PART II – WATER SUPPLY

WATER CONSERVATION SYSTEMS

 Water conservation system Water conservation includes all the policies, strategies and activities
made to sustainably manage the natural resource fresh water, to protect the water environment, and
to meet the current and future human demand.

 Water conservation refers to reducing the usage of water and recycling of waste water for different
purposes like domestic usage, industries, agriculture etc.

The goals of water conservation efforts include:

 Sustainability. To ensure availability for future generations, the withdrawal of fresh water from an
ecosystem should not exceed its natural replacement rate.

 Energy conservation. Water pumping, delivery, and wastewater treatment facilities consume a
significant amount of energy. In some regions of the world over 15% of total electricity consumption is
devoted to water management.

 Habitat conservation. Minimizing human water use helps to preserve fresh water habitats for local
wildlife and migrating water flow, as well as reducing the need to build new dams and other water
diversion infrastructure.

Strategies to support water conservation

 Some of the strategies that can support water conservation activities and tackle the water scarcity
problem include: Rain water harvesting • Roof top rainwater harvesting • Revival of traditional water
harvesting structures • Micro-catchment water harvesting • Recharge structures for wells and bore
wells  Sustainable water utilisation • Minimise domestic water consumption • Recycling of waste
water • Improved irrigation methods  Encourage natural regeneration of vegetation and
supplementing with artificial regeneration  Maintain and improve quality of water • Collection and
treatment of waste water effluents • Pollution check  Awareness building on water conservation

Methods of water conservation

1. Protection of Water from Pollution; If the total fresh water available on the earth remains pollution free, it
is sufficient to meet the drinking water needs of the existing population of the world, unfortunately a large
portion of fresh water does not remain fit for use of the living world due to increasing economic activities,
urbanization etc. All the available water store on the earth should be kept pollution-free

2. Redistribution of Water: Water found on the surface of the earth is not equally distributed. Existing form of
distribution also becomes a reason for the water crisis. by arranging supply of water from areas having lesser
demand to the areas having greater demand.

3. Rational Use of Groundwater: By making only conscientious exploitation of groundwater, it can be

proportionately conserved. For that, crops requiring lesser water should be given priority over crops requiring
more water. Lesser water should be used by industries. For recharging groundwater, necessary drainage area
should also be made available.

4. Renovation of Traditional Water Sources Traditional water storage places have been able to meet the
demand of drinking water in many regions but they have been renovated from time to time. Water stored in
traditional water sources has been used for both purposes, agriculture as well as for drinking.

5. Use of Modern Irrigation Methods: water is wasted through traditional methods of irrigation. Improved
modern irrigation methods are useful for conservation of water. Conservation of water in the agricultural
sector is essential since water is necessary for the growth of plants and crops.
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6. Increasing Forest Cover: The old tradition of tree plantation on the banks of rivers and tanks will have to be
revived. Forest cover will have to be developed on uncultivable waste lands and hilly slopes on a large scale.
Since trees bear drought conditions for a long duration as compared to crops, hence trees are helpful in
reducing the demand for water along with recharging water sources

7. Change in Crop Pattern Excess water is not required if crops are grown according to agro-climatic conditions
but in the present race of development, changing crop pattern with higher profits has replaced them. These
commercial crops require more water than the traditional crops.

8. Flood Management: By construction of embankments and canals a large part of land can be conserved
besides minimizing flood losses. Intensive afforestation can also provide security from floods. If will be helpful
in absorption of water in the soil.

9. Conserving Water in Industries: Water has to be both protected from pollution in industries, and re-used
after processing. Recycling of water should be developed because normally industrial units dispose of water on
the ground surface after using it only once. Because of not re-using it after processing, it also pollutes other
water sources. Demand for water can also be reduced in industries by recycling used water.

10. Conservation of water by Municipal Authorities: Municipal bodies should manage both individual
demand and supply of water as well as conserve water. Municipal laws should provide for collection of rain
water from roof tops and implement it. Individual awareness is very important in water conservation.

11. Use rainwater effectively: Rainwater harvesting essentially means collecting rainwater on the roofs of
building and storing it underground for later use. Not only does this recharging arrest groundwater depletion,
it also raises the declining water table and can help augment water supply. Rainwater harvesting and artificial
recharging are becoming very important issues.

12. Make effective use of soil water reserves

13. Take measures to avoid run off

14. Avoid wasting water through evaporation

15. Reduce water losses through drainage

16. Mulching, i.e., the application of organic or inorganic material such as plant debris, compost, etc., slows
down the surface run-off, improves the soil moisture, reduces evaporation losses and improves soil fertility.

