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Chan Element Two lr1
Chan Element Two lr1
Literature Review Theme One: Math Anxiety
Alex Chan
Department of Education, Vancouver Island University
MEDL 680
Dr. Paige Fisher and Dr. Leah Taylor
November 21, 2021
LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature Review
Introduction
The construct of math anxiety began over a century ago. As math teachers, we may have
empathy and understanding for students who suffer from math anxiety. We use strategies like reducing
workload, allowing calculators and notes, giving extra time on tests. However, these strategies help
students manage their anxiety, they do not help students beat math anxiety. In this literature review, I
define math anxiety, then I discuss how math anxiety in teachers’ affects students, the relationship
between math anxiety and math achievement, and future opportunities.
What is Math Anxiety?
What is math anxiety and how did the construct of math anxiety develop? Richardson & Suinn
(1972) define math anxiety as a feeling of tension that interferes with the manipulation of numbers and
the solving of mathematical problems in a wide variety of ordinary life and academic situations (p. 551).
This is the definition that most recent articles use. However, anecdotal research goes back to 1906 in
Browne’s report on performance on the four arithmetic operations which references emotional
reactions to math and to 1954 where Gough contributed anecdotal evidence about students’
“mathemaphobia” (As cited in Mammarella, 2019, p. 1). The verse “multiplication is vexation … and
practice drives me mad” goes back to at least the sixteenth century (Dowker, 2016, p. 2). The construct
of math anxiety started with Dreger and Aiken (1957) when they modified the Taylor Manifest Anxiety
Scale by replacing 3 questions that had low validity with 3 math‐focused questions. The results showed
that “number anxiety” appeared to be a separate construct from more general anxiety, it was unrelated
to general intelligence, and that it has a negative correlation with math grades (as cited in Mammarella,
2019, p. 2). Two other constructs that seem to be studied alongside math anxiety are math self‐concept
and math self‐efficacy. Math self‐concept subsumes beliefs about self‐worth associated with math
LITERATURE REVIEW
competence and math self‐efficacy is a judgement of one’s capacity to perform domain‐specific tasks
(Kaskens, 2020, p. 2).
How do we measure math anxiety?
There are many assessments available to measure mathematics anxiety. Richardson and Suinn
(1972) developed the Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale (MARS) to measure mathematics anxiety. MARS
could be useful in 4 ways: it could serve as a diagnostic tool, the instrument could be used to determine
the relative effectiveness of different treatment strategies to anxiety problems, aid in the development
of the anxiety hierarchy used in such treatments, and in evaluating the results of students where a
control group is lacking and in evaluating the progress of individual clinic cases. The MARS uses a 98‐
item scale composed of brief description of behavioral situations. High scores reflect high levels of
mathematics anxiety. Normative data was collected on a sample of 397 freshmen or sophomore
students enrolled in a large state university in Missouri. Data was collected anonymously, and the
subjects were ensured that the purpose of the test was to gain information about the test, not about
the subjects. The test‐retest reliability of the MARS was also studied, and the results were favourable
compared to other anxiety tests. This means that we can use the test again to check the effects of
mathematics anxiety treatment is working and be confident in the results. Additionally, a separate study
to check for validity was also taken. Students completed the MARS and then were administered the
mathematics form of the Differential Aptitude Test. The results indicated that high MARS scores are
associated with poor performance on the math test. According to Richardson and Suinn, this is evidence
that the MARS does measure mathematics anxiety (pp. 551‐554).
There are a number of other measures of mathematics anxiety as described by Dowker et al.
(2016) who summarize the different methods of measuring mathematics anxiety. These methods
include MARS, Fennema‐Sherman Mathematics Attitude Scales, Mathematics Attitude and Anxiety
Questionaire, and the Children’s Attitude to Math Scale (pp. 4‐5). In addition, factors of mathematics
LITERATURE REVIEW
anxiety include gender, age, and culture, and research on treatment. According to Dowker et al. (2016)
all these assessments are equally effective, however, the MARS assessment and its many adaptations is
used the most and has been consistently found to be highly reliable (p. 5).
The problem is that math anxiety affects learning. Math anxiety can affect how students learn
and their math achievement. It also affects math instruction. This relationship between teacher math
anxiety and student math anxiety perpetuates the problem and we need to find strategies to help
prevent this transfer of math anxiety to students.
How does teacher math anxiety affect students?
