INTRODUCTION

• The stability of cut slope is largely control by

discontinuities.
• The discontinuities control the possible potential failure in
highly weathered (soil) and rock slope
• Identifying critical discontinuities plane controlling the
potential failure is crucial in design slope mitigation
 DISCONTINUITY
• “Discontinuity” – mechanical break within a rock mass which causes
the tensile strength across the plane to be lower than that of the rock
material.
• Examples: joints, fissures, faults, fractures, shear planes, cleavages,
foliations and bedding.
 Types of
Discontinuities

Foliation

Joints

Fault & bedding plane

 Major fault

Shear Zone
Bedding; Faults (thrust); Joints; Foliation
DISCONTINUITIES VS RELICT DISCONTINUITIES
RELICT DISCONTINUITIES

Relict structures (faults) in

completely weathered rocks
(“engineering soils”).
RELICT DISCONTINUITIES

Relict structures (joint) in

completely weathered rocks
(“engineering soils”).
RELICT
DISCONTINUITIES

Traces of faults and bedding planes are still visible in the slope
cut in CW rocks (soil)
DISCONTINUITY SURVEY
• Discontinuity Survey is generally conducted on rock slope
cuttings, and it is also highly recommended to be applied on cut
slopes in HW-CW rocks (or “engineering soils”).
• Results of the survey can be used to determine the RQD, Rock
Mass Classification and Kinematic Stability Analyses.
• Method of survey is dealt with in ISRM (1977) and Brown
(1981). Its application on some selected Malaysian slopes are
given by Ibrahim Komoo et al (1985) and Tajul Anuar
Jamaluddin (1991)
Discontinuity Survey using
a scan-line method
Discontinuity Survey – Random Mapping
DISCONTINUITY SURVEY
• It is often useful to divide the slope face into several sections or domains
prior to conducting discontinuity survey.
• This can be done by considering the following factors:
• Lithologic boundary
• Structural styles
• Distribution and pattern of discontinuities
• Weathering profile
• Age of rock formation, and/or
• Combination of the above factors
• Data from each slope domains shall be analyzed separately.
 KINEMATIC STABILITY ANALYSIS

• Orientation data obtained from structural

mapping or discontinuity survey is particularly
useful in kinematic stability of cut slopes.
• Details of the analysis method is dealt with in
Hoek & Bray (1981).
• This analysis is very useful for preliminary
stability assessment of cut slopes in rocks (fresh
to CW), to select the best orientation for slope
cuttings, to detect unstable elements or critical
planes of weakness in slope, and to interpret the
likely mode of slope failure.
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
• Plot poles of discontinuities (from the orientation: strike/dip or
dip direction/dip) on stereographic projections
• Identify individual discontinuity sets and plot the average
representative plane for each sets
• Plot slope face orientation (strike/dip)
• Plot friction circle (friction angle) of the representative rock
type, preferably value of friction angle for the shearing along
the plane of discontinuity.
KINEMATIC
STABILITY
ANALYSIS
 KINEMATIC STABILITY ANALYSIS
DISCONTINUITY STRUCTURAL
SURVEY MAPPING
Plot poles of discontinuities
on stereographic projections

Identify individual discontinuity sets

and plot the average representative
plane for each sets

Plot slope face orientation

(strike/dip)

Plot friction circle (friction angle) of the

representative rock type, preferably value of friction
angle for the shearing along the plane of
discontinuity

NO
Potential
MARGINAL
Mode of Failure Mode of
Stable? Failure

YES
Identify the
Identify the
potentially
unstable elements END unstable elements
Mode of Rock Slope
Failures
 MODE OF CUT/ROCK
SLOPE FAILURES

• Failure of cut slopes in rock mass could be

either one or combination of the following
modes;
• Circular failure – generally occurs within a very
heavily jointed rock mass where no identifiable
patterns of discontinuities present.
• Planar Failure – failure take place along a
dominant discontinuity plane or highly ordered
structure (e.g. bedding), which is parallel or
nearly parallel to the slope face.
• Wedge Failure – commonly occurs at two or
more intersecting discontinuity planes
• Toppling or rock fall – failure in hard rock which
can form columnar or block structures
separated by steeply dipping discontinuities
PLANAR FAILURE
WEDGE FAILURE
 TOPPLE FAILURE

Toppling failures due to subvertical joints

COMPOSITE FAILURE

…. a combination of wedge and planar failures in granitic rock slope.

 Stereographic plots of the
discontinuities

Bukit Lanjan Rock Slope

– a combination of
multiple modes of failure
(wedge & planar)
 Rock Falls

…. primarily due to very steep

joints in overhanging rock face.
(Limestone cliff near Simpang
Pulai, Ipoh)
 Rock Fall in Rawang Selangor

Kejadian runtuhan batuan yang merosakkan beberapa buah rumah di Rawang

Perdana, 2001 (fotograf oleh JMGM)
 MODE OF CUT SLOPE FAILURES

In Highly Weathered Rocks of Malaysia

WHAT CAN WE DO WITH KINEMATICS
STABILITY ANALYSES?

• Stability assessment – stable or unstable?

