Journal of Consumer Marketing: Article Information

Journal of Consumer Marketing
Pro-environmental products: marketing influence on consumer purchase decision

Josephine Pickett‐Baker, Ritsuko Ozaki,
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Josephine Pickett‐Baker, Ritsuko Ozaki, (2008) "Pro‐environmental products: marketing influence on consumer purchase
decision", Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 25 Issue: 5, pp.281-293, doi: 10.1108/07363760810890516
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Pro-environmental products: marketing
influence on consumer purchase decision
Josephine Pickett-Baker
Complete Fabrication Ltd, London, UK, and
Ritsuko Ozaki
Tanaka Business School, Imperial College London, London, UK
Abstract
Purpose – The objective of this paper is to investigate if marketing and branding techniques can help establish green brands and introduce greener
patterns of consumption into contemporary lifestyles in the current context where environmentally friendly products are increasingly available.
Design/methodology/approach – This paper reviews consumer behaviour and advertising to identify how consumers are persuaded to opt for
greener products. It reports the results of a consumer product survey using a questionnaire based on the Dunlap and van Liere HEP-NEP environmental
survey and the Roper Starch Worldwide environmental behaviour survey. The respondents were 52 mothers who shop at supermarkets.
Findings – The results show a correlation between consumer confidence in the performance of green products and their pro-environmental beliefs in
general. The findings suggest that most consumers cannot easily identify greener products (apart from cleaning products) although they would favour
products manufactured by greener companies, and they do not find the current product marketing particularly relevant or engaging.
Practical implications – The paper suggests that the market for greener products could be exploited more within consumer groups that have pro-
environmental values.
Originality/value – This paper identifies that consumers are not exposed enough to green product marketing communication and suggests the greater
use of marketing and brands to promote and sell products that are environmentally friendly and function effectively.
Keywords Environmental management, Beliefs, Consumer behaviour, Trust, Green marketing, Brands
Paper type Research paper
An executive summary for managers and executive decades. However, in his research on green product innovation
readers can be found at the end of this article. strategy, Driessen (2005) finds that in order to maintain a
competitive advantage, an optimum level of greenness needs to
Introduction be identified between innovation performance and greenness,
thus avoiding merely capturing the niche green market.
Studies on the consumption of environmentally sustainable So, if the market for environmentally sustainable products is
products have demonstrated that perceived product to become mainstream, it is important to look at what factors
performance is a significant barrier to their selection. For influence the consumer’s selection process. This paper
example, Ottman (1998) shows that 41 per cent of consumers examines how consumers’ values/beliefs and attitudes, as
do not buy “green” products because of their perceived well as their exposure to influences and information, shape
inferiority, citing a study of observable and product-specific their behaviour and perceptions of product performance, with
information (e.g. use of biodegradable and recycling behaviour) a particular focus on the influential role of marketing. Can
by Roper Starch Worldwide (RSW). Alston and Prince Roberts marketing influence consumer attitudes towards green
(1999) found, in their research on environmental strategy and products and their purchasing decisions? We consider
new product development, that there was a willingness to pay whether the use of mainstream marketing techniques, and
slightly more for environmental improvement in cleaning effective branding, can affect consumer decisions to opt for
products than to sacrifice product performance. environmentally sustainable products.
One category of products is known as GPIs, or green product We present a review of the literature on “green” behaviour
innovations, where the green product performance is under four themes:
significantly better than competitive or conventional products 1 consumer beliefs and behaviours;
(Peattie, 1992). These have been heralded as a powerful 2 consumer response to marketing of being pro-
solution to the stalemate between economy and environment environmental;
(Porter and van der Linde, 1995). Firms have increasingly 3 trust in the product; and
introduced GPIs into their product developments over recent 4 consumer exposure to product marketing communication.
We draw hypotheses to test in a questionnaire-survey based
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at empirical study.
www.emeraldinsight.com/0736-3761.htm
Consumer “green” behaviour: literature review

