Thin-Walled Structures 127 (2018) 275–289

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Thin-Walled Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tws

Full length article

Axial loading tests of thin-walled circular steel tubes infilled with cast-in- T
place concrete and precast segments containing DCLs
⁎
Bo Wua, Cheng-Wei Penga, Xin-Yu Zhaoa, , Wen-Juan Zhoub
a
State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Building Science, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province 510640, People's Republic of China
b
School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, People's Republic of China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A green technique of filling coarsely-crushed demolished concrete lumps (DCLs) and fresh concrete (FC) alter-
Axial behavior nately into steel tubes has been conceived, and realized for years, intended primarily to simplify old concrete
Thin-walled circular steel tube recycling. In this study, precast approach is introduced in the foregoing recycling technique trying to improve its
Recycled concrete applicability.
Precast concrete
Large precast segments (PSs), prefabricated with DCLs and FC, are proposed to be installed into hollow steel
Prefabrication
tubes which are then poured full of cast-in-place concrete (CC). The resulting clad, composite columns were
examined in full-scale axial compression tests. The key variables were the size and number of PSs assembled in
each single tube, and the compressive strength of CC. Using higher strength CC was found to somewhat enhance
a column's compression resistance, but it compromised the column's axial deformability significantly. A
homogenization-based design equation is formulated, which is shown to predict quite well the axial capacity of
the proposed columns. Overall, the semi-precast columns proposed are easy-to-construct, and behave compar-
ably to their cast-in-situ counterparts, showing potential for future precast applications.

1. Introduction
Interest in recycling old concrete has been on the rise [1,2] sparked
largely by the pressing challenges faced by the construction sector in
terms of the large amount of concrete debris generated annually
worldwide, the rapid depletion of natural aggregate reserves, the
coming landfill “crisis”, and growing public concerns about construc-
tion sustainability.
Recycling concrete waste usually involves crushing old concrete
rubble into aggregates to replace, partly or totally, the virgin aggregates
which would otherwise be used in casting new concrete. The resulting
material can be termed recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) [3].
Published scientific research on RAC has been abundant and mul-
tifaceted (see, for example, [1–7]). RAC has usually been found to ex-
hibit inferior yet still acceptable material properties when compared
with similar natural aggregate concrete (NAC). In particular, its prop-
erties are less consistent [6,7], especially when mixed recycled ag-
gregate with varying properties is used [3]. The research results have
now to some extent been reflected in several codes and guidelines (e.g.
[8–10]).
Moving beyond the material level, the structural performance of
building components made with RAC has long been explored [3], in an
attempt to enable RAC's wider structural application [7]. The properties
of a range of structural members cast with RAC have been examined
[11–13], even extending to a whole structural system such as moment
frames [14–16]. The recent experimental studies conducted by de
Brito's group [16] have clearly shown that full-scale RAC test frames
exhibit ductile behavior, and that their behavior is not significantly
affected by the incorporation of recycled aggregates. In addition, no
differences in cracking response were observed.
One way to reduce the uncertainty associated with the strength of
RAC members is to impose strong confinement on an RAC core. Steel
tubular columns filled with RAC [17] and FRP-confined RAC tubes [18]
are two prominent techniques. Passively-confined columns of both
types commonly show performance similar to or marginally inferior to
the performance of similar columns filled with NAC. Chen and his
colleagues have shown [19] that the ultimate load of RAC-filled steel
tubes decreases modestly with increasing substitution of recycled ag-
gregate, demonstrating up to 11.2% lower resistance than tubes filled
with conventional concrete.
Precast construction often offers advantages over cast-in-situ tech-
nology in terms of better quality control and savings in time and
manpower, so several groups have studied precast RAC members
[20–22]. Recently, Xiao et al. [23] have proposed the idea of semi-

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ctzhaoxy@scut.edu.cn (X.-Y. Zhao).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2018.02.008
Received 13 August 2017; Received in revised form 15 December 2017; Accepted 8 February 2018
0263-8231/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B. Wu et al.
Fig. 1. Site applications of circular steel tubes filled with DCLs and FC.
precast RAC columns. They propose columns consisting of two parts in
the cross section: an inner core made with RAC and an outer NAC shell,
either of which could be precast first. Test results showed that such
columns had seismic behavior similar to that of fully cast-in-situ col-
umns, though with slightly reduced energy dissipation and ductility.
Despite the considerable research efforts, there is still space to im-
prove the method of recycling old concrete at the structural level. To
simplify recycling process, the authors and co-workers have carried out
a series of studies addressing the potential for directly incorporating
coarsely-crushed demolished concrete lumps (DCLs) into new concrete
members [24–31].
In such applications the DCLs are usually 60–300 mm in effective
diameter to minimize the crushing and grinding required. They are
mixed on-site with fresh concrete (FC) which serves as a binder. The
average size of the DCLs used depends on the cross-sectional dimen-
sions of the structural element being cast and any reinforcement in-
cluded. For the concrete-filled tubes (CFTs) widely used in buildings
and infrastructure, the maximum lump size can be as large as one third
of the diameter (or width) of the tube, as shown in Fig. 1.
The advantages of such concrete recycling have been gradually re-
cognized by the community [32–34]. Teng et al. [33] has endorsed the
technique and extended it to FRP confining tubes containing DCLs. Four
or six ply FRP wrapping has been shown to provide sufficient con-
finement to eliminate (or at least minimize) the weakness induced by
the inclusion of DCLs. More recently, Liu et al. [34] have published a set
of empirical formulae which relate the mechanical properties (strength,
modulus, etc.) of specimens made of DCLs and FC to the compressive
strengths of the constituent materials.
Concerns remain, however, about the on-site casting of vertical
concrete members (columns and walls) containing DCLs in terms of
Fig. 2. Concept and production sequence of thin-walled steel tubes infilled with cast-in-place concrete and precast segments containing DCLs.
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Thin-Walled Structures 127 (2018) 275–289
compactness and construction efficiency. This study was designed to
address those concerns. Fig. 2 explains one concept and production
sequence for producing semi-precast composite columns infilled with
precast segments (PS). The PSs made with DCLs and FC are fabricated
first in a plant and delivered to the site. During the factory casting, leg
bars are embedded in the PSs to assist the on-site installation. The PSs
are lifted and then inserted one after another into a previously-erected
hollow steel tube. Cast-in-place concrete (CC) is then poured into the
tube to fill the space between the tube and the PS infill. The PSs end up
well encased by the CC. In this process, no DCLs are handled on the site.
Also, the PSs can be cast flat in a plant, ensuring their quality and
improving construction efficiency.
This study set out to verify the validity and robustness of this pro-
posed fabrication method. To do so, axial compression tests were con-
ducted on ten full-scale column specimens. The integrity and composite
action of the columns infilled with CC and PSs were carefully examined.
A new design equation is also suggested for predicting the load-carrying
capacity of such columns.
2. Experimental program
2.1. Specimen design
Ten short but otherwise full-scale columns were prepared and tested
under monotonic, concentric, pure axial loading. Eight were fabricated
in accordance with the proposed method—infilled with precast seg-
ments containing DCLs and then filled with CC. The remaining two
were made by filling steel tubes with DCLs and CC alternately, just
following the previously suggested method [29–31], to simulate a cast-
in-situ condition.
B. Wu et al. Thin-Walled Structures 127 (2018) 275–289