17. Contour Farming& Contour Ploughing

18. Use of Geothermal Water: Water is also received from hot waterfalls regularly at many places on earth.
Scarcity of water can be met to a certain extent by using such geothermal water.

GROUNDWATER IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

 GROUND WATER • The water which is stored in the pores of the soil strata by infiltration is known as
groundwater. • Therefore the groundwater may have defined as all the water present below the earth
surface.
 AQUIFER • It is an underground geological formation which contains sufficient amount of water and
required amount of water can be extracted economically using water wells
 WHAT IS ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE?
 It is the process by which the ground water is improved at a rate much higher than those under natural
condition of percolation.
 IMPORTANCE OF ARTIFITIAL RECHARGE to maximize storage (long-term & seasonal) Water quality
improvement through dilution Preventing saline-water intrusion & land subsidence Reducing reduction
volumes from river flow Controlling effects of climate change

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 TECHNIQUES
 Direct Methods
 Surface method to enhance groundwater infiltration by providing more residence time with the help of
structural and non- structural measures
 Subsurface method
 Indirect Methods
 Induced Recharge Method
 Aquifer Modification Method
 SURFACE METHOD
 PERCOLATION TANK
 FLOODING
 STREAM AUGMENTATION
 DITCH & FURROW SYSTEM
 CONTOUR BUND
 SUBSURFACE METHODS
 RECHARGE WELLS
 DUG WELL
 PITS & SHAFTS.
 PERCOLATION TANK Series of earthen dams are constructed on suitable sites for storing of adequate
quantity of surface water. Tank area should be selected in such a way that significant amount of water
infiltrates through the bed of the tank and reaches the groundwater table. Effective in alluvial area,
hard rock area. Useful in providing continuous recharge after the monsoon.
 FLOODING Flat region where water can be spread as a thin layer. Water is distributed over the region
using a distribution system. This method can achieve higher rate of infiltration in a region having thin
vegetation cover or sand soil cover.
 STREAM AUGMENTATION Seepage from natural stream or river is artificially increased by putting
some series of check dams across the river or stream. The placing of check dams spread the water in
a larger area which eventually increases groundwater recharge. The sites for the check dams should
be selected in such a way that sufficient thickness of permeable bed or weathered bed is ARIZONA
 DITCH & FURROW SYSTEM Uneven terrain. A system of closely spaced flat bottom ditch or furrow
is used to carry the water from the source. This system provides more opportunity to percolate the
water into the ground. The spacing of the ditch depends on the permeability of the soil. For less
permeable soil,
 CONTOUR BUND Contour bund is a small embankment constructed along the contour in hilly region
to retain the surface runoff for longer time. This scheme is adopted for low rainfall area where internal
subsurface drainage is good CHINA RISE PADDIES
 RECHARGE WELL Recharge wells are used to recharge water directly to the aquifer. Recharge wells
are similar to pumping wells. This method is suitable to recharge single wells or multiple wells. This
method is costlier than the other method as wells are required to be bored. However, sometimes
abandoned tube wells can be used for recharging water
 DUG WELL In alluvial as well as hard rock areas there are thousands of dug wells have either gone dry
due to considerable decline of water levels These dug wells can be used for recharging groundwater.
The water from various sources can be collected through a distribution system and can be discharged at
the dug wells. Water for recharge should be guided through a pipe to the bottom of well to avoid
 PITS & SHAFTS Recharge pits of variable dimensions Most of the time, especially in case of
agricultural field, a layer of less permeable soil exist. So the surface flooding methods of recharge do
not show satisfactory performance so recharge pit can be excavated which are sufficiently deep to
penetrate the less permeable strata. Recharge shaft is similar to the recharge pits, but the cross
sectional size of the recharge shaft is much lesser than the recharge pits. Like the recharge pits,
recharge shafts are also used to recharge water to unconfined aquifer whose water table is deep below
the land surface and a poorly impermeable strata exist at the surface

