Review of Machines and Drives)

A Critical Review of Advanced
Electric Machines and

Control Strategies for
Electric Vehicles
This article reviews advanced electric machines and their corresponding control
strategies, particularly for electric vehicle (EV) applications.
By C HUNHUA L IU , Senior Member IEEE, K. T. C HAU , Fellow IEEE,
C HRISTOPHER H. T. L EE , Senior Member IEEE, AND Z AIXIN S ONG , Student Member IEEE
ABSTRACT | Transportation electrification has attracted much applications of electric vehicles (EVs) have become widely
attention in modern society. Among all electrified transporta- available [1]. The power densities of electric machine
tion tools, electric vehicle (EV) is absolutely the one that has drive systems are comparable to or even exceed those of
great potential to compete with and further take the place internal combustion engines (ICEs). Emerging techniques
of traditional fossil fuel vehicles. This article is to outline of electric machine systems mainly have three categories:
and investigate advanced electric machines and their control 1) topologies; 2) control strategies; and 3) innovations
strategies for EV applications. The key is not only to reveal new with other fields [2].
design ideas, topologies, structures, methodologies, control A general classification map of electric machine topolo-
strategies, pros and cons, and foresight for advanced electric gies for EVs is presented in Fig. 1, which includes the
machines but also to fully integrate these ideas into practical conventional advanced types and emerging types. It should
EV applications. This critical review will clarify the development be noted that advanced types here refer to the advanced
trends of electric machines and their controls. design criteria for EV applications although these machines
have been presented for a long time. Advanced types
KEYWORDS | Electric machine; electric vehicle (EV); hybrid EV;
consist of induction machines (IMs), switched reluc-
motor drive; permanent magnet (PM) machine.
tance machines (SRMs), permanent magnet synchronous
I. I N T R O D U C T I O N machines (PMSMs), and permanent magnet-assisted syn-
Due to the rapid development of electric machines and chronous reluctance machines (PMA-SynRMs) [3]. Espe-
power drives in the past few decades, technologies and cially, IMs have squirrel-cage type and wound-rotor type
based on its rotor armature topologies. With permanent
magnet (PM) installation on different rotor positions, the
Manuscript received July 26, 2020; revised October 21, 2020; accepted
November 22, 2020. Date of publication December 10, 2020; date of current
PMSM can result in two main branches: surface-mounted
version May 20, 2021. This work was supported in part by the Research Grants PM (SPM) and interior PM (IPM). Emerging machine types
Council of Hong Kong SAR, China, under Project CityU 21201216 and Project HKU
17205518, and in part by the Shenzhen–Hong Kong Innovation Circle Category D
consist of three main categories: 1) stator PM machines;
Project from the Science Technology and Innovation Committee of Shenzhen 2) flux-controllable (FC) machines; and 3) multiport
Municipality, China, under Project SGDX2019081623101559. (Corresponding
authors: Chunhua Liu; K. T. Chau.)
machines [4], [5]. The topologies tend to become more
Chunhua Liu and Zaixin Song are with the School of Energy and Environment, complex and compact, with more flexible energy ports and
City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China (e-mail:
chunliu@cityu.edu.hk; zaixin.song@my.cityu.edu.hk).
flows [6].
K. T. Chau is with the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The A general classification map of machine control strate-
University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China (e-mail: ktchau@eee.hku.hk). gies for EVs is presented in Fig. 2, which also includes
Christopher H. T. Lee is with the School of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798 (e-mail: the conventional advanced types and emerging types [7].
chtlee@ntu.edu.sg). Also, advanced controls mean the advanced requirements
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JPROC.2020.3041417 for EV applications although these control strategies have
0018-9219 © 2020 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
1004 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021
Authorized licensed use limited to: Concordia University Library. Downloaded on May 22,2021 at 03:46:19 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Liu et al.: Critical Review of Advanced Electric Machines and Control Strategies for EVs
Fig. 1. Classification of electric machines for EVs.
been presented for a long time. Advanced types consist of EVs (HEVs); and 3) plug-in HEV (PHEVs) [10]. Pure EVs
field-oriented control (FOC), direct-torque control (DTC), are fully powered by an electrified propulsion system,
and model predictive control (MPC). Emerging types while batteries and auxiliary power units power their elec-
mainly encompass two categories here for investigation: tronic devices. On the other hand, HEVs combine a con-
the fault-tolerant control and the sensorless control [8]. ventional fossil fuel-powered powertrain with some forms
Due to increasing demands on safety-critical features, of electric propulsion. PHEVs are an extended development
fault-tolerant control has drawn more and more attention. of HEVs with the capability of onboard charging.
Implementation of sensorless control can provide addi- The main scope of this article is to review advanced elec-
tional position information to the control system so that tric machines and their corresponding control strategies,
the robustness of the system can be improved [9]. particularly for EV applications. New design ideas, topolo-
From the application perspective, the existing EVs can gies, structures, methodologies, control strategies, pros
be mainly divided into three types: 1) pure EVs; 2) hybrid and cons, foresight for advanced electric machines, and
Fig. 2. Classification of control strategies of electric machines for EVs.
Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021 | P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE 1005
Fig. 3. Selected advanced electric machine topologies. (a) IM (squirrel-cage type). (b) SRM. (c) PMSM (V-shaped IPM type). (d) PMA-SynRM.
the implementation of ideas into practical EV applications 3) Three-phase IMs possess a starting torque that is
have been investigated. This critical review can provide a unavailable in synchronous machines. A good starting
blueprint and roadmap for engineers and researchers who performance is guaranteed for vehicular applications.
are interested in this field of machine design and control. 4) IMs can reach high efficiency, though not higher
than PMSM. This reduces the drive system losses and
II. A D V A N C E D E L E C T R I C M A C H I N E improves the efficiency of the whole vehicle.
TOPOLOGIES 5) Highly precise speed control of the IM is difficult.
Advanced electric machine topologies have been widely
used by commercial EV manufacturers. Although these
B. Switched Reluctance Machine
machines are very mature, there are still large rooms for
further improvement. For instance, new power electronics The SRM belongs to the doubly salient topology family,
and innovative technologies can be explored to improve as shown in Fig. 3(b). An SRM-based electrical drive
their designs and performances. In particular, four cat- system has been developed for the concept EV Lucas
egories will be discussed in detail with addressing the Chloride. Due to its torque density limitation, practical
application features for EVs. SRM-based passenger EV propulsion systems can be hardly
found [14], [15]. Despite this, SRM drive is still suitable
for small-sized and service-type EVs, such as golf carts,
A. Induction Machine
scooters, or food delivery cars [16].
The IM is composed of magnetic excitation windings The distinct features of SRM are summarized as follows.
on the stator and armatures on the rotor, as shown
1) There are no windings or PMs on the rotor. Thus,
in Fig. 3(a). IMs can eliminate brushes and commutators
the rotor has a simple, robust, and reliable structure.
to achieve a brushless drive. Undoubtedly, IMs have been
2) The high-speed drive can be achieved over
widely applied to commercial EVs, such as Tesla Model 3
10 000 rpm with a specific power level of traction.
and Model S, BMW i3, Mercedes-Benz B-Class-Electric,
Coupled with a gearbox with a high reduction ratio,
Toyota RAV-4, and Nissan Leaf. When new advanced power
the SRM drive can basically match the EV torque and
devices are integrated, such as SiC, a high-power-level
speed requirements.
system can be benefited from IM drives [11].
3) High-speed SRM candidates have the advantage of
The IM has mainly two types of rotor topologies:
high power density, which is an important issue for
squirrel-cage type and wound-rotor type [12]. To become
EV traction motors [17].
competitive to PM machines in terms of power density and
4) Rotor mechanical failures can be suppressed without
torque density, even though a bit costly, IMs equipped with
rotor magnetic bridges. This improves the safety and
stator windings with bar-wound wires and rotor cage with
fault tolerance for EV applications.
casted copper conductors can be possible solutions [13].
5) Both motor and generator modes appear in the oper-
These technologies are achieved by the world’s leading
ation period. Electricity feedback and reverse torque
electric motor and EV supplier, Tesla, Inc.
should be avoided when SRM serves as a traction
The distinct features of IMs are summarized as follows.
motor for EV [18].
1) IMs are cheaper in construction cost and maintenance 6) There are a great torque ripple and significant electro-
cost than that of PM machines. In return, the vehicle magnetic vibration in SRM. This may cause acoustic
drive system cost is largely reduced. High-power-level noise pollution for drivers and passengers.
drive systems will be benefited from new technologies
and power devices.
2) The absence of PMs improves robustness and relia- C. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines
bility, which allows IMs to operate in a harsh road Due to the rapid development of PM materials, PMSMs
condition or environment for vehicular applications. are increasingly preferred in electric drive systems for EVs
and HEVs [19]. To improve its driving range, commercial 5) It consists of the potential to offer a higher power
passenger EVs, such as Chevrolet Bolt, Ford Focus Electric, density than the PMSM counterparts.
Hyundai Ioniq, and Jaguar I-Pace, adopt PMSMs as the 6) PMA-SynRMs conform to the future eco-friendly and
core propulsion component. It shows that PMSMs perform sustainable design concept.
