs on the market and the variety of modes of operation is too wide to
be covered in this document, however the basic concepts are the same. With any annulus system,
there must be a sealing device between the tubing and the casing through which the flow of gas can
be closed off. This is generally a packer but may also be a casing polished bore nipple into which a
packing mandrel will seal. In the sealing device there is a valve mechanism operated by hydraulic
pressure similar to an SCSSV. The valve mechanism opens the communication path from the annulus
below to the annulus above the valve and is fail-safe closed.
The closure mechanism may be a sliding sleeve or flapper device.
3.8 SCSSV SETTING DEPTHS

Operators may have different criteria concerning setting depth including:
 Set below platform piles or the probable crater depth in the event of a blowout
 Positioned below hydrate formation depth (for self- equalizing)
 Below the mud line
 As determined by local regulations
SCSSVs are set below any depth where damage could occur to the valve from surface impact or
explosion. The fail safe setting depth is also a concern regarding the control line fluid weight and
the strength of the coil spring within the SCSSSV.
3.9 SURFACE CONTROL MANIFOLDS

Surface control manifolds are designed to provide and control the hydraulic pressure required to
hold an SCSSV open. Air powered hydraulic pumps maintain the hydraulic operating pressure for the
safety valve.
The hydraulic pressure is controlled through a three-way valve, controlled by remote pressure pilots
and fire sensors. Pilot, sensor or manual activation removes the hydraulic pressure, closing the
safety valve.
Note: Activation can occur from the operation of remote-control pressure sensing pilots, fusible
plugs, plastic line, sand probes, level controllers or emergency shut down (ESD) systems.
Surface control manifolds usually come complete with a reservoir, pressure control regulators, relief
valves, gauges, and a pump with manual override. Manifolds, in combination with the various pilot

monitors, have many different applications, e.g. controlling multiple wells using individual control,
multiple wells using individual pressures or any combination of these. Tubing Head/Tubing Hanger
A Tubing Head/Tubing Hanger combination unit is attached to the uppermost casing head on the
wellhead in order to:
 Suspend the weight of the completion
 Provide a profile for setting a barrier
 Seal the annular space between the tubing and the casing
 Lock the tubing hanger in place
 Provide a base for the wellhead top assembly (Xmas Tree)
 Provide access to the annular space (‘A’ annulus)
ESD


4.0 CHRISTMAS TREES

The Xmas Tree is an assembly of valves used to control the flow of fluids from the tubing and to
provide a means of access to the tubing for pumping and intervention operations. It is installed on
top of the wellhead.
Dual String Composite Tree

4.1 CHRISTMAS TREE VALVES

These valves are usually gate valves and, when opening and closing, it is important to count the
turns to ensure that the valve travels full drift from open to close and from close to open. If the valve
does not travel fully, this indicates an obstruction across the valve, possibly a tool string, scale,
hydrate etc. Some types of gate valve should be backed out part of a turn when completely closed.
It is considered good practice to have more than one tree valve available as a barrier during any
operation. Xmas tree valves should be pressure tested or inflow tested prior to rigging up
intervention equipment.
During normal production operations, the Xmas tree valves are the primary and secondary barriers
or well control devices.
If there are no Intervention tools, wire or pipe across a tree valve, it is normal practice for the
Intervention crew to close one or more Xmas tree valves to ensure full well control whilst bleeding
down the intervention surface equipment.
As with all barriers and other devices that close off flow, it is important that the potential problems
associated with opening Xmas tree valves with pressure on only one side are understood.
There is a potential to cause damage to the valve itself. This can be as a result of cutting of the
sealing surface caused by high-pressure flow occurring during initial opening. It can be caused by
excessive force being required to operate the valve and the use of a pipe wrench to turn the valve
handle causing the stem to shear and the valve be left permanently closed.
A special gate valve drilling machine can be rigged up on top of the tree to drill through the closed
and damaged gate to allow access for killing the well. This is known as “hot tapping”. The valve
drilling machine is used with the well still live below the closed valve. A broken valve stem is a very
expensive problem to overcome.
Pressure has the potential to cause damage to whatever intervention equipment is attached to the
top of the Xmas tree, e.g. the sudden surge of pressure entering the wireline lubricator can cause
the toolstring to be pushed up into the bottom of the stuffing box. This can break the wire and allow
the toolstring to fall downhole through the tree valves. In general, problems are likely to be caused if
there is a sudden surge of pressure.
4.1.1 Master Valves

Only some master valves are dressed to cut wireline and no Xmas tree valve will cut anything bigger
than slick line. For this reason, it is necessary to include the well control elements required for the
individual operation in the intervention equipment rig-up.
Prior to any intervention, the control system for the master valve should be temporarily disabled to
ensure that it cannot be closed accidentally. This is normally achieved by the intervention crew
disconnecting the tree valve (and downhole safety valve) from its failsafe control system and taking
control via a local panel.

4.1.2 Lower Master Valve

This valve is usually manually operated and is not normally used in every day operations for shutting
in the well. It is usually kept as the back up to the upper master valve and is to be used only if the
upper master valve fails to operate or hold pressure.
4.1.3 Upper Master Valve

The upper master is usually hydraulically operated and is the valve used for shutting the well. It is
sometimes part of the safety system and will close automatically in the event of an alarm.
Some UMV may be able to cut wire during a slickline operation and therefore becomes the tertiary
barrier. If the UMV is used to cut wire, then after the operation it should be inspected for potential
damage and repaired as required before handing over the well back to production.
4.1.4 Swab Valve

The Swab is the valve at the top of the tree which allows vertical intervention into the well. When
opening the swab valve we should count the number of turns, then upon closing the valve count the
same number of turns to ensure that there are no obstacle’s across the valve.
4.1.5 Flow Wing Valve

The Flow Wing Valve or Production Wing Valve is the valve on the outlet side of the tree that is
connected to the flow line. There is usually a Surface Safety Valve connected to the FWV. This is
hydraulically or pneumatically operated and is attached to the flow line via an adjustable or fixed
choke to control the rate at which the wellbore fluids are released. The FWV valve allows isolation of
the tree from the production/injection line or system.
The Surface Safety Valve (SSV) is held open during production but, in the event of a problem with
the pipeline or other alarm etc. this valve will close automatically.
4.1.6 Kill Wing Valve (NASA)

The Kill Wing Valve allows connection of a line for pumping to kill the well or for use in well servicing
operations. This is normally blanked off with a cap or flange. Kill wing valves are not always fitted.
Kill Wing valves are sometimes referred to as NASA valves (Non-Active Side Arm)
Notes:

4.2 TYPES OF CHRISTMAS TREE
4.2.1 Composite trees

Composite trees are made up of individual parts, which are bolted
or clamped together in the required layout from standard
components.
The advantages of composite trees are that they are made up of

interchangeable standard parts that can be changed a piece at a
time if required, due to damage/failure, or for changing the use of
the tree. They are also the cheapest option.
The disadvantages are that they comprise far more potential leak
paths due to the large
number of connections and
are much taller than solid
block trees.
4.2.2 Solid Block Tree

Solid block trees have all their working parts incorporated into
a solid, single piece steel block with no connections between
the individual valves. Only top and bottom connections
remain.
The advantages of solid block trees are that they contain

fewer potential leak paths and are much shorter than
conventional trees.
The disadvantages are that they are much more expensive,

must be replaced as one single unit and if internally damaged
are difficult or very expensive to repair.
4.2.3 Horizontal Xmas Tree (HXT)

The HXT provides complete access to the wellbore production casing and is compatible with the
standard 18 ¾” subsea wellhead. It is installed prior to running the completion. The completion is
run through the tree and finally the tubing hanger landed off inside. The HXT provides full bore
access to the wellbore and allows the completion to be run and retrieved without removing the tree.
A full bore subsea test tree is incorporated in the tubing hanger landing string assembly which
provides the required subsea isolation valves during completion installation and subsequent through
tubing operations.
The HXT also ensures easy well access for completions and well interventions during work over. The
subsea tree remains in place when the tubing is removed, this is a main advantage of the HXT
system. Horizontal trees should be considered when frequent well intervention is expected.
Advantages of the HXT:

 Lower overall height due to the valves being mounted in the horizontal axis.
 Full bore access to the wellbore, allows the completion to be run and retrieved without
removing the tree. A full bore subsea test tree is incorporated in the tubing hanger landing
string assembly which provides the required subsea isolation valves during completion
installation and subsequent through tubing operations.
 Capex costs associated with the VXT open water system is considerably more than the HXT
system. There is an additional logistical disadvantage due to the extra equipment involved
with open water systems compared to rig systems utilizing marine risers and Drilling BOP’s
with the HXT.
 Easy well access for completions/tubing interventions during work over with the SSTT
remaining in place when the tubing is removed.
 Disadvantages of the HXT
 The additional BOP trip to install the tree is regarded as a disadvantage of the HXT over the
VXT.
One safety concern with the HXT is the possible failure of the tree connector. With the tubing
hanger located in the tree bore, the loss of the tree could damage the completion and no barriers
would be left in place.
After the completion is in place two plugs will be set in profiles near the top of the tree. These are
often referred to as crown plugs or upper and lower crown plugs. These two plugs are the main
barriers between the well and the environment.
The lower crown plug is installed first. It is pressure set and then tested from below via the HXT and
from above via the landing string.
The upper crown plug is also pressure set. A test line is situated in the cavity between the two plugs;
it is open when setting the upper plug to prevent a hydraulic lock and ensure the plug is set
correctly. The same line is used to test the upper crown plug from below. It will also be tested from
above via the landing string.
The wellhead is below HXT, and the tubing hanger will be landed and locked there. The tubing
hanger seals inside the wellhead provide a barrier element.
The main hanger to wellhead seal is usually metal to metal with elastomeric seal back up. These
seals are tested from both directions via the HXT.
The main valves in the HXT are NOT in the bore when performing intervention. Valves either side of
the bore will be closed and tested before hydrocarbons are flowed. These are mainly the PWV and
the AMV / AAV. The Cross Over Valve (XOV) is used to allow tests to be performed from both
directions.
After the completion is in place, two plugs will be set in profiles near the top of the tree. These are
often referred to as crown plugs. These two plugs are the main barriers between the well and the
environment.
The lower crown plug is installed first. It is pressure set and then tested from below via the HXT and
from above via the landing string.

As can be seen from the drawing, the main valves in the HXT are NOT in the bore when performing
intervention operations. Valves either side of the bore will be closed and tested before
hydrocarbons are flowed. These are mainly the PWV and the AMV/AAV. The Cross Over Valve (XOV)
is used to allow tests to be performed from both directions.
Irrespective of which type of tree is installed on a well, the well servicing equipment is usually rigged
up on the top of it. When the intervention operation is taking place, there will be times when there
is no wire or pipe in the hole. During these times, the surface tree valves are the primary and
secondary well control barriers. For this reason, it is considered normal to pressure test or, usually,
inflow test the LMV, UMV, flow wing and swab valves before rigging up on the tree.
Horizontal Tree
Debris Cap
Wireline Plug
Tree Cap
Tubing Hanger
Tree Body
Wellhead
Isolation Sleeve
Dual Bore Vertical (Valves outside bore) Horizontal (Valves inside bore)

4.4 SURFACE EQUIPMENT - GENERAL
4.4.1 Chokes
During circulation operations or during well killing,
there is often a requirement to use a choke in order
to maintain correct pressure control of the well. By
correct use of a choke, the wellhead pressure can be
adjusted so that bottom hole pressure can be held
constant. By altering the size of the choke (i.e. the
size of the hole through which the fluid flows), the
rate the fluid leaves the well can be controlled. Most
chokes are of a right angled design and are usually
installed on the flow wing of the Xmas tree in a
producing well so that the well flow can be
controlled. The choke size is normally given in
multiples of 1/64” (e.g. 128/64 inch).
There are several different types of choke made and it is important that well servicing personnel
understand the differences between them. Fixed
Choke
The different types of choke can be broken down

into two main kinds:
 fixed chokes
 adjustable chokes
4.4.2 Fixed Choke

In a fixed choke, the orifice through which the fluid
flows (the choke bean) must be removed manually
and replaced with one of a different size in order to
alter the choke size. This can only be done with no
flow through the choke and the pressure bled off.
Fixed chokes are often installed on established
wells where the flow requirements to the
production plant are well known.
4.4.3 Adjustable Choke

In an adjustable choke, the size of the orifice
through which the fluid flows can be adjusted when the choke is in service. The most
common type of adjustable choke uses a tapered needle and seat.
4.5 EQUIPMENT AND RISER CONNECTIONS
Intervention surface equipment usually uses one of three kinds of connection.

4.5.1 Quick Unions
Quick Unions have Acme type square threads, using an O ring to

make the seal and only require to be made up hand tight. It is
important that the O ring and sealing surfaces are inspected for
damage before the Quick Union is made up. There are several
different types of quick union such as Otis and Bowen. Different
types are NOT interchangeable. A union that cannot be undone by
hand probably indicates that there is pressure still within the
equipment or the lubricator is not vertical.
Adjustable Choke
Otis Bowen
4.5.2 Clamp Connections

Clamp connections are non-API connections that are
most commonly made by Cameron and Gray
(Grayloc). They are all pressure energised i.e.
wellhead pressure assists sealing.
Cameron connections are rarely seen on trees and
well servicing equipment. There are 2 kinds – one
uses the AX gasket and the other the CX gasket.
With both kinds, the hubs are in face-to-face
contact when made up. The rib (belt) of the gasket
positions the gasket in the groove and also stops
gasket creep.
The Grayloc connection is fairly common on wellheads and trees. The rib of the seal ring prevents
the seal from being crushed by over-tightening, as the hubs do not have face-to-face contact when
made up. The rib also transfers compressive and bending loads from one hub to the other.

4.5.3 Flange connections

Flanges are API connections and
can be one of two types:
 Type 6B for 2000, 3000

and 5000 psi flanges
 Type 6BX for 10000,

15000 and 20000 psi
flanges
There are one or two exceptions

to this rule. Low pressure flanges
(2000 & 3000 psi.) have rounded
ring grooves as opposed to flat
bottomed ring grooves.
Type 6B flanges use either and R or RX ring gasket. The gaskets are interchangeable, the
only difference being that the RX gasket is pressure energised. The flanges do not make
face-to-face contact when made up.
Type 6BX flanges use BX ring gaskets.
Note: The given size of the flange is the internal diameter of the flange.
All new pressure containing equipment (risers, BOP’s, etc.) is tested to manufacturers test
pressure (usually 1.5 times its working pressure) before being put into service for the first
time. In any equipment rig up, the maximum pressure rating is governed by the lowest
rated component. “6B’ and ‘6BX’ flanges may be used as integral, blind or weld neck
flanges.
Type ‘6B’ may also be used as threaded flanges. Some type ‘6BX’ blind flanges are also used as test
flanges. Segmented flanges are used on dual, triple, and quadruple completion wells and are integral
with the equipment.
R RX BX
Flange Connection Ring Seals

4.5.4 Design
Type ‘6B’, ‘6BX’, and segmented flanges are designed for use in the combinations of nominal size
ranges and rated working pressure as shown in the table.
4.5.5 Type ‘6B’ Flanges

General: API Type ‘6B’ flanges are of the ring joint type and are not designed for make-up
face-to-face. The connection make-up bolting force reacts on the metallic ring gasket. The
Type ‘6B’ flanges shall be of the through-bolted or studded design.
Ring gaskets have a limited amount of positive interference that assures the gasket will be joined
into sealing relationship in the flange grooves; these gaskets should not be reused.
Notes:

5.0 BARRIER PHILOSOPHY

The purpose of developing a well is to safely and economically produce oil or gas and, as such, the
completion is one of the key elements in the safety of the well. The well should be designed to
ensure that, in general, there are two reliable and independent barriers between the reservoir and
the environment at all times.
A barrier is any device, fluid or substance that prevents the flow of well bore fluids and it does this
by blocking off the flow path.
In the event that a barrier fails, the work should be suspended until the barriers have been repaired,
replaced or reinstated.
It is good practice to ensure that at least two tested barriers are available at all times and it should
be borne in mind that a well which cannot sustain flow should have the same amount of barriers as a
well that can flow.
There are two types of barrier:
 Mechanical
 Hydrostatic (fluid)
5.1 BARRIER CLASSIFICATION

Barriers are classified as follows:
 Primary (The barrier that performs well pressure control during function during normal
operating conditions. Usually a closed barrier)
 Secondary (The barrier that performs well pressure control function in the event that the
primary barrier fails. Usually a closeable barrier)
 Tertiary (The barrier that performs well pressure control function in the event that the
primary and secondary barriers fail)
The Primary barrier for slickline is the stuffing box or for braided line, the grease head. The
equivalent device for Coiled Tubing and Snubbing operations is the Stripper packer, Stripper rubber
or Stripper rams.
The Secondary barrier for Wireline is the wireline BOP, for Coiled Tubing the tubing rams (pipe rams)
and for Snubbing the Safety rams (pipe rams)
The Tertiary barrier for all three services is a cutter valve, usually a shear seal (safety head) which is
normally mounted immediately above the Xmas tree. This type of barrier would be used only in a
real emergency situation.
5.1.1 Containment Devices

A containment device becomes a barrier when it is energised.

5.2 TYPES OF MECHANICAL BARRIER
5.2.1 Closed Barriers
 Stuffing boxes
 Strippers
 Grease Heads
 Plugs
5.2.2 Closable Barriers
 BOP’s
 Shear Seal/BOP valves
 Annular Preventers
 Xmas Tree Gate Valves
 Sub-Surface Safety Valves
 BHA Check valves
In some areas, Sub-Surface Safety Valves are not classified as barriers since API specifications allow
an acceptable leak rate for safety valves. Sub-Surface Safety Valves may however be classified as
barriers if they are leak tight.
5.2.3 Hydrostatic Barriers

Hydrostatic barriers are primary barriers if they are being monitored i.e. it is important to know the
fluid is still present and the physical properties of the fluid to ensure an overbalance at the top of the
perforations. Hydrostatic barriers exert a hydrostatic pressure sufficient to overbalance the
formation pressure.
5.3 BARRIER ENVELOPES

Barriers are not ‘stand-alone’ items, they are part of a group of components which form a barrier
envelope i.e. they form part of a barrier system.
The wireline stuffing box is only a component (element) of the stuffing box-lubricator-BOP envelope
which contains well fluids.
In the following drawing the envelope of barrier elements that prevents flow out of the well via the
tubing string when the tree is closed is as follows:
 Casing below the packer
 Packer
 Production Tubing
 Tubing Hanger/Hanger Spool
 Xmas tree

If any one of the elements in this envelope fails, there are various secondary elements which should
prevent the escape of wellbore fluids from the well. For example, if there is a leak at the packer into
the annulus, the overbalanced completion fluid will initially stop the wellbore fluids from reaching
the production casing. After a while, this may change as the completion fluid escapes from the
annulus and the wellbore fluids will then be prevented from leaving the well by the production
casing, side outlet valves and the tubing hanger seals.
For all live well work, we rely on barriers. These may be downhole barriers (mechanical plugs,
columns of fluid, etc.) or they may be surface barriers. Barriers are divided into primary, secondary
and tertiary barriers, or barrier elements.
During intervention work, there will be one primary barrier such as the stuffing box on a slickline job.
This primary barrier may not be the same for the whole job. In the slickline example, the stuffing box
is only the primary barrier when the wire is in the hole. When the wire is out of the hole, and the
lubricator laid down, the Xmas tree (swab valve) is the primary barrier. The back-up safety devices
are the secondary barriers (the BOP’s in slickline work) and the tertiary barriers are those which are
only used in the event of an emergency (the cutter valves, etc.).
There may be multiple barriers such as when two or more plugs are placed in a well or when two
valves in the same line are closed. For a truly safe operation, double barriers should always be used.
Barriers alone will not contain well pressure. In the example of the slickline rig up, the stuffing box
(the primary barrier) will not contain the wellbore fluids and pressure without the lubricator when it
is attached to and all the other components connected to the tree.
In this way we can consider a barrier envelope. The envelope is made up of the barrier elements
containing the pressure or fluids. In the example of the slickline rig up, the envelope is the tree X-
over, the BOP, the lubricator sections and the stuffing box.
The DHSV forms part of the pressure containing tubing string in the same way as any other non-well
control completion component.
If any one of the elements in this envelope fails, there are various secondary elements to prevent
the escape of wellbore fluids from the well. For example, if the packer leaks into the annulus, an
overbalanced completion fluid will initially stop the wellbore fluids from reaching the production
casing. After a while, this may change as the completion fluid escapes from the annulus and the
wellbore fluids will then be prevented from leaving the well by the production casing, annulus valves
and the tubing hanger seals.
Whenever a live well is being worked on, consideration must be given to the surface handling of
produced wellbore fluids. When bleeding off intervention surface equipment and when circulating a
well, there will be gas and/or oil produced. These fluids must be disposed of in a safe manner.
There is no one correct method of handling wellbore fluids since the circumstances of each job will
be different. The venting of surface equipment may require a line to a closed drain on a platform but
can be safely allowed to escape to atmosphere in a desert location. Circulation may be required to
the production facility, test separator and the flare on a platform or just to a flare pit in a desert
location. The following questions must all be considered:

 How much fluid will be produced?
 Will it be gas or oil?
 Is there any H2S present?
 Is venting from the equipment safe without additional precautions?
 Can the fluids be flared or is there too much water?
 What facilities already exist for handling the fluids?
 What extra equipment is required?
5.3.1 Barrier Testing and Inflow Testing

Barriers must be tested from the direction of flow to prove pressure integrity. This requires the
tubing pressure above the plug to be reduced then monitored. Any subsequent increase in the
tubing pressure above the plug will indicate that the plug is leaking. Obviously well pressure below
the plug must be available before an inflow test can be performed. If well pressure is not available to
test the plug from below, the plug should be pressure tested from above provided that it is designed
to hold pressure from both directions. (Positive plug)
5.4 PRODUCTION WELL KILL PROCEDURES

The choice of well kill procedure will depend on a number of factors including tubing and casing
integrity, ability to circulate the annulus, formation pressure and the method of well completion.
When it is required to kill a production well, the easiest, quickest, most certain method is by
circulation. This requires establishing a communication path as close to the producing zone as
possible. This might be by opening a SSD just above the packer (or punching a hole in the tubing, or
pulling a dummy from a SPM) in a completion or by using a string of pipe that has been run to a
suitable (deep) depth using Coiled Tubing or Snubbing.
In this case, the method of killing the well is to circulate a kill weight fluid around the wellbore whilst
maintaining a constant BHP sufficient to give a slight overbalance against the formation pressure.
This is achieved by opening or closing a surface choke, and following a pre-calculated kill sheet which
gives the required tubing surface pressure during the kill. The principles for working out the kill sheet
are the same whether it is forward or reverse circulation.
Various factors must be taken into account when preparing a kill graph:
 Is the tubing used the same ID/OD for the whole length?
 Weight of fluid currently in tubing and annulus and weight of kill fluid?
 Current shut in WHP and annulus pressure?
 Contents of wellbore, oil or gas?
Typical kill fluids might include:
 Seawater

 Completion fluid
 Drilling mud (oil or water based).
It is very important that the kill fluid is compatible with the formation and the formation fluids.
Incompatible fluids can cause swelling of clays and chalks, scale deposition and other problems that
can permanently block the perforations or greatly reduce productivity.