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 Indirect methods
 INDUCED RECHARGE AQUIFER MODIFICATION METHODS
 INDUCED RECHARGE Water is pumped from the aquifer hydraulically connected to the surface water
sources like stream, river or lake. Due to pumping, a reverse gradient is formed and water from the
surface water source enters into the aquifer and thus the aquifer is recharged. This method is good,
especially when quality of the surface water is poor. The filtration of surface water through soil strata
removes the impurities of the water. Thus the quality of the water
 AQUIFER MODIFICATION METHOD This is used to change aquifer characteristics so it can store more
water and transmit more water. After application of it more recharge take place under natural as well
as artificial condition
 1. Bore blasting method 2. Hydro-fracturing method 3. Jacket well technique 4. Fracture seal
cementation and Pressure injection grouting 5. Stream blasting method
 Bore blasting method This method is used to increase the fracture porosity of an aquifer. Shallow
bore wells are drilled in the area where fracture porosity of the aquifer is planned to increase. These
bore holes are blasted with the help of explosive which creates fracture porosity in the aquifer
 hydro-fracturing method Hydro-fracturing is used to improve the yield of a bore well. In this
technique, water is injected at a very high pressure to widening the existing fracture of the rock. The
high pressure injection of water also helps in removing of clogging, creates interconnection between the
fractures, and extends the existing length of the old fracture. The high pressure injection also creates
new fracture in the rock strata. As a result of these, the water storing and transmitting
 Fracture seal cementation and pressure injection grouting This technique is used to control the
outflow from an aquifer. Cement slurry is injected into the aquifer using mechanical means or manually
near to the aquifer outlet like spring, etc. The injection of cement slurry helps in reducing the fracture
porosity of the aquifer near the outlet which will eventually reduce the outflow from the aquifer.
 Jacket well techniques Jacket well technique is used to increase the yield of a dug well. In this
method, the effective diameter of the well is increased by drilling small diameter bores around the well
in a circular pattern.
 stream blasting • Blasting and widening cracks near the streams and joining them to the lineament or
aquifer so that the water retention capacity of rises along the banks of the stream
 ADVANTAGES 1. To enhance the ground water yield in depleted the aquifer due to urbanization. 2.
Conservation and storage of excess surface water for future requirements 3. To improve the quality of
existing ground water through dilution. 4. To remove bacteriological & other impurities from sewage
and waste water by natural filtration, so that water is suitable for re-use
 Rooftop rainwater harvesting Storing rainwater that falls on rooftops by channelizing it through pipes
into tanks and using it for household or agricultural purpose or storing it into soak pits to recharge
groundwater source.
COCK IN BUILDING SERVICES

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HOW TO REDUCE WATER CONSUMPTION IN BUIDING?
1. Greywater Recycling Systems

 In the domestic setting, greywater systems collect water from sources like baths, hand basins, and
showers.
 This collected water is reused for washing machines, toilet flushing, and other external usages.
 greywater recovery is simply getting the most out of the water through its efficient reuse.

2. Rainwater Harvesting

 Rainwater harvesting systems can vary from the basic small ones, like the attachment of a water butt
to a rainwater down-pipe, to the complexly designed large ones like those which collect rainwater
from large areas and serve momentous numbers of properties.
 collected rainwater can be used for garden irrigation, toilet flushing, and even in washing machines.

3. Efficient Irrigation Technology

 In addition to indoor fixtures, efficient outdoor irrigation technologies like smart irrigation controllers
can help to save a lot of water.
 These controllers can effectively track factors like precipitation or temperature and avoid over-
watering the properties landscaping or plantations.
 In addition to smart irrigation controllers, one can save even more by trading out spray sprinklers for
drip irrigation.
 These sprinkles can deliver water to your plants directly as these can be buried under the lawn.

4. Water Meters

 Water metering in simple terms is the process of measuring the water use in each residential
apartment.
 Water meters are installed in each home of an apartment and these meters record the amount of
water being used in a home for billing purpose or tracking consumption.
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5. Pressure Reducing Valves

 High water pressures waste a lot of water. Installing water pressure reducing valves turn out to be one
great solution.
 These valves are can be used in residential, commercial, and institutional applications to lessen the
incoming water pressure to a lower predetermined level.

6. Insulated Pipes

 Insulating all piping and storage tanks are important for any domestic hot water system today.
 When pipes are properly insulated it ensures hot water is immediately available and when the tap is
closed it supplied back to the plant, consequently reducing the energy demand of the heating unit.

7. Efficient Taps

 Water-efficient taps work in two ways, they can either reduce the water flow rate through the tap or
they can support the user to avoid wastage of water by automatically turning it off.
 These days’ sensor taps can be seen in almost every shopping mall or airports, these automatically
sense the user’s activity based on which is supplies or turns off the water flow using infrared sensors.

8. Water-Saving Showers

 Water-saving showerheads control the water flow rate and spray pattern of your shower.
 These are available in a good range of different shapes and sizes and their design can directly affect
water consumption during bath.

9. Efficient Toilets

 The principle of water-efficient toilet design and operation was the shift from removing waste by using
flush water volume to increasing flush water velocity.

10. Improve cooling tower efficiency

 Cooling towers account for the largest percentage of water consumption in industrial operations.
 Towers that are in good condition, operated properly, and well maintained allow chillers to operate at
peak efficiency.
 Some cooling towers can use recycled water like storm water or grey water if the concentration ratio is
maintained conservatively low.

