‘oscillator time period is multiplied by 16 or 12 or whatever modulus number is involved. ‘The equation for the output time period is T.xw 6-1) where 7, is the oscillator time period, Vis the modulus number of the counters, and m is the number of counters —— Example 5-4 Determine the final output frequency from the frequency-divider system in Figure $-10 if the three decade counters are replaced by scale-of- 16 counters. Solution Equation 51, Te tyxw sx 16 244 He 5-5 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTER Ramp-Type Analog-to-Digital Converter i analog-to-digtal converter (ADC) cirnit in Figure $-11(a) io known as « ramp M6 AVG, because it uses a ramp generator to produce atime period that is proportion. 21 to the analog input voltage. The ramp voltage starts from ground level and trees A constant rte, as illutrated in Figure 5-11(b). The rump Is fed to one input of yolage comparator. and the analog input voltage (Vis applied to the other computor input terminal. During the time that the ramp voltge (V,) is below the level of Vz the fone ie “ue io Aish, ain tls allows pulses from the clock generator to pass throush the AND ate to the counting circuits (register). When V, becomes exetiy caual to Vi, the comparator output switches to a low level. thus stopping further close posse fom wegling the counting circuits. The time period (tof the comparator high Seat is diteely proportional to input volge Vj, Thus, because the counting circus ‘are toggled only during 1, the count is the digital equivalont of the analuy inj “The negative-going voltage step at the end of the ramp resets the register to ite Zero condition before the cycle ot ramp generation and counting recommences, If the SPittng circuits are a simple saccade of (fou ur more) Tip-tops, as in Figue $7 the digital out isin binary form, Ifa cascade of decade counters is employed ‘scussed for the counter in Figure 5-9, the output is in binary-coded decimal (BCD), 130 Digital Instrument Basics Chap. 5Voltage compare ¥ -2 Boece Dig cots (ADC ye t vy l i mm | Compare eye ' Figure S11 Rang ype anlo-dial eae ' Conver (ADC) Te hag companion’ deat euaity Between th ramp and the inpat vole, tus peoducng aime period Uuptnatis proportonalo Vth lock Ben aor togles the counting cei for time ‘sto produce the digial equivalent of V, (© System waveforms Example 5-5 ‘The ADC system in Figure 3-11 uses a 1 MHz clock generator and a ramp vollage tat increases from 0V to 1.25 V in a time of 125 ms, Determine the number of clock pulses counted into the register when V;=03 V, and when itis 0.75 V. Solution For¥=125¥ 4212508 See.55 _Analog-o-Digital Converter BIFor the clock putes Pulses counted, For V,~075 ¥, Paltes counted ‘Quantizing Error In the process of conversion from analog to digital, the input voltage is quantized into @ Ihumber of discrete levels. For example, suppose that an input voltage which ranges from 2er0 up to a maximum of 10 V is converted into a digital output which isan integer from Oto 10, Cleary. the output cannot accurately represent an input of 9.1 ¥, ut 9.9°¥. Both are likely to produce @ 9 output, giving an error that can be a maximum of 1 in 10, or 10%. This is known as the conversion error, or quantizing error of the ADC. Now refor to the tabie uf uuipus for the Scale-ct-16 counter in Figure 5-7, and re call that the counter has a 4-bit output. As illustrated, the 16th count represents the zero condition; therefore, when used as the register in the ADC in Figure 5-11. the 4-bit output represents only 15 levels of input, For any ADC, the numberof quantized levels of input is given by Ww: 62) where nis the number of bits For an ADC with a 4-bit output, the quantizing error is 1 in 15, or 6.7%. Ifthe out- bic wauibes, uve number ot input levels represented by the output is 31. In this ase, the quantizing error is 1 in 31, or approximately 39%, Obviously the greatest number of bits in the digital output gives the smallest quantizing error. The quantizing error ie not tne only error in an ADC; component errors can also be important, especially as the bit umber (and number of quantized levels) increases, pati 132 igital Inctrument Basics Chap. 5Example 5-6 Determine the number of output bits required for an ADC to give a quantizing ermor less than 14. Solution For 1% quantizing error count 2 100. Equation $2, Forn =6, Fora =? For less than 1% err use n=7 5-6 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERTER RRR