• Identification of modes of failure
• Identification of critical plane of weakness.
• Selection of suitable stabilization measures:
• Soil nails/rock bolt length/orientation
• Pile length for foundation on slope
• Identify the apparent dips for
each discontinuities set
HOW TO MODEL
• Draw the apparent dips in slope DISCONTINUTIES IN
cross section CUT SLOPE
Example #1 – Gunung Pass

• Huge cut slope failure in metamorphic rocks

• Objectives of study: to identify the causing factors and to recommend suitable
mitigation measures
Results of Mapping
CH 23+900 – CH24+400 (The major failure)

Cross section showing the likely orientation of major discontinuities in

the cut slope
CH 23+900 – CH24+400 (The major failure)

Cross Section Showing The Likely Mechanisme Of The Major Failure

Between Ch 23900 – Ch 24400
Case Study #2 – Bintulu-Bakun Road

⚫ Objectives;
– To identify the geological factors that influence the stability of the slope
and the likely causing factor for the continuous up-heave to the road level.
– To recommend the suitable mitigation measures to the problem.
• Field evidences also indicate that the
bedding planes had also been acted as
sliding planes for past (old) landslides.
• These include the occurrences of
shattered and sheared shale layers in
between the less deformed
interbedded counter parts.
• Similar structural features have been
reported in the sedimentary rocks
strata of the Nyalau Formation in
Bintulu area (e.g. Tajul Anuar
Jamaluddin, 2003).
• The old sliding planes are marked by
low angle, listric normal faults and the
faulting took place parallel or almost
parallel to the bedding planes, notably
along the shale layers.
Close-up view of the preserved relict sliding plane which is parallel to the bedding plane.
Note that the sliding plane is also marked by smooth, slickensided surfaces.
Another example of preserved relict sliding plane which is almost parallel to the bedding
plane. Note that the sliding plane is also marked by smooth, slickensided surfaces.
Another example of the exposed “relict sliding plane” for the old landslide, again it is parallel to
the bedding plane. Note the shale layer above the “old listric fault” is highly shattered and
sheared compared to the layer below the fault.
Discontinuity Average Apparent Notes
Orientation Dip
(Strike & dip)
B 312/17 17NE Bedding, relict sliding planes/listric faults
J1 141/69 68SW Joints, highly persistent, dilated,
moderately spaced, tension cracks
J2 240/72 54NW Joints, highly persistent, dilated, closely
spaced
J3 287/76 76NE Joints, impersistent, closely spaced
J4 349/78 75NE Joints & shear zones imperssitent, closely
spaced, tension cracks.
J5 074/77 71SW Joints
 Kinematics Stability Assessment

• The failure is made possible by the daylighting bedding planes (B), or in other word the mode of
failure took place in plane failure, along which acted as the basal sliding plane.
• The steeply dip J3 joint sets, which is also daylighting the slope face acted as the tension cracks or
rear sliding plane.
• In the upper section of the slope, the steeply dipping J1 joint sets might be the release plane for the
sliding to occur and in the lower section of the slope J1 might served as favourable planes to
accommodate the thrusting or upheaveal of the toe slope.
• J4 and J5 joint sets are responsible for both the left and right bounding planes for the failure.
Hypothetical profile along x-section 3 showing the likely structural discontinuities and
their influences on the failure mechanisms. Vertical scale: Horizontal Scale = 1:1.
Hypothetical profile along x-section 9 showing the likely structural discontinuities and their influences on
the failure mechanisms. (Vertical scale: Horizontal Scale = 1:1).
Recommendation – Contiguous Bored-Piles
+ Tied Back with Ground Anchor
 Example #3 – Palm Walk
Sg Long
• Stability assessment of a very high rock slope (ex-quarry face)
and recommendation for stabilisation measures.
PHOTO LINEAMENT INTERPRETATION & MAJOR STRUCTURAL FEATURES

Figure 3.1: Photolineaments in the granite bedrock of the study area. Note that the slopes are dissected by
major NNE oriented lineaments (F-F’), which are assigned as J1 in the discontinuity data stereoplots.
 a) DOMAIN A
N
SG LONG 2010 DOMAIN A

N
SG LONG 2010 DOMAIN A
Poles
Orientations
3m ID Strike / Dip Right
2m 4m

1 m 227 / 65
2 m 243 / 21
3 m 073 / 73
W E 4 m 123 / 77
1m 5 m 323 / 68
6m 5m
6 m 261 / 75
W E

4m
3m
2m

Equal Area
5m Lower Hemisphere
1m 85 Poles
85 Entries
Equal Area
S Lower Hemisphere
85 Poles
6m 85 Entries

• Kinematic stability analysis for Domain A slope..

• Potential Wedge failure due to intersection of J1xJ5, J1xJ6, J5xJ6 and J4xJ6;
• Potential Planar Failure along J6; and
• Potential Toppling Failure along J3
Mode of Potential Failures
Figure 3.8: Interpretative cross
section along A-A’, showing the
likely orientation of major joint
sets with an assumed worst
case scenario where the
potential sliding planes
developed along the
predetermined intersections
between J1 x J5 (wedge failure).
If the wedge to be secured with
rock bolts/nails, then the
minimum length of the nails
should be greater than the
specified length indicated by
figures in the parentheses.
Figure 3.9:
The assumed worst cases
scenario in Domain A where the
potential sliding planes developed
along the intersections between
J1 x J6 (wedge failure).
The potential wedge can be
arrested with rock nails and the
recommended lengths of the nails
must be not less than the figures
indicated in the parenthesis and
the nails should be installed
perpendicular to the critical joint
planes (in this case J1 and J6, and
J3 reacts as the release plane).
 CONCLUSIONS
• Stability of cut slopes (either in “hard” or “soft” rocks) is
largely controlled by discontinuities.
• It is therefore highly recommended that discontinuity survey
to be carried out as one of the most vital components of an
engineering geological mapping of cut slopes.
• Data from the discontinuity survey can be utilised for stability
assessments, identification of unstable elements, modes of
instability, and also can be projected into the slope’s profile
section to facilitate the selection of suitable stabilisation
measures (e.g. designs of rock bolts/soil nails and pile
length).
 Thank You
hamzah.h@umk.edu.my
0199138321

Acknowledgement
Part of the slide is enquire from Dr Tajul Anuar Lectures