5.4.1 Forward Circulation
Kill fluid is pumped down the tubing, through a circulating device (or out the end of a work
string/coiled tubing) and up the annulus. If washing out fill or debris in the bottom of the
well (rat hole), care must be taken to ensure that the work is done very slowly because:
 Large quantities of solids in the annulus can add significant weight to the fluid in
use, increasing the BHCP and can cause lost circulation. This assumes that the well
has been killed and the packer has been pulled.
 If there is a large quantity of solids in the annulus and the pump has to be shut
down or fails, there is a chance of the solids settling out around toolstrings or BHA’s
causing them to become stuck. This assumes that the well has been killed and the
packer has been pulled.
 If the well is not plugged and circulation is taking place through a SSD or SPM, there
is a risk of hydrocarbons entering the annulus.
After running a completion, a light fluid (often diesel) is usually pumped down the annulus
to provide a lighter column of fluid in the wellbore for under balanced perforating or for
bringing the well in. This is followed down with the completion brine which, after careful
calculation, is left in the annulus. The SSD or SPM is then closed, stopping the fluids in the
well from U-tubing. When the sleeve is closed the annulus pressure can be bled off to check
there is no communication.
Forward circulation has several disadvantages over reverse circulation:
 It involves higher annulus circulation pressures
 Disposal of formation fluids through the side outlet valves is difficult.
 It is more difficult to pump the oil/gas ahead of the kill fluid.
 The fluid in the wellbore may mix with fluid in the annulus making choke operation and
disposal more difficult.
 The empty pipe will have to be filled when running in the hole in order to stop it from
collapsing.
As the pumps are run up to speed, the tubing pressure will rise as the well is killed with the kill fluid
coming out of the bottom of the pipe and up the completion. The control of the operation is
undertaken by adjusting the choke, which must be in the flow path from the completion or tree, so
that the pumping pressure follows the predicted graph.
Under normal circumstances, a forward circulation kill would probably only be undertaken with a
Coiled Tubing or Snubbing string in the hole.
The following graphs represent the typical pressure at the top of the Coiled Tubing or Snubbing
string (tubing pressure) and at the top of the pipe/completion annulus (annulus pressure).
Graphs assume:
 The sizes of the work string and completion do not vary from top to bottom.

 The work string is already full of the kill weight fluid.
 The well is not approaching horizontal.
 The well contains oil and gas.
 There is no gas invasion of the kill fluid as it comes up the annulus.
5.4.2 Reverse Circulation

This is achieved by circulating down the completion annulus, workstring annulus or pipe annulus and
taking returns up the tubing, workstring or pipe. This is a good method of lifting solids from the well
when washing out fill or debris etc. with a work string.
Greater lifting capacities and transport velocities can be achieved when flowing from a large annulus
to a small pipe. Faster flow rates can be achieved for as given pump output. This means that the

solids are lifted from the well quicker or in some cases require lower pump rates to achieve the
same lifting capacity. There is less chance of lost circulation and less chance of sticking
The reverse circulation is probably the simplest and safest kill method. It uses the natural ’U´ tube
effect of the different gravities of fluids in the tubing and annulus to flow well fluids up through the
tubing and out through the Xmas tree choke. The only pumping required is during equalisation
across the circulation device before it is opened and when the kill fluid is in near balance with the
other fluids in the tubing.
In a reverse circulation kill, the well is circulated holding a back pressure on the formation so that a
constant BHP is maintained to stop the well from flowing. This procedure is even more effective if a
plug can be set to isolate completion fluids and kill fluids from the formation. To prevent any further
inflow of formation fluids, it is common practice to maintain an overbalance. As the kill fluid is
pumped to the tubing, the surface pressure can be slowly reduced in proportion to the amount of
fluid rise in the tubing. The operator at the tubing head operates a choke to reduce tubing pressure
in accordance with the kill graph which is based on tubing capacity and volume pumped.
As kill fluid enters the completion, there is a probability that gas will mix with the kill fluid as it is
pumped up the completion. This can be minimised by adding viscosifiers to the kill fluid to inhibit the
entrapment of gas.
Reverse circulation is the preferred method of killing a well when communication can be established
at a suitable depth between the tubing and annulus. It has the great advantage of filling the tubing
and annulus with kill fluid in one operation and all wells can be killed using this method.
With Coiled Tubing and Snubbing, special procedures and/or equipment are required to reverse
circulate. Under normal conditions, there are check valves specifically to stop fluids entering the
pipe. If reverse circulation is to be conducted, special devices are used including, small SSDs’ in a
snubbing string to devices which can be opened and closed by pumping balls in a coiled tubing
BHA. There are check valves that can be pumped out and a replacement pumped in afterwards.
When calculating the kill graph for a reverse circulation method, it must be remembered that the
completion annulus already has a full column of fluid. This fluid may or may not be at a higher
density than the kill fluid.
The following graphs represent typical annulus and completion surface pressures during a reverse
circulation kill.
They assume:
 Constant completion geometry,
 No gas invasion
 Deviation is not approaching the horizontal.
 Annular volume greater than tubing volume
 Kill fluid is lighter than the existing completion fluid (This might happen in an old well where
the original, kill weight, completion fluid is now too heavy for the depleted reservoir.)

The graphs have been drawn with the zero psi lines above the axis to allow them to be seen.
Some operators like to combine the two reverse circulation graphs into one.
In many parts of the world, reverse circulation kills will be performed when the new kill fluid is
lighter than the existing completion fluid. In this case, the graphs will look very different.
In the following typical reverse circulation kill graphs the kill fluid is heavier than completion fluid.
In both graphs, it is assumed that the annulus volume is greater than the tubing volume, there is
constant completion geometry, no gas invasion and the deviation is not approaching horizontal.

The pressures involved in any well kill, particularly a reverse circulation vary greatly depending on
the weights of the completion fluid; kill fluid and wellbore fluids and whether there is any gas in the
well at the start of the kill.

These graphs represent typical annulus and tubing surface pressures during the kill. These graphs are
sometimes drawn together, as shown, or as a single reverse circulation kill graph.
In the majority of cases during an intervention operation, it will not be possible to circulate
to kill. The most suitable method of well killing in this case is bullheading. The lubricate and
bleed method can also be used if bullheading is not possible however, this method is very
slow.

5.4.3 Bullheading
Bullheading (or squeeze killing) involves pumping kill weight fluid down the tubing and
forcing the wellbore fluids back into the formation through the perforations. This method is
only possible if the well conditions are such that pumping back into the formation is
possible. If the tubing or perforations are blocked then this method cannot be used. It is
also used when the tubing has been landed in a packer and it is not possible to establish a
circulation path around the tubing shoe (other than perforating).
The pumping rate during bullheading must be high enough to stop any gas migrating back
up through the kill fluid and to keep the fluid from free falling down the tubing and mixing
with the wellbore fluids. Ideally a wall of fluid should be forced down the tubing, pushing
everything in front of it.
The pump pressure must not exceed formation fracture pressure. Fracturing the formation
can cause severe losses that are very difficult to stop even with coarse LCM (lost circulation
material). Pressure ratings of surface equipment must also be considered.
Most producing wells have reduced formation pressures and a full column of kill fluid
(seawater is the normal minimum) may give rise to excessive bottom hole pressures which
may cause the fluids to be lost into the formation. In this case, solids such as sized salt
particles or Calcium Carbonate etc. may be required to temporarily block off the
perforations to enable them to support the full column of kill fluid.
In low permeability wells where it is difficult to pump fluids into the formation, high surface
pressure can result from low pump rates.
Small ID tubing strings may also cause pressure problems because of high friction losses in
the tubing. If the tubing is very large, pressure will probably not be a problem although it
may be difficult to maintain the clear interface between the kill fluids and the wellbore
fluids. This can cause the kill to take much longer with much more fluid lost to the
formation.
The main disadvantage of bullheading is that everything that is in the wellbore, including
scale, debris, sand, etc. is likely to be forced back into the formation. There is even the risk
of plugging the perforations before the kill is achieved. Surface and downhole pressures will
be the highest with bullheading.
If filtered kill fluids are to be pumped into a high permeability reservoir, then the bullhead
kill may be the preferred option.
A typical graph of the pumping pressure is illustrated, again assuming that the completion
geometry does not alter, the well is not approaching horizontal, there is no gas migration
and the wellbore fluids can be easily pumped back into the formation.

5.4.4 Gas Wells or Gas Filled Tubing

For a gas well, or gas filled tubing, when it is not possible to circulate or bullhead or where
bullheading would cause surface pressure limits to be exceeded, an alternative well kill method is to
use the lubricate and bleed. It involves least risk of pumping fluids into the formation and does not
risk filling the perforations with wellbore debris, scale and fill, it may well be chosen instead of
bullheading for that reason. It is sometimes used as an initial method of reducing surface pressure to
allow bullheading without exceeding surface pressure limits.
5.4.5 Lubricate and Bleed

Lubricate and bleed (sometimes called a lubricated kill) is performed by:
 Calculating the capacity of the tubing and pumping half that volume of kill fluid into the well.
 Observing the well for 30-60 mins. The tubing head pressure will drop due to the hydrostatic
head of the initial kill mud pumped. When the wellhead pressure is constant the next step is
taken.
 Pump around 10 barrels of kill fluid and ensure that the wellhead pressure does not exceed
200 psi above the observed tubing head pressure.
Bleed off gas from the tubing at a high rate immediately after pumping the batch of kill fluid. The
tubing head pressure should drop an amount equal to the hydrostatic head of the mud pumped. If
the gas pressure is not bled off quickly enough, the additional pressure caused by the increased
hydrostatic, may cause losses.
The gas migrates to surface through a non-viscous fluid in a straight well at up to perhaps 2000
ft./hr, sometime must be allowed for the fluid to fall through the gas before bleeding off. This is to
avoid bleeding off the kill fluid that has already been pumped. The lubricate and bleed method can
take a long time to perform.

With 27/8” tubing in the well and 9 ppg kill fluid (brine), a typical pressure reduction might be in the
order of 80-85 psi/barrel pumped. In a 6500 ft. well, it might take 40 bbls to fill the tubing. The graph
shows typical pumping pressure during a kill operation.
When the well is dead, it will contain a full column of fluid. Assuming that it is stationary and
overbalanced, this fluid is the primary barrier.
5.5 THIEF ZONES

In some wells, losses can occur in one zone of the formation (a thief zone) whilst another zone is still
producing. The thief zone can be above, below or between producing zones. Thief zones can make
working on live wells very difficult if it is required to wash out sand, scale, fill, etc. It is often
necessary to temporarily block off the thief zone with sized salt particles or carbonate particles (LCM
lost circulation material) so that returns can be brought to surface.
5.6 WORKOVER FLUIDS

Fluids used in completing or well services operations have many applications e.g. During perforating,
cementing, fracturing, acidizing, well killing, re-completing, milling, drilling, clean outs and fluid loss
prevention. They may also have long term functions as packer or completion fluids.
To provide the properties required for these services, many types of fluids are used e.g. drilling
mud’s, milling fluids, brines (including seawater), salt saturated brines, diesel and dead oil.
Completion or packer fluids are usually solids free to prevent drop out and sticking but they
are dosed with biocide, corrosion inhibitor/scale inhibitor for long term protection of the
formation and tubulars exposed to formation fluids. One important function of completion
fluids and packer fluid is to provide an overbalance at packer depth to control the well in
case of a leak.
Generally, the most economic fluid which meets all of the criteria should be used, and, if
possible, it should be solids free and non- damaging.

Clear brines are used since they are readily obtainable, easily transported and easily filtered
in normal weight ranges. However, clear brines have no bridging capability and they are
easily lost into the formation. (Unless the well is plugged)
A completion fluid is any fluid used in the well during downhole operations after the well
has been drilled and cased. They differ from drilling fluids since they are designed with a
combination of the following properties in mind:
Completion fluids are usually designed with the following parameters:
 minimize formation damage
 maintain circulation capability
 well control capability
 stable temperature and time tolerance to fluid additive
 minimal formation damage capability
 minimal corrosion effects to casing and completion components
 cost effective
 maximize removal of particulate matter
By careful selection of completion fluids it may be possible to avoid formation damage.
5.6.1 Solids Bearing Fluids

Modified water based drilling mud containing additives to improve completion results may
be readily available on location, but their use should be avoided during completion
operations unless the well is to be perforated under balanced.
5.6.2 Speciality Completion Fluids

Oil based mud, invert emulsion fluids; foam emulsions and chalk emulsions fall into this classification
of completion fluids. The oil containing fluids are used to protect water sensitive formation clays
against chemical damage.
5.6.3 Solids Free Completion Fluids

Clear, solids free brines minimize formation damage and are available over a wide density range.
These brines also discourage clay swelling and invasion by foreign particles.
Brines are naturally weighted and are solids free up to a given saturation.
Brine density is a function of temperature and the density of brines decrease with an increase in
temperature.
Although it is good practice to use clear brines, they have several disadvantages:

 No fluid loss control. Fluid loss can be controlled by increasing the viscosity using polymers
or by adding controlled particle sizes (acid soluble) to seal off at the formation. Most
polymers are cellulose based. Increasing brine viscosity by adding polymers has proven to
be an acceptable method of controlling fluid loss. This involves spotting a pill of thickened
completion fluid across the perforations. More recently, the introduction of Formate based
completion fluids, Cesium etc. allow solids free well pressure control with fluid weights in
excess of 18 ppg.
 Crystallization out of some solid salts
 High cost of additives
 High cost to remove solids
 Handling hazards
 Corrosive
5.6.4 Composition of Brines

The following list shows the various types of brines and weight ranges:
Classification Wt./ppg
Potassium Chloride 8.3-9.7
Sodium Chloride 8.3-10
Calcium Chloride 8.3-11.8
Calcium Chloride/Calcium Bromide 11.8-15.2
Calcium Chloride/Calcium Bromide/Zinc Bromide 14.4-19.2
Calcium Bromide/Zinc Bromide 14.5-19.2
Zinc Bromide 13.5-21.0
Cesium 19+
5.6.5 Brine Selection

Selection of brine is not simply picking the brine that best fits the weight requirement or budget
price. Brines must be the correct weight so that the well is controlled without significant
overpressure but heavy enough to prevent flow. They must also be compatible with the formation
and formation fluids so that permeability is not reduced by clay swelling etc. Incompatible fluids may
cause scale and other potential problems.

5.7 HYDRATES
Hydrates are wet snow like components formed by methane, ethane, and propane, H2S or CO2. For
example, at a pressure of 1000 Pisa, hydrates would be formed at temperatures below 200C if free
water was present Hydrates can plug pipelines, valves and other equipment
Methanol injected into the gas stream lowers the hydrate formation temperature of the free water
formed.
Glycol injected into the gas stream lowers the hydrate formation temperature of the free water
formed and is used mainly where continuous inhibition is required. Glycol is easy to recover for re-
cycling
Gas can be kept above hydrate formation temperature by heating.
Tests have shown that a water hydrocarbon mixture was exposed to a given pressure. The pressure
was lowered gradually and hydrate formation was apparent after a considerable pressure drop.
When the mixture was heated, the hydrates dispersed at a temperature much higher than the
temperature at which they formed.
Hydrates can be expected to be a problem during intervention operations whenever gas and free
water are present. Hydrates are complex crystalline gas/water structures in a frozen water matrix
filled with gas, commonly methane. In simple terms, they could be classified as frozen gas. Hydrate
formation is promoted by turbulence, pulsation and high velocities.
Hydrates will form when free water and light end natural gasses come into contact at certain
pressure and temperature conditions. The hydrocarbons are surrounded in an ice-like solid which
does not flow, but can rapidly block flow lines and process equipment.
Under certain conditions, hydrates can form spontaneously and do not always require a
temperature drop.
Hydrates normally form when a gas stream is cooled below its hydrate temperature. At high
pressure, these solids may form at temperatures well above 320F. The two major conditions
affecting hydrate formation are the gas being at the appropriate temperature and pressure, and the
gas being at or below its water dew point with free water present. For any particular gas at a given
pressure there is a temperature below which hydrates will form. As the pressure increases, the
hydrate formation temperature also increases. If there is no free water, hydrates cannot form.
Under normal circumstances brines will not form hydrates in oilfield situations and injecting hot
brine has been used to solve hydrate problems.
Steps can be taken to minimise the risk of hydrates by always using a mix of Glycol and water for
pressure testing if hydrates are suspected. There are two types of glycol, Mono-Ethylene Glycol
(MEG) and Tri-Ethylene Glycol (TEG), which may be used with a mix ratio of perhaps 50/50 or 40/60
water/glycol.
Although hydrates do not require a pressure drop for them to form, a pressure drop results in a
temperature reduction across a choke, or pressure reducing valve or a small leak from a stuffing box
or joint and it is common for hydrates to form in these areas. The subsequent condensation of water
vapour can lead to the onset of hydrate formation.

Hydrates will float in water and can occur at temperatures significantly above the freezing point of
water. They can sometimes show themselves by the formation of ice on the outside of the affected
equipment. This will only happen if there is water in the atmosphere.
Once hydrates have formed, there are three ways of removing them (excluding dehydration):
 Increase in temperature.
 Decrease in pressure.
 Dissolving.
For a decrease in pressure to be effective, both sides of the hydrate plug must have the pressure
reduced. If only one side of a hydrate plug is bled down, this will not only be ineffective at removing
the plug but could also cause the plug to move at high speed, causing damage. Injecting Methanol at
the location of the plug is particularly effective at removing hydrate plugs. Care must be taken with
braided line as the Methanol can cause the grease seal to fail. Methanol injected in the tree can
dissolve the valve lubrication and can also be detrimental to some BOP’s in the surface stack. Glycol
may be injected whilst running in or pulling out as a means of hydrate prevention, although at
temperatures of 0 deg. C or less, it should be mixed with 10% water so that it can be pumped.
Graphs are available which give hydrate formation characteristics for various gasses at differing
temperatures and pressures.
Warning. It is hazardous to bleed down pressure above a hydrate plug in the tubing.