Journal of Consumer Marketing Consumer beliefs and behaviours
25/5 (2008) 281– 293
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 0736-3761] Hoyer and MacInnis (2004) state that consumers’ values and
[DOI 10.1108/07363760810890516] beliefs need to be considered when examining the influences
281
Pro-environmental products: marketing influence Journal of Consumer Marketing
Josephine Pickett-Baker and Ritsuko Ozaki Volume 25 · Number 5 · 2008 · 281 –293
that affect purchasing decisions. Values are enduring beliefs their evaluations through adding new beliefs and targeting
that a given behaviour is desirable or good and include valuing normative beliefs. Branding is a valuable tool in this
the environment. Environmental values play a primary role in manipulation or forming of attitudes. Brands are effective
pro-environmental behaviour: values affect people’s beliefs, because they have an effect on the affective domain: rational
which then have influences on personal norms that lead to reasons are translated into emotional preferences (Travis,
consumers’ pro-environmental behaviours (Reser and 2000). Thus, brands can shift consumer attitudes to more
Bentrupperbaumer, 2005; Stern, 2000). Similarly, Ajzen’s sustainable consumption. For example, affective marketing
(1991) Theory of Planned Behavior shows that could convert passive green consumers who are willing to pay
(environmental) beliefs form attitudes towards behaviour, premium prices for pro-environmental products to greener
which is then translated into intention of behaviour. The consumption (“many shades of green” (Ottman, 1998)).
Global Environmental Survey (GOES) finds a gradual The purchase and consumption of products and services is
intergenerational value shift in the post-war generation often related to attempts to achieve, or maintain, ideals
towards post-materialist priorities, likely to result in more conceived either by the self or others (Hawkins et al., 1998).
pro-environmental behaviour (Bennulf and Holmberg, 1990; Some consumers may have an ideal self-concept of being
Betz, 1990; Hoffmann-Martinot, 1991; Inglehart, 1990). So, environmentally responsible, but the actual self-concept may
although pro-environmental values do not guarantee pro- fall far short of this ideal, with no significant change towards a
environmental behaviour, it is likely that pro-environmental greener lifestyle. Thus, companies and products that
values lead to pro-environmental behaviour. effectively create the image of concern for the environment
However, an individual concerned about the environment are likely to be supported by these consumers as providing
does not necessarily behave in a green way in general, or in one route towards achieving their ideal self-concept:
their purchasing. This is known as the value-action gap.
H2. Consumers will likely purchase more from
Kollmuss and Agyeman (2002) explored a range of analytical
manufacturers that are seen to be pro-environmental.
frameworks and external and internal factors that promote
pro-environmental behaviour and found conflicting and
competing factors related to consumers’ daily decisions. Trust in the product
They concluded that no single definitive model adequately The main influence on food and household product purchases
explains the gap between environmental knowledge and pro- is word-of-mouth. Hoyer and MacInnis (2004) find that it is
environmental behaviour. A recent study finds that people four times more effective than the persuasion of sales
who are environmentally conscious do not necessarily behave assistants in affecting brand switching. On the other hand,
pro-environmentally: for example, people might throw negative word-of-mouth may be damaging. The performance
rubbish away when most people around them do so of green products is often considered to be inferior (Ottman,
(reactive process, as opposed to intentional decision making; 1998); early versions of green products did not have good
Ohtomo and Hirose, 2007). performance and this previous experience may have been
One of the conflicting factors, also discussed by Karp assimilated by word-of-mouth, and not redressed by later
(1996), is the dilemma raised by greater environmental experience:
protection that benefits everyone, and rational self-interest, H3. Consumers will trust well-known products and will
often leading to environmental exploitation (behaviour judge green products based on previous experience or
described by Hardin (1968) as “the Tragedy of the word-of-mouth.
Commons”). It has been shown that when pro-
environmental behaviour aligns with self-interest (and this
behaviour is also normative) individuals comply (Ajzen, Consumer exposure to product marketing
1991). In this sense, advertising is to be effective when the communication
product meets consumers’ needs and aligns with their values The average consumer has less opportunity to form an
(e.g. saving money on fuel, and increasing children’s safety). attitude about a green product than about a main stream
Conversely, the value-action gap may arise when pro- product, unless they have made a special effort to get to know
environmental behaviour does not go along with self-interest: the green product, as manufacturers of environmentally-
H1. There is likely to be a gap between consumer beliefs improved products often make little or no green claims in
and behaviours in relation to green consumption. their advertising (Rand Corporation, 2004).
Aspirational and associative reference groups have a strong
influence on general consumption (Dittmar, 1992; Hoyer and
Consumer response to marketing of being MacInnis, 2004). However, in advertising, where those
pro-environmental reference groups are frequently used, they are rarely
Values are regarded as principles that guide the formation of associated with green products. In general, green products
attitudes and actions (Rokeach, 1973), although values do not are niche products, and marketing or mass media dominated
always lead to behaviour in real life. That is, people’s attitudes influences for green companies and products are few (Charter
affect their thoughts (the cognitive function) and feelings (the et al., 2002).
affective function), and thus influence behaviour such as Pooley and O’Connor (2000) argue that providing
purchasing behaviour (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004). This information on environmental issues does not necessarily
implies that marketers should seek to change consumers’ foster pro-environmental attitudes. Their research suggests
attitudes so that they can influence consumers’ decision that the key to environmental education is the affective
making and behaviour. The Theory of Reasoned Action domain. Hawkins et al. (1998) explain how the emotional
(Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980) suggests that marketers can content in advertisements increases attention, a critical step in
influence consumers’ attitudes and intentions by changing the perception process. Emotional messages may be processed
282
more thoroughly and remembered better as a result of 1990; Hoffmann-Martinot, 1991; Inglehart, 1990) and
increased alertness. It is reasonable to assume that advertising consumer behaviours, such as changing values and
green products using emotional content would be more obtaining ideal self-concepts (Hawkins et al., 1998), the
successful. Advertising works well when it tries to appeal to study set out to establish the likelihood of consumers
those values that drive consumer decision processes (WFA purchasing from green companies. Also, since consumers
et al., 2002). require exposure to a product and memory of it for their
When making decisions, individuals do not consider the internal search for the information required for decision
product in isolation; they interpret new information in light of making (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004), the research looked for
the context in which the information occurs (Plous, 1993). evidence of poor exposure to effective communication about
The effort involved in consumers’ decision making can be green consumer products (leading to the subsequent lack of
influenced by past experience of a product, brand loyalty and memory and necessitating major effort in decision making).
price. The consumer’s internal search is enhanced by feelings Finally, based on significant interpersonal influences on
towards products that have been portrayed in an appealing consumer behaviour, such as word-of-mouth and social
context. As consumers often start from a low information norms (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004), the research explored
base on sustainable consumption, their internal search may the source of actual or received experience and its effect on
fail to supply the information necessary for decision making. attitudes towards product performance.
If an external search is necessary, this involves high effort
(Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004), as seen above. Methodology
When the decision-making process is examined, there are a
number of reasons why green products continue to be niche Defining environmentally sustainable products
goods, selling only to committed ethical consumers without Defining environmentally sustainable products is complex. In
the aid of mainstream marketing techniques. For example, a strict sense, there is no such thing as a truly sustainable or
advertisers make claims about the limitations of advertising, green product, as all products we buy, own, use and discard in
that it is futile to attempt social engineering by working our everyday lives will have negative environmental impacts at
against consumer desires or lifestyles (WFA et al., 2002). some stage in their lifecycles. However, products can be
However, it could be argued that such desires and lifestyles classified according to the scale of these impacts, and a quality
have reflexively developed as a result of advertising. Chaney threshold can be drawn (Cooper, 2000). If a product has a