well in passenger EVs. Besides, electrified armed vehi-
cles also choose PMSM drives for military purposes [20]. III. E M E R G I N G E L E C T R I C M A C H I N E
PMSM topology is illustrated in Fig. 3(c). TOPOLOGIES
The distinct features of PMSMs are summarized as Apart from the conventional advanced electric machine
follows. topologies for commercial EVs, there are emerging electric
1) Magnetically strong PMs provide a residual flux for machine topologies for EVs referring to recent relevant
the coils, which largely improves the overall machine investigations. The existing single-rotor electric machines
performances. cannot adapt to present requirement for various applica-
2) It is known that PMSMs possess the highest torque tions. For instance, the single-rotor electric machine is of
density, power density, and efficiency. These will relatively low torque density, and it is not suitable for
improve the driving range of vehicles. some vehicles that need large traction force. Then, a novel
3) The flux-weakening technique is required under breed of the electric machine, namely a double-stator (DS)
high-speed driving, increasing the risk of demagne- machine, is proposed to increase torque density. As for
tization. More complex control strategies should be the innovation of the double-rotor electric machine, it is
involved in its controller 21]. derived from the research on the power split devices
4) Rare-earth PMs suffer from eddy current loss, demag- of HEVs. Existing power split devices adopt mechanical
netization risk, and mechanical failure. Hence, the EV gearbox as the power transmission devices, which is of low
system reliability and fault tolerance should be con- efficiency, high vibration, and high noise. Then, the double-
sidered carefully. rotor electric machines can solve the issue effectively since
5) Since PMs introduce strong magnetic forces, it uses magnetic force to transmit torque and power,
the vibration of its EV propulsion system can be where the physical contact can be eliminated. However,
significant. there is a long way to go before the double-rotor and
DS electric machines being used for commercial purposes
because their mechanical structure is complex, and the
D. Permanent Magnet-Assisted Synchronous
power factor is relatively low compared with single-rotor
Reluctance Machines
electric machines. These emerging topologies tend to have
In recent years, it is recognized that rare-earth material a compact and complex structure, which is suitable for EV
sources are scarce, and rare-earth PMs can hardly operate powertrain in some view of points.
in extreme conditions. As a result, rare-earth-free and PM-
free EV machines are welcomed in the current situation,
while SynRMs are good candidates in this regard [22]. A. Double-Stator PM Vernier Machines
It takes great advantage of rotor pole saliency. The rotor
The PM Vernier (PMV) machine has been extensively
structure can be optimized to have high reluctance, which
investigated due to its advantages of simple structure
generates large reluctance torque [23]. Also, applying rare-
and high torque density. The design principle is governed
earth-free PMs to SynRMs can help to improve the overall
by [27]
performance. Namely, this emerges a type of machine
called PMA-SynRMs, as shown in Fig. 3(d). This machine
type is quite suitable for low-cost EV drive systems with pa = ps − pr (1)
quite little performance degradation [24].
The distinct features of PMA-SynRMs are summarized as where pa is the armature pole-pair number, ps is the stator
follows. teeth number, and pr is the rotor pole-pair number. With
1) Less rare-earth PMs improve the machine and EV sys- a DS structure, larger torque density, higher efficiency, and
tem reliability from the perspectives of fewer losses, higher flexibility can be achieved. These can well fit into
low overheating risk, and high rotor strength [25]. multimode EV applications [28], [29]. Fig. 4 demonstrates
2) The utilization of reluctance torque reduces the instal- a representative DS-PMV machine for EVs [28]. Spoke-type
lation of active magnetic materials, which contributes PMs accommodate the flux-concentrating effect, which can
to a high cost-effective propulsion system. further improve its torque density. The inner stator is
3) Flux weakening and high-speed driving can be easily only employed for flux bypass and reduced flux leakage.
realized [26]. The spoke-type PM accommodates the flux-concentrating
4) Design and optimization of air barriers on the rotor effect, which further improves its torque density. Com-
tend to be complex and time-consuming, especially pared with the traditional dual-armature-winding machine
when the rotor encompasses multiple layers of mag- counterpart, the proposed machine possesses a simpler
netic barriers and numerous design parameters. structural configuration.
receives energy mainly from the outer windings of the

DS-PMV machine. Power flow between the traction motor
and the battery set is bidirectional.
The features of the DS-PMV machines for EV applica-
tions are summarized as follows.
1) The DS-PMV machines accommodate large torque
capacity, high reliability, flexibility, and efficiency,
which are essential features for the multimode opera-
tion of the HEV E-CVT system.
Fig. 4. DS-PMV machine topology for EV application. 2) In the HEV E-CVT system, the DS-PMV machine
can be utilized as either a starter and energy trans-
mission part or a traction motor. In both operat-
ing modes, the inner windings accommodate energy
Due to large torque capacity and high flexibility, the and exchange energy with the battery set. Hence,
DS-PMV machine can be applied to electronic continu- the additional stator contributes to an extra power
ously variable transmission (E-CVT) systems in HEVs [30]. supply source to possess higher reliability, under
Fig. 5 demonstrates the system configuration of an E-CVT urgent situations.
system with utilization of DS-PMV machines. The adopted 3) When operating as a starter and energy transmission
DS-PMV machine accommodates dual-armature windings. part, the engine is started together with the DS-PMV
In Fig. 5(a), the DS-PMV machine is used as a traction machine. Hence, it can contribute to a shorter start-
motor. The generator set provides electricity to the inner ing time, higher stability, and energy-saving that are
and outer armature windings. The battery set is employed preferable in urban vehicles.
for bidirectional electricity charging with the inner wind- 4) Compared with common synchronous PM machines,
ings. Through gear transmission, the wheels can be driven PMV machines possess higher torque density, which
by the mid-rotor. effectively enhances space utility. Combined with the
In Fig. 5(b), the DS-PMV machine is utilized as a starter multiport configuration, higher flexibility, reliability,
or used for energy transmission. As HEV starts, the battery and redundancy can be achieved. This can accommo-
set provides electricity to the inner windings. The proposed date the promising prospect for EV/HEV applications.