Network ‘The simplest kind of digital-to-analog converter (DAC) consists of an R/2R network, as iMustrated in Figure 5-12(a). Since there are four digital input terminals, the circuit is known as a 4-bit DAC, Resistors Ry, Ry, and Reach have a resistance k, as shown. (The resistance R might be anywhere in the range from 1 KO to 100 k®, depending on the load ccurent to be supplied atthe circuit output.) Resistors Ry, Rz, Re, Re, and Ry each have a resistance of 2R. Each digital input voltage is either zero (ground level) or V,, which ‘might typically be S V. The analog output voltage depends on the presence ur absence of each digital input bit. ‘To understand how the R/2R circuit converts digital inputs into an analog voltage, ler the situation when only input A is present, and all other inputs are at zero. This is illustrated in Fignre $4) Input voltage V, ir potentially divided by resistors 22 and Re to give an open-circuit voltage of V2 atthe junction of Ry and R; (ie. for Ry discon- nected from R; and R,). Looking back into the junction of R and R,, it i seen that the ‘output resistance at this point, is RilR: = R. Since (Ry + R) = 2R, V2 is further divided by Ry and (Ry + R) to give an open-circuit voltage of V./4 at the junction af Ry and Ry [Figure 5-12(0)]. Now note that the source resistance at the junction of Ry and Ry is Rull(R + R) = R. Consequently, V;/4 is further divided by (Rs + R) and Rg to produce an cut voltage of V,/8 a the RJR, junction [Figure 5-12(a)}, Once again, the poten- lial divider source resistance is R, at the junction of Rs and Re, $0 (R; + R) combines with £Rqto divide V,/8 down to ¥;/16 at the output [Figure $-12(e)] By similar reasoning it can be shown Wat an vulput voltage of V/8 1s produced When only input B is present. Also, V, = ¥./4 when only input Cis present, and V, = Vi/2 when there is an input only at terminal D. . ‘The table in Figure 5-12(f) shows the analog output voltage levels forall combina- tions of digital inputs. The output voltage for any given input combination can easily be Sec.5-6 Digialto-Analog Converter 133Phew 7-10 Foe pael of the Simpson model 444 micro-ohmmeter, Resisance mes: surement ranges ae 20 mito 200 end marimum semi r| wht feomrey at bucsmpsoa iit) Micro-ohmmeter Figure 7-10 shows the front panel ofa commercial digital micro-ohmmeter which has resis {ance ranges from20 mO) to 20.0. Because ofthe 4Ye-digit display, the instrument has aman imum sensitivity of | u£on the 20 m0 range. Resistance measutcient ean De made into modes: applying ade voltage to the measured resistance. or applying a 40 Ha square wave ‘© An ube alarm tones providedo indicat resistances below the selected range 7-6 HIGH-RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT Voltmeter and Ammoter Method ‘ery high resistances, such as insulation resistances, can be measured by means of a volt« ‘ter and a microammeter connected as ilustrated in Figure 7-11. A high-voltage supply must be used to produce a measurable current. The current is extremely low so Groammeter is necessary for current measurement. The voltmeter must be connected acs the supply. If the voluneter is connected across the resistance, the microammeter Will measure the voltmeter current, which i likcly ww be uch greater than the redateg Current. The value of the resistance is, of course, determined hy substituting the measured ‘current and voltage into Ohm's law. 178 ‘Low, High, and Precise Resistance Measurements Chap. 7rs es t Snewrcanen | Shadicaeuttngt raphy esas supply oes nt pass. $= R Note hat the voltmeter cent doesnt flow eee eet eence ae ae Guar Wire and Guard Ring ‘A problem occurs with the measurement of very high resistances because there are two resistive components: a volume resistance and a surface leakage resistance. Con- sider the metal-sheathed cable illustrated in Figure 7 12(a). When a voltage is applied, there are two components of current: a volume current J,, which flows from the core through the insulation to the metal sheath, and a surface leakage current J, which flows across the surface of the insulation. Both currents flow through the microamme- ter ‘The ennenquence of this ic that the resistance calculated from the inetrument read ings is the parallel combination of volume resistance and surface leakage resistance. For most practical purposes, this combined surface and volume resistance is the effec- live sesistamee of dhe insulation. However, In some circumstances, te