SOURCE OF WATER

Surface water

 Surface water is water on the surface of the planet such as in a river, lake, wetland, or ocean. It can
be contrasted with groundwater and atmospheric water.
 Non-saline surface water is replenished by precipitation and by recruitment from ground- water. It
is lost through evaporation, seepage into the ground where it becomes ground-water, used by
plants for transpiration, extracted by mankind for agriculture, living, industry etc. or discharged to
the sea where it becomes saline.
 The total land area that contributes surface runoff to a river or lake is called a watershed, drainage
basin, or catchment area. The volume of water available for municipal supply depends mostly on
the amount of rainfall. It also depends on the size of the watershed, the slope of the ground, the
type of soil and vegetation, and the type of land use.
1) Lake 2) Ponds 3) Streams 4) Rivers

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 Ground water

 Ground water is the water present beneath Earth's surface in soil pore spaces and in the
fractures of rock formations.
 The layers of rock that hold groundwater are called aquifers.
 Groundwater is water that exists underground in saturated zones beneath the land surface.
The upper surface of the saturated zone is called the water table. If groundwater flows
naturally out of rock materials or if it can be removed by pumping.
 1)Open wells 2) Tube wells 3) Artesian well 4) Infiltration galleries

IMPURITOES IN WATER

 When we talk about impurities found in water, we're typically referring to the negative components
dissolved in water. ... The types of impurities in water can include dust, dirt, harmful chemicals,
biological contaminants, radiological contaminants, and total suspended solids (TSS)
 The most-deadly impurities found in water, biological impurities make the water extremely unsafe for
use. Biological contaminants such as bacteria, protozoa, viruses, and parasites may lead to fatal
waterborne diseases and health disorders.

 Microorganisms. Bacteria, algae and fungi

 Pyrogens.
 Dissolved Inorganic Ions.
 Dissolved Organic Compounds.
 Dissolved Gases.
 Suspended Particles.
 Colloidal Particles.
WATER PURIFICATION WORK

General steps in purification of drinking water includes

1. Aeration:
 Raw water is first collected in large aeration tank and the water is aerated by bubbling compressed air
through perforated pipes.
 Aeration removes bad odors and CO2. It also removes metal such as iron, manganese by precipitating
then as their respective hydroxides.

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2. Storage or settling:
 Aerated water is then placed in settling tank and stored for 10-14 days.
 During storage about 90% of suspended solids settle down within 24 hrs and the water becomes clear.
 Certain heavier toxic chemicals also settle down during storage.
 Similarly, pathogenic bacteria gradually die and bacterial count decreases by 90% in first in first 5-7
days of storage.
 During storage organic matter present in water is oxidized by microorganisms. Similarly, NH3 present is
oxidized into nitrate by microorganisms during storage.
3. Coagulation:
 Water from storage tank is then placed in coagulation tank and then some precipitating agents such as
alum, lime etc. are added in water and mixed.
 These precipitating agents form precipitate of Al(OH)3 when dissolved in water.
 Suspended solids absorbs on the surface of precipitate, so gradually mass of precipitate becomes
heavier and finally settle down.
 This technique is used to remove very light suspended solids that do not settle by themselves during
storage. Furthermore, if negatively charged colloidal impurities are present, they are neutralized by
Al+++ ions and settle down.
4. Filtration:
 Partially clarified water is then passed through sand gravity filter which removes 98-99% of
microorganisms and other impurities.
 Sand gravity water filter:
 Sand filter is a rectangular tank in which filter bed is made up to 3 layers.
 Top layer: fine layer of 1 meter thick
 Middle layer: 0.3-0.5-meter-thick layer of coarse sand
 Bottom layer: 0.3-0.5-meter-thick layer of gravel
 There is a collection tank at the bottom of the filter bed to collect filtered water. During filtration filter
bed soon gets covered with a slimy layer called vital layer.
 Vital layer consists of thread like algae, diatoms and bacteria.
 During filtration microorganisms presents in vital layer oxidize organic and other matter present in
water. For example, if NH3 is present, it is oxidized into nitrate.
 Vital layer also helps infiltration of microbial cells.
 If water contains unpleasant odor, activated carbon may be placed in filter bed that removes bad
odors.
5. Disinfection:
 The filtered water is finally purified by using disinfectants. Eg. Chlorination
 Disinfectant kills pathogenic as well as other microorganism in water.
 After disinfection water is pumped into overhead tank for subsequent domestic distribution.