Table 1 reuse as much demolished concrete as possible while maintaining rea-

Limits of diameter-to-thickness (D/t) ratio. sonable ease of delivery, installation, and casting at the jobsite. A
331 mm square PS could of course fill a larger area fraction (56%) than
Design code D/t limit D/t limiting value for the present case
a 303 mm one (47%), but might not be favorable for the onsite casting,
EC4: 2004 [35] 235 ⎞ 70.9 since the narrowest spacing between the tube and such a PS centrally
≤ 90 ⎛
⎜ ⎟

⎝ fy
⎠ positioned would be only 10 mm (at the PS's corners). Similarly, one PS
ACI 318-14 [36]
E
73.6 per column should be good for maintaining the continuity of the PS
≤ 8⎛ s ⎞
⎜ ⎟

⎝ fy ⎠ infill, but the length of a PS may often be limited by handling, shipping

AISC 360-16 [37] E 210.1 and lifting considerations. Installing several PSs in one tube would then
≤ 0.31 ⎛ s ⎞
⎜ ⎟

⎝ fy ⎠ be unavoidable, though it would introduce several vertical dis-

GB 50936-2014 [38] 235 ⎞ 106.4 continuities. Comparatively, the case of installing three PSs into a stub
≤ 135 ⎛ ⎜ ⎟
fy specimen (i.e. Series S3) was looked upon as an extreme condition,
⎝ ⎠
DBJ 13-51-2010 [39] 235 ⎞ 118.2 Series S2 being an improvement. To address the possible negative ef-
≤ 150 ⎛ ⎜ ⎟

⎝ fy
⎠ fects, the PSs used in the Series S2 and S3 samples were shorter to fit
into the 1800-mm long tubes. The number of PSs assembled in a single
Note: In this study fy and Es are 298.2 MPa and 202.03 GPa, respectively.
column and the size of each block were therefore treated as two sepa-
rate influencing factors.
Each column measured 500 mm in diameter and 1800 mm long. The
For each specimen the clear spacing between two neighboring PSs,
thickness of the steel tubes was 5.7 mm, so the diameter-to-thickness
if any, was consistently taken as 60 mm (roughly equal to three times
ratio (D/t) was 87.7. It is noteworthy that most design codes currently
the maximum aggregate size of the CC). This was achieved by con-
impose maximum allowable limits on steel tube slenderness (D/t) for
trolling the length of the leg bars projecting from the bottom of a PS.
CFTs to prevent premature local buckling. Table 1 reports the D/t limits
This specific value was also the result of consulting local precast design
specified in some widely-used codes. The D/t in these tests (87.7) met
companies. In addition, the gap between top and bottom PSs and the
most of the codes' requirements, but not those of the European Union or
nearest end plate was designed to be 60 mm as well (see Fig. 6).
the American Concrete Institute. The relatively thin tubes were used in
Another very important parameter was the compressive strength of
these experiments to help highlight any weakness of the specimens.
the CC. One role of the CC was to hold together all the PSs assembled in
For convenience and to indicate the primary test variables in this
a column, so its intrinsic strength would be expected to influence the
research, a naming system of “S#-A#-C#” (for the currently proposed
interaction between the outer tube and its contents. Moreover, higher-
columns) and “S#-C#” (for the two control columns) was established:
strength CC (with cylinder strengths higher than 40 MPa [40]) might
lead to a gain in strength, but could negatively affect the column's
• S indicates the number of PSs installed in an individual steel tube ductility simply due to the more brittle nature of high-strength con-
(S0 = none, S1 = one PS, S2 = two, and S3 = three);
crete. This conjecture was indeed supported by the test results.
• A indicates the dimensions of a PS (A1 = 331 × 331 mm and Two replacement ratios were tested in this research. The mass
A2 = 303 × 303 mm);
fraction of DCLs used in a single PS was termed the local replacement
• C indicates the compressive strength of the cast-in-place concrete ratio, ηlocal (see Table 2). ηlocal was uniformly 40% in all the PSs pre-
(CC) surrounding the PSs (C1 = 32.8 MPa and C2 = 55.2 MPa).
fabricated, a maximum acceptable ratio to ensure compactness based
on previous experience [31]. The other replacement ratio, ηglobal, was
So a specimen labelled S2-A1-C1, for instance, refers to a column
the ratio of the mass of all the DCLs incorporated into a column to the
containing two 331 mm square PSs and post-poured with 32.8-MPa CC.
column's total concrete mass. Table 2 shows that the values of ηglobal for
S0-C2 indicates a control column filled with DCLs and 55.2-MPa CC.
all of the specimens ranged from 18% to 22%. For comparison pur-
Details of all of the specimens are presented in Table 2.
poses, ηglobal for the two control columns was taken as 21%, equal to
All of the PSs were prismatic in shape but with different dimensions.
those of S2-A1-C1 and S2-A1-C2.
Three different lengths were adopted depending on the number of PSs
to be packed into a single column: 1680 mm long for Series S1 (i.e. one
2.2. Material properties
PS per column), 810 mm for Series S2 (two PSs per column), and
520 mm for Series S3 (three PSs per column). Also, the width of the
The properties of the steel used in the tubes were established by
square PS cross-section varied (331 mm or 303 mm, as previously
carrying out tensile tests on steel coupons according to Chinese stan-
mentioned).
dard GB/T 228.1-2010 [41]. The steel's yield strength (fy) and elastic
The rationale behind varying the dimensions of the PSs was to strike
modulus (Es) were 298.2 MPa and 202.03 GPa, respectively.
a reasonable balance between maximizing the size of the PS blocks to
The experiments used two types of normal-weight, Portland cement-

Table 2
Details of the test specimens.