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6.0 WIRELINE
Wireline was first used in the oilfield the early 1920s as a means of accurately measuring well depth.
It started as a flat steel measuring line. Otis was the first company to use a circular wire and to
create special wireline units, often mounted on trailers.
Slickline uses small diameter continuous solid wire for manipulating various tools in live or dead
wells. Wireline equipment is very portable and rig-up time can be quite fast.
High deviations can cause problems with Slickline, as gravity is required to keep the wire moving
down the wellbore. In highly deviated wells, the wireline toolstring lies against the side of the tubing
and the weight comes off causing the tools to stop moving downwards.
Slickline can be used for a very wide range of jobs such as:

 Running and pulling flow control devices.
 Opening and closing circulation devices.
 Checking the inside of the tubing for debris, waxes, scale, corrosion, etc.
 Cleaning the inside of the tubing and the completion components.
 Running and pulling gas lift or chemical injection equipment.
 Running and pulling DHSVs.
 Bottom hole sampling.
 Running temperature and pressure surveys.
 Depth measurement.
 Fishing for lost objects and debris.
Slickline uses a continuous length of single solid strand wire (like piano wire) whereas braided line
uses a continuous length of stranded wire (like logging cable). This may have one or more electrical
conductor wires inside in which case it is called Electric Line (E-line) or it may be for heavy duty work.
The principles are exactly the same although the well control mechanisms are slightly different.
6.1 SLICKLINE
Slickline is a method of mechanical manipulation of devices downhole and is only capable of pulling
or pushing (by jarring action). Rotation is not possible.
There are thousands of different tools that have been designed for use with slickline although they
all operate in much the same way.
The main advantages of Slickline are the relatively low cost as compared to other intervention
methods, portability, speed of rig up/down, running/pulling speed and the ability to work on live
wells.
The main disadvantage is that it is very easily damaged due to its thin and flexible nature. It also has
limited use when well deviation is approaching 70o
There are various sizes of Slickline available today; the main ones are listed below:
 0.072”
Slickline E-Line Multi Conductor
 0.082”
 0.092”
 0.105”
E-line Braided Line
 0.108”
 0.125”
Types of Wire

The last two sizes are probably the most commonly used. The lines themselves can be made out of a
great variety of exotic steels to withstand the harsh downhole environment and are available in reels
of up to 30000 ft.
Modern technology has ensured that the quality and consistency of a spool of Slickline is to a very
high standard. H2S resistance is very good.
Reels of Slickline have a finite life and the wireline service companies check to ensure that the wire
remains up to standard. There is a simple torsion test (by twisting) which is performed to check the
wire. The manufacture and testing of slickline should be to API 9A specification.
Typically a reel of 0.108” wire will have a breaking strength of between 1720 lbf and 2730 lbf. When
used, the wire should not be worked past its plastic limit, which is usually approximately 50% of the
breaking strength. The strength of a particular size of wire will vary according to the material from
which it is made.
6.2 SURFACE EQUIPMENT

A Slickline unit is made up of 3 basic components:
 Power pack
 Winch
 Pressure Control Equipment
6.2.1 Power Units

Power units (power packs) come in a variety of types and sizes to suit the well location and the work
to be performed. They can be very small trailer mounted units for simple shallow land well jobs that
do not require heavy downhole work or large containerised units with very sophisticated controls for
deep and deviated offshore wells etc.
Most power units are diesel driven although some offshore units that regularly work on the same
platform are electrically powered. The unit drives one or two hydraulic pumps to control the winch.
Most slickline units have their power packs and winches separate, however modern, larger units
tend to be enclosed in one container including a cabin for the operator.
6.2.1.1 Zone 1
The Zone 1 Electro Hydraulic Power Pack is a stand-alone unit designed for closed loop medi or
containerised wireline winches. The unit can also drive a respooler system.
Zone 1 Equipment (EEXD)
• Electric motor
• Electrical enclosures
• Certification.
Ex: Mark for ATEX certified electrical equipment for explosive atmospheres.
Ex Code:

e = Increased Safety, Equipment is very robust and components are made to a high quality.
D = Flameproof, Equipment construction is such that it can withstand an internal explosion and
provide relief of the external pressure via flame gap(s) such as the labyrinth created by threaded
fittings or machined flanges. The escaping (hot) gases must sufficiently cool down along the escape
path that by the time they reach the outside of the enclosure not to be a source of ignition of the
outside, potentially ignitable surroundings.
6.2.1.2 Zone 2
Zone 2 Equipment
• Diesel Engines
• No spark plugs, contact breaker or distributors
• Safety shut down systems fitted which are initiated by oil pressure & temperature.
6.2.2 Winch
The wire is stored on a drum located in front of the operator on the winch unit. Power from the
hydraulic power pack is applied to the drum usually via a four speed gearbox. There are controls that
can select forward or reverse and a handbrake for the
drum. There may be more than one drum of wire on a
winch unit but only one drum is in use at a time and
combinations of slickline and braided line or slickline
and electric line are common. Many units are capable
of running at wire speeds of up to 3000 ft./min.
The wire is spooled off the drum and is wrapped

around the measuring head to give the operator depth
measurement. Before running in the hole each time,
the operator resets the depth counter to zero.
A weight indicator displays the weight of the tools and

the toolstring as well as any additional forces
generated during jarring etc.
Wireline Winch

6.3 PRESSURE CONTROL EQUIPMENT
6.3.1 Stuffing Box

The Stuffing Box is the primary barrier during slickline operations and has an integral sheave to guide
the wire down through the packing. It is this packing that makes the seal around the wire to prevent
the escape of wellbore fluids. The packing is forced against the wire by either tightening a nut on the
manual stuffing box or by applying pressure to the hydraulic stuffing box. The disadvantage of the
manual stuffing box is that, if it leaks during a job, someone has to climb up and tighten the nut. The
hydraulic stuffing box is controlled from a hand pump attached to it directly by a hose or from the
operator’s panel.
Manual stuffing boxes are no longer used at most locations and have been replaced by hydraulic
units.
The stuffing box should always be checked before a job to ensure that there is some adjustment left
on the nut or hydraulic piston to ensure that leaks between the wire and the packing can be repaired
without having to POOH. Worn packing is not difficult to change but needs to be done when there is
no wire running through the stuffing box.
The amount of force applied to the packing should be the minimum necessary to ensure that there is
no leak of fluids. An excessive amount of force on the packing can prevent the wire from running.
In both types of stuffing box it is standard practice to have a plunger (blow out plug or internal BOP)
through which the wire passes under normal circumstances. If the wire is broken and is ejected from
the well, the blow out plug (plunger) is forced up against the bottom of the packing and seals off the
well.
The valve screw allows injection of methanol etc. however, in practice, this is rarely used and
modern stuffing boxes do not always have this facility. A separate injection point is provided.
NOV Elmar Single BOP’s

Manual Stuffing Box

Hydraulic Stuffing Box

6.3.2 Quick Unions

Quick Unions have Acme type square threads and seal using an O ring. The connection should be
made up only hand tight and then backed off part of a turn. It is important that the O ring is
inspected for damage prior to making a connection.
The lowest section of lubricator is usually of a larger diameter as it must contain the tool that is
being run or pulled. The upper sections only have to contain the toolstrings and can therefore be of
smaller diameter.
The bottom section is fitted with a needle valve for bleeding off any trapped pressure above the BOP
or wellhead before breaking out the lubricator and changing the toolstrings. Hydrocarbons are
usually bled to a closed drain.
Prior to applying any pressure, the lubricator section must be checked to ensure that its rated
pressure is sufficient for the work being performed and that all seals and sealing surfaces are in good
condition.
Otis Bowen
6.3.3 Lubricator
The lubricator allows the toolstrings to be inserted into or removed from the well under pressure
and is installed between the BOP’s and the stuffing box.
There will probably be three or more sections of lubricator in use. As with all wireline surface
equipment, the sections are usually connected by Quick Unions. A second needle valve should be
fitted to the bottom lubricator section to provide double barrier protection and so that a pressure
gauge can be fitted.

Typically lubricator sections are 8 ft. long and sufficient

lubricator must be used to accommodate toolstrings being
recovered from the well including the item that is being
pulled.
Additional lengths of lubricator will be required for fishing

operations.
Lubricators are available in different pressure ratings for

both standard and “sour” service. It is usually considered
that all lubricators used for pressures over 5000 psi should
have the quick unions welded rather than screwed to the
main tube.
Pressure testing
Lubricators are normally tested to manufacturers test
pressure or working pressure at regular intervals to satisfy
certification requirements.
Field Testing
Lubricator sections are usually pressure tested after rigging
up on location prior to opening the well. Various company
policies may have different testing requirements for pressure
testing on the well however, it is common practice at most
locations to pressure test to a minimum of expected Closed
In Tubing Head Pressure (CITHP). A low pressure test is
generally carried out first which; will confirm the seals are
holding pressure at low energy forces, followed by a full high
pressure test which; is applied slowly.
6.3.4 Blow Out Preventer’s

The BOP is mounted below the lubricator and, in normal operations; it is usually the connection
above the BOP that is broken to allow the insertion or removal of the toolstring
The BOP is the secondary barrier when there is wire in the hole and they are usually mounted as
close as possible to, or on top of the Xmas tree, for ease of access and to minimise the number of
potential leak paths (connections) below the BOP. Fitting the BOP close to the Xmas tree also serves
to maximise the length of the lubricator.
With the BOP closed and sealing around the wire, equipment above can be depressurised and
repaired.
If tools become stuck in the hole, a means must be found to cut the wire as close to the top of the
toolstring as possible. In this case the wireline BOP’s would have be closed as the tree valves cannot
close because of the wire through them. With the BOP closed and sealing around the wire:
 Close the manual locking stems on the BOP

 Bleed down the lubricator
 Inflow test the BOP
 Break out the lubricator
A cutter can then be attached to the wire ready to be dropped to cut the wire at the rope socket
when the BOP is opened.
Additional BOP’s
If a routine operation turns into a fishing job, additional BOP’s may be required as well as additional
lubricator to accommodate the fished toolstring.
Equalising Valves
BOP’s are fitted with equalising valves across the rams. Before opening the rams, pressure must be
equalised to prevent damage.
Occasionally, if wireline work is to be done using both slickline and braided line, both sets of BOP’s
will be installed at all times so that there is less work changing from one to the other.
Triple BOP’s are available which can be dressed, for example, with slickline rams at the top and dual
braided line rams at the bottom.
Slickline BOP’s hold pressure from below only. Wellbore pressure acts to help keep the BOP closed
and maintains the seal around the wire.
Manual BOP
Hydraulic BOP
Braided Line Ram Assembly
6.3.5 Hydraulic Tool Catcher

This device is sometimes fitted immediately below the stuffing box (or chemical
injection sub) it is a hydraulically operated device that catches the toolstring
when it has been pulled up into the lubricator. It operates using a collet that
catches hold of the fishing neck on the rope socket. The lubricator can then be
bled down and disconnected from the BOP’s without any danger of the
toolstring falling out of the lubricator, causing injury. To release the toolstring,
hydraulic pressure must be applied to move the collet into the release position.
The collet is designed to catch the particular size of fishing neck in use.
6.3.6 Chemical Injection Sub

Used to inject de-icing or corrosion inhibition chemicals directly onto the
wireline. The chemicals are prevented from being pumped away downhole by
the packing at the bottom of the sub. Usually positioned immediately below the
stuffing box, it is only occasionally used. Some chemical injection subs do not
use the packing and allow much greater quantities of
chemical to be injected.
6.3.7 Cutter Valves

Cutter valves or shear/seals, are placed just above the
tree. In design, it can be either a BOP with large hydraulic boosters that
will guarantee a cut even on braided line, or a purpose designed ball valve
type device. All cutter valves are designed to seal after making the cut.
The cutter valve is the tertiary barrier.
6.4 WIRELINE BARRIER PHILOSOPHY

The barriers described are barriers when wire is in the hole. If the UMV
does not have wire cutting ability, there should be a cutter valve on top of
the tree to act as the tertiary barrier.
If the wire breaks and is blown out of the stuffing box, the swab valve
becomes the secondary barrier and the stuffing box remains the primary
barrier. Once the swab valve has been closed and the lubricator bled
down and broken out, the swab valve becomes the primary barrier.
It is important to remember that the barrier classification can change

during an operation. E.g. The barriers available with a toolstring in the
hole will be different to the barriers available when the tools are in the
lubricator.
6.5 RISERS AND CONNECTIONS

Risers may be required to get from the top of the Xmas tree to the BOP on a
platform. Most Xmas trees have a quick union connection on the top of the
swab valve and most risers have quick union connections.
For certain work, particularly high pressure work, the Xmas
tree top cap might be removed and a riser with flanged
connections used. There would almost certainly be a cutter
valve installed, with flanged connections, immediately on
top of the Xmas tree in this case.
For certain work, it may be necessary to include a pump in

sub (or pump in tee) in the rig-up. This would be included
when pumping is required and the kill wing on the tree
cannot be used.
When running completions, the well is normally dead and well control is by
means of a full column of overbalanced fluid. Wireline may be required to
RIH to open a communication device to allow circulation around the
completion. It will be necessary to have a pumping connection and a means
of pressure testing the wireline surface pressure control equipment when it
is rigged up. Wireline would be rigged up to the Surface Test Tree which is
screwed onto the top of the tubing.
6.6 OPERATIONS
When the Wireline unit has been rigged up and function tested the pressure control equipment
should be pressure tested. This normally takes the form of a body test of the entire rig-up from the
tree connection to the stuffing box (with the toolstring in the lubricator). Most locations do not test
the BOP’s when closed around the wire.
Since wireline work is routinely performed on wells that have been producing for some time, there is
no point in pressure testing to full working pressure if the known maximum SIWHP may only be a
few hundred psi.
For certain work such as in remote desert areas, the only way of pressure testing the lubricator is to
open the swab valve and pressure test using wellhead pressure.
If free water and gas is expected on opening the well, consideration should be given to pressure
testing using a mix of glycol and water to prevent hydrates from forming.
Whilst running in hole with the toolstring, care must be taken when running through the tree valves
and restrictions in the completion. Before running in for the first time, the wireline operator must
have the following information available:
 Completion diagram, including details of last drift run.
 HUD (hold up depth)
 Wellbore deviation profile
 Toolstring fishing diagram
It is good practice to ensure:
 Pressures across plugs have been equalized before pulling to avoid being blown up hole.
 Great care is taken when pulling through restrictions to avoid being blown up hole.
 Count the turns on the tree valves to ensure that the toolstring is properly contained within
the lubricator and is not across the tree valves. Care must also be taken when first
pressurizing the lubricator so that the toolstring is not blown up into the stuffing box causing
damage to the wire.
 On dry gas wells, stuffing box packing wear rate can be very high due to a lack of lubrication.
Inspect the packing before each run to ensure there is enough adjustment left to complete
the next run.
Problems can occur with the wire breaking on surface during extended jarring. It is normal practice
to shear off the device being jarred every hour or so (depending on well conditions), pull out and
make a new knot in the wire after cutting off a suitable length of wire at the rope socket. This
provides a new section of wire that is being repeatedly run over the sheaves for the next period of
jarring.
6.7 CONTINGENCIES
During any abnormal situation, it is the intervention operator at the controls of the unit who will
probably be the first to realise that there is a problem. He is also the person who has control of the
equipment and will be present during the intervention. It is therefore the intervention equipment
operator’s responsibility to make the well safe in the event of any problem occurring.
It is usually necessary to remove the DHSV, if it is wireline retrievable, so that deep set large
diameter tools may be run. If the valve cannot be removed, its control must be isolated from any
shut down system and the pressure in the control line must be monitored. Similarly, the control for
the UMV (or any other tree valve) must be removed from the shutdown system and the valve must
be locked open where possible.
6.7.1 Leak In Surface Equipment Above The BOP

In the event of such a leak, close the BOP, bleed off pressure above, inflow test then open the
equipment and repair the leak.
Note: It is very bad practice to start in the hole with no adjustment left on the packing nut.
6.7.2 Wire Pulled Out Of Rope Socket

If for some reason (such as running in to an obstruction whilst POOH too quickly or running into the
stuffing box) the wire is pulled out of the rope socket when near the surface, there is a chance of the
wire being blown out of the top of the stuffing box. In this case the blow out plug (plunger) inside
the stuffing box is designed to stop the wellbore fluids from blowing out.
6.7.3 Power Pack Failure

In the event of power pack failure during the job, apply the hand brake and clamp the wire to the
lubricator before commencing repairs.
Hydraulic stuffing boxes and BOP’s are either hand pump operated, powered from a stand-alone
unit or, if using engine driven hydraulics, will have a small accumulator to allow them to continue to
work.
6.8 WELL CONTROL PROBLEMS
6.8.1 Hydrate Plugging

Well control problems can be caused by hydrates plugging equipment and stopping the wire from
being run or pulled. They may also prevent equipment such as BOP’s from operating properly.
6.8.2 Fishing
If the wire breaks downhole, this will cause operational problems rather than well control problems.
This will however probably lead to fishing operations.
In order to avoid well control problems during fishing operations, extra surface equipment will
probably be required. This is because there will be a fishing toolstring and the original lost toolstring
to be contained in the lubricator, which will have to be much longer. It is also possible that a heavier
duty (bigger OD) wireline will be used to fish the lost wire and toolstring. In this case, extra BOP’s
may be needed to take account of two different wire sizes.
6.8.3 Swabbing
Swabbing can be used to reduce the hydrostatic pressure on the formation in order to allow the well
to flow. This is done under controlled conditions using special equipment.
Accidental swabbing can occur during open hole operations when the top of the tubing is open and
during wireline operations when large OD tools are being run or pulled and the clearance around the
tool is small.
Accidental swabbing causes well control problems by allowing overbalanced fluids to flow to surface
thereby reducing hydrostatic pressure on the formation and possibly allowing the well to flow.
Accidental swabbing is also a problem when running/pulling completions due to the small clearances
between the completion components and the well bore.
6.9 ELECTRIC LINE

Braided Line with one or more electric conductors in the middle is called Electric Line and is used
exclusively for conveying tools down hole that require or generate an electric signal. Electric lines
have a much-reduced breaking strain compared to braided line without any conductors. Some
electric lines have only one conductor and are called mono-conductor cables. They are commonly
3/16”, 7/32”, 5/16”, 3/8” or 7/16”. The smaller sizes are used for through tubing well servicing work
whilst the larger sizes are usually used for smaller suites of open hole logs. Other Electric Lines have
7 conductors (logging cables), are used exclusively for open hole logging and are usually 15/32” or
17/32”. These logging cables are normally used on drilling rigs with well control using a full column
of kill fluid. Occasionally cables with 2 conductors are used.
The main uses of Electric Line are:
 Data gathering
 Perforating
 Chemical cutting
 Setting packers and bridge plugs
 Determining free point (stuck point)
The Schlumberger brothers started using electric line for data gathering in 1927 and it has developed
into the wide range of services available today. Electric Line is not used for manipulating tools
downhole and the toolstring does not contain any jars or running/pulling tools. For this reason, it is
easier for electric line to become stuck in the hole. The rope socket (or cable head) that attaches the
electric line to the toolstring is specially made so that a pull below the breaking strain of the wire will
break the weak point in the cable head and allow the wire to be retrieved. The toolstring can then
be fished by some other means.
In principle, running braided line is the same as running slickline. The biggest difference is in the
pressure control required around the wire. Because the braided line is made of an inner core and
two layers of wires around it, it is possible for well pressure to pass through the inside of the cable.
Light grease or honey oil is used to provide a grease seal across the BOP and through the grease
head.
6.9.1 Tractors
Tractors are electrical tools used to push the toolstring into hole, overcoming wireline's
disadvantage of being gravity dependent. These are used for in highly deviated and horizontal wells
where gravity is insufficient, even with roller stem. They push against the side of the wellbore either
through the use of wheels or through a wormlike motion.
6.10 BRAIDED LINE

Braided Line is available in a variety of sizes (ODs) and in two basic types, with or without electric
conductor cables.
Braided Line without an electric conductor in the middle is sometimes called sand line and is used
for heavy-duty wireline. Heavy-duty fishing winches are nearly always braided line and do exactly
the same as slickline. It has a very much greater breaking strain than slickline and is commonly 3/16
inch, 7/32 inch, 1/4 inch or 5/16 inch diameter.
6.10.1 Braided Line Pressure Control Equipment

The surface equipment is very much the same as the slickline equipment. The winch is usually a little
bigger and the cabin will contain computer the same as for slickline.
The grease control skid controls the injection of grease into the grease head and BOP’s as required.
The controls for the opening/closing of the BOP’s are normally on this pneumatic panel.
An Electric Line toolstring is comprised of several different individual tools, each of which measures
different characteristics. The toolstring is very often much longer than a slickline toolstring and
requires more lubricator sections to contain it. The rig-up height is usually much higher and it is
normal practice, on logging jobs, to use a portable mast for support.
6.10.2 Grease Injection Head

The Grease Head or Grease Control Head or Grease Injection Head, is the primary barrier used with
braided line. The grease head contains flow tubes that are interference fit around the wire being
used. Grease is pumped through the flow tubes at high pressure to maintain the seal.
6.10.3 Flow Tubes

To create an effective seal, the flow tubes must
be a very close fit around the wire. There is
usually a clearance of approximately 0.006 ins.
around the wire, for new flow tubes and new
wire.
Normally 3 flow tubes are required to maintain

the seal although in low pressure wells (below
2000 psi.), 2 tubes may be sufficient. In very high pressure wells, 4 or more tubes may be required.
The grease pressure required is normally 300 or 400 psi higher than WHP.
The grease is supplied from an air driven pump directly

connected to the drums of grease. The grease is always
pumped into the lower connection on the head and returns
taken from the top of the top flow tube. The returning grease
is contaminated with oil and gas from the well and is pumped
into a drum for later disposal.
6.10.4 Pack Off

The pack off is sometimes called a stuffing box and is used to
create a seal around the braided line in the event that the
grease seal cannot be maintained. It should not be closed
around braided line when the line is moving as it can damage
the wire. Its location is at the top of the grease injection head
and above the line wiper. NOV Combination Line Wiper / Pack Off
6.10.5 Line Wiper

A line wiper may be installed on top of the grease head. This cleans the outside of the wire as it is
coming out of the hole and stops oil and grease dripping off the wire as it is returned to the drum, it
has a rubber element through which the wire runs. There is usually a connection at the bottom of
the line wiper for a drain hose so that oil and grease that has been
wiped off the line can be drained away.
6.10.6 Safety Check Union

The grease head may have an integral safety check union (ball check
union, ball check valve or safety check valve) which performs the same
function as the blow out plug in the slickline stuffing box. It is placed at
the bottom of the grease head and consists of a ball and seat. When
the wire is running through the union, it pushes the ball to the side. If
the wire gets broken and ejected from the well, the ball is forced up
against the seat by the wellbore pressure and seals off the flow.
Safety Check Union
6.10.7 Dual Braided Line BOP

The braided line BOP is always a dual BOP. This is because of the need to seal around the wire and
within the wire. In the dual BOP, the lower set of rams is inverted.
There is a port to inject grease between the two BOPS' so that a grease seal can be formed. As with
the Slickline single BOP, there are equalising valves across each ram.
The ram assemblies are usually designed to seal around wire only and not on open hole. This is
because the inner seal (front packing) has a large groove for the wire. Braided line inner seals and
slick line inner seals are not interchangeable.
When a Shear Seal valve is used for wire cutting, the ram configuration will be:
 Braided line normal
 Braided line inverted
 Shear Seal
Dual Braided Line BOP

6.10.8 Pressure Testing
To test a BOP dressed for braided line (On the tree):
 Install the BOP onto the tree with the rams open
 Fill the BOP with test medium
 Insert a polished rod (test rod) between the rams
 Close the rams
 Pressure test via the grease injection port
For safety we recommend that all BOPs should be pressure tested off the well head / tree
and on a certified test stump.
6.11 OPERATIONS
The operational aspects of Electric Line are the same as those for Slickline. The main difference is
that there is no mechanical work being done downhole and so there are not the same potential
problems with jarring etc. The greatest risk is from getting stuck downhole.
6.11.1 Contingencies
When using braided line a grease seal must be maintained around the wire.
Leaks from the grease head can occur for a number of reasons:
 Insufficient grease pressure
 Contaminated grease
 Rise in wellhead pressure
 Section of cable that has become too thin
In all such cases, it is necessary to stop the movement of the wire, re-establish the grease seal, and
continue with the work.
In gas wells it may prove more difficult to re-establish the grease seal because the flowing gas can
more easily strip the grease out of the flow tubes and the cooling effect of the gas as it expands can
thicken the grease. Hydrate formation can also be a problem at this time.
Similarly, if the BOP’s have to be closed, the top (normal) ram must be closed, the bottom (inverted)
ram is then closed and the grease injected between them to establish a seal. The BOP’s are designed
to maintain a seal with the cable stationary only.
Cable problems
One problem that can occur with braided line is that a single outer strand of wire can get broken in
the hole and cause a birds nest when pulling out. In severe cases, this can lead to the wire getting
stuck in the bottom of the grease head. The winch operator should notice this from a dark spiral
mark in the cable being spooled onto the drum where the strand is missing. The weight indicator
reading may well fluctuate also as the broken strand balls up in the lubricator.
In most cases, if the broken strand is noticed in time, the BOP’s can be carefully closed around the
wire whilst checking that there is no unusual resistance to closing. This could indicate that the birds
nest is across the face of the BOP. After bleeding off above the BOP, the lubricator can be lifted and
the damaged strand of wire can be temporarily spliced back in to the main cable to allow it to pass
through the grease head.
6.12 EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION

Explosive Decompression, also referred to as rapid gas decompression, is a failure mechanism of
elastomer seals which is due to the rapid decompression of gaseous fluids. When elastomer seals
are exposed to high-pressure gas at elevated temperatures for an extended period of time the gas
absorbs into the elastomer compound. When the external pressure is reduced, the dissolved gas
within the elastomer expands out of solution to form micro bubbles. As the gas expands, it will
permeate out of the material. If the rate of the decompression and expansion is high, the trapped
gas within the elastomer seal expands beyond the materials ability to contain the gas bubbles,
causing fissuring and resulting is seal failure.
Examples of Explosive Decompression
7.0 COILED TUBING
7.1 GENERAL
Coiled Tubing has been defined as any continuously-milled tubular product manufactured in lengths
that require spooling onto a take-up reel during the primary milling or manufacturing process. The
tube is normally straightened prior to being inserted into the wellbore and is recoiled for spooling
back onto the reel. Tubing diameter normally ranges from 0.75” to 4” and single reel lengths in
excess of 30000 feet have been commercially manufactured. Common CT yield strengths range from
55000 to 120000 psi.
Coiled Tubing equipment is portable and modular (although modern reels are reaching high
transport weights) and offers quick rig-up times. Depending on the wellbore conditions, speeds of up
to 250 ft./min. can be achieved whilst running/pulling Coiled Tubing.
The maximum working depth of Coiled Tubing is usually determined by the amount of tubing that
can be spooled onto a reel rather than the TVD. Highly deviated wells can cause problems with
Coiled Tubing as, like wireline, gravity is required to keep the tubing moving down the wellbore. This
can now be overcome to a certain extent with the use of downhole “tractors”.
The main advantages of Coiled Tubing is the portability, speed of rig up/down, running/pulling speed
and the ability to work on live wells.
The main disadvantage is that it is fairly easily damaged due to its thin and flexible nature.
7.1.1 History
Prior to the Allied invasion of Europe in 1944, British
engineers developed and produced very long continuous
pipelines for transporting fuel from England to France to
supply the Allied armies. The project was named “PLUTO”,
an acronym for “Pipe Lines under the Ocean” The
development of Coiled Tubing as we know it dates back to
the early 1960’s
In 1962, the California Oil Company and Bowen Tools developed the first fully functional CT unit for
cleaning out sand bridges in wells.
Throughout the late 1960,s and into the 1970’s, Bowen Tools and Brown Oil Tools continued to
improve their designs to accommodate CT up to 1inch in OD and, by the mid 1970’s, more than 200
units were in service.
CT strings underwent significant improvements during this period since early CT operations suffered
many failures due to poor quality tubing and the numerous butt welds. Tubing was milled in much
longer lengths with fewer butt welds per string.
CT strings are constructed from continuously milled tubing with no butt welds.
It should always be remembered however that coiled tubing must be treated with care and respect
if it is not to cause problems.
Coiled Tubing can be used for a very wide range of jobs such as:
 Nitrogen lifting wells where there is excess hydrostatic in the completion stopping the well
from flowing naturally.
 Running and landing off small bore strings inside the completion to aid wellbore flows in
older wells. (Velocity strings, insert strings or syphon strings).
 Clean-up operations after workovers, etc.
 Spotting acid at the perforations (either to clean the perforations or remove formation skin
damage).
 Fishing operations.
 Cleaning out sumps, rat holes.
 Spotting cement plugs.
 Running through tubing tools such as straddle packers and bridge plugs.
 Stiff wireline – Coiled Tubing with logging cable inside.
 Side tracking and drilling small diameter holes.
 Drilling/milling operations inside pipe.
 Opening/closing sliding sleeves etc.
 ESP deployment
 Memory PLT
 Setting and retrieving plugs
 Removal of wax, hydrocarbon or hydrate plugs
 Perforating
 Setting Packers
 Gravel Pack
Modern Coiled Tubing reels can be over 20000 ft. long and a reel can weigh in excess of 30 tons. In
order to minimise the weight of the reel, tubing can be manufactured from sections of differing wall
thickness. The thickest piece of the tubing is at the inner end of the reel (the top of the well) where
the tensile forces are the greatest. Currently up to six pieces of different wall thickness may be found
on one tapered string of Coiled Tubing. In this case it would be called a 5 step taper.
Coils are available with electric logging cable inside and some are available with up to two small bore
stainless steel lines (like DHSV control lines) running inside. These may be used for the independent
control of some specialist downhole tools. Coils with one string of pipe inside another are also
coming into service so that different fluids can be pumped through each string, such as when
cementing through an inflatable straddle packer.
Pinholes appearing in the body of the coil are now very rare indeed. H 2S resistance has been
improved as has the quality of the welds in tapered strings. This has led to far less weld failures.
All Coiled Tubing reels have a finite life that is determined by the work they have done. Whilst
running in or out of a well and pumping fluids, the coil of tubing is subjected to many different
stresses which can reduce its life.
The forces that act on the tubing are:
 Tension from the hanging weight of the tubing in the well.
 Compression if the well becomes deviated.
 Burst from the pressure inside the tubing.
 Collapse from the pressure outside the tubing.
 A combination of the above forces causes hoop stress around the wall of the tubing.
Bending forces are applied to the tubing whenever it is spooled off the drum and run into the well.
This is exactly the same whenever the tubing is pulled out of the hole and spooled back on to the
drum. In total there are three separate points at which the tubing is bent running in (and pulling out)
where there is plastic deformation. This is because the natural minimum bending radius of the
tubing varies from 13 ft. for 3/4 inch to 42 ft. for 23/8 inch tubing. The minimum reel diameters can
vary from 2 ft. to 8 ft.
The points of deformation are as it comes off the reel and is straightened, as it is bent over the
gooseneck and as it enters the injector head to be straightened again.
The effect of these stresses can be made much worse when the coil is under pressure and pumping
acid can cause corrosion in the pipe. All these forces combine to give the pipe a particular life span.
For many companies, the tubing has a life of 80 cycles, a cycle is when a given length of pipe has
been spooled off the drum, injected into the well, pulled back out and spooled back onto the drum.
The size, wall thickness and grade of steel determine the maximum life of a particular coil (maximum
number of cycles). For a reel of 23/8 inch, for example, it may be a little as 40 cycles. If there has been
an excessive load, pressure or acid work the life span may be shortened. Any job which involves
repeatedly running the same section of coil in and out of the well (i.e. working the tubing up and
down) can quickly bring that section of the coil to the end of its working life. This may require that
some coil is cut from the reel and the remaining pipe welded back together.
Coil Tubing Bending Cycles
Data from each job is recorded for each length of Coil Tubing and enables the CT operator to
determine when the coil (or a section of it) must be scrapped. This recording is done manually or by
computer as the job progresses.
This real time data acquisition is becoming more common as the use of computer simulation
increases to predict whether it will be possible to get a string of Coiled Tubing to the bottom of a
deviated well and, more importantly, back out again.
In a deviated well, it is possible for a string of Coiled Tubing to “lock up” due to it forming the shape
of a helix (spiral) inside the completion when the friction overcomes the gravitational forces. The
pipe can be subject to helical buckling at this point. There can also be problems with deviated wells
on pulling out when the pipe is held back as it is pulled round a corner in the well. This can cause the
tension loads to be greater than the pipe can handle.
With modern equipment, it is possible to compare the real time data acquisition on the job with the
predicted results from the pre-job simulation. This ensures that the job can be performed as
predicted. Some operators now include in the monitoring and data recording a check of pipe ovality
to ensure that there has been no mechanical damage to the pipe.
Some companies have set limits for pumping: through coil:
 Maximum pumping pressure through Coiled Tubing whilst moving = 4000 psi.
 Maximum pumping pressure through Coiled Tubing whilst stationary = 5000 psi.
 Maximum differential pressure against collapse of Coiled Tubing = 1500 psi
Because of the small diameter of the pipe, pressure losses in the tubing can be very large at high
pump rates. Charts are available which give the pressure drop per 1000 ft. of pipe for a given string
and a given fluid at various pump rates.
For example with 11/4 inch OD x 0.095 wall thickness coil, pumping 10 ppg brine at 1 BPM, the
pressure drop is approximately 500 psi. / 1000 ft. At ½ BPM, the pressure drop is only approximately
180 psi. / 1000 ft.
The tendency is towards larger diameter Coiled Tubing for intervention operations with 2 inch and
bigger routinely used by some operators.
7.2 GROWTH OF THE BUSINESS

In August 2005, slightly more than 1060 CT units were estimated to be available worldwide. The
total number of working CT units has risen sharply from the 850 units reported available in February
2001.
In January 2005 the total CT count was 1182, roughly distributed as follows:
 Europe and Africa 143
 South America 107
 Central America 257
 Canada 311
 South East Asia 95
 Saudi Arabia 128
 Russia 78
 China 63
7.3 OFFSHORE WEIGHT AND SPACE LIMITATIONS

CT operations on many offshore platforms are constrained by the lifting capacity of the crane as well
as deck loading and space limitations. A loaded CT reel is the heaviest component of the system and
various solutions to address the weight issue have been implemented including:
 Disassembly of the CT equipment to the smallest and lightest lifts then reassembly on the
platform.
 Cut the CT string into sections, spool the sections onto lightweight shipping reels, lift the
reels onto the platform and reconnect the sections on the platform.
 Use a barge or jack up with a heavy lift crane to load the equipment.
 Ship one full reel and one empty reel. Lift the empty reel to the platform then spool from the
full reel to the empty reel.
 Install only the CT injector on the wellhead and leave the reel and other CT equipment
alongside the platform.
Example reach and weights for CT:
 Reel without tubing = 9,000 lbs (4,082 Kg)
 Reel with 1-1/4” tubing 21,000 ft.(6,400 m) = 33,000 lbs (14,968 Kg)
 Reel with 1-1/2” tubing 15,000 ft.(4,572 m) = 36,000 lbs (16,329 Kg)
Coil Tubing Stretch:
 1-1/4” tubing @ 10,000 ft. TVD = 11 ft.
7.4 COILED TUBING EQUIPMENT
7.4.1 Surface Equipment

A Coiled Tubing unit is made up of 5 basic components: the power pack, the control cabin, the
tubing reel, the injector head and the BOP’s.
In addition to the basic components a spare reel of tubing is often taken on the job, especially
offshore, and for work being carried out on a semi-submersible, a special lifting frame is used to
allow the unit to be attached to the compensator. For work on wells with no derrick, a hydraulic
support frame can be used to support the weight of the injector and gooseneck instead of requiring
a crane throughout the job.
7.4.2 Power Unit

This large, usually diesel driven, power pack drives many hydraulic pumps that control all the
functions on the unit. It provides the primary power supply for the pressure control equipment with
accumulators on the skid. There is usually a secondary power source for charging the BOP
accumulators. This is often an air pump. The accumulators have an operating pressure of 3000 psi
and the recharge pump is usually set to kick in when the pressure falls to 2700 psi (90%). All
accumulators are pre-charged with Nitrogen.
7.4.3 Control Cabin

The cabin can usually be raised hydraulically so that the operator can see over the reel in front of
him and watch the pipe spooling over the gooseneck.
The Coiled Tubing operator will have the following controls in front of him:
 Reel and spooler controls.
 All BOP’s.
 The injector head.
 Recording instruments.
 Depth counter and weight indicator.
7.4.4 Tubing Reel

The Coiled Tubing reel normally stores the entire tubing string. Capacity ranges from typically 5000
ft. to 21000 ft. The weight of a reel increases dramatically with length, diameter and pipe weight. In
the worst cases, with very small offshore platform cranes, the pipe has been spooled from the full
reel on the supply boat to an empty reel on the platform deck. In certain circumstances it is also
possible to join two reels together with a connector to make a longer tubing string.
The reel is supported on an axle and is rotated by a hydraulic motor driven chain drive. This drive
system ensures that some tension is kept on the pipe between the gooseneck and the reel. This is
done by adjusting the hydraulic pressure on the reel motor.
The reel drive system is NOT used to run pipe into or pull out of the well.
To control the spooling process and ensure that the pipe is correctly coiled on to the reel, a winding
mechanism (the level wind) is synchronised with the rotation of the reel by a chain drive. This level
wind assembly is part of the spooling arm that also contains the depth counters, ovality checker, etc.
The inner end of the tubing is connected to a high pressure rotating joint on the inside of the drum
and then to a 2 inch valve. This allows fluid to be pumped down the coil whilst running in or pulling
out. Attached to the side of the reel, there is a ball launcher. This is required so that a ball can be
dropped (pumped) down the pipe to operate any one of various downhole tools. The ball (plug)
launcher can also be used for launching displacement plugs that would be pumped before and after
a batch of cement. The first plug would bump against the coiled tubing end fitting and continued
pumping would shear the central core out of the plug. There is usually a spray system fitted on the
skid that allows the pipe to be sprayed with oil based corrosion inhibitor when pulling out of the
hole.
7.4.5 Injector Head

The injector pushes or pulls the pipe in or out of the well. It does this by using hydraulic motors that
drive chains with attached contoured blocks to grip the pipe and so push it in or out of the well.
There are different sizes of injector with the ability to pull up to 120,000 lbs for the larger pipe sizes.
The chains/blocks are specific to each pipe diameter. There are usually two speeds (gears) which
allow up to 125 ft./min. and up to 250 ft./min. The operator has precise control of the injection force
and the injection speed. An over-large injection force can result in damage to or breaking of the coil
if an obstruction is encountered in the well. The controls are always set to the minimum necessary
to run or pull the pipe. The inside chain tensioners are hydraulic cylinders that push on to “skates”
on the backs of the chains and force them against the pipe. The outside chain tensioners are
hydraulic cylinders that keep the chains tight.
The load cell for the weight indicator and a reservoir for lubricant for the pipe are mounted on the
injector. The gooseneck is attached to the top of the injector to guide the pipe coming from the reel
into the top of the injector.
Coil Tubing Injector Head

There are various different well control devices used for Coiled Tubing work. In principle they work
in the same manner as all drilling, work over, slickline, braided line or snubbing BOP’s.
7.5.1 Strippers
The stripper, sometimes referred to as the pack off or stuffing box, provides the primary operational
seal between the pressurised wellbore fluids and the environment. This device is always attached to
the bottom of the injector and may be a single or tandem device. It is the primary barrier when
Coiled Tubing is in the hole and allows the pipe to be run in or out whilst maintaining a seal around
the pipe.
Also called the stuffing box or tubing stripper, there are three basic types:
 Conventional
 Side Door
 Radial
The Radial stripper is not widely used unless with the larger pipe sizes (27/8 inch and 31/2 inch).
The principle of all three is the same. Operator controlled hydraulic pressure acts on a piston that
pushes directly or indirectly on the insert (packer or element) which makes the seal around the pipe.
The life of a stripper insert is dependent on many things such as:
 Wellhead pressure
 Stripper pack off pressure
 External condition of pipe
 Lubrication
If the inserts wear then they can be replaced with or without pipe in the hole. In order to change the
insert with pipe in the hole, it is necessary to close the slip and pipe rams (in the BOP’s below the
stripper) and bleed off pressure above the pipe rams.
The conventional stripper can be the most difficult to change the insert in, because it must be
removed/inserted through the top of the stripper which is attached to the bottom of the injector.
Access here is limited. The side door and the radial are designed to have the element replaced
through the side of the stripper.
The use of tandem strippers is quite common as it provides a back up to the primary barrier (top
stripper) in the event of the packing being worn.
Rather than having to stop and replace the insert in the first stripper, it can be depressurised and the
second (lower) stripper can be energised with the job continued without a break however, this
would mean that only one barrier is available.
This practice may be acceptable depending on which stage the job has reached. In some locations
the job would be stopped until the upper stripper integrity was reinstated.
There is no reason why a side door stripper cannot be placed under a conventional. The most
common sizes of strippers are 3” and 4 inch nominal bore although other sizes are available to suit
very small or very large coiled tubing.
Strippers are normally 5,000 or 10,000 psi pressure rated equipment. This refers to the pressure
rating of the body and bottom connection.
In the conventional stripper, the applied hydraulic pressure pushes the piston upwards. This in turn
pushes on the lower bushing, which deforms the energiser and compresses the packing around the
pipe. Once packed (energised), the hydraulic pack pressure can be greatly reduced as the wellhead
pressure acts on the piston and assists in keeping the stripper packed. In the side door stripper, the
applied hydraulic pressure pushes the piston downwards. This in turn pushes on the packer bushing,
which compresses the packing around the pipe against the lower bushing. Once packed (energised),
the hydraulic pressure must be maintained as the wellhead pressure acts upwards against the
hydraulic pressure. This does not, however, assist the packer to retract so long as the hydraulic
pressure remains applied.
Radial Stripper
Conventional Stripper Side Door Stripper
7.5.2 Ram Type BOP’s

There are several different makes and types of ram type BOP. They are all basically of the same style
and are single, double, triple or quadruple.
Coiled Tubing BOP’s are controlled from a panel in the control cabin. The hydraulic pressure required
to operate them is between 1,500 and 3,000 psi. They are usually either 3” or 4” nominal bore, but
are available in smaller sizes for very small tubing and bigger sizes for the largest coiled tubing.
Single BOP’s used as shear seals (or safety heads) tend to be large bore with bigger hydraulic ram
assemblies to ensure they will cut anything required. Most BOP’s are rated at 10,000 psi.
The stripper is the primary barrier when coil is in the hole. Pipe rams are secondary barriers and
safety heads (where used) are tertiary barriers.
If an annular BOP is used it is a secondary barrier. If a second (tandem) stripper is used, it is a

secondary barrier or back up to the primary barrier. Only one barrier is classified as the primary
barrier although there may be multiple secondary barriers and multiple tertiary barriers.
7.5.3 Quad BOP

The Quad (quadruple) BOP is a solid block BOP with four rams. For normal Coiled Tubing work, these
rams always have the following functions (from the top down):
 Blind Rams, seals the wellbore when the CT is out of the BOP
 Shear Rams, used to cut the pipe (only)
 Slip Rams, supports the CT weight hanging below
 Pipe Rams, seal around the hanging pipe.
Pipe Cutting Procedure:
1. Close the slip rams to hold
2. Close the pipe rams to seal
3. Close the shear rams (cutters) and cut the pipe
4. Pull the remaining pipe above the blinds
5. Close the blinds
If required pump through the kill connection and down the pipe.
Modern designs of cutters do not completely crimp the pipe where it is cut which allows fluid to be
pumped down the coil in hole.
Coil Tubing Quad BOP after pipe being cut
Quad BOP
Pipe Ram Assembly Slip Ram

Assembly
7.5.4 Combi
The Combi (combination) BOP is a dual BOP that does exactly the same as the quad but has only two
rams. The upper ram is the blind/shear and the lower ram is the pipe/slip. There is a kill line
connection between the two rams and there are equalising valves across each ram.
If it is required to cut the pipe, the combi is operated in the same way as the quad. In order to make
the cutting of the pipe more certain, it is best to have the pipe in tension rather than compression.
The advantages of a combi over a quad are:
 Shorter
 Less ram operations in an emergency i.e. quicker operation.
 Does not require the pipe to be raised to close the blinds and so requires only a minimum
number of operating steps in an emergency.
 Requires less hydraulic fluid to perform the same functions (some power packs do not
have enough accumulator capacity to operate all functions of a quad with the engine
stopped).
Disadvantages are:
 It offers less flexibility in operation.
 Pipe end will be more heavily crimped on cutting and that can make kill pumping difficult.
Dual Combi BOP
Blind / Shear Ram Assembly
Pipe / Slip Ram Assembly
7.5.5 Triple BOP’s

Triple BOP’s are sometimes used and may be called triple combi BOP’s. They can be set up in various
ways to suit the job in hand. They can be fitted with all standard ram configurations and can have
hydraulic booster actuators fitted if required. They are often fitted with combination rams hence the
name triple combi BOP.
Ram configuration (top to bottom):
 Blind /shear
 Slips
 Pipe
7.5.6 Annular BOP’s

Annular BOP’s are becoming more common in use, particularly in the less routine jobs. Always used
in addition to ram type preventers, they can be placed anywhere in the stack as required. The main
purpose of the ABOP is that it is able to seal around any size or shape of pipe or BHA. This is
particularly necessary when very long BHA's are being run with a deployment system. They can also
be used as a back-up for a single stripper.
Some ABOP’s will seal on open hole although this is not routinely done. They are available in the
same range of sizes and pressure ratings as ram type BOP’s.
Hydril GK® Annular Blowout Preventer
DL Annular Blowout Preventer

7.5.7 Downhole Pressure Control Devices
The strippers and BOP’s mentioned above all provide a seal around the outside of the coiled
tubing. It is also necessary to have some device that stops the wellbore fluids escaping up
through the coil if there is a surface problem.
7.7.8 Check Valves

Unless reverse circulation using CT is planned, which is very rare, it is standard practice to have
check valves at the bottom of the pipe. Usually twin check valves are used. The check valve(s) are
located at the top of the BHA, immediately below the connector and straight bar.
The connector is attached by one of several means (usually not welding) to the pipe and has a screw
thread at the bottom. The connector can be attached by a grapple mechanism, by setscrews in a
pipe dimple, by crimping (roll on connector) or by a Swagelok type device.
Below the connector, there is usually a “straight bar”. This is a piece of tubing which is screwed on to
the connector and which makes the end of the coiled tubing straight when it is being run through
the surface equipment and tree. Because the pipe is kept on a coil, it is very difficult to make the last
six feet straight to avoid problems with it hanging up in BOP cavities and tree valves.
BHA Check Valves
7.6 RISERS AND CONNECTIONS