two resistances must be separated To separate the two resistive components, a guard wire is employed, as illustrated in Figure 7-12(b). This is simply several turns of wire wrapped tightly around the insula- tion. The guard wire is connected to the supply, so J, (from the guard ting to te sheath) no longer flows through the microammeter. There is no significant surface leakage cur- rent between the conductor and the guard wire, because the potential difference between conductor and guard wire is only the voltage drop across the microammaeter. All of the Uncovered ‘insulation Wee (2) Ceci that means nelation vole () Use of guard wire to mesure nly vole resistance resistance in parle with surface leakage resistance Pigare 7-12. Guard-wire meth of measuring the insulation resinance ofa cable. Te put wie Aven the the surface leakage cuet so that isnt mesured bythe micrometer, Sec.7-6 High Resistance Measurement 197 ent supply voltage appears across the insulation between the guard wire and sheath, so the surface leakage current here is sill relatively large. Since the microammeter measures only fy in the arrangement shown in Figure 7-12(0), the volume resistance of the insulation is easily calculated: (7-8) Example 7-8 Solution (@) Volume resistance: Watsya ren Eo WV garg ys HA (0 Surace tatage resistance: W4lees uA Is=SWA~Iy= 5 wA~15 A, = 35a 10.000 V 's =29% 1070 6 33a 729%" —_—_—_ Figure 7-13 shows a disk-shaped sample of insulation material under test, using {wo metal plates and a guard ring. Like the guard wire in Figure 7-12; the guard ring re- -moves the surface leakage current om the microammeter. ‘Wheatstone Bridge Measurement of High Resistance Figure 7-14(a) shows a Wheatstone bridge employed for measurement of insulation resis- tance. In this ease the guard ring is connected to the opposite side of the galvanometer from the upper plate. When the bridge is balanced, the galvanometer indicates null, and there is zero potential difference across its terminals, Thus, there is zero potential differ- ence between the upper plate and the guard ring, and conscquestly, ww Surface leakage ‘current flows from the upper plate to the guard ring, 180 Low. High, and Precise Resistance Measuremests Chap. 7High vole supply oder Oued 5 oA |. Figure 73. Gass materi. Te guard gg divers te surface lshage cunts tha only the volume cur ‘ot psses ough the miroarmete ng metod of meturing te resistance of «sample of inalating {In Figure 7-14(b) the insu jon sample is replaced by its equivalent circuit. Resis: tance R represents the volume resistance of the material. Resistance b represents the st face resistance between the upper plate and the guard ring. while cis the surface resis- tance between the guard ring and lower plate. As already stated, when the bridge is in Showing equiaent crs O) resins ieee 0) tag conneted to oppose sed eure reitnces, Se panes oo eamtg Figure 714 Use os Whee ego east very hgh ean The res eager ‘htacr i climiand when ete bane. Ses: 746 Hig Resistance Measurement 1817-7 HIGH-RESISTANCE MEASURING INSTKUMEN balance, there is zero voltage across b, so it can be ignored. Resistance c appears in paral~ Jel with the bridge resistor S. If «is very much larger than S (which is usually the ease), ¢ too can be ignored. The bridge is now reduced to its usual four components. with volume reststance R being the unknown resistance to be determined. Once again, Equation 7-3 is applicable. ‘When used for high-tesistance measurements, a Wheatstone bridge must have very high supply voltage. All components and terminals must be well insulated, and great care should be exercised to avoid electric shock. ~ Hand-Cranked Megohmmeter ‘The megohnmeter or megger: isa portable deflection instrament widely used to check the insulation resistance of electrical cables and equipment. The instrument has @ con- stant high-voltage source, usually produced by a handecranked generator. The voltage may ronge anywhere between 100 V and 5000 V, The elrcult diagram of a megger is shown in Figure 7-15(a), and a representative instrument is illustrated in Figure 7-15(), ‘The pointer on a hand-cranked megger is deflected by a PMMC system with two coils {see Figure 7-15(a]. There 1s no mechanical controlling force; instead, the coils ae connected to oppose each other. One coil is identified as conirol coil and the ether as a defection coil « KL oe Ea orlow teil mint oS" Beeman mesa Control col —~F comms} | High volage