Specimen fcu, DCLs (MPa) fcu, FC (MPa) fcu, com, PS (MPa) fcu, CC (MPa) fcu, com, Core (MPa) Number of PSs Dimensions of PS (mm) ηlocal ηglobal

S0-C1 31.5 – – 32.8 32.5 – – – 21%

S1-A1-C1 31.5 47.4 41.0 32.8 37.3 1 331 × 331 × 1680 40% 22%
S2-A1-C1 31.5 47.4 41.0 32.8 37.1 2 331 × 331 × 810 40% 21%
S2-A2-C1 31.5 47.4 41.0 32.8 36.4 2 303 × 303 × 810 40% 18%
S3-A1-C1 31.5 47.4 41.0 32.8 37.0 3 331 × 331 × 520 40% 20%
S0-C2 31.5 – – 55.2 50.2 – – – 21%
S1-A1-C2 31.5 47.4 41.0 55.2 47.5 1 331 × 331 × 1680 40% 22%
S2-A1-C2 31.5 47.4 41.0 55.2 47.7 2 331 × 331 × 810 40% 21%
S2-A2-C2 31.5 47.4 41.0 55.2 48.9 2 303 × 303 × 810 40% 18%
S3-A1-C2 31.5 47.4 41.0 55.2 48.0 3 331 × 331 × 520 40% 20%

Note: fcu, DCLs, fcu, FC and fcu, CC are, respectively, the 150-mm cube strengths of DCLs, FC and CC; fcu, com, PS and fcu, com, Core are the combined compressive strengths of the PS infill and the
concrete core of the column, respectively; ηlocal and ηglobal are the replacement ratios of DCLs in one PS and based on the column's full volume, respectively.

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Three different cube compressive strengths were used—47.4 MPa for

the FC; 32.8 MPa and 55.2 MPa for the CC—all measured by standard
tests [43] at the time of the testing. The mix proportions of those three
batches of ready-mix concrete are listed in Table 3.

2.3. Specimen preparation

Fig. 3. The demolished concrete lumps (DCLs) and their size distribution.
based concrete: the commercially-available concrete that was poured
and the hardened DCLs. The FC and CC abbreviations both refer to the
commercially-available concrete but with different strengths.
Previous studies [26,27] have shown that the compressive strength
of the compound concrete containing DCLs can be estimated by the sum
of the constituents' strengths weighted by their respective mass frac-
tions:
fcu, com = fcu, FC (1 − η) + fcu, DCLs η (1)
where fcu, FC, fcu, DCLs, and fcu, com are the cube strengths of the FC, the
DCLs, and the resultant compound concrete, respectively; η is the re-
placement ratio of FC by DCLs. The utility of this approximation has
been upheld by a large volume of experimental data [26–31]. It is
particularly the case for the steel tubular columns containing DCLs, due
to the extra confinement offered by the tube [26,27,31,32].
Analogously, the representative compressive strength of a PS, fcu,
com, PS, could be estimated as: fcu, com, PS =
fcu, FC (1 − ηlocal ) + fcu, DCLs ηlocal . Then when it comes to determining
the ultimate load of a column infilled with CC and PSs, the contribution
from the concrete might be estimated based on a similar weighted
average strength:
fcu, com, Core = fcu, CC (1 − ηPS) + fcu, com, PS ηPS (2)
where fcu, CC, fcu, com, PS, and fcu, com, Core are the cube strengths of the
CC, the PS infill, and the resultant concrete core, respectively; ηPS is the
volume fraction of PSs with respect to the concrete core. The appro-
priateness of Eq. (2) was tested in these experiments.
The DCLs used in this study were obtained from a local demolition
project (a section of an expressway). Concrete pavement was being
broken up and removed at that site, generating a large number of waste
concrete pieces. Some selected pieces were transported to the labora-
tory and further crushed into lumps (i.e. DCLs) with a characteristic size
of 100–150 mm, as shown in Fig. 3. The compressive strength of the
DCLs was determined through core tests conducted according to the
standard procedure [42]. The cylindrical samples drilled on site were
70 mm in diameter by 70 mm long. Sample cores with that configura-
tion are treated by the code [42] as equivalent to 150 mm cubes. Based
on that assumption, the 150 mm cube compressive strength of the DCLs
(fcu, DCLs) was measured as 31.5 MPa (see Table 2).
Both the FC used for the PSs, and the CC used for the column spe-
cimens cast later on, were purchased from the same local supplier.
The steel tubes were fabricated first by roll forming and then
straight welding to close the section. The tubes' ends were cut to the
required length.
There were then two subsequent phases (1 and 2) involved in as-
sembling the test columns. The first was casting the PS blocks. A total of
16 PSs with different sizes were produced during phase 1. The molds
were laid horizontally on the ground outside of the laboratory. Due to
the shallow depth of the molds (less than 350 mm) the DCLs were
placed first all in one go (at a 40% replacement ratio, see Table 2). The
FC (47.4 MPa) was then discharged directly from a mixer truck and
mixed with the DCLs (see Fig. 2). This precasting was of course sig-
nificantly more efficient than on-site vertical casting that entails several
lifts to cast a column or a wall panel, and placing and mixing DCLs and
FC alternately with every lift [26,27,31,32]. Two specialty inserts—leg
bars and hoisting hooks—were embedded in each PS in this phase. PSs
after being stripped from the molds are shown in Fig. 4a.
Phase 2 took place 75 days later when the PSs were moved inside
the laboratory by a forklift truck and then lifted by a bridge crane to
install them into the hollow steel tubes. The PSs were centrally posi-
tioned in the tubes. The CC (32.8 MPa for Series C1 and 55.2 MPa Series
C2) was then cast to fill the space between the tube walls and the PS
infill, as shown in Fig. 4b. The CC was consolidated using a spud vi-
brator. The two control columns were made following the previously
suggested method [26,27,31,32].
To facilitate applying axial loading, the ends of each tube were
capped with 720 mm × 720 mm steel plates 20 mm thick. The bottom
plates were welded on before the installation of the PSs, and the upper
ones after the final casting. Stiffeners were provided at the ends of the
tubes to prevent premature failure there.
The whole production process also served as a mock-up test to check
the feasibility of the proposed fabrication method, and it appeared to be
readily carried out.
2.4. Test setup, instrumentation, and loading
The specimens were mounted on a rigid servo-hydraulic press with a
compressive loading capacity of 15 MN, as shown in Fig. 5. Prior to
testing, thin layers of high-strength gypsum plaster were used to level
the two ends of each specimen to ensure uniform distribution of the
applied load across the column's cross section.
Instrumentation for monitoring the axial deformation of large-scale
column specimens, especially selecting the gauge length, has long been
a concern [44], because the compression failure of a concrete specimen
is often characterized by a localized damaged zone resulting from strain
localization [45,46]. Based on the method adopted by Jansen and Shah
[47], two groups of linear variable differential transducers (LVDTs)
with gauge lengths of 1800 mm and 1700 mm were used to measure
any axial shortening of the specimens. Each group comprised four
LVDTs evenly and alternately placed 90° apart around the perimeter of

Table 3
Mix proportions of the FC and CC.