These form part of the pressure control equipment since they contain wellbore fluids and pressure,
risers with wireline type quick unions or, ring gasket flanges are used for Coiled Tubing work. The
BOP’s etc. can be fitted with either type of connector although quick unions are more common.
Some countries and operators use flanged connections on certain types of work, particularly if it is
high pressure. It is normal practice to have the shear/seal attached as close to the tree as possible.
The hydraulic connector (hydraulic quick latch) was originally designed for use on semi-submersibles
at the bottom of the lifting frame. It is now being more commonly used on land/platform operations
as a means of quickly and safely disconnecting the injector assembly from the BOP’s so that the BHA
can be changed etc.
The hydraulic connector seals and locks together during operations, but the latch can be retracted
by applying hydraulic pressure to it. Once the latch has been retracted, the two halves of the
connector can be separated. There are several different makes of hydraulic latch, all of which
require that there is no internal pressure in the connector for the latch to be able to retract.
7.7 DEPLOYMENT SYSTEMS

During standard operations, the distance from the swab valve on the Xmas tree to the stripper
determines the maximum length of BHA that can be used during a Coiled Tubing job. For certain
kinds of work, particularly perforating, it is necessary to have a much longer BHA. Before the use of
deployment systems, operators used the DHSV as the only barrier when running up to 1,500m of
TCP guns.
The deployment system looks like a multi-ram BOP and is located below the quad or combi in the
stack. Individual sections of the BHA are run (often on wireline) and are then held in the deployment
system. The deployment system seals around the outside of the BHA in much the same way as a
BOP. The next section of BHA is run and attached to the previous section. In some cases this is done
by the deployment system screwing the sections together and in others, the sections latch together.
In this way, very long BHA's can be run until it is time to connect the coiled tubing to the top section.
The injector is then attached and the BHA can be run in to the well in the normal way. To remove
the BHA, the procedure is reversed.
Notes:
7.7.1 Other Surface equipment

The following equipment is not pressure control equipment but, when required, they are very
important.
7.9 WORKOVER AND COMPLETION APPLICATIONS

Coil Tubing is routinely used as a cost effective solution for a number of work over applications. A
key advantage is the ability to continuously circulate through the CT while utilizing CT pressure
control equipment to treat a live well thus avoiding potential formation damage associated with well
kill operations.
7.9.1 Removing Sand or Fill from a Wellbore

This is probably one of the most common CT operations and the objective is to remove an
accumulation of solid particles from the wellbore and improve productivity. The solids or fill includes
sand or fines, frac proppants etc.
The procedure involves circulating a fluid through the coil while slowly penetrating the fill with a
jetting nozzle which causes the fill material to be transported out of the wellbore via the CT/Tubing
annulus.
Another method involves reverse circulating down the CT/Tubing annulus and taking returns up the
coil and can be very useful for removing large quantities of particulate when high transport velocities
are required. Reverse circulation is only suitable on dead wells and cannot be done with regular
check valves in BHA.
7.9.2 Unloading a well with Nitrogen N2

This is a fast and cost-effective method of regaining production from a well which cannot flow
because formation pressure is insufficient to lift the hydrostatic pressure in the tubing.
Displacement of some of the tubing contents will reduce the hydrostatic flow allowing the well to
flow.
7.9.3 Fracturing / Acidizing

Fracturing and acidizing with CT has several advantages over conventional methods since it can be
moved into and out of the well quickly or, it can be re-positioned quickly. It also provides for
accurate placement of treatment fluids across the zone of interest.
7.7.2 Lifting Frame

A lifting device used when performing coiled tubing operations from a semisubmersible rig or
drillship. The coiled tubing injector and pressure-control equipment are positioned within the lifting
frame, which is attached to the flow head and running string and supported by the traveling blocks.
This configuration enables the heave-compensation system of the rig to counteract the vessel
motion.
Motion Compensation Systems
7.7.3 Support Frames

The injector and the BOP’s are fairly heavy items and can be installed at some distance above the
top of the tree. During the job, support is required to stop the BOP’s from placing a dangerous
bending moment on the tree connection. This can be done by using a crane to hold up the injector
head at all times or by using a support frame. The support frame is attached to the bottom of the
injector and, when the injector is installed on the well, transferring the load of the injector and BOP’s
to the deck.
On certain occasions, usually when pumping large volumes of cold fluids into a well that has been
producing for a long time, the well itself can contract slightly causing the tree and the Coiled Tubing
equipment attached to the top of it to be pulled down. If there is no one monitoring the crane
tension supporting the injector, this can overload the crane.
Similarly, this can put the legs of a support frame into a dangerous amount of compression. Support
frames with hydraulic feet are available to overcome this problem. As the compressive forces rise,
the feet compress and avoid buckling.
7.8 OTHER DOWNHOLE TOOLS

Having covered the internal and external well control devices, it is worth noting a few specific
downhole tools. As has been said before, Coiled Tubing can run just about any BHA or downhole tool
including slickline tools and logging tools. Some of these tools run a greater than normal risk of
encountering problems, particularly getting stuck, and so there are a few things that can help avoid
this.
7.8.1 Release Joints

The release joint provides a means of disengaging the coiled tubing from the BHA, in case it is
unexpectedly stuck downhole. Because of its larger size the BHA has a tendency to hang up on
downhole obstruction especially on highly deviated wells.
There are three basic types of Release Joints:
 Ball Operated Shear Sub (BOSS)
 Hydraulic disconnect
 Tension disconnect.
7.8.2 Ball Operated Shear Sub (BOSS)

These are commonly run whenever there is a worry about getting the BHA stuck in the hole. By
operating the shear sub, the BHA can be left downhole.
The BOSS tool is activated by circulating a ball through the Coiled Tubing into a seat at the top of the
tool. A pre-determined pressure applied through the Coiled Tubing shears out a lock pin and moves
an internal sleeve down to release the retaining lugs. This allows the two halves on the tool to
separate leaving a standard internal fishing neck looking up. The ball is introduced into the flow path
through a ball launcher, which is fitted to the coiled tubing reel unit.
In rare cases where the BHA holds pressure, shear subs are available which only require pressure in
the sub to release them.
Depending on the components in a BHA, there may be more than one BOSS tool or other device
requiring a ball to be dropped. CT BHA components are available with different ball seat IDs so that
the ball for the lowest tool will pass through the top tools.
Downhole tools are available which will give high depth accuracy when running through-tubing
tools. Tubing End Locators (TELs) and Tubing Nipple Locators (TNLs) will show exactly where the end
of the coil is with greater accuracy than the odometer in the control cabin. Both TELs and TNLs
require BOSS tools above them in case their own shear mechanisms fail. They will possibly also have
a BOSS tool below them for the through-tubing tools.
7.8.3 Hydraulic Disconnect

The hydraulic disconnect is similar in design to the BOSS tool, but does not rely on a ball for
activation. The tool is operated by applying a differential pressure inside the Coiled Tubing. It
requires a much larger differential pressure because the surface area on which it is acting is small.
7.8.4 Tension Disconnect

These are simply two components pinned together such that they will separate upon application of a
straight pull on the coiled tubing, leaving a standard fishing neck looking up.
It is not generally recommended to use the tension disconnect as part of the down hole tools
because of the lack of control over down hole tension forces and the possibility of premature
release.
7.10 OPERATIONS
When the Coiled Tubing unit has been rigged up and function tested it is necessary to pressure test
the whole assembly. This must include:
 Tree connection and shear/seal from below.
 Blind rams from below.
 Pipe rams from below.
 All stack connections.
 Kill line and connections.
 CT check valves from below.
 The coil of tubing itself.
 Any BHA connections and tools.
Some of these tests can be combined by careful planning of the order of tests. Once the pressure
tests are complete and the BHA has been made up to the coil, the injector is stabbed on and the
stack is pressured to equalise across the closed tree valves. When stabbing on the injector, care
must be taken to avoid accidentally pressuring up the stack and subjecting the bottom of the coiled
tubing to excessive collapse forces. The preferred method of equalising before opening the tree is to
pump through the coil to avoid collapse. After the tree is opened and the coil is being run, it is
normal practice to pump through the coil at all times to avoid collapse. Depending on the work being
performed, either liquids or N2 may be pumped.
When Coiled Tubing is mobilised, the reel will be dry to save transport weight and to minimise
corrosion within the coil. At the end of each job, the coil is blown dry with N 2. This means that at the
start of each job it is necessary to fill the coil with water to commence the pressure tests.
If large quantities of free gas are expected on opening the well, consideration should be given to the
need for Glycol in the water to stop hydrates forming. At this stage it is normal to pump two coil
volumes and run a pig and ball through the pipe. The pig flushes out any debris that may have found
its way into the pipe and the ball checks for any crimps that may have been caused during transport.
Connections to the CT stack are available which allow a line to be laid for pumping fluids and killing
should it become necessary. If Nitrogen is to be pumped in large volumes for lifting purposes then a
connection to a Nitrogen pump and tanks will be necessary. Such connections are normally fitted
with check valves in the line to avoid problems should a line rupture.
If it becomes necessary to kill the well, this would normally be done by bullheading. In some
circumstances it may be possible to kill the well by circulating down the pipe and taking returns in
the normal way. Because there are check valves on the bottom of the pipe, it is not usually possible
to reverse circulate. Very occasionally, reverse circulation is required. Special downhole tools are
used which can be cycled to allow this.
Note: During RIH with coiled tubing, care must be taken whenever the BHA is passing through an
obstruction or completion assembly.
At this time the pipe is slowed considerably. In a well that is unfamiliar to the CT operator, the
normal running speed might be 50 ft./min. in plain completion pipe. This can be increased on second
and subsequent runs when it is known there are no obstructions. It is good operating practice to
stop and perform (and record) pull tests whilst RIH. In straight hole, this might be every 1000 ft. This
would be done more frequently in deviated sections of the well or if fill is suspected. This is to
ensure that the coil is not becoming stuck.
Before running in hole for the first time, the Coiled Tubing operator must have the following
information available:
 Completion diagram, including details of last wireline drift run.
 Wellbore deviation profile.
 Toolstring diagram with lengths, OD’s, ID’s
 Pre-job computer simulation for CT run (if available).
7.11 CONTINGENCIES
During any abnormal situation, the CT operator in the control cabin will probably be the first to
realise there is a problem. He is the person who has control of the equipment and it is the operator’s
responsibility to make the well safe in the event of any problem occurring.
7.11.1 DHSV
The DHSV should be removed and a protection sleeve inserted through the nipple. If the valve
cannot be removed, its control must be isolated from any shut down system and the pressure in the
control line must be monitored. Similarly, the control for the UMV (or any other tree valve) must be
removed from the shutdown system and the valve must be locked open where possible.
It is important that, before the job commences, the relative ODs of the Coiled Tubing and BHA are
compared with the IDs of the completion components.
7.11.2 Coiled Tubing Pinhole

If the pinhole is above the stripper, the leak will be visible. The check valves will stop wellbore fluids
from entering the coil.
If the check valves are not holding, the circumstances of the problem will determine the steps to
take and may involve closing the BOP’s, cutting the pipe, killing the well and fishing the pipe.
7.11.3 Coiled Tubing Parted

If the coil parts downhole (or the BHA and check valves are lost), the operator will record a sudden
change in operating parameters. This could be a sudden change of pressure during pumping
operations and/or a sudden loss of weight. By continuing to pump fluid down the pipe to prevent
wellbore fluids from coming up the pipe, by estimating the length of pipe lost and by careful and
regular checking when near the surface, the pipe can be safely pulled out of the hole. When near the
surface, the swab valve can be gently closed (counting turns) every few feet to check whether the
pipe is still across the valve.
If the pipe parts on surface, there are check valves still on the pipe that stop wellbore fluids from
escaping. If these have also failed, there is probably little choice but to close the rams and cut the
pipe.
7.11.4 Check Valve Failure

If the check valves are no longer holding it may be possible to POOH by continuing pumping
operations. This may depend on the work being performed and the pressures involved. It may prove
necessary to kill the well before pulling out.
7.11.5 Coiled Tubing Collapse

If the pipe has been exposed to excessive external pressures, it can cause a section to collapse. In
this case, the pipe can become stuck when pulled through the stuffing box. Ovality monitoring can
give early warning of collapsed pipe. If completely collapsed, it may not be possible to remove the
pipe without cutting it.
7.11.6 Coiled Tubing Runaway

In this condition the pipe is moving faster than the operator can control. It can occur when running
in or pulling out. It is usually caused by the drive blocks losing their grip on the pipe. In high pressure
wells the pipe may be ejected, in low pressure wells the pipe may run in.
If being ejected, the pipe will not be spooled onto the reel fast enough and will collect between the
injector and the reel. The operator should increase the stripper operating pressure to maximum and
close the tubing slips (slip rams). This is only effective if the slips are double acting. If running in, the
pipe will be trying to free fall into the well. The operator should be able to stop the pipe from
continuing to be injected by stopping injection and increasing the inside tension. Increasing the
stripper operating pressure to maximum also creates more friction.
7.11.7 Stuck Coiled Tubing

The pipe is said to be stuck when the pull required is greater than 80% of pipe yield strength. If the
Coiled Tubing becomes stuck downhole, it will be necessary to determine where and why the pipe is
stuck. Stretch tests will determine approximately where the pipe is stuck and it may be possible to
determine why from considering the conditions just before getting stuck. Some of the more
common ways of sticking are:
 Settled solids around the pipe during washing operations.
 Obstruction in the well.
 Increased friction drag. (This can usually be overcome by pumping friction reducers around
the outside of the pipe).
 Differential sticking.
The individual situation will determine the steps to be taken to get the pipe out of the hole. In the
worst case, this could involve cutting the pipe downhole with a chemical cutter run on wireline. This
would have to be done after killing the well and closing the BOP’s (cutting the pipe). It may only be
necessary to drop the ball and release the BHA.
7.11.8 Surface Equipment Leaks

Rarely, leaks can occur in surface equipment connections. The severity of the leak, the well
pressures and the position of the pipe in the hole will determine what steps have to be taken to
overcome the problem. In the best case, it may be possible to pull the pipe out of the hole and
repair the equipment. In the worst case, the shear/seal (safety head) may have to be closed, the
pipe dropped and the tree closed to stop the leak.
7.11.9 Power Pack Failure

The failure of a power pack during operations should not cause a well control problem. All functions
on the unit are failsafe or there are manual locks and brakes that can be applied. The BOP’s do not
require the power pack running to operate them because they use, as with any BOP system, stored
pressure in an accumulator. A large quad may require more fluid to operate all four rams than is
available from the accumulator. It is exceedingly unlikely that this would be a requirement during a
power pack failure. Some units are fitted with large capacity accumulators to enable the full
operation of a quad without relying on the power pack. Nearly all accumulators have a secondary
power source (usually air or a hand pump) and so the rams can be operated using this power source.
7.11.10 General Muster Alarm

If during a downhole coil tubing operation there was an incident with another part of the
installation, not part of the coil tubing operation. The pumping operation should be suspended and
the pump unit engines shut down. The well must be closed in. Pick up the coil tubing to POOH
weight, stop the injector head, isolate skate pressure and set reel brake. Shut down Coil Tubing
power pack and report well secured to Well Service Supervisor.
7.11.11 Standby Personnel

 Coil Tubing Supervisor on Safety Head Panel.
 Christmas Tree Operator at Xmas Tree Panel.
 CT Superintendent in Well Service Supervisor Office.
 Well Service Supervisor as per Station Bill.
 All other personnel as per Station Bill.
7.11.12 Abandon Alarm developing from Muster alarm

1. Close Safety Head.
2. Close Hydraulic Master Valve.
3. All personnel as per Station Bill.
7.11.13 Abandon Alarm without Muster Alarm first

1. Stop pumps, shut down unit engines.
2. Close in the Well.
3. Pick up to POOH weight,
4. Stop the Injector Head.
5. Isolate skate pressure.
6. Set reel brake.
7. Shut down coil tubing power pack.
8. Activate Safety Head.
9. Close Hydraulic Master Valve.
10. App personnel proceed to abandonment Stations.
Notes:
8.0 SNUBBING
Snubbing/Hydraulic Workover Units (HWO) are used for Snubbing operations or dead well
intervention. Snubbing is the process of stripping pipe into a well which has a surface pressure high
enough to eject the pipe if no restraining force is applied; this condition is termed Pipe Light.
Stripping is the term used for moving pipe through a closed BOP into or out of the well. In practice,
snubbing has become the term for all operations conducted using Snubbing units and HWO
equipment.
HWO units are often used instead of conventional drilling or work over rigs for dead well
intervention operations, they are cheaper and easier to mobilise than a rig.
Snubbing is performed by introducing an internally plugged pipe into a live well using BOP’s to
obtain an external seal around the pipe. The pipe is filled with fluid during RIH to prevent pipe
collapse. The top of the pipe is run open ended.
Snubbing is used for a variety of operations when it is not possible to kill the well, including but not
limited to:
 Pulling and running completion strings
 Running concentric completions inside existing production strings (sometimes called insert
strings or velocity strings)
 Milling and washing below production tailpipe
 Through-tubing gravel packs
 Cleaning out proppants after frac jobs
 Fishing stuck or lost tools, DHSVs, coiled tubing
 Spotting and pumping acid and cement
 Clearing obstructions from tubing, casing, drill pipe Well control problems on drilling and
work over operations
 Perforating and re-perforating - particularly using very long TCP guns
 Running and pulling wireline and other mechanical tools - particularly in highly deviated
wells
 Wells that cannot be killed because of heavy cross-flow between zones or other downhole
problems that cause inability to hold a full column of fluid
 Underground gas storage caverns. These man made holes in the ground full of gas cannot be
killed
Snubbing operations use BOP’s singly or in pairs for primary well control depending on the wellhead
pressure, well conditions, pipe used and the nature of work being undertaken.
On high pressure wells, provision may be made for backup and BOP’s would be provided for each
size of pipe if a tapered workstring is to be used. Snubbing unit configurations are very flexible and
are tailored to the individual requirements for each job.
The Snubbing unit jack is positioned above all the pressure containment devices, so the BOP’s must
be rated for the particular job in hand (5,000 psi, 10,000 psi, 15,000 psi etc.). There is no such thing
as a standard unit.
8.1 HWO
Hydraulic Workover Operations are conducted in the same manner as snubbing operations although
fewer BOP’s are used since the primary well control uses kill fluid and/or mechanical plugs.
In all operational aspects, the Snubbing unit performing HWO operations is a portable work over rig
and normal well control procedures apply.
A typical rig up would include:
 Blind / Shear rams
 Pipe rams
 Annular BOP
HWO operations are conducted for a variety of reasons such as at remote locations where a
conventional derrick is impossible to obtain, expensive or difficult to rig up or transport.
HWO operations can include:
 Full workovers
 Well clean-out
 Squeeze-off
 Re-perforating
 Deepening etc., in the production zone
 Running or pulling ESP completions and control lines that cannot be done on a live well as the
closure of any BOP’s would damage them
The first snubbing units were designed in the 1920s by Mr. H. Otis to enable a drilling rig to “snub”
pipe into a well under pressure Rig Assist units are rigged up on the rig floor and are only for use in
“pipe light” conditions. When sufficient pipe weight has been gained, the rig assist is rigged down
and the job continued with the rig stripping the rest of the pipe into the well.
The rig assist unit is operated by 2 cables attached to the travelling block of the host drilling rig with
each end of the cables passing around pulleys on the base platform (or stationary head) of the unit
and attached to the Travelling Snubbers (slips). The Travelling Snubbers are kept in position by
repositioning cables that pass around sheaves attached to the derrick structure and which have
counterweights attached to them. These weights are sufficient to hold the Travelling Snubbers aloft
and to maintain some tension on the main snub cables.
The stationary head is attached to the BOP stack of the drilling rig that may have extra BOP’s for
snubbing use.
Rig assist units have been built to enable rigs to trip pipe during underbalanced drilling operations.
They look like small, remotely operated, short stroke units and are installed below the rig floor on
top of the rig’s BOP stack. They are only used for the first or last few stands of drill pipe when the
upward force from the well pressure is greater than the force from the pipe weight (light pipe). This
force is trying to blow the pipe out of the well.
During the 1950s, hydraulically operated Snubbing units were designed and consisted of two basic
types:
 The Long Stroke unit
 The Short Stroke unit
The operating principles of the two types are broadly the same in that one or more hydraulic
cylinders move a plate upon which there are one or two sets of slips (travelling slips). There is also a
pair of fixed slips (stationary slips). It is possible to work the pipe into or out of the well using first
one set and then the other.
The Long Stroke unit consists of a frame (either attached to a skid, carrier or trailer) which contains
all the working parts of the unit itself. At its base, it is attached to the BOP stack and within the
frame there is typically one 18 ft. stroke hydraulic cylinder. Using a system of cables and sheaves,
this is multiplied to give 36 ft. of stroke on the travelling head.
Typical capacities of the units are 120,000 lbs. lift with 60,000 lbs. snub.
Advantages of the Long Stroke:
 Faster rig up and tripping times
 Minimum crane requirements
 Ability to rack pipe in singles or doubles on some units
Disadvantages:
 Individual component lifts are heavier
 Lower lift and snub capacity
The Short Stroke unit is the most common type of unit in use due to its versatility, ease of transport
and use. It consists of one or more, (usually 4) hydraulic cylinders (or jacks) attached to a frame. At
the base of the frame are the stationary slips. The travelling slips are attached to the travelling head.
Cycling the cylinders up and down causes the pipe to be transferred from slip set to slip set and
jacked into or out of the well. The unit is completely self-contained during operations and is
designed to pick up and lay down joints of pipe using the winches and the gin pole. A crew of 3 or 4
is located in the workbasket at the top of the unit.
Advantages of the Short Stroke:
 High lift and snub capacities
 Higher rotary torque values
 BOP stack heights are not restricted
 Compact unit construction for ease of rig up in confined spaces
 Shipping package weights small
 Very limited deck loading imposed after rig up and only shipping package weights need be
considered
The Short Stroke unit requires a crane for rigging up on the tree / wellhead and all the loads and
forces are taken by the tree / wellhead.
The crew are located in the workbasket. One man operates the counterbalance winches and one
man works the hydraulic controls for the jack (the chief operator) and a third man operates the
tongs and manoeuvres the pipe.
Snubbing units vary from 75,000 lbs. lift capacity (35,000 lbs. snub force) with a through bore of
41/16 inch up to 600,000 lbs. lift capacity (300,000 lbs. snub force) with a through bore of 11".
Depth limitations are normally determined by the available workstring sizes.
Rotary capacities are around 6,000 ft.-lbs, which is usually more than enough to over-torque a
workstring. For higher downhole torque, mud motors are used.
Running completions after the rig has drilled and cemented casing and moved are now common in
certain areas. Similarly, perforating new wells without a drilling rig is routinely done by some
operators. Other more recent developments are:
 Work in highly deviated and horizontal wells beyond the scope of coiled tubing.
 Running and pulling very long TCP gun assemblies up to 1500m without the need for drilling
large rat holes (particularly in horizontal wells where Coiled Tubing has problems).
 Well/platform abandonment on platforms with no derricks or derricks that would require

large amounts of money to refurbish and re-certify for use.
 Under-balanced and slim hole multi-lateral drilling using small drill pipe.
Snubbing units are rigged up directly onto the Xmas tree for through-tubing work, or onto the
wellhead, after removal of the Xmas tree, if completion components are to be pulled or run. They
can be rigged up on drill pipe if required.
Rig Assist Snubbing Unit
Snubbing Unit Rig Up
8.2 SURFACE EQUIPMENT
8.2.1 Hydraulic Jack