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MATERIALS USED FOR WATER SUPPLY

 There are two families of materials available for water pipework systems: metallic and non-metallic
materials. Of these the most commonly used materials for drinking-water supply piping are galvanized
steel or iron, copper, polybutylene, unplasticized polyvinylchloride (PVC), chlorinated polyvinylchloride
(CPVC) and polyethylene (PE). Metal alloys, which far exceed the performance specifications of their
respective parent materials, are also widely used.
 The bodies of fittings for pipe and tubing are most often the same base material as the pipe or tubing
connected: copper, steel, PVC, CPVC, or ABS. Any material permitted by the plumbing, health, or building
code (as applicable) may be used, but it must be compatible with the other materials in the system, the
fluids being transported, and the temperature and pressure inside (and outside) the system. Brass or
bronze fittings are common in copper piping and plumbing systems. Fire resistance, earthquake
resistance, mechanical ruggedness, theft resistance, and other factors also influence the choice of pipe
and fitting materials.
1. Galvanized pipe is steel pipe that has been treated with a zinc coating. This galvanized coating keeps
the water from corroding the pipe. It was once the most common type of pipe for water supply lines,
but because labour and time that goes into cutting, threading, and installing galvanized pipe, it no longer
used much, except for limited use in repairs. However, galvanized pipe for water distribution is still seen
in larger commercial applications.
2. Copper pipe is mostly used for hot and cold water distribution, as well as being regularly used in HVAC
systems for refrigerant lines. Although once used in gas piping, this is no longer allowed in most
jurisdictions. Copper piping works in both underground and above-ground applications, but copper can
be affected by some soils and it should have a protective sleeve if used underground.
3. PVC is an acronym that stands for polyvinyl chloride. Of the different types of plastic pipe used for water
supply, PVC has a wide variety of plumbing uses, from drainage pipe to water mains. It is most commonly
used for irrigation piping, home, and building supply piping. PVC is also very common in pool and spa
systems.
4. The acronym CPVC stands for chlorinated polyvinyl chloride. It is often (but not always) a cream-colored
or off-white plastic. This type of pipe can stand temperatures up to about 180 degrees Fahrenheit or so
(this depends on the schedule), so it can be used for both hot and cold water lines. CPVC is the same
outside.
5. PEX stands for cross-linked polyethylene. It is sometimes known as XLPEl. With good resistance to both
hot and cold temperatures, PEX is commonly used for both hot and cold water lines in homes, and for
hydronic heating systems (such as radiant under-floor systems). PEX is considered more durable than
copper, with a likely lifespan of more than 50 years.
6. Earthenware is also referred to as glazed stoneware, terracotta or vitrified clay. Furnace-baked
earthenware has been the most commonly used material for underground drainage systems. It can be
locally produced in almost any country provided there is a source of good-quality clay and an energy
supply to fire it. In the past, glazing was achieved by throwing salt into the fire towards the end of the
firing process. This method of salt glazing damages kilns and does not always create an even finish or
glaze.
FITTINGS USED FOR WATER SUPPLY
Type of Fittings 1. Collar 2. Elbow 3. Gasket 4. Union 5. Reducer 6. Tee 7. Nipple 8. Trap
a. Collar: While joining two pipes in the same length, collar is used. Collar is fitted in the end of
pipe
b. Elbow: It is installed at the time of joining two pipes. With the help of an elbow, the direction of
liquid is changed. Normally a 45° or 90° elbow is used. When the two sides of pipes differ in size,
an elbow of reducing size is used. This is called reducing type elbow or reducer type elbow.
c. Gasket They are mechanical seals, generally ring-shaped type and fitted for sealing flange joints.
A flange joint is a plate or ring to form a rim at the end of a pipe when fastened to the pipe.
Gaskets are made as per by construction, materials and features. Important gaskets used are
non-metallic, spiral-wound and ring-joint type