A math anxious teacher produces math anxious students. Ramirez et al. (2018) studied 1886
ninth‐grade students from 11 public high schools from an internationally diverse national convenience
sample in California, New York, Texas, Virginia, and North Carolina. The participants were chosen from a
pool of students from the National Mindset Study, which was investigating the effect of a growth
mindset intervention program on student achievement. The data came from 3 sources: Official school
records, a teacher survey, and a student survey of teachers’ teaching practices and mindsets. In
addition, teacher math anxiety was measured using a single‐item math anxiety scale which asked, “In
general, how much math anxiety do you experience when you do very challenging math?” Teachers’
usable knowledge for teaching mathematics was measured using a short version of the Classroom Video
Analysis (CVA) scale focusing on variable, expressions, and equations. Students’ perceptions of their
teachers’ mindset were measured by responding to 3 statements: “My math teacher believes that
everybody in my class can be very good at math,” “My math teacher seems to believe that only a few
students will understand the hardest problems,” and “My math teacher seems to like you better if you
are good at math.” Higher values to measure the math teachers’ practices, students rated the following
statements: “My math teacher accepts nothing less than our full effort,” “My math teacher asks
questions to be sure we are following along when s/he is teaching,” “In my math class, we learn a lot
LITERATURE REVIEW
almost every day,” “My math teacher doesn’t let people give up when the work gets hard,” and “ My
math teacher wants us to use our thinking skills, not just memorize things.” Higher values indicated
more process‐oriented teaching practices. To measure learning, GPA from the end of grade eight, and
the first semester grade nine report cards were used. The study concludes that the way teachers feel in
the classroom and the indirect messages they convey through their practice has the potential to shape
students’ math achievement and their perceptions (Ramirez et al., 2018).
The research literature implies that a teachers’ own beliefs about math influence student
achievement. A study by Kaskens et al. (2020) is one of the first to examine the influences of several
child and teacher factors on children’s math development over the course of a school year. There were
610 children and 31 teachers at 27 elementary schools in different parts of the Netherlands involved in
this study. Math achievement was separated into arithmetic fluency, using the Speeded Arithmetic Test,
and mathematical problem‐solving, using criterion‐based mathematics tests. Math self‐concept, math
self‐efficacy, and math anxiety of the students were measured using the Mathematics Motivation
Questionnaire for Children. The actual teaching behavior was measured using the International
Comparative Analysis of Learning and Teaching instrument and teachers’ mathematical knowledge was
self‐assessed using the questionnaire: the Teachers’ Sense of Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching
Questionnaire. Finally, teachers’ self‐efficacy was measured using the long form of the Teachers’ Sense
of Self Efficacy Scale. The data supported assumptions that children’s math self‐concept can clearly
influence their math development and prior math achievement was the best predictor of future math
achievement. Actual teaching behavior during a math lesson was negatively associated with the
development of both the children’s arithmetic fluency and mathematical problem‐solving and teachers’
math teaching self‐efficacy negatively related to the children’s mathematical problem‐solving.
Teachers’ own math anxiety negatively influences student learning as early as grade one.
Schaeffer et al. (2020) studied 551 children and 40 first grade teachers in the Chicagoland area.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Children’s math knowledge was assessed within the first 12 weeks of the school year and again within
the last 12 weeks of the school year. Math knowledge was measured using the Applied Problems sub‐
test of the Woodcock‐Johnson III Tests of Achievement. Teachers’ math anxiety was assessed by
administering the short Mathematics Rating Scale and math knowledge for instruction was assessed by
using the Elementary Number Concepts and Operations subtest of the Content Knowledge for Teaching
Mathematics measure. The result of this study validates the original study by Beilock et al. (2010, as
cited in Schaeffer et al., 2020, pp. 1‐5) and shows that children’s early math knowledge is critical to their
later academic achievement.
Barroso et al. (2021) conducted a meta‐analysis of the relation between math anxiety and math
achievement. The study first searched online databases using the following search terms: mathematics,
anxiety, achievement, math, maths, arithmetic, numerical, geometry, statistics, calculus, algebra,
statistics anxiety, mathematics anxiety, math anxiety, and maths anxiety. Second, they asked the
Cognitive Development Society to grant access to unpublished data or articles on the relationship
between math anxiety and math achievement. In the end, the study reviewed 223 articles. The meta‐
analysis found that a small‐to‐moderate negative association is evident and robust for students as young
as grades 1 and 2 (pp. 135‐158). In as early as grade one, students are learning less math when their
teachers have higher math anxiety.