The jack is an assembly of hydraulic cylinders and slip bowls that enable pipe to be moved in or out
of the well. The workbasket is located at the top of the assembly. The power tong arm, tongs, gin
pole and counterbalance winch are attached to the workbasket.
The travelling head that carries slip bowls and the rotary is located on the top cylinders. The
hydraulic circuits can be set up to provide different speeds and power levels for the travelling head.
The hydraulic fluid can be directed into all 4 cylinders or into only 2. On some units it is possible to
select which two opposing legs whereas on others, there is no choice. This is called 4-leg and 2-leg
operation. It is also possible to select whether the hydraulic fluid being returned from the un-
pressurised side of the cylinders is directed back to the tank or added to the fluid going to do the
work in the pressurised side. This is called regeneration and is equivalent to high and low gearing.
There are 4 operating modes:
 2 leg high (with regeneration) Fastest but lowest power
 2 leg low
 4 leg high (with regeneration)
 4 leg low Slowest with highest power
It is normal to start the job in 2 legs high and, as the pipe weight increases, change into the other
modes as required. It is a very simple job of turning a valve or two in the workbasket to change from
one mode to another.
The stroke of a jack depends on the make, but most in the North Sea have a 10 ft. working stroke.
8.2.2 Guide tubes

The higher the well pressure, the greater the force pushing up on the pipe being snubbed into or out
of the well. Since the pipe coming up through the window and the jack is only restrained at a
distance from the stripper bowl, there is a problem with potential buckling of the pipe out of the
side of the window or jack. For this reason, in higher pressure wells, guide tubes are placed in the
window and in the jack. These restrain the pipe and stop it being buckled out of the side. The guide
tubes can be easily inserted or removed and the one through the jack is in two pieces. One piece is
sitting in the jack, hanging from a level with the top of the legs, and the other (inner) piece is
hanging from the travelling head and sliding up and down inside the lower section.
8.2.3 Access Window (work window)

The window is a large heavily constructed item consisting of two plates with solid steel legs spacing
them apart. There are usually 4 legs and a window is always rated to the full load capacity of the
unit. Traditionally 4 ft., 6 ft., 10 ft. or occasionally 15 ft. long, the window are used to enable large
OD items of BHA, completions, etc. to be run or pulled without having to pass them through the
slightly restricted ID of the slip bowls. With a hole through the top and bottom plates of usually
111/16 inch or 135/8 inch, they are bolted directly to the top of the stripper rubber and the jack is
bolted to the top of the window. If rigged up on a Xmas tree and using a small diameter washout
string, a window may not be required. For many jobs, such as running completions they are a much
safer option than working a large OD component down through the slip bowls, having first split them
open. Some windows are equipped with a beam at the top to enable a torque turn equipped back up
tong to be hung in the window for making up the completion assemblies
8.2.4 Slips
Travelling slips are attached to the travelling head and consist of one bowl for pipe heavy and one
bowl for pipe light. Almost always hydraulically operated, the two bowls are the same with the pipe
light bowl facing down. Similarly, the stationary slips are attached near the bottom of the jack, but
do not move. In high pressure wells, it is normal to use an extra set of stationary snubbers for safety.
8.2.5 Rotary Table

Work Basket The rotary table is attached to the travelling head making it possible to rotate the pipe
while moving in or out of the well. Most rotary capacities are about 6000 ft-lb. maximum. This is
usually more than a work string tool joint can safely take.
Because the rotary is on top of the head, it can be a maximum of 10 to 12 ft. above the top of the
cylinders at full stroke. Therefore, current rotary capacities are about the maximum that the design
can achieve. Much higher capacity rotary's' are now installed in the windows of the latest North Sea
short stroke units. This however greatly reduces the capacity to rotate whilst running in/pulling out.
8.2.6 Work Basket

The workbasket is attached to the top of the jack and provides the workstation for the crew to
operate the controls for all the snubbing unit functions.
A standpipe is attached up the outside of the unit and terminates at this level. A circulating hose
and swivel with a connection to the pipe being run is attached to the standpipe. By attaching the
circulating hose to a joint of pipe either in the hole or about to be run in the hole, it is possible to
circulate whilst pulling up a joint of pipe or running it.
There are two weight indicators at the operators console, one for heavy pipe and one for light pipe.
These weight indicators read the hydraulic pressure in the jack circuits and so do not show any
readings when the weight of the pipe is in the stationary slips.
8.2.7 Counter Balance

The winches for raising and lowering pipe are called counterbalance winches because they are
hydraulically balanced to hold the weight of any particular object being lifted. With an individual
load rating of between 1500 lbs. and 2000 lbs. usually, they are controlled from the BOP console by
means of a separate hydraulic valve. Through this system, the force applied to each hydraulic winch
is controlled so that when it is enough to just lift the joint of pipe, the remaining hydraulic fluid
diverting back to tank. A good operator can set the valve such that the joint of pipe will be
stationary, with the pin end in his hand, but he is able to raise or lower it by as much as he wants just
by pulling up or pushing down on the joint with his hand.
8.2.8 Power Pack

Most power packs are powered by diesel engines driving multiple hydraulic pumps. All functions of
the unit are supplied from the one power pack. The primary power for the BOP control panel is from
this main power pack.
8.2.9 Power Tongs

Tongs are normally hung from the tong arm attached to the side of the work basket. If small tubing
is being run through an existing completion, the tongs will be powered from the main power pack.
Some units have the ability to hang tongs in the window for making up completion assemblies.
8.2.10 Other Equipment

All snubbing units have the facility for using hand operated slips on the base plate of the window.
These are used when it is necessary to ‘hang’ the pipe below the slip bowls so that both bowls can
be opened or the pipe broken out or made up in the window e.g. when making up large OD items of
BHA, completion assemblies, changing stripper rubbers, etc.
On some units, it is common practice to rig up a hanger flange in the stack just below the stripper
bowl or sometimes the annular and is used for exactly the same purpose as the hand slip bowl. It is
much slower in use as it requires each of the dogs to be screwed in by hand. It can be very useful
when shutting down for the night on a 12 hr/day operation if there is a worry about the pipe moving
through the slip bowls when the unit is unattended. Care must always be taken with a small hanger
flange to ensure that the forces acting on the pipe can be held by the dogs. In a small hanger flange,
there might only be 4 or 6 dogs.
Because of the nature of the pipe upsets and the BOP’s, it is not normal practice for a Snubbing Unit
to hang the pipe in the BOP’s. Also, a large proportion of a job can be spent with either negative
weight or limited positive weight in the string.
8.3.1 Stripper Bowl

The stripper rubber is located in the Stripper Bowl and is used as a pack-off during stripping
operations with most pipe, except collared pipe and is used to avoid ram–to-ram stripping. The
Stripper Bowl is located below the access window and is used for the following:
 Primary well control with low wellhead pressure work (the primary barrier)
 Pipe cleaning when pulling out
 Prevents debris from dropping into the wellbore during tripping
Stripper Bowls are available with single and dual elements. Dual element bowls are rare. They are
rated to an absolute maximum of 3,000 psi although in practice the stripper rubber cannot be relied
on as the primary well containment device at pressures above 2,500 psi.
The use of the stripper bowl allows for the continuous

handling of pipe with a tapered upset or no upset. It is
normal to have to change the stripper rubber(s) during
a job.
Wear on the rubbers is affected by:
 Wellhead pressure
 Lubrication at the rubber
 External pipe roughness Stripper Bowl
8.3.2 Annular BOP

The annular (bag) is also a stripping device and is capable of sealing around any shape and size of
pipe.
If deploying a long BHA’s with varying diameters, it may not be possible to operate the stripper
rubber or stripper rams due to the lack of distance between the wellhead and the strippers. In this
situation, use of an Annular BOP may be required.
The Annular BOP is identical to a standard BOP used in drilling operations although normally of a
smaller size. A typical BOP would be a Shaffer or Cameron 11" 10M or 7 1/16 inch 10M. The pressure
rating is specified according to the wellhead pressure.
The Annular BOP is used when normal ram-type BOP’s cannot seal around a large diameter, such as
a side pocket mandrel, blast joint etc. slip joint. The Annular is a secondary barrier. There are many
different makes and types and it should be noted that not all annular will close and seal on open
hole.
During snubbing operations, it is normal practice to have a 1 gal accumulator in the closing line
hydraulic circuit to allow tool joints to be stripped through the annular, maintaining a steady
hydraulic pressure on the closing line and preventing it from over-pressurising.
The Hydril “GS” is designed for snubbing operations. Made in various sizes and pressure ratings, the
packing unit is designed for continuous.
8.3.3 Stripping BOP’s

Stripping rams allow for controlled movement of tubulars in wells with surface pressure. By means
of alternately opening and closing the two stripping rams, tool joints can be stripped in and out of
the hole while maintaining full control of the annulus.
Stripping BOP’s are standard ram-type BOP’s as used in drilling operations with special elements to
enable them to seal on moving pipe. A typical BOP stack for snubbing operations might be anything
from 2.9/16” 20000 psi to 13.5/8” 5000 psi.
As with all ram type BOP’s, they are designed to hold pressure from below only and the pressure
across the inner seals must be equalised before attempting to open them.
A ram type BOP may be dressed as a stripping BOP or as a pipe ram (safety ram). They can also be
dressed with variable rams, slip rams, blind rams or shear rams.
8.3.4 Stripping Ram Seals

These BOP’s the primary well control barriers when wellhead pressure is above 2500 to 3000 psi.
The pressure rating and size are determined by the wellhead pressure and work to be undertaken.
They are always used in pairs to enable a tool joint to be "worked" through while still retaining a seal
around the pipe. It is normal practise to have to change stripping ram inner seals with their inserts
during the course of a job.
The life of the inserts is affected by:
 Pipe external condition
 Well pressure
 Speed of running of the pipe
It is normal practise when using stripping rams to also use a stripper bowl to provide:
 Barrier for egress of hydrocarbons
 Pipe wiper
 Debris barrier
8.3.5 Safety Ram (pipe ram)

These are normal drilling type rams that can be dressed as slip rams or variable bore rams. It is
necessary to have one BOP in the stack dressed for each size of pipe in use. For jobs involving
tapered strings of pipe, pulling very long fish, etc., two or more safeties will be required. Often called
the safety BOP’s (safeties), they are normally only used when changing elements in the stripping
rams, annular or stripper bowl, or when the pipe is stationary for a period of time. The safeties are
normally placed in the
stack immediately below
the stripping rams.
Safeties are secondary
barriers and shears are
tertiary barriers.
The purpose of the safety

ram is to maintain well
control in the event of
failure of or maintenance
to the primary closing
device. Safety rams are
not designed for stripping
through.
8.3.6 Blind / Shear Ram

The blind/shear rams are designed to shear the workstring and maintain a seal. Blind/shear rams are
not designed to cut the bottom hole assembly.
Where separate blind and shear rams are used, the choice of where to place them is often dictated
by well conditions or operator preference. For many snubbing jobs, the shear is placed below the
blind since the pipe may well be trying to push out of the well bore at the time it is required to be
cut.
Conventional shear rams may not always cut the workstring completely (for example if it is required
to cut a BHA with a fish inside) and it may be necessary to RIH one or two joints before operating
normal shear rams.
8.3.7 Shear Seal (safety head)

The safety head will cut the workstring /BHA and maintain a seal. It is a tertiary barrier. The
shear/seal is flanged as close to the Xmas tree as possible to ensure that the workstring falls below
the tree after it has been cut.
Shear/Seal BOP’s (Safety heads) are used on jobs where it is necessary to cut more than just the
work string. Most shear/blind or shear rams will only cut the workstring and not BHA, fish, wire, etc.
Shear Seal BOP’s have extra-large hydraulic cylinders and pistons to give a greater force to the
cutting action. Like a shear/blind, they will seal off the hole after cutting. They are usually standard
BOP’s with different bonnet assemblies to give greater hydraulic force.
8.3.8 Snubbing Back Pressure Valves (BPVs’)

The BPV’s are primary internal barriers and prevent hydrocarbons from entering the
workstring to maintain pressure control. There are usually two in series.
8.3.9 Nipple Profile

A nipple profile is installed in the BHA above the BPV’s and is a secondary internal
barrier after a plug has been set to maintain pressure control if the BPV’s fail.
8.3.10 Spacer Spool

The spool between the strippers must be of sufficient length to allow the pipe to be pulled slowly
through the BOP’s whilst sequentially opening and closing them. It is traditionally 4' to 6' long. The
spool and equalising loop are of a fixed size on any particular unit and pipe pulling speed is reduced
while the tool joint passes through the BOP’s. It is not necessary however to stop pulling for this
operation.
Snubbing BOP Rig Up
8.3.11 Equalising Loop

The equalising loop is used to equalise pressure across the lower stripper BOP’s.
Note: BOP rams should only be opened after the pressure has been equalised, otherwise, the ram
seal may be damaged.
The equalising loop connects from below the upper stripper to below the lower stripper ram. The
remotely operated valves are controlled from the work basket to equalise or isolate the upper rams.
The loop also contains a fixed choke to control the flow rate and a set of manual valves to enable the
repair of the remotely operated valves.
8.3.12 Bleed Off Line

The bleed off line is used for bleeding off the pressure below the upper stripper ram so that the ram
can be opened without damage.
8.3.13 Cameron U BOP

The primary seal on the piston rod is a set of seals (and back up rings) around the piston
rod/connecting rod. With most makes and types of ram type BOP’s, there is a secondary seal created
by injected plastic packing. In the case of the Cameron U type this is on the intermediate flange. It is
invariably on the outboard side of the primary seals.
The purpose of this secondary seal is to stop the wellbore fluids from escaping and/or contaminating
the hydraulic fluid should the primary seals be leaking. Since there is no way of directly seeing if the
primary seals are leaking, there is often a weep hole so that if the primary seals do leak, the fluid will
drip out of the hole and can be seen. Should this happen, the BOP must be redressed as soon as
operationally possible. With the Cameron U type, the weep hole is on the bottom face of the
intermediate flange).
8.3.14 Risers and Connections

These form part of the pressure control equipment in that they contain wellbore fluids and pressure
during a job, all the pressure equipment for snubbing work invariably has flanged connections. It is
normal practice to have the shear/seal attached to the tree as closely as possible.
8.3.15 BOP Control Skid

BOP skids derive their primary power supply from the power pack and have a separate air or electric
power supply as a back-up. Basic controls are provided in the workbasket for most or all of the BOP
functions. Some units do not have the Shear/Seal control in the basket. A duplicate set of controls is
provided at the BOP control skid although this does not always include the stripper rams.
8.4 BARRIER PHILOSOPHY (SNUBBING)
8.4.1 Containment Devices in the Workstring

There are two main types that are commonly used:
 Back Pressure Valves
 Pump down plug and landing nipple
Back Pressure Valve

Since the pipe is open at all times to surface, two check valves or back pressure valves (BPV’s) are
always placed at the bottom of the string, above the BHA. They allow fluid to be pumped down the
string but stop flow up the pipe when pumping is stopped. Both ball and seat check valves and
flapper valves are used. Flapper type check valves have the advantage of allowing balls to be
pumped through them for operating tools in the BHA.
Since the flow area through these valves is fairly small, if there is any scale in the tubing it is quite
easy for debris to plug them off. Two operations should be performed to minimise the risk of this
happening:
 Tubing is to be inspected and rattled immediately prior to going out.
 When filling up the string, pump one or two barrels through the valves every 10 or 20 joints,
to prevent collapse of the pipe. This is to ensure they are still open and to clear out any
build-up of debris
The check valves are the primary internal barriers.
In jobs involving large amounts of pumping it is not uncommon for both back pressure valves (BPV’s)
to be washed out. A small wireline type landing nipple is always placed above the BPV’s so that in
the event of a leakage through the BPV’s, a plug can be seated in the nipple prior to pulling out with
the pipe. It is normal to pump the pipe full of water prior to pumping the plug so as to minimise
pollution from hydrocarbons or corrosive brines.
8.4.2 Pump Down Plug and Nipple

A very wide variety of BHA devices can be used as a means of internal primary well control including:
 Pump out plugs or pump out BPV’s
 Sliding Side Doors or Sliding Sleeves coupled with positive plugs. This is mostly to allow
reverse circulation.
8.4.3 Stabbing Valve

The stabbing valve is normally a plug valve with a tubing thread connection below and a 2” Weco
threaded connection for pumping above. Advantages:
 Light
 Easy to stab onto flowing pipe
 Inbuilt pumping connection
Disadvantages:
 Small through bore
 Wireline cannot be used through it.
8.4.4 Full Opening Safety Valve

The full opening safety valve is much bigger than a stabbing valve.
Advantages:
 Larger bore
 Easy to stab onto flowing pipe
 Allows wireline to be rigged up on top of valve
Disadvantages:
 Heavy
 Requires additional X-over for top connection for pumping
8.4.5 Inside BOP
The inside BOP was originally designed for stripping operations on a rig floor and has pipe
connections at both ends.
Advantages:
 Can be RIH
Disadvantages:
 Heavy
 Very difficult to stab onto flowing pipe
 Wireline cannot be used through it
 Requires additional X-over for top connection for pumping
8.4.6 Surface Lines and Manifolds

The requirements for pumping and circulating facilities are different for each job, but all operations
require some form of pump to conduct the following type of operation:
 A complete mixing and killing facility on an offshore satellite.
 A hook up on an offshore platform direct to existing facilities
 A remote land job requiring basic pressure testing and pumping facilities only
On the choke, kill and bleed off lines the main pressure control is via hydraulically operated valves
controlled from the workbasket, with a manual valve as a backup to each. The manual valve must be
on the inboard side of the hydraulic valve and remains unused in the open position throughout the
job. It is only used when work needs to be done on the hydraulic valve.
The kill line is connected to the kill wing of the tree.
On some dead well operations, trip tank and fill-up line connections are made to the top of the stack
below the window for use while tripping.
For all snubbing jobs, a fluid pump (usually a cement or frac pump) is required. It is used for pressure
testing, filling the pipe, displacing the pipe before pulling out to remove hydrocarbons and brines
(which can be dangerous for the crew), through tubing pumping operations, etc.
8.5 OPERATIONS
Snubbing is performed on live wells and uses BOP’s and other mechanical devices for well control. In
this respect, the principles are exactly the same as with Coiled Tubing.
A typical scenario might be as follows:
The unit is rigged up on a large offshore platform beside a derrick doing a normal work over. It is
required to wash out scale in the perforations and rat hole. The SIWHP prior to the well scaling up
was 2850 psi.
The unit has been rigged up on top of the Xmas tree with, (from bottom to top) 1 blind/shear ram, 1
pipe ram, 2 stripping rams, 1 annular BOP and a single element stripper bowl. The riser between the
Xmas tree and the BOP’s is long enough to accommodate the BHA comprising a mill/under
reamer/mud motors and BPV’s.
The choke and kill lines are connected to the rig circulating system and cement pump via a choke
manifold.
Whilst running in with the clean out string, the wellhead pressure is low enough to use the stripper
bowl. The two BPV’s in the workstring prevent flow back up through the tubing.
Once below the tailpipe, the rig cement pump is used for circulation, under reaming down with
returns taken to a degasser and separator before returning to the pits. Well control is initially
achieved by use of the annular and stripper bowl with the stripping BOP’s and stripper rubber being
used when the rat-hole is reached.
Having finished washing out, it is discovered that the BPV’s are both leaking so the pump down plug
is dropped and seated. With full wellhead pressure restored, the pipe is pulled using the stripping
rams for well control.
The BOP’s are controlled from the workbasket, a set on the BOP skid and a third remote panel has
also been set up beside the rig remote panel due to the concurrent nature of the work.
Due to the comparative complexity of the equipment and the requirement for an in-depth
knowledge of the operation of the equipment on a live well, it is normal practise to have a snubbing
supervisor (the equivalent of a tool pusher) on each snubbing crew.
It is his responsibility to ensure the safe and correct procedures are followed at all times and
particularly when using stripping BOP’s, crossing the balance point, etc.
After the unit is rigged up on the well, all features are function tested. The stack is then pressure
tested including all connections, lines, valves and manifolds. To test the rams it is necessary to pick
up one or more joints of pipe and run them into the stack so that the BOP’s etc. can be tested. These
joints will have the check valves (BPV’s) on the bottom, which also tests the BPV’s, and must be
restrained from being pumped back out of the well as there will be considerable force generated
beneath the closed check valves.
8.5.1 Opening the Well
Introducing the tool string into the wellhead is one of the most delicate phases of a snubbing
operation. It is at this time that the string is at its lightest and upward forces are trying to eject or
buckle the pipe.
Great care must be taken to ensure that the inverted, or snubbing, slips have taken a proper "bite"
on the pipe, with the use of a clamp or dog collar below the slips is often required.
When introducing the pipe into the well, the stripper rubber is first inserted and secured. The BHA is
then made up onto the first joint and pushed through the rubber. The ram(s) can then be closed and
the well opened up after equalising across the closed tree valves.
It is normal practise to use one stripping BOP or the annular to centralise the BHA and stop it
hanging up in the stack and tree.
8.6 CALCULATION OF THE BALANCE POINT