DS-PMV machine is used as a starter, which drives the 5) Meanwhile, compared with single-stator machine
engine to accelerate to the regulated speed in a short types, the DS machines have more potential chal-
period of time. Under normal operation, the traction motor lenges in torque transmission. The mid-rotor requires
a more complicated mechanical design. To better fix
the rotor, the bilateral fixation can be employed, with
four bearings and two baseplates as support, while
such mechanical configuration still suffers from the
higher mass and size, which has limited the applica-
tion of DS machines. Hence, compromise should be
made between challenges and advantages to further
enlarge the application range of DS machines.
B. Stator PM Machines
Recently, stator-PM machines have re-attracted increas-
ing concerns due to their advantages of high torque
density, easy heat dissipation, high robustness, and high
resistance to centrifugal force [31]. Generally, stator-PM
machines can be divided into the doubly salient PM
machines, the flux-switching PM (FSPM) machines, and
the flux-reversal PM (FRPM) machines [29], [31], [32].
Besides, FSPM machines possess highly sinusoidal flux
linkage and electromotive force (EMF), which has been
extensively investigated and well applied to HEV appli-
cations [33]–[40]. Fig. 6 demonstrates a regular radial
Fig. 5. System configurations of E-CVT system with utilization of
and a partitioned-stator DS-FSPM machine for EV/HEV
DS-PMV machines. (a) As traction motor. (b) As starter and energy applications [33], [34]. The DS structure leads to higher
transmitter. torque output and improved efficiency. Loss, thermal, and
Fig. 6. FSPM machine topologies for HEV systems. (a) DS.

(b) Partitioned stator.
Fig. 7. DS-PM hybrid brushless machine for HEV applications.
ripple analysis of FSPM machines for HEV applications

have also been investigated thoroughly [36]–[39]. have partially solved the flux uncontrollability problem of
The configuration of HEV systems with the DS stator-PM PM machines, have arisen increasing concerns. In accor-
machines is basically the same as those of the PMV dance with the excitation current types, the FC machines
machine counterparts that are depicted in Fig. 5. The can be divided into the dc-FC machines and ac-FC
DS stator-PM machines can be utilized either as a starter machines [43], [44]. One major machine type of the ac-FC
and energy transmission part or as a traction motor. machines is the doubly fed machines [45]. Considering
Compared with rotor-PM machines, easier heat dissipation the torque capacity, hybrid machines are more preferable
contributes to a simpler structure of the cooling system. for EV applications [29]. Fig. 7 presents a DS-PM hybrid
Comparisons between FSPM motors and the Prius HEV brushless machine for HEV applications [46]. In recent
machine, as well as the interior-PM motor for EV, HEV, and years, hybrid machines have been actively developed, such
PHEV systems, have been carried out [34], [35]. as the parallel excitation with harmonic-shift structure,
The features of FSPM machines for EV and HEV applica- leading to more effective flux regulation ability [47].
tions are summarized as follows. The FC machines can be well employed as an integrated
As a representative of stator-PM machines, the FSPM starter–generator (ISG) in HEV applications, whose system
machine can accommodate large torque capacity, bipolar configuration is depicted in Fig. 8. Combining the machine
flux linkage, and EMF with a high sinusoidal pattern, configuration characteristics, three major operating modes
which has attracted increasing concern in EV/HEV appli- can be achieved: engine cranking, battery charging, and
cations. torque boosting. The engine cranking mode is illustrated
1) Design, comparison, analysis, and control have all in Section III-A. After the engine starts, the ISG begins
been included in the research of FSPM machines to take responsibility for battery charging. As the HEV is
for EV/HEV applications. Multiport FSPM machines braked, the ISG possesses regenerative braking to charge
are attracting more and more concerns due to the battery. The torque boosting function of the ISG can
higher redundancy, better magnetic performances, realize the torque boosting operation when the HEV is
and higher flexibility. overtaking.
2) Multiport cooperation of the multiport stator-PM The features of the FC machines in HEV applications are
machines, such as DS, double-rotor, and dual-winding listed as follows [46].
cooperation strategies, accommodates the advantages 1) The FC machine can provide a high flux modula-
of the multimode operation, which possess higher tion capability, which effectively compensates for the
compatibility in complex operating environments of inherent drawbacks of the PM machines.
EVs.
3) Compared with rotor-PM machine counterparts,
the simple rotor configuration leads to the simpler
rotor fixation. Thus, the mechanical configuration of
such DS machines can be simplified. It still suffers
from the larger size and higher mass features of
DS machines. Hence, compromise should also be
made between such challenges and higher magnetic
performances.