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 d. Union When two ends of pipes are joined, the pipe fitting used is called union. A union is made
of three parts namely a nut, a male end and a female end. The male and female ends are
assembled with the support of the nuts, and necessary pressure is made to connect the joint.
Since the pairing ends of the union are interchangeable, the union can be changed easily in a
short time.
e. Reducer It is used to connect pipes of different diameters. A reducer may be of various types
like reducer tee, reducer elbow and reducer socket.
f. Tee: It is an important fitting with a side outlet at 900 to the run of the pipe. Tees connect pipes
of various diameters and help in changing the direction of water or material in a pipe. Tees are
made in various sizes like equal or unequal. The equal tee is most commonly used.
g. Nipple: It is a piece of pipe having thread at both sides, and could be used for short extension of
plumbing lines. It can also be used for connecting two fittings within small distance.
h. Trap: It is a fitting in a P, U, S or J-shaped type. Traps are fitted near a plumbing fixture. The trap
bend is fitted to prevent sewer gases from entering the building. If the gases are inserted back
into home, then it could lead to people inhaling foul smell, which could cause illnesses. It could
even explode.
i. Cross: When four pipes are joined, a cross is formed. It is also called a cross branch line or a four-
way fitting. This fitting has three outlets and one inlet. Cross fittings may deteriorate when
temperatures change, because cross fitting is made at the centre of the four connection points.
j. Offset: When an assembly of fittings on a pipeline makes one section of pipe out of line and
parallel to a second section, then it is known as an offset.
k. Olet (also called Branch Connection Fittings or Outlet Fittings) are fittings which provide an
outlet from a larger pipe to a smaller one (or one of the same size). The main pipe onto which
the branch connection is welded is usually called the Run or Header size.
l. Plug is a component of plumbing which is generally used to close pipe opening during
inspections and repairs. Plug are generally containing male threads.
m. Cap is a type of pipe fitting which function is same as plug but the only difference is plug contain
male threads and cap contain female threads which is screws on the male thread of pipe.
PIPE JOINTS PIPES ARE CONNECTED WITH THE HELP OF JOINTS.
Connecting two or more pipes together is called a fitting. Various types of joints could be used in a pipe as per
the requirement. Joints are also used for multiple pipe connections, and are an important component of the
plumbing system.
Types of pipe joints Various types of pipe joints are as follows.
1. Threaded joint 2. Welded joint (butt welded, socket welded) 3. Brazed joint 4. Soldered joint
5. Grooved joint 6. Flanged joint 7. Compression joint.

2. Threaded Joint When pipes are joined by screwing in threads which are provided in the pipe, it
is called a threaded joint. one of the pipes has internal threads whereas the other pipe has
threads externally. The threads are also made in various pipes like PVC, CI pipes, copper pipes
and GI pipes, etc. Threaded joints are used from 6 mm diameter to 300 mm diameter pipes.