Concrete Water (kg/m3) Cement (kg/m3) Coarse aggregate (kg/m3) Fine aggregate (kg/m3) Fly ash (kg/m3) Water reducer (kg/m3)

FC (47.4 MPa) 156 299 1080 720 100 5.19

CC (32.8 MPa) 175 234 1031 810 100 3.01
CC (55.2 MPa) 156 393 1115 601 95 6.34

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B. Wu et al. Thin-Walled Structures 127 (2018) 275–289

Fig. 4. Fabrication of column specimens in laboratory (also served as mock-up tests).

the section (Fig. 5a). The 1800 mm LVDTs were used to record the re-
lative displacement between the top and bottom end plates, while the
1700 mm ones, mounted on steel rods deeply embedded in the concrete
and symmetrically located 50 mm from the top and bottom end plates
recorded the axial deformation over that region. Since it was expected
that the columns would fail by a shear band spanning most of the
height, the instrumentation layout was considered appropriate.
Strain gauges were attached to the steel tubes' outer surfaces to
record the axial and hoop strains. As is shown schematically in Fig. 6,
two strain gauge layouts were used for the specimens: (i) layout I had
three levels of strain gauges (Sections 1–3) along the column length. It
was used for the control columns and the columns with one or two PSs;
(ii) layout II was used for the columns with three PSs. It had five levels
of strain gauges. The above two layouts guaranteed that at least the

Fig. 5. The test setup and layout of the LVDTs.

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B. Wu et al. Thin-Walled Structures 127 (2018) 275–289

Fig. 6. Strain gauge layouts (unit: mm).

tube's strains midway along each PS and at the space between two
adjacent PSs could be recorded. At each level, four sets of two strain
gauges, one oriented along the axial and one in the hoop directions,
were placed at 90° apart around the tube.
Concentric loading was applied on the test columns at a constant
rate of 0.002 mm/s before the peak load and progressively increased to
0.01 mm/s afterwards. All of the measured data were recorded by a
computer-aided data acquisition system throughout the loading history
until the load dropped to 75% of its peak value.

Fig. 7. Failure modes and load versus deformation curves.

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B. Wu et al. Thin-Walled Structures 127 (2018) 275–289

Fig. 8. Comparison of failure plane angles.

3. Experimental results and discussion

3.1. General behavior and failure mode

Fig. 9. Concrete cores after testing.

Note at the outset that there was no significant difference in failure

progression among the test specimens. Fig. 7a shows the appearance of Table 4
all of the specimens after the testing. The corresponding axial load–- Test results.

deformation curves are assembled in Fig. 7b arranged in the same se- Specimen εy (%) Ny (kN) εue (%) Nue (kN) Ny / Nue Toughness μ
quence. All of the columns exhibited several local buckles distributed index
over the column's length induced when the concrete was locally cru-
shed and wedged against the thin steel tube. The formation of an in- S0-C1 0.149 5921 1.168 8612 0.69 0.911 –
S1-A1-C1 0.158 7151 0.812 10,123 0.71 0.827 5.30
clined shear failure plane was also apparent in each column.
S2-A1-C1 0.132 6777 0.729 9996 0.68 0.836 5.53
Fig. 8 compares the measured angles of the shear failure plane de- S2-A2-C1 0.125 6320 0.862 9071 0.70 0.912 14.81
( )
l −l
fined as θ = arctan 1 D 2 (as depicted in the inset of the figure). It is S3-A1-C1
S0-C2
0.147
0.148
6256
9241
0.812
0.412
9893
13,444
0.63
0.69
0.839
0.672
4.76
3.21
evident that the angles varied from 35° to 64°. The specimens made
S1-A1-C2 0.148 9114 0.293 12,200 0.75 0.852 9.45
with higher-strength CC (i.e. Series C2) clearly had smaller shear plane S2-A1-C2 0.157 9338 0.356 13,001 0.72 0.738 3.25
angles than those of Series C1. This suggests that failure was more lo- S2-A2-C2 0.153 9756 0.337 13,164 0.74 0.580 2.69
calized for the specimens made with higher-strength CC. S3-A1-C2 0.146 8773 0.382 12,611 0.70 0.604 3.64
It is worth mentioning that the inclination of a shear sliding plane
Note: Ny and Nue are the yield and ultimate loads of the columns, respectively; εy and εue
separating a concrete column into two wedges is known to depend on
are the axial strains at Ny and Nue, respectively; and μ is the ductility factor.
the degree of confinement offered by steel reinforcement or a tube
[48,49]. Paultre's group [49] found that the angle could be estimated
using a linear function of the confining pressure; that is, greater con-
finement would result in a flatter shear failure plane. That implies that
the columns with higher-strength CC in these tests might have greater
lateral restraint than those fabricated with lower-strength CC. This was
a little confusing since the steel wall thickness was exactly the same in
both cases and, what's more, higher-strength concrete is normally as-
sociated with less confinement activation because of its reduced lateral
dilation [50,51]. This will be discussed further in the next subsection.
The onset of shear failure plane was usually coupled with appreciable
local wall buckling observable to the naked eye after the peak load
(Fig. 7b).
Several specimens were flame cut to investigate the failure mode of
concrete core. Fig. 9 shows the concrete surface of S3-A1-C1 and S3-A1-
C2 (two cases of using three PSs per column). It can be seen that the
concrete was not severely granulated even near the locally-buckled
tube, and that the column's integrity was maintained. Neither large Fig. 10. Comparison of axial responses corresponding to two different gauge lengths.
surface defects nor any other fabrication flaws (e.g., air pockets) due to
improper casting were evident, but the diagonal shear band was clearly appeared adequate. Indeed, the CC appeared to be able to well en-
present. The specimens were then broken into two halves along the capsulate the separated PSs, bonding them into a dense, integrated
diagonal band, as marked in Fig. 9. There was no obvious sign of mass. The shear plane's surface in S3-A1-C2 using higher-strength CC
transverse separation between the PS infill and the CC in either sample. was observed to be smoother than that of S3-A1-C1, possibly reducing
The CC infilling in the 60 mm space between two neighboring PSs also the former's aggregate interlock action during axial loading.