C. Flux-Controllable Machines
Due to the inherent features of PMs, PM machines suffer
from flux uncontrollability, which limits their potential
applications [29], [41], [42]. The FC machines, which Fig. 8. System configuration of HEV system with the proposed ISG.
The distinct features of DRSRMs are summarized as

follows [51].
1) The structure of DRSRMs is more compact, while it
can reduce the transmission complexity and packag-
ing size when integrated into the hybrid propulsion
system.
2) The absence of PMs improves robustness and reduces
construction costs. The rotors can work at a higher
Fig. 9. Structure configuration of DRSRM. speed to improve its power density.
3) The control of DRSRMs is simple and effective.
4) DRSRMs have different working modes. For instance,
the interior and exterior machines can work indepen-
2) The flux modulation ability effectively enhances dently or work together to produce flexible torque
its output stability, which possesses high research ranges.
potential. 5) The torque ripple of DRSRMs is large due to their
3) The FC machines can be classified into ac- and working principle, while their torque density is not
dc-winding excited types. For HEV applications, due high.
to the higher torque capacity, the hybrid FC machines
The DRSRMs inherit almost all the advantages and dis-
are more desirable.
advantages of single-rotor SRMs. The critical weaknesses
4) The FC machines can be employed as ISG, which
lay in their large torque ripple and low torque density.
takes the responsibility of engine cranking, battery
Hence, the DRSRMs can be used for electric buses, electric
charging, and torque boosting. Compared with the
trucks, and electric bicycles, where the noise requirement
traditional separated configuration of starter and gen-
is not that strict. A possible development direction for the
erator, the proposed ISG system configuration can
DRSRMs is to use a PM-assisted reluctance machine struc-
provide a simpler structure, higher reliability, and
ture to replace the existing switched reluctance structure.
more flexibility.
Consequently, torque density can be further improved.
Generally speaking, double-rotor machines (DRMs) are
suitable for serving as the propulsion component in HEVs. E. Magnetic-Geared Double-Rotor Machines
Compared with existing power-split devices, DRMs are
The magnetic-geared double-rotor machine (MGDRM)
more compact in structure. However, due to their complex
is composed of two rotors and one stator. The outer rotor
structure, DRMs have not been used for commercial pur-
is composed of evenly distributed ferromagnetic bars to
poses. There are mainly three types of DRMs: split type,
modulate magnetic fields from both sides [52], [53], and
magnetic-geared type, and brushed double-rotor type. The
this structure can be regarded as the variation topology
split type can be regarded as a combination of two inde-
of magnetic gears [54]. Hence, the design principle of
pendent machines [48]. The magnetic-geared type adopts
MGDRMs is governed by [55]
the magnetic-gearing effect to interconnect two rotors. The
brushed double-rotor type consists of a slip ring that is
required to supply coils on the rotating rotor. pin + pa = Q (2)
where pin is the pole-pair number of PMs on the inner

D. Double-Rotor Switched Reluctance Machines
rotor, pa is the pole-pair number of armature windings,
The double-rotor switched reluctance machine and Q is the number of modulator pieces.
(DRSRM) is composed of two rotors and one stator [49], Since MGDRMs contain two rotating components, one
as shown in Fig. 9. The stator is sandwiched by two rotors. can connect to ICE, and another one can connect to
The DRSRMs can be regarded as physical combinations
of two SRMs [50]. A flux barrier is usually inserted in
the middle of the stator to separate the flux paths of the
exterior machine and interior machine. The operation
principle of the DRSRM is the same as single-rotor SRM.
The DRSRM can be used to replace two motors in a hybrid
propulsion system. The exterior machine works at low
speed with high torque, while the interior machine works
at high speed with low torque. The exterior machine is
used to supplement the output torque of the ICE, while
the interior machine is applied to regulate the speed of
the engine. The corresponding hybrid propulsion system is
given in Fig. 10. Fig. 10. Hybrid propulsion system implemented with DRSRM.
Fig. 11. Structure configuration of DRMGM. Fig. 13. Structure configuration of BDRM.
differentials, which can further connect to wheels for

2) No slip ring and mechanical gearbox are involved
propulsions. A torque-regulating motor is required to con-
in the structure, which improves the reliability and
nect to the output shaft to further smooth its torque [56].
efficiency of the hybrid propulsion system.
The torque-regulating motor can be further integrated into
3) The PMSM part, namely the synchronous windings
the MGDRMs by inserting PMs among modulator pieces
together with tangential-magnetized PMs, can work
and added another set of windings on the stator [57], [58].
as a regulation motor to regulate its output torque.
A typical structure is given in Fig. 11 [59]. The outer rotor
Consequently, its torque ripple is small.
contains modulator pieces and tangential-magnetized
4) There are several different working modes to cope
PMs, while the outer surface of the inner rotor is mounted
with different working conditions. The system effi-
with radial-magnetized PMs. There are two sets of wind-
ciency can be maintained at a high level.
ings on the stator: synchronous windings and modula-
5) Since there are two kinds of windings and two rotors
tion windings. The synchronous windings interact with
in the structure, the control strategies of the MGDRMs
tangential-magnetized PMs to produce torque, whose
are complex.
working principle is similar to that of PMSMs [60]. The
6) Power factor of the MGDRMs is relatively low, and the
modulation windings interact with modulator pieces and
modulator structure requires special design consider-
inner rotor PMs to produce torque, and their working
ation.
principle is similar to magnetic gears [61].