(1996) shows that lifestyle and consumer culture have become low environmental impact, it is regarded as an
interdependent in post-modern society. In other words, environmentally sustainable product.
although some (manufacturing) companies would argue that Another definition of an environmentally sustainable
they cannot influence consumer choice towards green product, for consideration in this paper, is that products
products, they can and do shape consumption patterns should be readily available for purchase and include those
through the products offered and how they are marketed supplied by companies with a reputation for reducing
(Rose, 2002). environmental impacts from their manufacturing processes.
According to Bocock (1993, p. 111) consumer desires, once
aroused, are difficult to control socially: “as more and more Samples
groups in the world become aware of the goods on offer by The type of consumer chosen for this study was a woman with
having their desires stimulated, formed and articulated by children, who regularly shops at supermarkets. Ottman
mass media and modern advertising, so the number of people (1998) reports that the consumers most receptive to
who form their sense of purpose and identity through environmentally-oriented marketing appeals are women; as
“consumption” expands” (see also Chaney, 1996). Hence, if mothers, they would be motivated to secure their children’s
change were considered desirable to meet environmental futures. Also, the characteristics of our respondents overlap
goals, it would be more socially achievable to shift those of the “swing group” consumers, who are neither active
consumption to greener products than to significantly or non-active environmentalists and are willing to engage in
quash, the now identity linked, consumption. environmental activities from time to time, but only when it
Social norms are an important motivator of ecologically requires little effort (Ottman, 1998). This swing group is the
responsible behaviour (Ewing, 2001). The strength of the source of most conversions to green consumerism.
normative influence of the consumers’ family and social Respondents were recruited at supermarkets within a 40-
groups on purchasing decisions depends on the characteristics mile radius of London. A sample of 52 was obtained, with an
of the product (e.g. luxury rather than a necessity, publicly age range of 26 to 65.
displayed or used in private), the susceptibility of the
individual consumer and the coercive power of the group to Questionnaire and data analysis methods
which the consumer belongs (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004). The questionnaire was structured as follows. The first part
Young people are more open to change than older people, and contains the HEP-NEP questions (Dunlap and van Liere,
young adults strongly influence what happens in their homes 1978) to measure general environmental beliefs. Since its first
(UNEP and UNESCO, 2001). publication, the HEP-NEP questionnaire has gained
considerable currency and is considered an unofficial
H4a. Consumers are unlikely to be exposed to standard (Bechtel, 1997). The possible responses were:
communications about green consumer products. strongly agree, mildly agree, mildly disagree, and strongly
H4b. Better market communication will induce consumers
disagree (Table I).
to purchase green. The second part included questions about environmental
These hypotheses were tested in an empirical study. Informed behaviour, with six questions related to purchasing behaviour
by reported trends (e.g. Bennulf and Holmberg, 1990; Betz, and eight related to general behaviour, based on the RSW
283
Table I HEP-NEP general environmental beliefs questions Table III Consumer product questions
Q1 We are approaching the limit of the number of people the earth can Q1 I feel good about buying brands which are less damaging to the
support environment
Q2 The balance of nature is very delicate and easily upset Q2 It is easy for me to identify these products
Q3 Humans have the right to modify the natural environment to suit Q3 Some multi-national corporations who manufacture well-known
their needs consumer brands are redesigning their factory processes, their
Q4 Mankind was created to rule over the rest of nature products and their packaging to be more environmentally friendly. If
Q5 When humans interfere with nature it often has disastrous they advertised this fact I would be much more likely to choose that
consequences brand
Q6 Plants and animals exist primarily to be used by humans Q4 Green products are inferior in performance to non-green products
Q7 To maintain a healthy economy, we will have to control industrial Q5a I have formed this opinion because people I know and trust told me
growth so
Q8 Humans must live in harmony with nature in order to survive Q5b I have formed this opinion because of my own experience of a
Q9 The earth is like a spaceship with only limited room and resources product more than five years ago
Q10 Humans need not adapt to the natural environment because they Q5c I have formed this opinion because of my own recent experience of a
can remake it to suit their own needs product
Q11 There are limits to which our industrialised society can expand Q6 I trust well-known brands to make products which work
Q12 Mankind is severely abusing the environment Q7a In the marketing communication about a product, I expect to be
informed of new improved formulas/design.
Q7b In the marketing communication about a product, I expect to be
Green Gauge questions (Ottman, 1998), which segment informed of the clear benefits of the product to me and my family
green consumers by behaviours. The results were used as a Q7c In the marketing communication about a product, I expect to be
benchmark for comparison of all other data in this study. The informed of how environmentally friendly a product is
range of responses to the question “Do you do any of the Q8a Green products are marketed to me in a way which I never notice
following?” was: never, sometimes, frequently, and always Q8b Green products are marketed to me in a way which I find really
(Table II). engaging and relevant to my lifestyle
The third part of the questionnaire covered marketing and
branding issues related to attitudes towards green products,
designed to explore topics identified in the consumer In order to conduct the scatter diagram and regression analysis,
behaviour and advertising industry opinion sections. Again, the responses were converted in a standardised numerical data
the HEP-NEP environmental questions and the RSW form, to identify correlations. Each question was scored 0, 1, 2,
environmental behaviour questions were used to or 3. For the environmental beliefs and behaviours questions, 0
contextualise the responses to the consumer product indicates a complete rejection of environmental beliefs or
questions. The suggested responses (with the exception of absence of green behaviours, and 3 indicates complete
question 5a, b and c) were: strongly agree, mildly agree, acceptance of environmental beliefs and maximum
mildly disagree, and strongly disagree (Table III). participation in green behaviours. The information for each
Respondents were also asked to name any green product individual and each question was collated and the mean average
types that they had experience of using. score (maximum 3) was calculated for each question and each
The questionnaire also included general demographic group of questions. For question 5 in the third part (i.e. the
questions such as age groups. Respondents were invited to source of belief in green product performance), the number of
make general comments, too. yes responses in each category was collated and percentage
occurrence calculated. Occurrences for age group and chosen
product examples were also calculated.
Table II RSW Green Gauge past environmental behaviour questions
The results were sorted against the following criteria and
Q1 Use biodegradable soaps or detergents aggregated quartile means were examined for trends:
Q2 Avoid buying aerosol products
. Strength of environmental beliefs (general environmental
Q3 Read labels to see if contents are environmentally safe behaviour and environmental beliefs) (Table IV).
Q4 Buy products made or packaged in recycled materials
.
Belief in the performance of green brands.
. Choosing goods manufactured by companies making
Q5 Buy products in packages that can be refilled
environmental improvements.
Q6 Avoid buying products from companies who are not environmentally .
Trust in well-known brands.
responsible .
Age group.
Q7 Recycle bottles, cans or glass
Q8 Recycle newspapers To test for significant correlations, scatter diagrams and
Q9 Compost garden waste regression statistics were generated (see Figures 1 and 2).
Q10 Take your own bags to the supermarket
Q11 Cut down on car use Results and discussion
Q12 Contribute money to environmental causes
Q13 Volunteer for an environmental group Beliefs and behaviours
Q14 Write to politicians The scatter diagram and regression analysis results show that
environmental behaviours are not significantly affected by
284
Table IV Abbreviated data sorted primarily by environmental beliefs and secondly by general environmental behaviour (analysed by quartile)
Mean past Mean past Source of Source of Product
Mean general environmental general Mean consumer Green product Source of product belief – product belief – performance
Respondent ref. Age environmental purchasing environmental product performance product belief – old past own recent commented
Number group beliefs behaviour behaviour attitude beliefs word of mouth experience experience upon
23 46-55 1.2 1.7 1.4 2.0 2 1
22 36-45 1.3 1.5 0.8 2.0 1 1
30 56-65 1.8 1.2 1.3 2.8 2
38 26-35 2.0 1.7 0.8 2.0 1 1
31 46-55 2.0 1.5 1.8 2.1 1 1 1
25 35-55 2.1 1.2 0.6 2.2 1 1 1
51 26-35 2.1 1.0 0.9 2.0 1
49 46-55 2.1 0.7 1.4 2.1 1 1 Washing powder
21 36-45 2.1 1.0 1.5 2.1 1 1 Washing powder
35 26-35 2.1 1.5 1.5 2.0 1 1 Washing-up liquid
15 36-45 2.2 0.8 1.8 1.8 1 1 1
Josephine Pickett-Baker and Ritsuko Ozaki
9 36-45 2.3 0.3 0.3 2.1 1 1 1 Cleaning products