Deftecting i on Lise $00 Fina danni mat meen () Megohmmeer revit Figure 7-18. Megobmmeter that ues hand-cranked generator to produces hgh-volt 20" ware. The fees from the contol and dein cvs pally balance each Oe 1 give pointer defeton proportional othe maa resance 192 : Low, High, and Precise Resistance Measurements Chap. 7ote is applied to the control cil va standard resistor Ry, so that the contlling force is proportional to the generator voltage divided by Ry. The deflection coil is sup- plied via Ry the resistance tobe measured, and Ry the itera deflection crit resis- ance. The deflecting force is propotonal to the generator votage divided by R, + Rs Deflstion is proportional tho difference between R, and +R, andthe insturent scale ean be callrate to directly indicate R ‘When the megger is measuring an open circuit, no current flows in the deflecting cout nts case, te force rom the contol coll eases te polmer io be Genet to ne nd ofthe scale This end is maked inn (=). When mearing ash ie the d= feting coi force is very much geste than that fom the contol cil. Consequently, the pointers deflected tthe opposite end of the cle from infinity, and his end is marked 0 £2. When the pointe is staonary athe center of the sal, the deflecting and contol forces ar equal, and R, + Ra Rot RR, ~ Ry The seal is marked erual 0 (Ro) {at this point and is poporionately marked a other points, Range changing canbe ef fected by switching to diferent values of Ry. The megohmeter in Figure 7-15(0) has (ev sages (0-500 ME) with 5 MO st midscle and (0-200 0) with 10 ot mids “The higher resistance range uses 1000 V and the lower range has a6 V supply. Sec.7-7_High-Resstance Measuring Instruments 183Stepp veansformer (by De-to-de converter cat te cat: Pecing high vos fom abate nh vote mining GE De ems wtaes a pw git te dented high vlage. The doteae ee Voltage-Multiplying Circuit [cutad of a hand.crankod soneran w produce the high voltage required for insulation festings a battery voltage can be raised to suitable level by mean ofa diodercapacitor sennaielublsing circuit The citcut is shown in igure 7-16 opether with eran altemative circuit, ade-ro-de converter Inthe vllge-mulilying eireit in Figure 7-16), @ square-wave generator ro- duces an output waveform with a E volts wi arty illustrated. Now, when the square-wave amplitude goes to & Coin Dy Sihgfintatd biased, De is reverse biased, and capacitor Cs chaed fron Gavia Ds. Similarly, when Ds is forward biased and Nic reser oy ‘rarged from C3 Nadas Be AS shown, the total voltage aeoss Cs and Cy is mow 2E- Actualy ine leg 184 ‘Low. High. and Precise Resistance Measurements Chap. 7than 26 because of the loss of voltage across the forvard-biased diodes. However, the ‘voltage is increased subotautially abuve due Valery voltage level, When a large number of diodes and transistors are involved, the battery voltage can he ruiplied to a high enough level for insulation testing. Direct voltage can also be increased to a high de level by means of the de-to-de ‘converter in Figure 7-16(b). The output of the square-wave generator in tis circuit is ap plied to a step-up transformer to produce a high-voltage secondary. This is then rectified and smoothed to convert it to a high de voltage, Battery-Powered Megohmmeters ‘The two battery-powered rhegohmmeters shown in Figure 7-17 have pushbutton switches for closing the resistance measuring circuits. The circuit may be closed for only the brief time necessary to take a resistance reading, thus minimizing the current drain on the bat- ‘cries. The digital instrument in Figure 7-17(a) has a 1000 V maximum test voltage, and resistance rangee fram 0-000 0) wp t0 02000 MAL. The epecified socuracy of moasure ‘at is 4(1% of reading + 2 LSD) for the lowest resistance range, and 4(3.5% of reading +3 LSD) for the highest range. The analog instrument in Figure 7-17(b) has a nonlinear Seale, Its maximusn sauge is 0-100 MO widh 2.5 MO at center scale, and the maximum de test voltage is 500 V. Measurement accuracy is specified as +59 of the reading up to 10 MO, and +10% for resistances above 10 MQ. (2) Digit hanery.prernd eprint (0) Anaog bat ponesed megehmmeter ‘igure 7-17 Digial and andog tanery-poweret megohmmters. The digital instrument we « 1000 ¥ maxima et voltage, and measure esistance Up t 2000 MEL. The anloy meer wes 500 ‘sand its maximum rage goes to 100 MAL. (Coureny of Amproe Instrument) Sec.7-7 ih Resistance Measuring Instruments a8