In addition, the two sets of windings can be integrated The MGDRMs can truly realize integration of motors
into one set of windings that contain two fundamental and gearboxes within E-CVT. The critical weaknesses are
harmonics with different frequencies [62], and this struc- their relatively low power density and complex modulator
ture can improve compactness and reduce copper loss. structure. If manufacture precision can be improved and
An axial-type MGDRM is proposed in [63], which has the air-gap length can be reduced, the torque density and
a higher power density. The MGDRMs can be integrated power factor of the MGDRMs can be greatly improved.
into the propulsion system of HEVs, as shown in Fig. 12.
The electric frequency of the stator windings can be
adjusted accordingly to maintain the ICE operating within F. Brushed Double-Rotor Machines
its high-efficiency speed range. As exhibited in Fig. 13, the brushed double-rotor
The distinct features of the MGDRMs are summarized as machine (BDRM) is composed of two rotors and one
follows. stator. Both the stator and the inner rotor are imple-
1) The MGDRMs can be regarded as an integration of mented with windings, and the outer rotor is inserted
planetary gearboxes and motors. They have a highly with PMs [64], [65]. The BDRM can be regarded as an
compact structure. integration of two electric machines and as a four-quadrant
energy transducer [66]. Fig. 14 shows that the BDRM
facilitates system integration. Different from the DRSRMs,
its two electric machines are not entirely independent.
Since the two electric machines share the same outer rotor,
their electric frequency is governed as
pr (Nin − Nour ) pr Nout

f in = , f our = (3)
60 60
where f in and f out are the electric frequencies of inner rotor

windings and stator windings, respectively. Nin and Nout
Fig. 12. Hybrid propulsion system implemented with DRMGM. are the rotating speeds of the inner rotor and outer rotor,
IV. M A C H I N E D E S I G N
METHODOLOGIES AND CONCERNS
Numerous emerging machine topologies necessitate the
development of design methodologies together with spe-
cific design concerns. Due to the increasing complex struc-
tures, advanced design methods have been studied. This
section discusses the design methodologies and concerns
of electric machines for EVs. In particular, these method-
ologies include finite element method (FEM), analytical
method, system level, and high-efficiency design concerns.
Fig. 14. Hybrid propulsion system implemented with BDRMs.
A. Finite Element Method

Because of its high calculation precision, FEM has been
respectively. pr is the pole-pair number of PMs on the outer widely adopted in the design and analysis of electric
rotor.
machines for various applications [69]. FEM aims at
The windings on the inner rotor are connected to a solving partial differential equations (PDEs) in a simpler
slip ring, which is further connected to inverters. The discretization method. Especially, for machine electromag-
inner rotor is connected to ICE, while the outer rotor is netic analysis, the aim is to solve Maxwell’s equations with
connected to the output shaft. Both windings on the stator given boundary conditions [70].
and inner rotor are connected to the dc bus via inverters.
FEM can be divided into the steps of preprocessing:
The distinct features of the MGDRMs are summarized as solving and postprocessing. In the preprocessing step,
follows. the object domain, namely the machine region, is divided
1) The structure of the BDRM is compact, and its power into a series of subdomains through the meshing process.
density is very high [67]. Since the output torque of For each subdomain, its magnetic vector potential can
the outer rotor is the sum of electromagnetic torque be expressed with discretization equations through the
on both the inner air gap and the outer air gap, its approximation of Maxwell’s equations [71]. Larger num-
torque density is very large. bers of elements lead to higher precision. Through the
2) The dc-field windings can change stator flux. A wide analysis of small elements, a global equation system can
range of operation speed with little iron loss can be be obtained by recombining the subdomain approxima-
realized. tion discretization equations [72]. Thus, the PDF problem
3) The BDRM possesses several different operation is transferred into the calculation of nonlinear algebraic
modes to cope with different driving conditions. The equations, which possess much lower computational dif-
overall efficiency is very high. ficulty [71]. Thus, the magnetic field distribution can
4) The reliability of the BDRM is relatively low since its be obtained with high precision. In postprocessing, data
slip ring needs regular maintenance. analysis and result presentation have further proceeded.
5) Manufacture process and control strategy are com- Furthermore, it should be noted that the multiphysics
plex. analysis has been increasingly employed in the FEM
The BDRMs can be regarded as an extension of con- process, from preprocessing to postprocessing, for more
ventional single-rotor electric machines, with excellent comprehensive machine analysis. The overall analyzing
machine performance. The PMs on the outer rotor can procedure of electric machines with FEM is demonstrated
be replaced with a squirrel cage, hence transforming the in Fig. 15.