Pro-environmental products: marketing influence
1 26-35 2.3 0.8 1.0 2.4 2

Qrtl means 2.0 1.1 1.2 2.1 1.2 Totals 5 7 2
50 36-45 2.3 1.5 1.5 2.3 2
16 36-45 2.3 1.7 1.8 2.3 2 1 Organic fertiliser
32 46-55 2.3 1.5 1.8 2.1 1 1 1 1
42 46-55 2.3 1.5 2.3 1.8 2 1 Organic chocolate
285
6 36-45 2.4 1.0 0.8 2.3 2
36 46-55 2.4 1.0 0.8 2.4 1 1 1 Eco powder and
washing-up
20 36-45 2.4 1.5 1.5 2.6 1 1 1 Washing powder
26 46-55 2.4 1.3 1.5 1.3 1 1 Ecover washing-
up and fabric
detergent
47 56-65 2.4 1.8 1.8 2.2 1 1
8 36-45 2.5 1.7 1.9 1.8 3 1 1
2 26-35 2.6 0.8 0.5 2.9 0 1 Ecover washing-
up liquid
53 36-45 2.6 1.3 0.6 2.4 2 Ecover washing-
up liquid
29 46-55 2.6 1.0 1.1 2.7 0 1
14 46-55 2.6 1.0 1.8 2.3 2 1 Green cleaning

Volume 25 · Number 5 · 2008 · 281 –293
products
48 46-55 2.6 2.2 1.8 1.4 2 1 Ecover
37 26-35 2.6 1.0 1.8 1.9 3 1 1
(continued)
Table IV
Mean past Mean past Source of Source of Product
Mean general environmental general Mean consumer Green product Source of product belief – product belief – performance
Respondent ref. Age environmental purchasing environmental product performance product belief – old past own recent commented
Number group beliefs behaviour behaviour attitude beliefs word of mouth experience experience upon
19 26-35 2.7 1.0 0.8 2.1 0 1 Bleach Ecover
41 46-55 2.7 0.5 1.3 2.7 3
18 36-45 2.8 0.3 0.4 2.1 1 1 Ecover washing
powder and liquid
40 56-65 2.8 1.0 0.6 2.2 0 1 Soap powder
3 26-35 2.8 2.0 0.9 2.7 1 1 Down to Earth
cleaner
45 26-35 2.8 0.8 1.0 2.7 3 1
Josephine Pickett-Baker and Ritsuko Ozaki
28 26-35 2.8 1.2 1.1 1.8 1 1