3. Welded joints (Butt-welded joints) It is one of the most common methods of joining pipes used
in large infrastructure like commercial, institutional and industrial systems. Cost of material are
low, but the labour costs are more due to the no availability of trained welders and fitters.
Socket-welded joints These are used when there is a high chance of leakage in the joints. Pipes
are joined as putting one into other and welded around the joint, Pipes having different
diameters are suitable for this type of a joint. Socket-welded joint gives good results as
compared to other joints.
4. Brazed joints When pipes are joined with the help of molten filler material at above 840°C, it is
called brazing. Brazing is done for connecting copper pipes or copper alloy pipes. It is important
to note that the melting point of the parent material (pipe material) should be higher than the
filler material. Brazed joints have less mechanical strength, and are preferred in case of
moderate temperatures.
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 5. Soldered joints Soldering and brazing are similar activities. In soldering, the filler material melts
below 840oC. With the help of soldering, copper and copper alloy pipes are joined. During
soldering, flux or metal joining material is used to prevent oxidation due to the flame. Soldered
joints are suitable for low temperature areas and have low mechanical strength.
6. Grooved joints When two pipes are joined together by making grooves (narrow cuts or
depression) at the end of pipes with the help of sockets or couplings, such joints are called
grooved joints. Due to the ease of assembly of the grooved joints, the labour cost is less. The
piping system can be easily uninstalled and reinstalled frequently for maintenance. These are
mostly used for fire protection.
7. Flanged joints This joint is commonly used for joining pipes in pumping stations, filter plants,
hydraulic laboratories and boiler houses, etc. These joints are preferred due to easy process of
assembly and disassembly; however, these connections are costly. These joints can be
disassembled and re-assembled when required. A pipe has flanged ends on both sides of the
pipe length. Both the ends of pipes are joined at a proper level near one another. A hard rubber
washer is placed between flanges and bolted. Flanges are generally fixed to the pipe by welding
or threading.
8. Compression joints These are applied to join the pipe without any preparations. The cost of
installation of these joints is very economical. The pipes having plain ends are joined by fixing
fittings at their ends, and such a joint is called a compression joint. The pipe ends are joined with
threaded fittings or couplings. Joints are placed properly to check the flow pressure, otherwise,
leakage may occur. These fittings are manufactured from different types of material. Selection
of fittings is done as per requirement.
METHODS OF SUPPLYING WATER
The water can be supplied to the consumers by the two systems: 1. Continuous system of water supply. 2.
Intermittent system of water supply.
CONTINUOUS SYSTEM OF WATER SUPPLY
24x7 supply is achieved when water is delivered continuously to every consumer of the service 24 hours a day,
every day of the year, through a transmission and distribution system that is continuously full and under positive
pressure.
CONTINUOUS SYSTEM OF WATER SUPPLY
Continuous supply systems are designed using the following main parameters
1. Flow of raw water 2. Water treatment plant 3. Water transmission system Working Operating of system
components, pumps and reservoirs, in the continuous supply systems is a result of consumer’s needs: with
reduced demand in the night periods, pumps may operate at lower level and balancing reservoirs may be refilled,
whereas during the maximum demand periods, the pumps will operate at their maximum
ADVANTAGES:
In this system water is not stagnant in pipe at any instant & hence fresh water is always available. Lesser pipe
sizes are required. Fire hazards can be met within time.
DISADVANTAGES:
If there are some minor leakages etc. in the system, great volume of water is wasted because of long duration
of flow. More water is required at the source which is difficult in tropical countries like India, which get rains
only during a particular season. More wastage of water due to lack of civic sense.
INTERMITTENT SYSTEM OF WATER SUPPLY
Intermittent system: If plenty of water is not available, the supply of water is divided into zones & each zone is
supplied with water for fixed hours in a day. As the water is supplied after intervals, it is called intermittent
system.
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Working The working of the system is very simple. The distribution area is divided into several zones & the
timings of each zone are so adjusted that good working pressure are maintained in each zone. Health Aspects
Consumers are advised to treat water coming from intermittent water supply. As water becomes stagnant in
service reservoirs, bleaching powder is often used to maintain a residual chlorine level.
ADVANTAGES
For older distribution systems having weaker joints and more leakage, restrained supply hours can limit leakage
Reduced pressure also helps lowering leakage Overall scarcity may sometimes be managed by interrupting
the water supply and equally balancing the resources (controversial) Time is available for repair and
maintenance out of supply hours
DISADVANTAGES
Systems do not operate as designed: components are underused, others are overexploited and damaged
Inconvenience to consumers, mostly the poor (often, one person per household is devoted to storing the water
at supply times) Pipelines are subjected to vacuum condition after supply hours, which can cause groundwater
infiltration into the pipelines with contamination of the supply or pipes deformation Frequent contamination
requires household-level water treatment, as well as higher doses of residual chlorine by the supplier
Consumers need to store water between supplies and tend to throw away remnant store. This causes water
wastage and storage costs Frequent wear and tear on valves, water meters malfunction More manpower
and infrastructures needed
COMPARISON:
CONTINUOUS & INTERMITTENT SYSTEM OF WATER SUPPLY
PARAMETER CONTINUOUS SYSTEM INTERMITTENT SYSTEM
Fire demand Fire demand can be met within time. Fire demand cannot be met within time; this may cause huge
damage before the supply could be turned on. Domestic storage is not necessary, since there is a continuous
supply of water 24X7. The consumers have to store water for non-supply hours which is likely to get
contaminated. Some consumers may not have sufficient storage tanks which may lead to insanitary condition.
Size of pipes Comparatively lesser diameter pipes are used in continuous system of water supply. Bigger
diameter pipes are required to supply the water for the full day in a very short period.
PARAMETER CONTINUOUS SYSTEM INTERMITTENT SYSTEM
Staff Requirement Need not require much manpower & infrastructure. More manpower and infrastructures
needed Capital cost Low capital cost compared to intermittent system of water supply. Higher capital cost.
Wastage of water There is considerable wastage of water if consumers do not possess civic sense regarding the
importance of treated water. The consumers leave their taps open every time, & also if more storage of water
is done during non-supply periods. It is thrown off causing wastage of water. Contamination problem Both
continuous and intermittent water distribution systems might suffer from the contaminant intrusion problem,
and the intermittent systems were found more vulnerable of contaminant intrusion.
VARIATIONS IN WATER DEMAND
 Seasonal variation: The demand peaks during summer. Firebreak outs are generally more in summer,
increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation.
 Daily variation depends on the activity. People draw out more water on Sundays and Festival days, thus
increasing demand on these days. 53
 Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range. During active household working hours
i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is
taken. During other hours the requirement is negligible. Moreover, if a fire breaks out, a huge quantity
of water is required to be supplied during short duration, necessitating the need for a maximum rate of
hourly supply. 54
 So, an adequate quantity of water must be available to meet the peak demand. To meet all the
fluctuations, the supply pipes, service reservoirs and distribution pipes must be properly proportioned.