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B. Wu et al.
Fig. 11. Effect of the compressive strength of the CC.
3.2. Axial load versus axial strain curves
The axial load–strain response curves are compared in Figs. 11–13.
Table 4 also summarizes the main test results.
Fig. 10 compares the test curves (taking S2-A1-C2 as an example)
with the axial strain obtained by averaging the relative displacement
over the 1700 mm and 1800 mm gauge lengths. Evidently the two
measurements were rather close, particularly on the descending branch.
This implies that the gap between the end plates and the concrete core
was minimal and that the load was uniformly distributed. The axial
strains recorded with the 1800 mm gauges were used to represent the
specimens' axial deformation. All of the columns initially behaved si-
milarly and exhibited linear load–strain behavior up to the yield load,
Ny (defined as the load corresponding to the steel's yielding). The values
of Ny ranged from 63% to 75% (70% on average) of their respective
peak loads (see Table 4). The values of the columns’ axial yield strains
εy at Ny were generally close and comparable to the yield strain of the
steel, whereas the values of the peak load and the corresponding axial
strain varied significantly, depending on the compressive strength of
the CC, the number of PSs in the column, and their dimensions.
(1) Effect of the compressive strength of CC.
Figs. 7b and 11a show the compressive strength of the CC relative to
that of PS infill (represented by fcu, com, PS, uniformly taken as
41.0 MPa) plays an essential role in determining a column's axial
response. When the CC's strength was relatively low (32.8 MPa,
Series C1), the columns exhibited ductile post-peak behavior and a
very smooth transition from the yield point to peak load (strain-
hardening). With the higher-strength CC (55.2 MPa, Series C2) the
columns showed distinctly different response. After yielding the
peak load was soon attained at a substantially lower strain (εue), on
average only 43% of that of the corresponding Series C1 sample.
That was followed by a sudden drop in resistance. Although the
steel wall thickness for both series was the same, their post-yield
and especially strain-softening behaviors diverged. This dis-
crepancy was indicative of the unique characteristics of the con-
finement effect and the composite behavior of the specimens in
compression.
Up to about 70% of the peak load (Nue) the concrete in the steel
tube remained intact and the passive confinement was negligible.
Beyond that considerable micro-cracking initiated and the concrete
began to dilate. With higher-strength CC the dilation of the lower-
strength PS infill should be somewhat greater than that of the CC, so
the PS infill would press outward against the CC and hence against
the steel tube, activating an early restraint of the concrete core. The
CC so engaged would soon exceed its own strength and become soft
282
Thin-Walled Structures 127 (2018) 275–289
and unstable. The PS infill would then lose some of its stiff support,
causing a marked decrease in its confinement. Yet more deleterious
was that such earlier loosening of the CC tended to induce a partial
loss of composite action between the outer steel tube and the inner
dual concrete system. The specimens in Series C2 showed this, with
an unexpected decline in load resistance beyond their ultimate
strengths.
For Series C1, in contrast, at first the transverse expansion of the
lower-strength CC exceeded that of the PS infill, so the CC was less
engaged by the infill until the latter further shortened and cracked.
As the load continued to increase, the confinement exerted by the
steel tube progressively developed, and after the peak it slowly
declined, permitting a stable containment of the concrete's dilation.
Also, the composite action remained evident to a large extent, even
far beyond the ultimate strength. The concrete core consequently
behaved like a plastic mass, carrying further loading and leading to
a more ductile failure pattern.
In summary then, the difference in lateral dilations between the CC
and within the PS blocks engendered the distinct development of
confinement and composite actions. Since the composite concrete
strength fcu, com, Core of Series C2 was higher than that of Series C1, a
steeper softening response for the former should be anticipated.
However, the higher-strength CC was not always detrimental.
Fig. 11 compares the strength enhancement of each specimen with
respect to the capacity predictions using the ACI design provision
[36]. That provision conservatively assumes that the load-carrying
capacity is simply the sum of the contributions from the steel and
the concrete without considering any confinement effects. In this
study's calculation, fcu, com, Core represents the compressive strength
of the concrete cores in the proposed.
In Fig. 11a and b the percentages shown indicate the overstrength
with reference to the ACI predictions. The strength enhancement
for Series C2 (on average 31.5% in excess of the ACI predictions)
was generally higher than for Series C1 (24.0%). This might arise
from the lower-strength PS infill bearing against the higher-strength
CC in Series C2 as previously discussed. But such a slight gain in
strength was not enough to offset the dramatic loss in strength after
the peak load.
(2) Effect of the number of PSs in a column.
The number of PSs in a column was another important variable.
Fig. 12 shows its influence. As Fig. 12a and b show, this influence
was also affected by the compressive strength of CC.
When using lower-strength CC, any effect of the number of PSs was
virtually negligible (Fig. 12a). This implies that due to its gentle
strength decay, lower-strength CC might act as a cushion to uni-
formly diffuse the axial stresses throughout the column after the
B. Wu et al.
Fig. 12. Effects of the number of PSs assembled in a single column.
peak stress, making the axial response insensitive to the dis-
continuities in the infill.
Control column S0-C1 showed a 13.9% lower ultimate load and
more perfect plasticity than the average of the other specimens
cited in Fig. 12a. This might be attributed to S0-C1's 12.5% lower
value of fcu, com, Core (see Table 2), and a more even distribution of
DCLs inside that specimen.
When using higher-strength CC, however, the impact of the number
of PSs is more significant, primarily after the peak. As shown in
Fig. 12b, the more PSs in a column, the more steeply the response
curves descended. Owing to the violent nature of the crushing
failure for high-strength concrete [52], as more CC is used as a
result of more PSs being installed, the response curves bend more
abruptly, fully exposing the negative effect of the discontinuities in
the PS infill.
The control column S0-C2 reached a 6.7% higher ultimate load than
the average strength of the other specimens shown in Fig. 12b,
correlating with the former's 5.2% larger value of fcu, com, Core.
(3) Effect of the cross-sectional dimension of PS infill.
The last test variable examined was the cross-sectional dimension of
PS infill. Fig. 13 shows that its effect on the axial response of the