39 36-45 2.8 0.8 1.4 1.9 2 1 Washing power
Pro-environmental products: marketing influence
44 36-45 2.8 2.0 1.5 2.3 2 1 1 Recycled toilet

paper
Qrtl means 2.7 1.2 1.2 2.2 1.6 Totals 2.7 5
and nappy liners
286
11 36-45 2.8 1.5 1.8 1.8 2 1 Ecover washing-
up liquid
7 46-55 2.8 2.0 1.8 2.6 2 1
17 36-45 2.8 1.7 2.0 2.2 2 1 Washing powder
24 36-45 2.9 2.3 1.0 2.0 3 1 Ecover and
recycled products
5 46-55 2.9 2.0 1.1 1.8 1 1 1 Ecover laundry
and washing-up
46 36-45 2.9 2.0 1.6 1.6 3 1 1 Ecover products
12 26-35 2.9 2.2 2.1 2.2 3
10 36-45 3.0 1.3 1.3 2.2 3 Eco powder
52 46-55 3.0 1.7 1.6 1.8 3 1 Ecover products
13 46-55 3.0 2.0 1.9 1.7 3 1
34 56-65 3.0 1.3 2.1 1.8 3 1 1 Ecover powder
and washing-up
33 56-65 3.0 1.7 2.3 2.4 3 1 Aveda shampoo
Total means 2.5 1.4 1.4 2.1 1.7 Totals 10 28 19