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 The water is supplied by pumping directly and the pumps and distribution system must be designed
to meet the peak demand. 55
 The effect of monthly variation influences the design of storage reservoirs and the hourly variations
influences the design of pumps and service reservoirs.
 As the population decreases, the fluctuation rate increases.
 Coincident Draft: It is extremely improbable that a fire may break out when water is being drawn by the
consumers at maximum hourly draft.
Domestic water demand
  water required in the houses for drinking, bathing, cooking, washing etc.
  mainly depends upon the habits, social status, climatic conditions and customs of the people.
  As per IS: 1172-1963, under normal conditions, the domestic consumption of water in India is about
135 litres/day/capita.

Industrial demand

  The water required in the industries mainly depends on the type of industries, which are existing in
the city. The water required by factories, paper mills, Cloth mills, Cotton mills, Breweries, Sugar
refineries etc. comes under industrial use. The quantity of water demand for industrial purpose is
around 20 to 25% of the total demand of the city.

Institution and commercial demand

  Universities, Institution, commercial buildings and commercial centres including office buildings,
warehouses, stores, hotels, shopping centres, health centres, schools, temple, cinema houses, railway
and bus stations etc. comes under this category.

Demand for public use

  Quantity of water required for public utility purposes such as for washing and sprinkling on roads,
cleaning of sewers, watering of public parks, gardens, public fountains etc. comes under public
demand. To meet the water demand for public use, provision of 5% of the total consumption is made
designing the water works for a city.

Fire demand

  During the fire breakdown large quantity of water is required for throwing it over the fire to extinguish
it, therefore provision is made in the water work to supply sufficient quantity of water or keep as reserve
in the water mains for this purpose.

Loses and wastes

 Losses due to defective pipe joints, cracked and broken pipes, faulty valves and fittings. Losses due
to, continuous wastage of water. Losses due to unauthorised and illegal connections. While
estimating the total quantity of water of a town; allowance of 15% of total quantity of water is made to
compensate for losses, thefts and wastage of water.
 HARD WATER: Hard water is a term that denotes water having a very high mineral content (the term is
the opposite of ‘soft water’). As water percolates into deposits of calcareous, gypsum or chalk that are
primarily composed of carbonates of magnesium or calcium, bicarbonates and sulphates, hard water is
formed. Drinking hard water can have certain benefits to human health. However, when it comes to
industrial settings, hard water is highly undesirable and can pose several major problems. For example,
water hardness is controlled in industries in order to prevent costly breakdowns in cooling towers,
boilers, and other water handling equipment. Soft water is also demonstrated in domestic settings by a
lack of foam forming when soap is agitated in water, and by lime scale forming in water heaters and
kettles. The adverse effects of hard water are usually mitigated by the process of water softening.

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  SOFT WATER: Soft water can be defined as surface water that contains relatively low ion concentrations,
and is low in calcium and magnesium ions in particular. Soft water naturally occurs where rough,
impermeable and calcium-poor rocks are responsible for the formation of the runoff and the drainage
basin of rivers. The term ‘soft water’ is also used often to describe water created by a water softening
process (despite the fact that it is more practical to refer to these water samples as softened water). In
these cases, the water can also contain high sodium and bicarbonate ion levels.
Difference between Hard water and Soft water

HARD WATER SOFT WATER

It is rich in minerals Contains very few elements

Soap is not so effective Soap is easily effective

No foam and lather from soaps Bubbly lather from soaps

Leaves spots on the washed dishes after Does not leave any spots on dishes after
they are dried they are dried

Contains minerals like magnesium and Contains sodium ion

calcium
Sometimes preferred drinking water Sometimes not preferred drinking water

Example: Groundwater like deep wells Example: Rainwater

Hair and skin become dry Hair and skin become soft

WATER RECYCLING
 Reclaimed or recycled water (also called wastewater reuse or water reclamation) is the process of
converting wastewater into water that can be reused for other purposes.[1] Reuse may
include irrigation of gardens and agricultural fields or replenishing surface
water and groundwater (i.e., groundwater recharge). Reused water may also be directed toward
fulfilling certain needs in residences (e.g. toilet flushing), businesses, and industry, and could even be
treated to reach drinking water standards. This last option is called either "direct potable reuse" or
"indirect potable" reuse, depending on the approach used.
 Reclaiming water for reuse applications instead of using freshwater supplies can be a water-saving
measure. When used water is eventually discharged back into natural water sources, it can still have
benefits to ecosystems, improving streamflow, nourishing plant life and recharging aquifers, as part of
the natural water cycle.
 Wastewater reuse is a long-established practice used for irrigation, especially in arid countries. Reusing
wastewater as part of sustainable water management allows water to remain as an alternative water
source for human activities. This can reduce scarcity and alleviate pressures on groundwater and other
natural water bodies.

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