PM synchronous machine into an IM. The critical weak- Based on support of FEM, numerous analyses,
nesses come from its slip ring structure and the cooling such as machine topology design [73]–[75], optimiza-
issue of the inner rotor. A future development direction tion [15], [76]–[79], geometric modeling [67], loss and
can be research on the oil-forced cooling method to efficiency improvement [14], [80]–[82], force evalua-
improve its competitiveness to be used for commercial tion [83], [84], sound and vibration analysis [84], [85],
HEVs. and thermal modeling [86], can be performed. Magnetic
In recent years, the DRMs have been further developed force profiles of EV motors can be evaluated by FEM.
for the direct drive of two driving wheels, hence achieving With the 2-D FEM FFT technique, time and space har-
electronic differential with a magnetic interlock mecha- monic components can be well demonstrated. Besides the
nism [68]. For the double-rotor electric machines, DRSRMs accurate simulation with magnetoquasistatic (MQS) FEM,
are suitable for series-hybrid HEVs. MGDRMs and BDRMs the magnetostatic (MS) FEM counterpart is also attracting
can be applied for parallel-hybrid HEVs. increasing interest in the powertrain-level optimization in
In summary, the corresponding features of the conven- EV systems [69]. Faster solutions with higher computa-
tional advanced types and emerging electric machine types tional efficiency are obtained with comparatively lower
for EV applications are listed in Table 1. precision.
Table 1 Comparison of Conventional Advanced and Emerging Electric Machines for EVs
In general, continuous improvement of computing With the fast development of computer-aided engineer-
power propagates the maturity of the FEM technology. ing (CAE), scholars and engineers have paid extensive
With high calculation precision and mature simulation attention to thermal performance, vibration, noise, and
software, FEM has been regarded as one of the most rotor dynamics of electric machines. EV machine designs
common and important machine electromagnetic analysis involve not only the electromagnetic field but also com-
tools, which is well applied in EV/HEV applications. The prehensive design problem that combines multiphysics.
major features of the FEM in EV/HEVs are listed as follows. Multiphysics cover multidiscipline, multidomain, and mul-
1) Due to high computational accuracy, the FEM has tidimensional designs [87], [88]. They include electromag-
been widely utilized in electric machine analysis for netic design, mechanical design, static structural analysis,
EV systems. It includes optimization, modeling, stress, dynamic structural analysis, heat dissipation design, vibra-
vibration, and thermal analysis. tion analysis, noise analysis, and so on [89]–[91]. Gen-
2) According to different analysis objectives, differ- erally speaking, multiphysics design covers the following
ent types and different precision of FEM can be procedures, as shown in Fig. 16.
employed [76]. Higher flexibility contributes to 1) First, the initial geometry is designed to evaluate basic
higher computational efficiency, which effectively performances, including back EMF, cogging torque,
enlarges the application range of FEM in EV/HEV self- and mutual-inductances, steady torque, loss, effi-
applications. ciency, and so on. The field distribution is obtained
in this process. By coupling sizing and electromag-
netic field techniques, machine parameters can be
optimized.
Fig. 15. Analyzing procedures of FEM for electric machines. Fig. 16. Flowchart of MPDM.
2) Second, the loss mapping is transferred to temper- while the magnetic field problem is then simplified into
ature field analysis to find the thermal limitation. a magnetic circuit problem [94]. Similar to the elec-
Sometimes, external cooling devices are involved, and tric circuit, the magnetic circuit also obeys Kirchhoff’s
hence the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) will law [95]. First, magnetic flux lines within an electric
assist the thermal analysis. If possible, the temper- machine are analyzed, and they are concluded into several
ature distribution is returned to the electromagnetic main paths for the next step calculation. Then, all the
field for a higher computation precision. magnetic permeance and magnetic potential are calculated
3) Third, the basic mechanical structure of the electric based on the structure characteristics [96]. Particularly,
machine is designed. Mechanical strength examina- air-gap permeance should be calculated carefully to take
tion is necessary to prohibit the impractical points and account of the relative position between the rotor and
ensure mechanical safety. the stator [97]. By allocating and solving the permeance
4) Fourth, the magnetic force mapping in the first step and nodal potential and magnetic flux in a matrix form,
is transferred to dynamic structural and vibration the magnetic flux density distribution can be obtained.
analysis. Vibration prediction is followed by acoustic Then, the permeability is updated according to the B–H
noise prediction. curve, and the system of equations is solved iteratively
5) Finally, to get more accurate machine performance until the convergence condition is reached [98]. Finally,
parameters, control circuits and strategies should the real magnetic flux density distribution can be acquired.
be involved to form a system. A systematic electric MCM is suitable for solving magnetic field distribution
machine design is the most advanced technique. of electric machines with 3-D flux paths, such as axial-type
electric machines and claw-pole machines. These two elec-
B. Analytical Methods tric machines have a shorter axial length and higher torque
capability compared with radial-type electric machines.