Volume 25 · Number 5 · 2008 · 281 –293
Figure 1 Scatter diagram and linear regression of environmental behaviour against environmental belief
environmental beliefs (p ¼ 0:1665; Figure 1). This suggests Environmental behaviour scores, both purchasing and
the well-documented gap between environmental beliefs and general, were much lower than the belief scores (mean
environmental behaviours and supports Hypothesis 1 that aggregated scores 1.8 and 1.6 out of 3). This is commonly
there is a gap between consumer beliefs and behaviours in referred to by environmental organisations as the value-action
green consumption. Product performance beliefs on the other gap (Darnton, 2004). There was a slight increase in
hand, were shown to be significantly affected by environmental behaviours with increased age. There was no
environmental beliefs, when the figures for the two were evidence of a linear relationship between environmental
tested for correlation (p ¼ 0:009; Figure 2). beliefs and environmental behaviours. However, in the least
As mothers, respondents have strong pro-environmental environmentally concerned quartile environmental behaviour
attitudes towards environmental problems (mean aggregated was lowest, and in the most environmentally concerned
score 2.6 out of 3), and when respondents were sorted by age, quartile environmental behaviour was highest (Table IV).
there was no difference in environmental beliefs across age The Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen and Fishbein,
groups. This result supports Hoyer and MacInnis’s (2004) 1980) claims that a person’s behaviour is determined by his/
arguments that demographics, with the exception of gender, her belief of the outcome of that particular behaviour and by
are not a good indicator of environmental attitudes. the opinions of his/her social environment, which then
287
Figure 2 Scatter diagram and linear regression of belief in green product performance against environmental belief
influences behavioural intentions. However, what people satisfy consumers, their values do not become behaviours
think is a good idea does not always predict what they actually (Rogers, 2003). These all could explain the value-action gap.
do, especially in the case of environmental values and The environmental behaviour that the respondents
behaviours. First, values are often too general to lead a certain participated in most was the recycling of bottles, cans, glass
environmental behaviour (e.g. the purchase of green and newspapers and composting garden waste. There seems
products), so unless values and beliefs are specific, they do to be a number of reasons why these particular behaviours
not result in good environmental behaviour (Eagly and
appear more popular than others. First, information about
Chaiken, 1993). Second, environmental behaviours are also
recycling has been reasonably consistent for a number of
influenced by subjective interests, such as pro-environmental
self- images, as seen above (Hawkins et al., 1998). When such years, and reaches most of the population. Second, there is
subjective interests are not met by a particular behaviour, normative influence (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004) from family
values do not get translated into behaviour. Third, consumers and neighbours, especially younger household members,
evaluate a product by looking at its attributes, such as which influences what happens in the home (Ewing, 2001).
functionality and ease of use/performance. When these do not Therefore, consumers are motivated to recycle, this being
288
consistent with environmental values and social influences/ brand trust is based on experience of the brand, information,
norms, aided by increased opportunity. familiarity and satisfaction.
The source of green product performance belief (not
Consumer response to marketing being supplied by all respondents) was based on recent experience
pro-environmental of a green product, least often in the least environmentally
Respondents said that they were more likely to choose brands concerned quartile of respondents and most often in the most
which they knew were manufactured by companies whose environmentally concerned quartile of respondents. Basing
products and processes were more environmentally friendly opinion of green product performance on word-of-mouth was
(mean aggregate score of 2.4 out of 3). No one strongly not commonly cited (19 per cent). Of these respondents 80
disagreed and nearly half the respondents strongly agreed that per cent belonged to the least environmentally concerned
they would choose brands from these companies. There was a quartile and agreed that green products performed less well.
slight tendency for the most environmentally concerned Performance opinion based on past use of a green product
respondents to be even more likely to make this choice. (over five years ago) was the most common, and this was more
Respondents replied positively to feeling good about buying evenly distributed across the environmental and product
brands which are less damaging to the environment (mean performance belief spectrum. The 36-45 age group was the
aggregated score of 2.7 out of 3). If our consumer group has most positive about the performance of green products.
pro-environmental attitudes they may have self-concepts of The reasons why green product performance beliefs are
themselves as environmentally responsible. This supports H2 significantly affected by environmental beliefs could include
that it is likely that consumers will purchase more from the following. First, stronger environmental beliefs would
companies that are seen to be displaying CSR. Buying brands make use of green products more likely. Recent positive
manufactured by companies whose products and processes product experience is clearly very influential, especially in the
are more environmentally friendly enhances a desired self- case of cleaning products where product performance is all-
concept, allowing consumers to “feel good about it”. One important. However, out-of-date product experiences are still
important qualification, however, is that the product must circulating by word-of-mouth (negative), influencing
function as effectively as non-green products and avoid the performance beliefs especially amongst less environmentally
quality/cost trade-off (Alston and Prince Roberts, 1999). concerned consumers who are then even less likely to try
Conversely, negative perceptions of products can intervene products. Second, it is possible that the consumer’s general
the relationship between consumers’ values and behaviour. attitude towards the environment may affect the level of
benevolence towards the product under evaluation, especially
Trust in the product when a product is not inferior in any way, but requires a
The majority of respondents said that they generally trusted change of habit for its use. This cannot be satisfactorily
well-known brands to make effective products (mean demonstrated by our survey, but a further study should test
aggregate score of 2 out of 3). The minority of those who this phenomenon under controlled conditions. For example,
disagreed with this statement were not identifiable as a group the performance of the same product may be evaluated
by any criteria in the survey. Marketers seek to favourably differently depending on different user’s environmental
influence consumers’ attitudes towards a given brand; attitudes when the performance of the same task will be
considering the time, money and effort that is invested, this consistent. If this theory is established, influencing a
score seems disappointing. Personality traits (Hawkins et al., consumer’s general concern for the environment could make
1998) in individual consumers, such as cynicism, may partly consumers more willing to try out green products.
explain this, together with negative word-of-mouth (Hoyer
and MacInnis, 2004) about some products, poor personal Exposure
experience and other general sources of influence such as The ease of identifying more environmentally friendly
probing consumer reports and corporate scandals. Some products is reported as mildly difficult (1.5 out of 3) by the
respondents said they trusted certain brands and not others. most environmentally concerned quartile of our respondents,
On balance, however, the perceived risk of whether the ascending by quartile mean (1.7, then 1.8), to being fairly
product will perform as expected, which affects the difficult (1.9 out of 3) by the least environmentally concerned
motivation to purchase (Fowler, 2002), is lower for a well- quartile.
known than a less well-known brand. The more positive the The most environmentally concerned quartile reported that
consumer feels about a product, the more likely they will be to they were aware of green product marketing, and found it
consume it (Honkanen et al., 2006). Conversely, if they mildly engaging and also relevant to their lifestyles. This result
perceive product attributes negatively, this perception will is not surprising, as it is mostly the green niche market that is
cause the value-action gap. being targeted by current marketing strategies. The other
In our survey, a significant correlation of 36 per cent was three quartiles were significantly less aware of green
obtained between the strength of respondent’s environmental marketing; their awareness decreasing in line with their level