Children’s math learning can be affected by a variety of adults around them. According to
Schaeffer et al. (2020), recent research showed a negative association between parent math anxiety and
children’s math learning and higher teacher math anxiety was associated with lower end of year math
knowledge for both boys and girls (p. 2). Berkowitz (2015) shared that the children of high math anxious
parents tend to underperform in math as compared to their peers with low math anxious parents (as
cited in Mammarella, 2019, p. 194). Thus, it is important to address teacher and parent attitudes
towards math.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The Relationship Between Math Anxiety and Math Achievement
Math anxiety has compounding effects and is difficult to overcome. Dowker (2016) suggests,
people who have higher levels of math anxiety are more likely to avoid activities and situations that
involve mathematics. Thus, they have less practice, which is likely to reduce their fluency and their
future mathematical learning. In contrast to previous research, Kaskens (2020), found that mathematical
problem‐solving with children in grade 4 was not influenced by their math self‐concept, math self‐
efficacy, or math anxiety (p. 10). Beilock and Carr (2005, as cited in Mammarella, 2019, p. 192) found
that when adults were placed under pressure when solving math problems, high working memory
individuals experience decreased performance compared to those with low working memory. Therefore,
math anxiety has a stronger negative affect on individuals with high working memory compared to low
working memory. Mathematics anxiety affects learners in many ways, and we need strategies to
address this.
Future Opportunities
Strategies to reduce math anxiety can reduce the need for affirmative action. Beilock et al.
(2015) concludes that mathematics anxiety may contribute to the shortage of graduates who want to
work in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) – to meet the demands of a
technology‐dependent society – despite increased emphasis on improving mathematical education (as
cited in Mammarella, 2019, p. 141). Also, Richardson & Suinn (1972) found that mathematics anxiety
may prevent a student from passing fundamental mathematics courses or prevent their pursuing
advanced courses in mathematics or the sciences (p. 551). Meanwhile, society tries convincing more
women to choose STEM careers. Shaeffer et al. (2020) found that girls were significantly more likely to
hold the traditional gender stereotype (male = math) ( around what?) than boys by the fall of grade one
(p. 4). This would suggest that if we had good strategies for reducing math anxiety, that more women
would be intrinsically interested in STEM careers.
LITERATURE REVIEW
What can we do about it?
Studies have yet to conclusively show which comes first, math anxiety or math achievement. We
know that math anxiety negatively correlates to math achievement and it may be bidirectional. If a
learner already has low math knowledge they tend to spend less time learning and practicing math and
so a vicious cycle emerges. Since this can happen it would seem wise to think of solutions for different
age and ability groups. We should start with early intervention to prevent the vicious cycle. Also, parents
and teachers should be aware that their attitudes can transfer to their children and students. Therefore,
Dowker et al. (2016) suggests adults in children’s lives should model positive attitudes to mathematics
and avoid expressing negative ones to children starting as low as grade one (p. 10). To address middle
years and high school learners, Ramirez et al. (2011, as cited in Dowker et al. 2016, p. 11) and Park et al.
(2014, as cited in Barroso, 2021, p. 158) suggest expressive writing sessions prior to a math task can help
free up working memory which can improve performance on the math task. Using strategies focusing on
different levels allows us to help learners without needing to know which comes first, math anxiety or
math achievement.
LITERATURE REVIEW
References
Barroso, C., Ganley, C. M., McGraw, A. L., Geer, E. A., Hart, S. A., Daucourt, M. C., (2021). A meta‐analysis
of the relation between math anxiety and math achievement. Psychological Bulletin, 147(2),
134‐168. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/bul0000307
Dowker, A., Sarkar, A., Looi, C. Y. (2016). Mathematics anxiety: What have we learned in 60 years.
Frontiers in psychology, 7(508). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00508
Kaskens, J., Segers, E., Goei, S. L., van Luit, J. E. H., & Verhoeven, L. (2020). Impact of children’s math
self‐concept, math self‐efficacy, math anxiety, and teacher competencies on math development.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 94, 103096. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2020.103096
Mammarella, I. C., Caviola, S., & Dowker, A. (Ed.). (2019). Mathematics anxiety: What is known and what
is still to be understood. Routledge.
Ramirez, G., Hooper, S. Y., Kersting, N. B., Ferguson, R., & Yeager, D. (2018). Teacher math anxiety
relates to adolescent students’ math achievement. AERA Open, 4(1), 233285841875605.
https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858418756052
Richardson, F. C., Suinn R. M. (1972). The mathematics anxiety rating scale: Psychometric Data. Journal
of Counseling Psychology. 19(6), 551‐554. http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.viu.ca/10.1037/h0033456
Shaeffer, M. W., Rozek, C. S., Maloney, E. A., Berkowitz, T., Levine, S. C., Beilock, S. L. (2020).
Elementary school teachers’ math anxiety and students’ math learning: A large‐scale replication.
Developmental Science, 24(4), 1‐6. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13080