test columns was only moderate compared to the impact of the
other two key parameters.
For S2-A2-C2 (A2 = 303 × 303 mm2), a 20% decrease in the area
fraction of the PS infill relative to that of S2-A1-C2
(A1 = 331 × 331 mm2) had very little effect on the ultimate load,
but it reduced the sample's ductility to some extent. Comparing S2-
A1-C1 with its counterpart S2-A2-C1, the same magnitude of re-
duction in the area fraction induced a 9.3% decrease in the ultimate
Fig. 13. Effect of the cross-sectional dimensions of the PS infill.
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Thin-Walled Structures 127 (2018) 275–289
load and also a more gradual descending branch, likely due to more
lower-strength CC being used in S2-A2-C1.
3.3. Local strain response
The local strain gauges' readings are shown in Figs. 14 and 15. The
sign convention is that tension is positive and compression is negative
strain. The strains discussed will be the average values recorded at a
specific section (Fig. 6) [53].
Fig. 14 shows the axial load versus longitudinal and hoop strain
curves for two typical specimens S2-A1-C1 and S2-A1-C2. Initially the
strains for both specimens were linearly proportional to the applied
load, and the responses registered at different sections were coincident,
indicating a uniform stress state along column's length at that stage.
After the steel had yielded, the strains at different sections diverged.
For S2-A1-C1, both the longitudinal and hoop strains at Section 2 (half-
way between two adjacent PSs) increased more rapidly than those at
Sections 1 and 3 (at the midpoints of the lower and upper PSs, re-
spectively). This was due in part to the larger lateral expansion of the
lower-strength CC filled at Section 2. Further scrutiny reveals that one
end of the shear band spread exactly from the mid-length of the column
(marked in the figure; for S2-A1-C2 also). The accompanying wedging
action therefore also accounted for the concentrated deformation
(strain) at Section 2. For S2-A1-C2, however, the difference in the strain
development at the three corresponding sections was much less than in
S2-A1-C1. This probably resulted from the more limited expansion of
the higher-strength CC at Section 2 in that tube.
At the peak load, the strain curves outside the shear band dropped
abruptly for both specimens, whereas inside the region where the band
crossed, the strains continued to develop. This demonstrated strain lo-
calization in the large-scale specimens.
Fig. 15a and b compare the hoop and longitudinal strains for the
same two specimens at different sections up to a hoop strain of 0.35%.
The hoop strains initially lag the corresponding longitudinal values,
with their ratios being nearly constant and close to Poisson's ratio for
the steel. Beyond the steel's yielding (at 0.14% longitudinal strain), the
hoop strains developed faster than before, implying the occurrence of
concrete dilation. The slopes of the strain curves also reflected the di-
lation rate, defined as the rate of change of the hoop strain with respect
to the longitudinal strain [54]. Evidently, the dilation rates of S2-A1-C1
using lower-strength CC were generally more uniform and consistent
along its column length compared to S2-A1-C2, though at the early
stage the opposite was the case (possibly due to the higher initial axial
stiffness of S2-A1-C2). For S2-A1-C2 (Fig. 15b), however, the dilation
rate at Section 2 became significantly lower than at Sections 1 and 3
after the peak load (approximately at 0.3% longitudinal strain). This
bears out the existence of heterogeneous and localized transverse
B. Wu et al.
Fig. 14. Axial load versus longitudinal/hoop stain curves.
expansions in the post-peak phase along the column length when
higher-strength concrete is used.
The predictions of a confinement model recently proposed by Lai
and Ho [55] are also plotted in Fig. 15. The model can accurately
predict the experimental hoop–longitudinal strain curves and axial
load–strain responses of conventional CFTs through an iterative solu-
tion procedure. In this study the concrete core (PS infill and CC) was
assumed for simplicity to be a homogeneous mass with a compressive
strength of fcu, com, Core.
As shown, the predictions for S2-A1-C1 agree very well with the
measurements, indicating the appropriateness of the assumption that
the concrete core could be regarded as a uniform material. For S2-A1-
C2 (shown in Fig. 15b), although the actual strain's development at
Section 2 deviated somewhat from the prediction, at Sections 1 and 3
the assumption remained valid on average.
3.4. Axial strength, toughness index, and ductility
To better quantify the test results, in this subsection the axial
strength, toughness index, and ductility of the specimens are briefly
summarized. Those values are listed in Table 4.
The toughness index (TI) can be employed to evaluate the energy-
absorbing capacity of a column during axial loading [56]. It is defined
as the ratio of the area under the axial load–strain curve, Au, to that of
an equivalent fully rigid material, Au = Nue εAu. Here the effective axial
strain, εAu, can be taken as 2.0%. The measured curves did not reach an
axial strain of 2.0% for a few specimens such as S0-C2, so their curves
Fig. 15. Comparison of the development of hoop and longitudinal strain.
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Thin-Walled Structures 127 (2018) 275–289
were extrapolated. The displacement ductility can be estimated based
on a ductility factor μ = ε85,2/ε85,1, where ε85,1 and ε85,2 are the strains
corresponding to 85% of the peak load on the ascending and des-
cending parts of the curve, respectively [57].
Table 4 shows that among the three test variables studied, the
compressive strength of the CC had a comprehensive impact on the
axial load-carrying capacity Nue (35.9% higher), the axial strain at the
peak load εue (58.7% lower), the TI (19.9% lower), and the ductility
factor μ (17.1% lower), with the percentages in the parentheses re-
presenting the average difference of Series C2 relative to Series C1.
With lower-strength CC, the influence of the number of PSs on those
response indexes was limited (generally within 10%). However, if using
higher-strength CC, the values of Nue for S3-A1-C2 in relation to S1-A1-
C2 increased by 3.4% and εue was 30.4% greater. TI decreased by
29.1%, and μ decreased by as much as 61.4%, showing again the
downsides of enclosing PS infill with higher-strength CC.
In Series C1 the cross-sectional area of the PS infill of S2-A1-C1 was
about 1.2 times that of S2-A2-C1. That brought about a 10.2% increase
in the ultimate strength (Nue) of the former, but also led to losses in
displacement and energy-dissipation capacity (both greater than 8%).
In Series C2 the reduction in Nue for S2-A1-C2 relative to S2-A2-C2 is
only 1.2%. As regards TI and μ, the values for S2-A1-C2 were at least
20% higher than its counterpart S2-A2-C2. This suggests that the
amount of CC used had more influence on the post-peak response than
on other mechanical behavior.
B. Wu et al. Thin-Walled Structures 127 (2018) 275–289