beliefs and the belief that the performance of green products of concern. They reported that green products were not
is as good as that of their non-green alternatives. The generally marketed in a way that particularly engaged them.
regressed data showed a p-value of 0.009, so b is non-zero Given that all the respondents are likely to be exposed to
(Figure 2). In other words, belief in green product similar general sources of influence, the level of consistency
performance was significantly affected by environmental between an individual’s environmental values and the
beliefs. This finding supports H3 that consumers are likely personal relevance of identifying environmentally friendly
to trust well-known products and to judge green products products is a possible explanation of this increased awareness
based on their previous experience and word-of-mouth. It of those products, i.e. the motivation to identify them is
also supports Hong-Youl and Perks’ (2005) argument that greater (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004).
289
Of the respondents, 42 per cent were unable to name a likely to believe that green products will perform as expected,
specific product, or product type, on which their opinion of whilst among the majority of consumers, a major barrier to
product performance might be based. However, 50 per cent the purchasing of green products is concern over product
of respondents cited biodegradable cleaning products of performance.
various types and makes (most commonly “Ecover”). This Greater marketing exposure matters. As the responses
outcome may have been influenced by the sample group show, consumers would be more likely to choose
chosen (mothers who shop at supermarkets), as those environmentally friendly brands. Respondents indicated that
products that are regularly stocked by supermarkets would they felt good about buying brands that were less damaging to
have sprung to mind. It is unsurprising that 42 per cent of the the environment. However, they also indicated that it was
respondents did not name a product or product type, when sometimes difficult to identify these products. They were not
attention to a stimulus that is necessary for information to be very aware of relevant or engaging marketing, which they felt
perceived is selective, divided and limited (Hoyer and should include information on the benefits of and
MacInnis, 2004). Therefore, H4a, that consumers are improvements to the product. Overall, it is clear that the
unlikely to be exposed to communications about green market for greener products is under-exploited by marketers
consumer products, is supported by these findings. within consumer groups with pro-environmental values. This
finding suggests the greater use of marketing and brands to
Product marketing communication sell green products that are genuinely environmentally
Respondents strongly agreed that they expected to be friendly and function effectively.
informed about new and improved product formulas and
design (mean aggregate scores of 2.3, 2.6 and 2.5 out of 3). Managerial implications
They want to be aware of the clear benefits (Alston and Prince
Roberts, 1999) and how environmentally friendly products This paper has highlighted various aspects of consumer
are. Opinion was evenly distributed across the respondents behaviour and shown that consumer preference for greener
and not linked to environmental beliefs or behaviours. These goods could be influenced by marketing. Products given
findings support H4b that effective market communication greater exposure will be more likely to sell in greater numbers
will induce consumers to purchase green products. especially to the “swing group” of consumers (as defined by
Marketers generally pay close attention to effective Roper Starch Worldwide) who represent a similar size market
communication with consumers. Markets are carefully segment to the early majority (33 per cent).
segmented to reveal possible openings, for instance, by Pro-environmental values are more likely to result in more
matching a brand to the characteristics of consumers. Product pro-environmental behaviour when values and beliefs are
perception is influenced by situational variables and social specific enough, the green action aligns with consumers’
reference groups. Product benefits are linked to specific subjective interests, and product attributes are positively
lifestyles and designed to enhance or maintain a consumer’s perceived. Demonstrating win-win scenarios for both the
self-concept (Hawkins et al., 1998). Particular values, needs consumer and the environment is useful (e.g. safer for your
or goals are targeted by exploiting prior knowledge in children, saving money, projecting pro-environmental image,
launching new brands (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2004). How etc.). In some instances, a low energy-consuming product
consumers think and feel about a particular product is may have a higher initial purchase price, so an innovative
affected by what they are accustomed to, and expect, as pricing mechanism may need to be developed and marketed.
indicated by the responses above. A major barrier to the purchasing of green products is
Most green products are marketed quite individually. This concern over whether the product will perform as expected.
may be because their customers are not seen as “general” However, consumers generally trust the performance of well-
consumers, but as sensible restrained purchasers of essential known brands, so green products that work well and do not
supplies or niche products with no frills; market research is make over inflated green claims could sell successfully under
thus based on knowledge. However, this cognitive-based well-known brands. Early majority consumers are likely to
marketing communication used for many environmentally trust the performance of well-known brands more than the
friendly products is shown to be useful only in some of the performance of environmentally friendly products in general.
ways consumers form attitudes, thus limiting their appeal. In current green marketing, branding is underutilised. The
What is missing in this approach is emotion, which plays a affective use of branding in selling green products should be
part in consumer response to brands and is found to be part of marketing strategies. The effect of emotion on
effective in influencing decisions, forming attitudes and influencing decisions, attitude formation and memory
remembering (Hawkins et al., 1998). retrieval, and the role that emotions play in consumer
response to brands, should be taken into account. Consumers
would be more likely to choose brands which they knew were
Summary
manufactured by companies whose products and processes
Despite limitations in terms of the breadth of the questions were more environmentally friendly. Consumers also feel
and the sample size, this study confirms the existence of an good about buying brands which are less damaging to the
environmental value-action gap, a gap between consumers’ environment. The cognitive-based marketing communication
beliefs and behaviours over being green. This appears to be that is mostly used to sell environmentally friendly products is
due to the fact that general attitudes are not specific enough useful only in some of the ways consumers form product
to lead to pro-environmental action and more specific attitudes, thus limiting their appeal.
subjective interests interfere with the relationship between And yet, consumers often have difficulty identifying green
values and behaviour. The research also found that products. They do not notice much relevant or engaging
consumers with high pro-environmental values are more marketing. To be effective, this marketing needs to include
290
information on the benefits of the product to the consumer Hardin, G. (1968), “The tragedy of the commons”, Science,
and product improvements, such as “new improved formula Vol. 162 No. 3859, pp. 1243-8.
and/or design”. Such information would help reduce the gap Hawkins, D.I., Best, R.J. and Coney, K.A. (1998), Consumer
between values and actions. Hence, greater use of marketing Behavior: Building Market Strategy, McGraw-Hill, Boston,
and use of brands is crucial to sell green products, when the MA.
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In consumer groups whose values are pro-environmental, of European ecologism”, West European Politics, Vol. 14
the market for greener products is underexploited by No. 4, pp. 70-95.
marketers. Values are moving in a direction likely to result Hong-Youl, H. and Perks, H. (2005), “Effects of consumer
in more pro-environmental behaviour, as borne out by the perceptions of brand experience on the web: brand
survey group. It is therefore reasonable to speculate that the familiarity, satisfaction and brand trust”, Journal of
decision to sell more green products, in this underexploited Consumer Behaviour, Vol. 4 No. 6, pp. 438-52.
market, by developing more exciting green brands, will induce Honkanen, P., Verplanken, B. and Olsen, S.O. (2006),
a gearing-up in the marketing to successfully achieve this. “Ethical values and motives driving organic food choice”,
Journal of Consumer Behaviour, Vol. 5 No. 5, pp. 420-30.
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United Nation Environment Programme (UNEP) and United between normative self-interests and pro-environmental