When the forces acting upwards and the forces acting downwards are equal, the balance point will
have been reached. The following calculation can be used as an approximation for calculating the
depth of the balance point. It does not consider friction forces etc.
Known data:
Well head pressure 500psi
Tbg OD 2.375ins
Tbg Wt. 4.7lbs/ft.
Tbg contents 0.375 lbs/ft.
Pipe joint 31feet
 = 22 7
To calculate balance point
Calculate the sum of the forces acting upwards=
Area of the tubing x well head pressure
(d24) 500
= (3.142 x 2.375 x 2.375) 4
= 4.43 sq. ins x 500
= 2215 psi snub force
Calculate the sum of the forces acting downward
= weight of pipe + weight of the contents of the pipe
= 4.7lbs/ft.+ 0.375lbs/ft. = 5.075 lbs/ft.
Length of pipe (ft.) to reach balance point
= snub force  pipe weight 
= 2215 5.075
= 436 ft.
= 43631 (length of joint)
=14 joints
8.6.1 Crossing the Balance Point

In theory, this is a single point but due to friction both down-hole and in the stack, this phase can
last for several hundred feet. The technique used as the pipe nears the balance point is to make it
heavy, quickly, by filling with fluid so that it can pass through the balance point.
During this phase it is very difficult to get the slips to "bite" on the pipe as the pipe appears to have
no weight. The use of two stationary slips together (regular and inverted) or the use of two travelling
slips together is to be avoided as this can lead to jamming of the pipe in the slips.
There are various methods of shortening and helping the balance point transition, but no matter
what is done there will nearly always be a few tricky joints.
Pipe is usually filled (to prevent collapse) every ‘X’ joints depending on well and pipe conditions. The
procedure for crossing the balance point running in is:
 Stop.
 Keep pipe "hanging" in traveling snubbers.
 Close stationary heavies.
 Fill pipe.
Assuming the pipe has now crossed the balance point, change the travelling snubbers to regular slips
and continue running in hole
In rare cases this will not have been enough to cross the balance point completely, in which case
either:
 Flow the well to reduce CITHP.
 Slug the pipe with a heavy fluid.
 Continue running in hole using dog collars.
During pulling out the pipe is full of fluid and since it is not possible to empty the pipe to reduce its
weight, the well pressure can be acted upon. Either:
 Flow the well to increase the length of the "heavy" pipe phase and then shut in again. The
balance point will have been passed.
 If conditions permit, a slug of heavy fluid can be circulated round the outside of the string to
reduce CITHP.
In some circumstances, usually caused by pressure changes in the well, it may be found that once
the balance point has been crossed it is found again after a few more joints and then finally for the
third time. Each time the same procedures are adopted.
8.6.2 Pulling Out of Hole

It is important that as the last few joints being pulled are reached, there is an indicator in the tool
string to warn the crew that the bottom of the string is approaching.
This is usually achieved by spacing out the landing nipple with a joint of pipe between it and the
check valves so that when the nipple is at the work basket the master valve or blind ram can be
closed and the stack de-pressurised.
If a very long BHA has been run or a fish has been caught, the landing nipple might be directly on top
of the top BPV.
8.6.3 Job Suspension

On some jobs, only 12-hour operations are planned and the routine at night is usually as follows:
 Install closed stabbing valve having filled tubing.
 Close safety rams and manually lock.
 Tighten dogs on hanger flange.
8.6.4 ESD Systems

It is to be noted that if the main hydraulic power pack on a snubbing unit is linked to any platform
shutdown system more problems than advantages will occur.
It is imperative that the well is made safe in an emergency. Just as with a drilling rig, if the snubbing
unit is linked to the ESD system, on a shutdown the pipe can be left up in the air with no way of
closing it in. There is also the possibility that a joint of pipe hanging on the second winch will start to
slip (it is a hydraulic winch) and could cause injury.
8.6.5 Dry Gas Wells

If a dry gas well is to be worked on, special consideration must be given to the hydraulic connections
of the snubbing unit (of which there are many). Avoidance of any spillage is especially important as
dry gas and hydraulic oil or grease/dope is a very volatile mixture. Any oil or dope building up around
the stripper rubber or on top of the stripping rams soon becomes heavily contaminated with gas and
is potentially dangerous.
These wells are fortunately rare and consideration is always given to injecting a small amount of
liquid into the well prior to running the pipe.
It is important to keep the stripper rubber or stripping rams well lubricated to obtain a good seal
around the pipe.
8.6 COMBINED WIRELINE / SNUBBING OPERATIONS

Slickline or electric line operations can be conducted through the jack of a snubbing unit either by
rigging up the wireline lubricator on the workstring or screwing an adapter into the stripper bowl
and connecting a riser to the work basket.
In both cases normal wireline well control considerations apply, with either a master valve placed on
top of the workstring or the snubbing unit blind ram used as a master valve.
8.6.1 Contingencies
In the event of a well control problem occurring during operations, it is the responsibility of the
equipment operators in the basket to shut the well in and make safe. The crew chief (chief operator,
etc.) is usually working the jack controls and the second man is usually working the
BOP/counterbalance panel. This can vary according to crew make-up, breaks, etc.
BOP Sealing Element Leak
Ram Type
This can be considered as being in one of two categories:
 BOP elements changed out as normal routine due to wear.
 Leaks around elements occurring unexpectedly.
In the case of routine replacement due to wear (the stripping rams are susceptible to this), the inner
seals can be changed by closing the safety rams, bleeding off above them and opening the stripping
ram bonnets to change the inner seals. It would be normal practice to change the seals in both sets
of stripping BOP’s at the same time.
In the case of unexpected leaks, all the BOP’s above the safeties can be repaired by closing the
safeties, checking they are holding and then working on the stack. If possible, it is good practice to
have two barriers by closing two BOPS' below the one that must be worked on.
Annular
In the case of a leaking annular, it would be necessary to pull back out of the hole, close the blind
rams and rig the jack off the well before being able to open the bonnet of the annular. The annular
should always start a new job with a fresh rubber and it is indeed a rare occurrence to have to
change it during a job. If an annular rubber had to be changed during a job, it would be normal
practice to come out of the hole, if at all possible, rather than open the annular with pipe in the hole.
Shear/Seal
In the case of a leaking shear/seal, safety BOP or riser connection, the only choices are to pull back
out of the hole and close or plug the wellhead or, if that is not possible to kill the well.
If the wellhead pressure is low and the safeties start leaking, close the lower stripping BOP (which
has seen little or no use) as a replacement safety until the pipe is out of the hole.
Check Valve Failure

It is not uncommon for the BPV’s to leak after a lot of pumping. The procedure in this case is to drop
the pump down plug and pump it into its nipple. The plug is then inflow tested and the pipe pulled
out for a wet trip.
Tubing Pinhole
Prior to using a workstring it should be properly inspected and rattled to minimise the chance of
pinholes and scale.
If work strings are not properly cared for, pinholes can develop. Usually pinholes are found when
pipe is picked up for the first time. The crews will be looking out for them especially if the pipe
quality looks poor.
As the pipe is run the operator can "feel" each tool joint, as it goes through the stripper rubber. As
this is the start of a new joint, first reaction to a sudden egress of fluids out of the top of the pipe is
to pull back to the tool joint and back it out. The stabbing valve or other device is then inserted and
closed. It should now be possible to bleed down the tubing, which should show that the leak has
stopped. Alternately, the tool joint can be run in further until a stabbing valve can be installed and
closed.
If the above action does not cure the leak then it must have occurred downhole and the plug must
be dropped and seated in the nipple to confirm whether it is the BHA or a tubing hole. If it is a tubing
hole, it may be possible to run a wireline set bridge plug that could be used to plug the tubing above
the hole and enable the pipe to be pulled otherwise the well will have to be killed.
Any sudden leak occurring before pulling out after washing operations could indicate a washout in
the string or BHA (or other problem with the BHA) and will also require the same procedures.
8.6.2 Changing the Stripper Rubber
This is a routine operation, but opens up the topmost containment device:
 Close the annular and lower stripping ram and check they are holding
 Unscrew the retaining nut and pull out the rubber(s) with a tool joint
 Hang off the pipe and close the safety ram
 Bleed off below the annular through the bleed-off line
 Break the joint in the window
 Install the new rubber by placing it on the box and screwing in the pin
 Make up the joint and take the weight of the string
 Open the safety ram and run in to seat the rubber
 Tighten the retaining nut
 Open the BOP’s and RIH
Loss of Power
In the event of a power loss to the Snubbing Unit, the BOP’s will not be affected as they are on an
individual skid with two independent power supplies (e.g. diesel and air)
The worst time for a power loss to occur would be just after having made up a joint with most of it
sticking up in the air above the workbasket. If the integrity of the BPV’s are in doubt the
counterbalance winch can sometimes be rigged to run from the BOP skid and used to raise a man to
install the stabbing valve.
Notes:
9.0 SUB-SEA INTERVENTION

Well testing, completion, and intervention projects in the offshore environment present unique
challenges. Efficiency, reliability, and safety are all of paramount importance to ensure successful
operations
It is mandatory for a floating vessel to have a means of disconnecting or un-latching from the well so
that it can move to safety whilst leaving the well secured. Subsea safety systems ensures a reliable
disconnect with dual barrier protection.
Since their introduction, there have been several variations of subsea safety systems including 3” ID
systems used for exploration with vertical Xmas trees (VXT) and 7” ID systems used for interventions
and completions with Horizontal Xmas trees (HXT). There are other sizes and applications in use
including High Pressure & High Temperature tools. All provide double barrier protection if there is a
need to un-latch.
9.1 BARRIER PHILOSOPHY (SUB-SEA)

The introduction of a Sub Sea Test Tree (SSTT) to intervention operations has an impact on the
barrier priorities. Generally the primary and secondary barriers remain with the surface rig up, the
main difference involves the tertiary barrier.
The SSTT should be used as a safety valve only. It should not be cycled repeatedly and it should not
be used as a secondary lubricator valve. The sole function of the SSTT is to close the well in the
event of an unlatch and, as such, it should be used with the same caution and respect as a
conventional completion safety valve.
During Sub Sea intervention operations when the work string has to be cut, the lower valve in the
SSTT would be the tertiary barrier and NOT the cutter valves on the STT, safety heads or Intervention
BOP shear rams. It is desirable to make the cut as low as possible to ensure that the workstring
clears the SSTT after it is cut.
The lower SSTT valve is designed to cut and then seal. The upper SSTT valve is closed after the
remaining wire or coil has been pulled clear. The lower valve then becomes the primary barrier (if it
remains pressure tight) and the upper valve becomes the secondary barrier (or primary barrier if the
lower valve leaks). The tertiary barrier would be the Drilling BOP blind/shear rams.
In the event of a power loss etc. on a DP vessel, there may not be time to secure the well with the
SSTT and unlatch in a controlled manner. The Drilling BOP would be used to shear the string and the
blind/shear rams would become the primary barrier, securing the well in the quickest means
possible.
9.2 REASONS FOR UN-LATCHING

Emergency unlatch procedures may be due to any of the following:
 Bad weather including hurricanes, cyclones and typhoons.
 Impending collision by another vessel.
 Loss of positioning by a DP vessel (dynamically positioned).
 To Repair a leak in the landing string or surface test tree.
Subsea systems are generally controlled either by direct hydraulic control or electro hydraulic
systems. There is also a secondary disconnect.
9.2.1 Common general components (7”)

The general term for the components connecting the well head on the sea bed to the rig floor can be
termed as the Marine Riser Package.
The following list shows the general components of a typical marine riser package (although
components may vary depending on client requirements and job specifics). The list is to be read as if
starting from the wellhead:
 HXT
 Drilling BOP to include LMRP.
 Lower flex joint.
 Marine riser.
 Telescopic joint.
 Upper flex joint.
 Diverter.
All subsea safety systems have surface control modules. Depending on the system used they can be
fully hydraulic, electrical or a mixture of both.
An umbilical is used to transmit the required signals to operate the correct valves at the correct
time. Umbilical’s also vary in size and function.
If the SSTT or control umbilical becomes damaged to a point where well control is compromised, the
SSTT may have to be recovered to surface in order to facilitate repairs. SSTT’s are pressure tested
and function tested before each use.
9.3 SUBSEA SAFETY SYSTEM

The general term for the components connecting the HXT to the STT (surface test tree/surface flow
head) is known as the landing string. It is run in hole inside the marine riser.
The general components of a typical direct hydraulic landing string are listed however components
may vary depending on client requirements/job specifics. The list should be read as if starting from
the HXT:
 Tubing Hanger Running Tool (THRT).
 Slick joint.
 Lower SSTT valve. (Primary barrier/tertiary barrier with wire or coil in hole).
 Upper SSTT valve. (Secondary barrier).
 Latch assembly.
 Shear sub/Latch mandrel.
 Bleed off valve/Vent sleeve.
 Retainer valve (if used).
 Annular spacer spool.
 Annular slick joint /Annular pack off sub.
 Hydraulic termination bulkhead.
 Tubing.
 Lubricator valve (if used).
 Landing joint/cased wear joint.
 Surface test tree/flow head.

Debris Cap
Wireline Plug
Tree Cap
Tubing Hanger
Tree Body
Wellhead
Isolation Sleeve
Dual Bore Vertical Horizontal
(Valves inside bore) (Valves outside bore)
Horizontal Xmas Trees
9.4 GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS (DRILLING SIDE)
9.4.1 Drilling BOP

During a completion or work over, the Drilling BOP would be housed directly on top of the HXT. It
will be lowered into position using the marine riser.
The Drilling BOP is controlled from surface and usually has two control systems in case one system
fails. The drilling BOP usually has the following main components, starting from the bottom and
working up:
 Connector to form a seal/barrier with the HXT.
 Lower pipe rams.
 Middle pipe rams.
 Upper pipe rams.
 Blind/Shear rams.
 Lower annular preventer.
 Upper annular preventer.
The pipe rams can be of various sizes. Generally one of the sets would be converted to 9 5/8” for use
with an SSTT slick joint to provide an annulus between the completion and the casing. If there is only
one set of pipe rams suitable for use on the SSTT slick joint and they fail to seal, it may be necessary
to retrieve the BOP to surface to repair the seal.
The blind/shear rams may have to be use in an emergency to shear off the SSTT shear sub. In a
controlled unlatch the blind/shear rams would be closed as an additional barrier and to prevent
debris falling into the latch profile.
The shear ram capability is calculated from the hydraulic pressure used to close them and the
surface area of the ram. The shear sub is then manufactured to suit the ram capability. The rams are
designed to shear wireline and coiled tubing inside the completion. In the case of wireline or coil
being stuck in hole, the shear rams should be capable of cutting through the SSTT and coiled tubing
with the same cut. The annular preventer main function is to facilitate the secondary unlatch
features of the SSTT. It is not uncommon for the annular preventer to be closed on the SSTT after
unlatching in order to reverse circulate the landing string contents to an environmentally safe fluid
prior to disconnecting the BOP from the HXT.
A drilling BOP incorporates kill and choke lines. A normal arrangement for these lines would be to
have the Kill line enter the BOP under the lower pipe rams and the Choke line entering the BOP
above the pipe rams. These lines can be used for well kill purposes, pressure testing and annulus
pressure control during well testing operations. If the SSTT is unlatched from the well leaving the
lower and upper valve sections inside the drilling BOP, it would still be possible to kill the well. The
upper and lower SSTT valves are designed to be pumped through although the kill rate would be
limited by the backpressure created by the SSTT.
The drilling BOP is usually pressure tested without the SSTT inside.
Drilling Bops’ are normally pressure tested every 14 days, between wells or during a planned
maintenance schedule. The SSTT can be tested when it is landed in the HXT using a BOP test tool,
this tool has a profile which seats in the HXT isolating the completion.
If the rig BOP is pressure tested with a SSTT in-situ, caution regarding the SSTT secondary functions
should be observed.
9.4.2 LMRP
The Lower Marine Riser Package is at the top of the drilling BOP and under the lower flex joint. Its
main purpose is to facilitate the disconnection of the marine riser from the BOP in case of severe
weather or during an emergency, leaving the drilling BOP in place as a well control barrier. The LMRP
should contain at least one of the drilling BOP annular preventer.
It will be necessary to test the seals on the H4 connector when it has been re-latched.
1. Control Pod
2. Accumulators
3. Lower Flex Joint
4. Hose Bundle
5. Annular
6. Kill/Choke loop
7. Riser Connector
9.5 FLEX JOINTS

The use of flex joints within the marine riser system is vital to accommodate angular displacement or
offset between the rig / vessel on the surface and the fixed BOP on the sea bed. Angular
displacement can increase during heavy weather, strong currents or a drift off with a DP vessel.
There is a flex joint at the top and at the bottom of the marine riser.
A crucial watch must be kept on the angle of deflection when operating with large bore subsea tool
strings. This is due to the large OD of the subsea tools and the relatively tight fit inside the flex joints.
As the deflection angle increases the fit or tolerance between the subsea tools and the flex joint
decreases. The maximum deflection allowed between the marine riser and the BOP is between 1
and 1.5 degrees. The ROV is usually deployed when running the SSTT and or the THRT through the
flex joints.
9.6 MARINE RISER

The marine riser is the conduit that connects the upper flex joint to the lower flex joint (the rig to the
sea bed/BOP). It is used to run and retrieve the BOP. During interventions, the annulus (between the
landing string and the marine riser) is filled with barrier fluid, usually heavy weight brine). This fluid
also prevents the riser from being crushed by hydrostatic pressure.
After running the completion, the kill fluids in the marine riser will be heavier than the fluid inside
the landing string.
Be aware of hydrostatic differential pressures that may exist at a subsea wellhead.
Example:
A marine riser filled with a heavy weight brine @ 11ppg
The landing string filled with Oil based Mud @ 9ppg
Water (wellhead) depth 4500ft.
Marine Riser hydrostatic pressure = 11ppg x 0.052 x 4500 = 2574psi.
Landing String hydrostatic pressure = 09 ppg x 0.052 x 4500 = 2106psi.
There is a differential pressure of 468psi acting from the marine riser to the landing string. This
differential pressure could cause an uncontrolled release of potentially harmful fluids at surface
due to the “U” tube.
9.7 TELESCOPIC JOINT

This is the first joint under the upper flex joint and compensates for the motion of waves, swell and
tide.
Most have an operational stroke of around 25-30 ft. and this is usually enough to ride out rough
weather. In some of the more inhospitable regions the sea state may exceed the maximum stroke
and it may become necessary to unlatch the LMRP from the drilling BOP.
The upper flex joint is on top of the inner barrel of the telescopic joint and often incorporates the
“Diverter”. This is a drilling device used to control a kick, similar to an annular preventer, the diverter
can be closed around the pipe just below the rotary table and deflect the kick to a de-gasser/shakers
or overboard.
9.8 GENERAL DESCRIPTION LANDING STRING
9.8.1 THRT (Tubing hanger running tool/URT)

This item provides the means to run and lock the tubing hanger into the well head. During the
running in hole phase it is latched onto the tubing hanger. Once the tubing hanger reaches the well
head, the THRT locks the TH into the well head.
After the completion or intervention operation, the THRT is then unlatched from the tubing hanger
and recovered to surface with the rest of the landing string. The tubing hanger remains locked into
the well head.
The well head/HXT company takes ownership of this tool.
The body of the THRT is an element of the landing string barrier envelope.
9.8.2 Slick Joint. (Ported Slick Joint)

This item provides two main features:
 The interface between the SSTT and the THRT, (they are usually supplied by two different
companies).
 A sealing area for well control.
Slick joints are spaced out across the drilling BOP rams, i.e. the lower, middle or upper pipe rams as
long as the ram used has been adapted for use with an SSTT. This usually involves ensuring the ram
in question is converted to 9 5/8” which is a commonly used outside diameter for the slick joint.
When the ram is closed on the outside of the slick joint, an annulus is created between the
underside of the ram and the completion. This annulus is used to test the tubing hanger seals from
above. This annulus is also used to monitor the pressure when setting a packer and testing the
tubing hanger from below when used in conjunction with the XOV in the HXT.
Slick joints are internally ported to provide the hydraulic supply to operate the THRT. The porting is
internal as any external lines would be crushed when the pipe rams are closed.
Slick joints are project specific since their length will determine the space out of the SSTT valves and
shear sub inside the drilling BOP.
The body of the PSJ is part of the landing string barrier envelope.
9.8.3 SSTT Lower Valve

The lower SSTT valve is the main safety valve in the SSTT.
This valve when closed and inflow tested is the primary barrier in the SSTT.
This valve is also the tertiary barrier when there is wire/coiled tubing in the hole. The valve is
designed to close and cut any wire or coil ran through it. (Up to just over 2” diameter coiled tubing).
It will cut wireline easily. Tension should be applied to the coil or wire to assist cutting and avoid
trapping strings across the SSTT.
When the lower valve has cut wireline or coiled tubing, it cannot be guaranteed to seal again. If the
lower valve does not seal, the upper valve becomes the primary barrier. The valves have a pump
through feature when closed and this facilitates well kill through the drilling BOP kill line.
Chemicals
Chemicals can be injected under the closed ball. This port may also be used to determine the
pressure under the ball when re-opening the well after a re-latch. The chemical injection line must
contain TWO check valves. These check valves prevent hydrocarbons from entering the umbilical,
control systems and eventually reaching the surface.
Damage may occur if pressure equalisation is not performed prior to valve operation.
When the valve is open, the body is part of the landing string barrier envelope.
9.8.4 SSTT Upper Valve