l
∫0 p (s ) ds As
l
=
∫0 σ2 (s ) ds 2Ac (7)
Hominization can then simplify evaluating the ultimate load of a
proposed column, still considering the concrete core as an integrated
and uniform mass with a compressive strength of fcu, com, Core (see Eq.
(2)). This simplification is reasonable because the test results show that
the columns’ axial responses were, in general, less influenced by the
complex internal stress redistributions, at least before the peak load.
That allows making a set of assumptions:

• The concrete core is subjected to the equivalent confining stress p eq:

l p (s )
peq = ∫0 l
ds
(8)

• The steel tube is transversely elongated under the equivalent tensile

stress σ2, eq:

l σ2 (s )
σ2, eq = ∫0 l
ds
(9)

Fig. 16. Free-body diagram of one quarter of a steel tube. • As a consequence, the column concerned has equivalent confine-
ment index ξeq:
4. Prediction of axial load-bearing capacity As f y
ξeq =
Ac fc′, com, Core (10)
In the following, the axial load-carrying capacities of all of the
column specimens will be predicted in term of the current design codes
and using a theoretical model proposed in this research.
The model's derivation departs from that of Cai [58] which led to a where fc,′ com, Core is the cylinder compressive strength of the equivalent
closed-form design formula and which has been used to predict the concrete core, and fc,′ com, Core is assumed to equal to 0.8 fcu, com, Core.
ultimate strength of conventional CFTs. That estimation is based on the Note that Eqs. (8) and (9) are actually forcing the relevant quantities
confinement index ξ, defined as: to be uniform along the column's length. That means that Eq. (7) can be
rewritten as:
As fy
ξ= peq As
Ac fc′ (3) =
σ2, eq 2Ac (11)
where As and Ac are the cross-sectional areas of the steel and concrete
core, respectively; fy and fc′ are the yield strength of steel and the cy- The confined equivalent compressive strength of the concrete core
linder compressive strength of concrete core, respectively. The con- fcc, eq can be computed using the following expression, the form of
finement effect is thus explicitly considered in Cai's model. This model which is similar to that widely adopted for confined conventional
may not, however, be applicable to less compact CFTs. Cai's model was concrete:
therefore modified in this study to better predict the present test results. peq
⎛ ⎞
The free-body diagram of one quarter of a circular CFT's steel tube fcc, = fc′, com, Core ⎜
1+K
eq
fc′, com, Core ⎟ (12)
of length l is shown in Fig. 16. A Cartesian coordinate system x-y-s has ⎝ ⎠
its origin at the bottom center of the tube with the s-axis oriented along
where the parameter K is approximated as 4.0 [58], slightly smaller
the column's center line. The force equilibrium for this isolated tube
than the value 4.1 that is frequently used in concrete confinement
yields the following equation:
models [59,60].
l l π l π Regardless of the types of concrete used, Von Mises yield criterion
∫0 σ2 (s ) tds = ∫0 ∫0 2 p (s)sin θRdθds = ∫0 p (s ) ds ∫0 2 R sin θdθ (4) must be met for the steel. So
where σ2 = the tensile hoop stress in the steel tube (see Fig. 16); t = the σs2 + σs σ2, eq + σ2,2 eq = f y2 (13)
steel wall thickness; p = the confining stress; θ = the angle rotated with
respect to the y-axis; R = the circular tube's inner radius. Here σ2 and p where σs is the longitudinal stress of the steel tube.
are assumed to vary as functions of s along the length l, as was observed The column's ultimate load Nu is then:
in the current experiments. Nu = Ac fcc, + As σs
eq (14)
After some manipulation, Eq. (4) can be simplified as:
when the equivalent confining stress peq reaches its peak value peq,
l l D l
t ∫0 σ2 (s ) ds = R ∫0 p (s ) ds =
2
∫0 p (s ) ds
(5) peak, Nu can be elaborated as follows by combining Eqs. (11)–(14):
2
where D = the circular tube's inner diameter. For the geometry of the ⎡ peq, peak ⎛ peq, peak ⎞ ⎤
Nu = Ac fc′, ⎢1 + (K − 1) + ξeq 2 − 3 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
CFT analyzed, one can immediately get: com, Core
⎢ fc′, com, Core f′ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ c, com, Core ⎠ ⎦
As πDt 4t
≈ π 2 = (15)
Ac 4
D D (6)
The only unknown variable on the right hand side of the equation is
Combining Eqs. (5) and (6) yields: peq, peak. To determine it and hence Nu, Cai solved the equation

285
B. Wu et al. Thin-Walled Structures 127 (2018) 275–289

compact CFTs. Because only conventional CFTs were treated in the

database, f′c, com, Core can be replaced by fc′, and the equivalent con-
fining stress peq, peak can be determined using Eq. (15).
Fig. 17 shows that all the test data points are on or below the
peq, peak ξeq
straight line of fc′, com, Core
= 2
, nicely corroborating the utility of the
inequality. It is worth mentioning that the confinement index ξeq for the
present test specimens varied between 0.35 and 0.55, generally not
satisfying the requirement of Chinese code CECS 28 [70], in which the
design for CFTs is based on Cai's model and in which ξ > 0.5 is re-
quired.
Since the confining stress peq, peak is difficult to obtain mathemati-
cally, curve-fitting is used to bring out the relationship between
peq, peak
′
and ξeq, thereby determining peq, peak indirectly. Fitting the
fc, com, Core
experimental results from the database generates the empirical formula:
This is plotted in Fig. 17.
Fig. 17. The relationship between peq/f'c, com, Core and ξeq based on experimental results.
2
peq, peak 0.001ξeq + 0.022ξeq
dNu
= 0 [58]. As a result, (if K= 4.0 is assumed) the root of peq, peak, = g (ξeq ) = 2
dpeq, peak fc′, com, Core ξeq − 0.584ξeq + 0.148 (19)
denoted as p0, can be computed as:
fc′, ξ (K − 1) fc′, ξ With that equation the ultimate strengths of both the proposed columns
com, Core eq com, Core eq
p0 = ≈ and of conventional thin-walled CFTs (ξ < 0.6) can be readily calcu-
3[3 + (K − 1)2] 2 (16) lated by substituting Eq. (19) into Eq. (15).
Plugging Eq. (16) into Eq. (15) yields Cai's design formula: Table 5 and Fig. 18 compare the computed ultimate strengths
against the experimental results, with the former being obtained by
⎡1 + ξ 3 + (K − 1)2 ⎤ using the design provisions of some selected codes and the design
Nu = Ac fc′, com, Core ⎢ eq ′
⎥ ≈ A c fc, com, Core
(1 + 2ξeq )
3 method proposed in this study. In using these prediction methods, the
⎣ ⎦
concrete core (PS infill and CC) of the proposed columns is again
(17)
considered as a uniform material, with its compressive strength being
But the derivation may not always apply, and it is likely to result in represented by fcu, com, Core.
an overestimation for CFTs with relatively thin tubes. Instead, from Eq. From Fig. 18, the code EC4: 2004 apparently provides a relatively
(11) it can be derived that: accurate prediction of the ultimate load with respect to the outcomes
As σ2, eq As fy given by the other design codes. This may be attributed to EC4: 2004's
peq, peak = fc′, com, Core
≤ fc′, com, Core taking due account of the confinement effect. In addition, it is clear that
2Ac fc′, com, Core 2Ac fc′, com, Core as compared to the safe but generally conservative results estimated by
fc′, com,
ξ
Core eq the design codes, the proposed design equation improves the accuracy
= ≈ p0
2 (18) of the ultimate strength prediction for both the proposed columns and
for conventional less-compact CFTs, with the mean and coefficient of
which means that peq, peak achieves p0 if and only if σ2,eq = fy. But that
variation (CoV) of the predicted-to-experimental ratio being as small as
condition holds only when σs= 0 according to Eq. (13). Clearly this is
1.007% and 6.2%, respectively. This also confirms the propriety of
not the case. In fact, there should be a peq, peak < p0 and thus
peq, peak ξeq
assuming that the concrete core in the proposed columns is a uniform
p0
fc′, com, Core
< fc′, com, Core
≈ 2
. material.
Fig. 17 verifies the validity of that inequality by employing the
comprehensive experimental database compiled in this study. This da-
tabase includes the results of 72 tests published by other scholars, in- 5. Conclusions and remarks
cluding those from the investigations of Luksha and Nesterovich [61],
Prion and Boehme [62], Bergmann [63], O'Shea and Bridge [64], Yu This research has demonstrated that the proposed composite col-
et al. [65], Wang [66], Han et al. [67], Tan [68], and Zhang [69]. The umns infilled with CC and PSs are technically feasible. Conclusions and
confinement indexes ξ ranged from 0.03 to 0.60, representing the less remarks can be summarized as follows:

Table 5
Comparison of the calculated results against experimental data.

Specimen ξeq Nue (kN) EC4: 2004 ACI 318-14 AISC 360-16 GB 50936-2014 DBJ 13-51-2010 Proposed method

Nuc (kN) Nuc/Nue Nuc (kN) Nuc/Nue Nuc (kN) Nuc/Nue Nuc (kN) Nuc/Nue Nuc (kN) Nuc/Nue Nuc (kN) Nuc/Nue

S0-C1 0.541 8612 8621 1.001 6783 0.788 7201 0.836 8320 0.966 7685 0.892 8839 1.026
S1-A1-C1 0.472 10,123 9305 0.919 7392 0.730 7870 0.777 9073 0.896 8399 0.830 9914 0.979
S2-A1-C1 0.474 9996 9282 0.929 7371 0.737 7848 0.785 9048 0.905 8375 0.838 9879 0.988
S2-A2-C1 0.483 9071 9182 1.012 7282 0.803 7750 0.854 8937 0.985 8271 0.912 9725 1.072
S3-A1-C1 0.476 9893 9259 0.936 7351 0.743 7825 0.791 9022 0.912 8351 0.844 9844 0.995
S0-C2 0.351 13,444 11,168 0.831 9040 0.672 9680 0.720 11,118 0.827 10,334 0.769 12,418 0.924
S1-A1-C2 0.371 12,200 10,771 0.883 8690 0.712 9296 0.762 10,683 0.876 9924 0.813 11,940 0.979
S2-A1-C2 0.369 13,001 10,811 0.832 8725 0.671 9335 0.718 10,727 0.825 9965 0.766 11,990 0.922
S2-A2-C2 0.360 13,164 10,986 0.835 8880 0.675 9504 0.722 10,919 0.829 10,146 0.771 12,202 0.927
S3-A1-C2 0.367 12,611 10,851 0.860 8761 0.695 9374 0.743 10,771 0.854 10,006 0.793 12,039 0.955

Note: ξeq is the equal confinement index; Nue and Nuc are the experimental and calculated axial load-carrying capacities, respectively.

286
B. Wu et al.
Fig. 18. Predicted and experimental ultimate strength ratios.
(1) As the medium that transfers lateral stresses between the PS infill
and the steel tube, CC plays a rather critical role in determining the
post-yield and strain-softening responses of the proposed columns.
Although the ultimate axial load is less influenced, using higher-
strength CC appears to overshadow the confinement and composite
actions beyond the ultimate load, making the post-peak response
more brittle (37.4% lower ductility on average). It therefore seems
reasonable to limit the compressive strength of the CC so that at
least it is not significantly higher than that of the PS infill, in order
to enable more compatible dilations and, hence, a more ductile
post-peak response;
287
Thin-Walled Structures 127 (2018) 275–289
(2) The number of PSs used in each column is primarily a construction
site decision, but it affects the descending behavior when higher-
strength CC is used. With lower-strength CC this effect is very
limited. If possible, one PS per column (of one-story height) is re-
commended to reduce the undesirable effects caused by dis-
continuities in the PS infill. The largest possible PS blocks permitted
by on-site conditions should be used. In these tests the clearance
between the corners of the blocks and the steel wall was only
10 mm, but the results seemed to be insignificantly influenced.
Besides, to further enhance the efficiency of casting, self-con-
solidating CC may be a good option [67,71]; and
B. Wu et al.
(3) The ultimate axial capacity of the proposed columns can be safely
estimated using current design codes, but it is better predicted by
the empirical design equation suggested in this research. That
equation is also applicable to conventional CFTs with less compact
cross sections (confinement index < 0.6). When predicting the load
resistance of the proposed columns, the concrete core (PS infill and
CC) can be treated as an integrated and homogeneous mass with a
weighted average strength.
It is worth mentioning that these conclusions are based on ob-
servations with the relatively thin steel tubes used in these tests. For
thicker tubes the disadvantageous effects exposed in these tests are
likely to be greatly reduced. Furthermore, if the proposed semi-precast
columns are subjected to large strain gradients developed over the cross
section (e.g., under eccentric loading), the interactions between the
column's components may become more complex. Those concerns
should to be addressed in future studies.
Acknowledgements
This research was financially supported by China’s National Key R&
D Program (grant 2017YFC0703303), the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (grant 51778240), the Key Project of Science
(Technology) Research of Guangzhou (grant 201607020005), and the
funds of China’s State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Building Science
(grants 2015ZB21 and 2017KC17). That financial support is highly
appreciated.
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