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Association of Communications Agencies (EACA) and behaviour follows. Greater use of brands may provide one way
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potentially even more significant when information is scarce
About the authors and many manufacturers seem reluctant to make green claims
about their products within advertising.
Josephine Pickett-Baker is the Managing Director of a model- One outcome of effective marketing through brand use may
making and special effects company that services the business be the conversion of passive green consumers into more active
areas of product design and marketing. Her research interest participants. It has been noted that some consumers have an
is to explore various aspects of environmentally friendly “ideal self-concept” of being ecologically responsible. In
consumption. reality, however, their actions may fall short of this ideal and
Ritsuko Ozaki is a Senior Research Fellow at Imperial signify no real move towards a greener lifestyle. The use of
College London Tanaka Business School. Her research brands may inspire such consumers, especially since it is
interests include consumer innovation adoption, and her argued that they are likely to support pro-environmental
current research project explores how consumers take up new companies that offer the possibility of attaining the ideal self-
energy service innovation. Ritsuko Ozaki is the corresponding concept.
author and can be contacted at: r.ozaki@imperial.ac.uk The low-key marketing of green products means that many
consumers are left with little knowledge about such items.
Word-of-mouth (WOM) exerts considerable influence on
Executive summary and implications for purchase of food and household products but negative WOM
managers and executives can be damaging. Early green products were perceived as
inferior and the legacy of this period is an ongoing battle
This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives against negative feedback for these products. But personal
a rapid appreciation of the content of the article. Those with a experience is more highly significant and those with past
particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in experience of a product will be less susceptible to other
toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive description of the influences such as WOM.
research undertaken and its results to get the full benefit of the Strong links exist between social norms and
material present. environmentally sustainable behaviour. However, the
strength of these influences from family and social groups
Environmentally-friendly products essentially remain a niche on purchase decisions depends on factors like product
market. If such products are to enjoy mainstream appeal, it is characteristics, consumer susceptibility and group
crucial to identify and explore the factors that most impact on
persuasiveness. Evidence suggests that young people are
consumer purchase decisions.
more open to change and more influential within the home
environment.
Issues to consider
Previous studies have indicated product performance to be
significant. Specifically, many consumers consider green Study and findings
products as inferior and are reluctant to make purchases. Pickett-Baker and Ozaki consider these factors and aim to
Conversely, other researchers detected a readiness to pay establish the likelihood of consumers buying ecologically-
slightly more for ecologically sustainable cleaning products benevolent products.
providing that performance was not comprised in any way. Women concerned about their children’s future have been
When new products are launched, a balance between identified as particularly responsive to green marketing.
performance enhancement and greenness is needed in order Therefore, the sample chosen for the present study consisted
to widen their attraction. of mothers who regularly buy from supermarkets. These
Consumer values and beliefs substantially influence respondents also exhibit similarities to “swing groups” –
purchase decisions. In this context, environmental values are consumers who will periodically engage in green activities but
likely to motivate pro-environmental behaviours, although only when it demands minimal effort on their part. Statistics
this outcome is not guaranteed. Studies have identified the show that such individuals are likeliest to evolve into green
“value-action gap” whereby environmental concern is not consumers.
reflected in general or purchase behaviour. For instance, The 52 participants were recruited at supermarkets near
instead of recycling, people might throw rubbish away if those London and were aged between 26 and 65. Questions related
around them behave likewise. to environmental beliefs, environmental behaviour, and
Self-interest also often conflicts with ecological concerns, marketing and branding issues concerning attitude to green
even if these interests involve environmental abuse or products. General demographic information was also
exploitation. Such misalignment is another example of the obtained.
value-action gap. The opposite is true when correlation exists Findings indicated agreement with earlier research in that:
292
.
Environmental beliefs do not always strongly inspire investigations where gender was found to be the only
environmental behaviour. This supports the idea of the significant demographic variable.
gap between beliefs and action. One likely factor is that
values may be too general and not specific enough to Marketing recommendations
inspire action. The study likewise corroborates earlier Consumers expressed a desire for more information about
indications that environmental behaviour must also satisfy ecologically sustainable products. This provides support for
subjective interests in order to become the chosen course. the idea that effective communication will inspire green
The value-action gap is also likely to emerge when product purchasing. However, Pickett-Baker and Ozaki point out that
attributes such as functionality or ease of use fall below much of the marketing used for such products is cognitive-
expectation. based and therefore limited in effect. They urge companies to
.
Strength of environmental beliefs significantly affects faith devise strategies that incorporate greater emotional appeal,
in product performance compared to non-green ideally with products being merchandised under well-known
brands. Research has shown that emotion plays a key role in
alternative. Furthermore, those most concerned about
consumer response to brands and provides an effective
the environment were likelier to base beliefs on previous
method of shaping attitudes, forming decisions and improving
experience. WOM was used more frequently among
recall. Branding should be utilised much more in green
individuals less environmentally concerned. The reliance
marketing if the market is to expand from its niche status.
on often-outdated WOM also means that such consumers Furthermore, using well-known brands can help allay fears
become even less apt to try out the product. about product performance.
Correlation exists between level of environmental concern
.
The authors suggest an emphasis on how the product can
and awareness of green product marketing. This invites meet both subjective and environmental needs can pay
the assumption that motivation to identify such dividends. For example, consumers are likely to be attracted
advertising is higher among the more green conscious. to products that can simultaneously save money, be safer for
.
Consumers were more likely to choose brands produced children while further demonstrating the sustainable actions
by organisations with an environmentally-friendly of the individual concerned.
reputation. The author suggests that this action helps Marketers should also convey more information about any
consumers to feel positive about their actions and thus improvements made and how the product can benefit
enhance their desired self-concept. Consumers most consumers. Pickett-Baker and Ozaki suggest that providing
concerned about the environment were slightly likelier to this information could help reduce the void between values
make this choice. and actions. She believes that any move that increases the
.
Consumers generally trust popular brands because exposure of green products can be rewarded with much
perceived risk is lower than for those less well-known. higher sales, especially to individuals who have previously
However, many consumers are unwilling to compromise displayed a willingness to become greener consumers.
quality so the product must function as effectively as a
non-green alternative. (A précis of the article “Pro-environmental products: marketing
.
With minor exceptions, age had minimal influence on influence on consumer purchase decision”. Supplied by Marketing
environmental beliefs. The finding mirrored previous Consultants for Emerald.)
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Pro-environmental products: marketing influence on consumer purchase decision

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Paper type Research paper

Consumer “green” behaviour: literature review

9 36-45 2.3 0.3 0.3 2.1 1 1 1 Cleaning products

1 26-35 2.3 0.8 1.0 2.4 2

14 46-55 2.6 1.0 1.8 2.3 2 1 Green cleaning

28 26-35 2.8 1.2 1.1 1.8 1 1

44 36-45 2.8 2.0 1.5 2.3 2 1 1 Recycled toilet

Total means 2.5 1.4 1.4 2.1 1.7 Totals 10 28 19

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