There is more than one design of the SSTT upper valve. The two most common are a ball valve or a
flapper valve.
The upper valve is not designed to cut wire or coil. If the lower ball has been used as a tertiary
barrier it may not seal afterwards, and the upper valve would be used to isolate the well.
Consequently the upper valve would become the primary barrier. In this case the drilling BOP shear
rams would be the secondary barrier.
The upper valve contains the profile into which the latch is housed. The hydraulic connectors which
allow the valves and the THRT to be controlled are situated on the top of the valves housing.
Chemical injection may also be available for use in this valve. The same criterion exists as per the
lower SSTT valve.
9.8.5 SSTT Latch Assembly

The latch assembly is perhaps the most important feature of the SSTT. It is a MANDATORY
requirement for floating vessels whether they are semi-submersible or dynamically positioned.
The purpose of the latch feature is to allow the vessel to disconnect from the well and skid or “sail
off” to safety. It is situated above the two safety valves in order to have the two barriers remaining
in the drilling BOP.
The SSTT is spaced out within the drilling BOP to facilitate the closing of the blind/shear rams after
unlatch. The purpose of this is to provide an additional barrier to the well and prevent debris from
falling into the latch profile in the top of the remaining upper valve housing.
Un-latch can be performed under tension if an emergency arises. When the SSTT is re-latched take
an overpull above the landing string weight is taken to confirm the connection then conduct a bore
test against one of the valves to prove the integrity of the landing string before resuming operations.
The latch body is part of the landing string barrier envelope.
9.8.6 SSTT Shear Joint

The shear joint is also known as the shear sub or latch mandrel.
The SSTT Shear Joint is specifically designed for each individual drilling BOP. The drilling BOP must be
capable of shearing it in case of an emergency. In the case of a DP vessel drive off, the drilling BOP
blind/shear rams would become the tertiary barrier. The body of the shear joint is part of the
landing string barrier envelope.
9.8.7 SSTT Bleed off Valve / Vent Sleeve

To release trapped pressure across the latch prior to a disconnect.
During a live well unlatch it is possible to trap pressure between the upper valve and the retainer
valve. This trapped pressure can cause a violent reaction and or cause damage to the latch
assembly rendering a successful re-latch impossible.
The BOV/Vent sleeve can also be used to assist re latching. If the valve is opened during a re latch it
can prevent a hydraulic lock between the upper valve and a closed retainer valve. When this valve is
closed a bore test of the landing string can confirms the valve is closed and an element of the
landing string barrier envelope.
9.8.8 Retainer Valve

This valves purpose is to retain the contents of the landing string at unlatch. Without it, the contents
of the landing string could empty into the sea causing an environmental issue. Quite a concern if
using 9 5/8” casing as a landing string with a depth of 1200m. Worst case scenario would relate to a
gas well. The gas would empty the marine riser of fluid which could in turn cause the collapse of the
marine riser due to external hydrostatic pressure.
They can also be used as a barrier to the well if inflow tested, although not all are designed to do so.
They can be used during pressure testing of the landing string once ran to confirm the integrity
before opening the well.
9.8.9 Annular Spacer Joint

The sole purpose of this item is to ensure that the annular slick joint is correctly spaced out across
the drilling BOP annular preventer.
The body of the annular spacer joint is part of the landing string barrier envelope.
9.8.10 Annular Slick Joint

This item is very similar to the ported slick joint. It is internally ported to allow the drilling BOP
annular rams to close around its exterior.
The annular preventer may be closed on the annular slick joint for a number of reasons. The most
important is to facilitate of the mandatory “secondary unlatch” feature. or to close the drilling BOP
annular rams on the annular pack off sub to reverse circulate the contents of the landing
string/marine riser, to clean the landing string of hydrocarbons or to balance the fluid weight of the
marine riser to the landing string or vice versa.
The hydraulic termination point for the main hydraulic umbilical is connected to the SSTT above the
slick joint
The body of the annular slick joint is part of the landing string barrier envelope.
9.8.11 Landing String Tubing

There are many types of casing or tubing used for this purpose. The client will decide which type to
use.
Its purpose is to provide a conduit for hydrocarbons to reach surface. It serves as a means of RIH and
POOH the SSTT. As soon as the landing string has been RIH it will be pressure tested to confirm its
pressure integrity.
The hydraulic control umbilical may be secured to the exterior of the tubing. The body of the landing
string tubing forms part of the barrier envelope.
9.8.12 Lubricator Valve Assembly

The lubricator valve assembly is usually located between 30 and 40m below the rotary table. It is
controlled via a hydraulic umbilical from surface.
Its purpose is to facilitate the introduction of long tools into the hole where the length of the
wireline lubricator is not sufficient.
Lubricator valves are normally ball valves which hold pressure from above so that intervention
pressure control equipment can be pressure tested.
Lubricator valves may be used in pairs to provide double barrier protection. There may also be a
point for chemical injection.
Damage may occur if pressures are not equalised prior to valve operation.
When the valve is open, the body of the lubricator assembly is part of the landing string barrier
envelope. They may also be in flow tested against a live well.
9.9 SURFACE TEST TREE (FLOWHEAD)

The main purpose of the flow head is to provide a means of controlling the well at surface and
providing a means of vertical intervention into the well.
In general, most large bore STTs are hydraulically controlled from the rig floor via an umbilical and
comprise the following components.
9.9.1 Master Valve

A full bore valve in the wellbore conduit used to isolate the well. It can be inflow tested from below
or tested from above. It can be located above or below a swivel. When located below the swivel it
can provide a barrier if the swivel leaks.
9.9.2 Swivel
Enables the landing string to be rotated whilst the main body remains static. This is essential when
used on DP vessels which constantly change their heading to suit weather and tidal changes,
allowing alignment of the THRT alignment keys etc. The swivel allows the makeup of the STT to the
landing string when tubing is used without quick connects, and for setting the packer.
9.9.3 Swab Valve

A full bore valve in the well bore conduit, used to allow vertical intervention into the well located at
the top of the STT. Commonly used as a barrier during changes of intervention tool strings.
9.9.4 Kill Wing Valve

Provides side entry into the well and is connected to the cement unit. Allows kill fluids to be pumped
into the well bore. It is usually connected to a standpipe by means of a Coflexip hose. It is common
to install a check valve here to prevent hydrocarbons flowing to the cement unit.
9.9.5 Production Wing Valve

Provides a flow path for well fluids to exit the well. The production wing Provides side entry into the
well and is connected to the cement unit. Allows kill fluids to be pumped into the well bore. It is
usually connected to a standpipe by means of a Coflexip hose. It is common to install a check valve
here to prevent hydrocarbons flowing to the cement unit.
This valve is usually connected an ESD system to allow emergency closure.
Chemical injection ports

Facilitates chemical injection and can also be used to monitor pressure.
Well Test Landing String Disconnected
Rig Up/Rig down Wireline during Well Testing
Testing-flowing and shut in
STT with the master valve above the swivel
SSTT with the master valve below the swivel
9.9.6 SPACE OUT (DUMMY RUN)

It is highly recommended to perform a dummy run prior to running a SSTT. It is not normally too
time consuming and can avoid expensive replacement of tree and BOP ram components. Performing
a dummy run is the only way of guaranteeing that the assumed dimensions for the BOP stack and
wellhead are correct and that the calculated space out will position the slick joint across the pipe
rams.
It is vital to ensure the correct sealing surfaces and shearable joints are in the correct position within
the drilling BOP. This is referred to as the “Space Out”.
The valves of the SSTT are of a fixed size and some components are tailor made to suit each drilling
BOP stack in order to space the modules out to the correct place. These tailor made components are
“Project Specific Equipment” and may include the following items.
Ported Slick Joint

Ensures the lower valve is high enough for the pipe rams to close on the slick joint and low enough
for the blind/shear rams to close without fouling the large OD latch.
Shear joint
Must be correctly spaced out across the rigs shear / super shear rams in order to ensure an
emergency shear can take place. The rams must have clearance above and below to prevent fouling
on the large OD valve bodies. Before a SSTT is situated inside a drilling BOP a full engineering analysis
is carried out to ensure the drilling BOP will shear the SSTT shear joint.
Annular Spacer
The annular spacer must be positioned across the drilling BOP lower or upper annular preventers.
The main reason for this is to enable the “secondary unlatch”. A second and more common use
would be to close the drilling BOP annular and reverse circulate the contents of the landing string
prior to an unlatch or the completion of a well prior to POOH landing string.
Space out in a Drilling BOP
9.9.7 Mandatory Secondary Un-latch Features

In addition to the normal method of functioning the latch via the control umbilical, there must be a
secondary means of performing an emergency un-latch. This secondary method may be required in
the case of a severed umbilical for example.
The most common method currently in use is a type of shearable disc or pin. Both use the same
operating principles:
 Bleed off hydraulic control line pressures.
 Close annular preventer around annular slick joint (pipe rams already closed).
 Increase pressure between the two sets of rams to a pre-determined value
 A shear disc or pin will break at the set value and allow a shuttle valve to move.
 The pressure between the rams is used to operate the unlatch feature.
In some cases the lower ball may be closed first to secure the well. It may also be operated in a
similar manner to the secondary unlatch feature.
9.9.8 Well site Inflow Testing

When the SSTT is positioned inside the drilling BOP it should be inflow tested as follows:
 Apply pressure down the landing string e.g. 5000psi
 Close SSTT lower valve
 Bleed pressure above SSTT lower valve to 500psi
 Observe pressure above lower valve, there should be no increase.
 When a good test is observed, equalize across valve to 5000psi. Open valve.
 Close SSTT upper valve.
 Bleed pressure above SSTT upper valve to 500psi.
 Observe pressure above upper valve, there should be no increase.
 Once a good test is observed, equalize across valve to 5000psi. Open valve. In some cases it is
possible to in flow test the SSTT retainer valve. This valve may also be tested from above. If
lubricator valves are included in the landing string, they may also be tested.
 Close SSTT retainer valve. This valve may be inflow tested as above or tested from above.
Chemical Injection.
The development of subsea wells has an impact on the risk of hydrate formation, mainly due to the
very low temperatures at the sea bed especially in deeper water.
There are a few ways to reduce the likelihood of hydrate formation. The main method is to inject
Methanol or Glycol at various points within the landing string or at the HXT as follows:
 Specific injection points on the HXT (normally used after the installation / intervention work
has been performed and the HXT is online to a subsea production manifold).
 Below the SSTT lower valve. This can be useful to check the pressure under a closed valve in
order to equalize across before opening the lower valve after unlatch operations but relies
upon the 2 check valves as a well barrier should the SSTT be unlatched.
 Below the SSTT upper valve. This is sometimes preferred for well control purposes due to the
fact that in addition to the 2 check valves we have a closed SSTT lower valve below as an
additional barrier. This option may require the pump through method of the SSTT lower valve
when re-latching as the pressure below the ball may be unknown.
 Subsea Lubricator Valves may also be used for chemical injection chemicals. In a single LV
assembly the injection point is usually below the closed valve.
 The STT may be used for chemical injection.
 A high rate chemical injection sub may be added to facilitate high pump / flow rates. This
could be added from the SSTT upwards.
Emergency Shut Down.

The variety and complexity of these systems very much depend on the intervention in hand and well
conditions.
ESD systems may be as simple as the closure of the STT PWV & Well Test Isolation valve (Surface
Shut-In). These are commonly a pneumatic over hydraulic design.
More elaborate systems include shutting in the SSTT. These systems can be configured to shut in and
unlatch the SSTT if required and are used in deep water where the need to unlatch may be required
within seconds.
Consideration must be taken when running intervention tools through the SSTT where the SSTT is
configured into the ESD system. The client should specify as to whether or not to isolate the failsafe
close valves in the SSTT in case of an accidental ESD initiation. Each case will be risk assessed.
Back Pressure Systems.
When an SSTT is used in deep water it may be necessary to utilise a back pressure system.
The BPS “traps” a residual pressure in the control lines/hoses not currently holding positive
pressure. This is to prevent the hydraulic hoses from collapsing due to the extreme hydrostatic
forces acting on their OD.
A simple example of how to calculate the required BP is to compare the weight of the completion
fluid in the marine riser, with the weight of the SSTT control fluid. Then calculate the hydrostatic
pressures of each fluid with a given water depth. If the control fluid is lighter we then subtract the
hydrostatic value of it from the hydrostatic value of the completion fluid. The difference would be
the required BP.
Example:
Completion fluid = 10ppg
Control fluid = 08ppg
Water depth = 1200m

Completion fluid at 3937ft = 10ppg x 0.052 x 3937 = 2047psi.
Control fluid at 3937ft = 08ppg x 0.052 x 3937 = 1637psi.
Completion Fluid – Control Fluid = 2047psi – 1637psi = 410psi.
Back Pressure system set to 410psi.
9.10 SSTT ESD’S

An Emergency Shut Down (ESD) is a series of SSTT commands wrapped into one. An ESD is triggered
in an emergency situation when part or all of a flow line needs to be quickly brought to a safe state -
up to and including a disconnect from the Sub-Sea Christmas tree. The ESD commands in the Master
Control Station are arranged in increasing severity (i.e., ESD1 is the least severe and ESD4 is the most
severe). This is indicated on the ESD panels by the fact that the ESD 1, 2 and 3 buttons are yellow
and the ESD 4 button is red. The SenTree 7 uses four levels .of ESD.
Testing of the SSTT ESD’s is covered in the assembly checks.
Standard Mode
10.0 WELL CONTROL EVENT

It is vitally important in the twenty-first century that all personnel involved in the oil and gas industry
understand:
• Well control issues and the associated activities.
• The importance of monitoring return flow from the well.
• Managers instructions regarding well operations.
• The importance of safety drills.
• The monitoring of fluid parameters both going into the well and returning from the well.
10.1 IMPACT OF A WELL CONTROL INCEDENT

The negative impact & effects of a well control incident are:
10.1.1 Personal Wellbeing

Major well control incident can have a major negative impact on the individuals involved, causing
symptoms such as, P.T.S.D. (post-traumatic stress disorder), depression & anxiety.
10.1.2 Personal Injury

Any uncontrolled release of pressure from the well can lead to damage to equipment, injury or even
death to nearby personnel.
10.1.3 Employment
Major well control incidents are caused by human error in some shape or form. These incidents can
result in huge financial losses by operators and layoff for contractors & service companies.
10.1.4 Environment
Well control situations can have varying concerns, and or impacts, from the controlled and licensed
discharge of blowout preventer control fluid to catastrophic and totally uncontrolled formation
fluids. As was seen in the Gulf of Mexico, East Tea-more and offshore Nigeria, all of which had a
massive impact on the surrounding environment and marine life.
10.1.5 Reputation
Well control incidents have a massive impact on the reputation of companies involved. An example
of the consequences of the Deepwater Horizon incident in 2010 saw demonstrations, protests and
boycotts to all the companies involved.
10.1.6 Society
As a result of recent well control incidents various governments have prevented drilling operations
in certain areas. Trust for a range of companies may be impacted by a well control incident. A
number of British companies experienced problems operating in the USA in the aftermath of the
Mac-condo incident.
10.2 EFFECTS OF A WELL CONTROL INCEDENT
10.2.1 Capital Loss

There have been numerous effects to the oil industry due to previous well control incidents and
there is a threat of more. These often cause capital loss to those involved, for example:
Equipment damage or destroyed, Drilling suspended, Lost resources, Insurance premium increase
and Legal action.
10.2.2 Over Regulation

Numerous regulations have been imposed in an attempt to mitigate risks due to the threat of a well
control situation. For example a federal regulation has recently been imposed in the USA for cement
to be used in sections of the well that are subject to most stress, the cement must be laboratory
tested first. These regulations must be complied with, resulting in higher operating costs for drilling,
but make safer wells. However, further well control incidents could lead to over regulation where
operating costs increase without proper mitigation of risks.
10.2.3 Suspension of Drilling

Numerous regulations have been imposed in an attempt to mitigate risks due to the threat of a well
control situation. For example a federal regulation has recently been imposed in the USA for cement
to be used in sections of the well that are subject to most stress, the cement must be laboratory
tested first. These regulations must be complied with, resulting in higher operating costs for drilling,
but make safer wells. However, further well control incidents could lead to over regulation where
operating costs increase without proper mitigation of risks.
10.2.4 Environmental Limits

In certain areas of the world limitations have been imposed on drilling operations, for example in the
Arctic. Where a major oil spill could cause major damaged due to weather conditions and the lack of
nearby resources such as airports, personnel, sea ports etc. In the Arctic drilling is limited to the
summer months.
10.3 WELL CONTROL TRAINING AND ASSESSMENT

It is hoped that this training will help to contribute to a reduction in the frequency and
consequences of well control incidents caused by lack of individual or intervention team awareness
& understanding.
This training will also affect the following:
 Trust of the major stakeholders
 Avoid over regulation
 Recruitment of new personnel into the service industry
 Change the responsibility for colleagues to look out for each other
 Making service companies more aware of competence.
10.4 PRE-OPERATIONAL PLANNING
10.4.1 Joint Operations Manual

Prior to any well intervention operation the production team, service team will have already
produced their own operational procedure documentation. Once all parties have agreed, then all
documents will be formed under a single document called a “Joint Operations Manual”. The JOM will
state accurately the recommended tasks to be performed and the responsibilities of all persons on
the installation.
10.4.2 Tool Box Talk or JSA

Prior to the operation the intervention crew, the operator rep. and the Well Services Supervisor will
have a pre-job meeting to decide roles and responsibilities for shutting in and controlling the well if
an incident occurs. Get all those involved in the work to attend the meeting before the work starts
and go through the plan, encourage feedback, adjust the plan if required and ensure everyone
understands properly.
10.4.3 Handover
Once all personnel are agreed and roles and responsibilities confirmed the Well Services Supervisor
will sign off the intervention documentation and take control of the well in which the intervention
operation is about to take place. Should during the operation any valves or barrier equipment fail
downstream of the well head/Xmas tree then it is the responsibility of the well services crew to shut
in the well and make it safe.

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Caledonia Training & Consultancy Ltd.

Telephone: +44 (0)1224 708141

Fax: +44 (0)1224 705718

1.0 WELL CONTROL GENERAL ............................................................................................................ 9

1.1 PRESSURE ............................................................................................................................................... 9

2.0 REASONS FOR WELL INTERVENTIONS.................................................................................. 21

2.1 GENERAL .............................................................................................................................................. 21

3.0 COMPLETIONS ............................................................................................................................... 29

3.1 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF A COMPLETION .......................................................... 30

3.2 COMPLETION EQUIPMENT.................................................................................................................... 30

Rev. June 15, 2015 Syllabus Update.

© Caledonia Training and Consultancy Ltd. 2015. All Rights Reserved. 2

3.3.8 Expendable Plugs........................................................................................................................... 36

4.0 CHRISTMAS TREES ....................................................................................................................... 61

4.1 Christmas Tree Valves ........................................................................................................................... 62

Rev. June 15, 2015 Syllabus Update.

© Caledonia Training and Consultancy Ltd. 2015. All Rights Reserved. 3

4.4.1 Chokes .......................................................................................................................................... 67

5.0 BARRIER PHILOSOPHY ............................................................................................................... 71

5.1 BARRIER CLASSIFICATION...................................................................................................................... 71

6.0 WIRELINE ........................................................................................................................................ 91

6.1 SLICKLINE ............................................................................................................................................. 92

Rev. June 15, 2015 Syllabus Update.

© Caledonia Training and Consultancy Ltd. 2015. All Rights Reserved. 4

6.3.4 Blow Out Preventer’s..................................................................................................................... 99

6.4 WIRELINE BARRIER PHILOSOPHY ....................................................................................... 102

6.5 RISERS AND CONNECTIONS ................................................................................................................. 103

7.0 COILED TUBING ........................................................................................................................... 113

7.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................................................ 113

Rev. June 15, 2015 Syllabus Update.

© Caledonia Training and Consultancy Ltd. 2015. All Rights Reserved. 5

7.5.3 Quad BOP.................................................................................................................................... 124

8.0 SNUBBING ...................................................................................................................................... 141

8.2 SURFACE EQUIPMENT......................................................................................................................... 148

Rev. June 15, 2015 Syllabus Update.

© Caledonia Training and Consultancy Ltd. 2015. All Rights Reserved. 6

8.3.2 Annular BOP ................................................................................................................................ 151

9.0 SUB-SEA INTERVENTION.......................................................................................................... 169

9.1 BARRIER PHILOSOPHY (SUB-SEA) ........................................................................................................ 169

Rev. June 15, 2015 Syllabus Update.

© Caledonia Training and Consultancy Ltd. 2015. All Rights Reserved. 7

9.8.7 SSTT Bleed off Valve / Vent Sleeve ............................................................................................... 180

10.0 WELL CONTROL EVENT.......................................................................................................... 195

Rev. June 15, 2015 Syllabus Update.

© Caledonia Training and Consultancy Ltd. 2015. All Rights Reserved. 8

1.0 WELL CONTROL GENERAL

The unit of depth throughout this manual will be in FEET (ft.)

The unit of density will be in POUNDS PER (US) GALLON (ppg)

The unit of pressure will be POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH (psi)

0.433 psi/ft. x 10,000 ft. = 4330 psi. Gradient x depth = pressure

Measured Depth is also called:

 Along Hole below Drill Floor (AHBDF)

 Below Drill Floor (BDF)

 Below Rotary Table (BRT)

 Below Kelly Bushing (BKB)

Rev. June 15, 2015 Syllabus Update.

© Caledonia Training and Consultancy Ltd. 2015. All Rights Reserved. 9

 Below Rotary Table Kelly Bushing (BRTKB)

1.1.4 Derivation of the constant 0.433

In order to find out the pressure exerted by one foot

62.4  144 = 0.433 psi/foot = Gradient

To find the pressure at the bottom of a well 10,000 ft.

If a new fluid had a specific gravity of 2, it would be

1.1.2 Specific Gravity