Compared with numerical methods, there are many
Hence, they can be used in EVs to save space and reduce
analytical methods for performance prediction of electric
weight. However, their magnetic field distributions are
machines, such as the magnetic circuit method (MCM),
difficult to obtain. By using MCM, electromagnetic perfor-
the conformal mapping method (CMM), and the Fourier
mances of these electric machines on the primary design
series method (FSM). These methods have different
stage can be generated.
focuses, and thus, they can be flexibly adapted for different
The distinct features of the MCM are summarized as
performance analysis for various kinds of machines.
follows.
The purpose of various analytical methods is to obtain
magnetic field distribution within electric machines. 1) The calculation speed of MCMs for simple machine
Since electromagnetic performance is the most significant topologies is fast, and the end effect can be consid-
feature of electric machines, sometimes, acquiring ered [99].
magnetic flux density distribution on the air gap is enough 2) The saturation of ferromagnetic material can be taken
for analysis. Then, electromagnetic torque, cogging torque, into account during the iteration process [100].
and torque ripple can be calculated by using the Maxwell 3) Air-gap reluctance is hard to be modeled, whose value
stress tensor. Flux linkage of a coil can be calculated by two varies with the relative position between stator and
methods: calculation on the integration of magnetic vector rotor [101].
potential within the coil side area [92] and integration 4) Designers or researchers should have a clear under-
of radial component of the magnetic flux density over standing of the specific electric machines including
coil pitch [93]. Then, back EMF can be obtained via the inside flux paths, in order to create a more accu-
the derivative of flux linkage with respect to time. The rate model by using the magnetic circuit.
magnetic field distribution within the ferromagnetic part 5) The modeling process is very tedious, while it varies
and PM part is required for analysis on iron loss and eddy among different types of electric machines.
current loss of PMs.
2) Conformal Mapping Method: CMM has been used for
The critical weakness of analytical methods comes from
considering slot effect within electric machines ever since
insufficient consideration of the nonlinear characteristic
the early stage of the 20th century [102]. The complex
of ferromagnetic material. An iterative process is usually
shape of stator slots is transformed into a simple bound-
introduced to reflect the magnetic saturation effect, but
ary where the magnetic field distribution can be easily
the result is not as good as that of FEM. Although the
calculated. First, the magnetic flux density distribution of
computation accuracy of analytical methods is inferior to
slotless structure Bslotless is calculated [103]. The complex
that of FEM, their computation speed is faster. Besides,
slot shape is transformed into a plane where the magnetic
analytical solutions can give designers inspiration and a
flux density distribution can be easily calculated. This step
deeper understanding of electric machines. Hence, it is
is performed after conformal mapping for several planes.
useful at the early stage for electric machine design.
Then, the magnetic flux density distribution for slotted
1) Magnetic Circuit Method: MCM aims to prescribe machine Bslotted can be regarded as the product of Bslotless
flux paths within electric machines as several flux tubes, and complex permeance λ, where λ can be expressed
as a transformation function. Finally, the electromagnetic

parameters can be obtained based on the magnetic flux
density distribution.
CMM is suitable for calculating no-load parameters for
electric machines, especially for cogging torque prediction
PMSMs. Its calculation speed is fast and accuracy is high,
but it is infeasible for highly saturated electric machines.
The distinct features of the CMM are summarized as
follows.
1) The calculation speed of the CMM is very fast, and it is Fig. 17. Flux density distributions. (a) Predicted by FSM.
(b) Calculated by FEM.
suitable for calculating no-load performances of elec-
tric machines, such as no-load air-gap magnetic field
density distribution, no-load back EMF, and cogging 4) Iron loss within ferromagnetic material and eddy
torque [104]. current loss within PMs can be calculated by using
2) The equivalence of electrified coils is rather difficult, the FSM [115], [116].
and the numerical method, such as the SC toolbox, 5) The shape of the FSM must be parallel to the
is required [105]. coordinate axis; otherwise, equivalence must be
3) CMM is difficult to be applied for on-load condition, made [117].
electric machines with double-saliency structure, and 6) The modeling process is complex since the Fourier
highly saturated electric machines [106]. series expansion is required to satisfy the boundary
condition.
3) Fourier Series Method: FSM aims to divide the whole
7) The significant advantage of the FSM comes from
electric machines into several regions, and Maxwell’s equa-
the capability of calculating the magnetic field dis-
tion is used to solve independently within each region.
tribution of the whole electric machines. A flux den-
Either magnetic scalar potential or magnetic vector poten-
sity distribution map can be obtained, as shown
tial can be adopted, but the magnetic scalar potential is
in Fig. 17 [109].
only applicable for current-free regions. All these regions
are interconnected with boundary conditions. To satisfy Finally, the features of different analytical methods are
the boundary conditions on the interfaces, the Fourier compared in Table 2.
series expansion is introduced [107].
There are two kinds of FSMs: the subdomain method C. System-Level Machine Design Concerns
and the harmonic modeling method. In the subdomain
Currently, with the fast development EV motors,
method, the permeability of ferromagnetic material is
the higher design requirements and specifications have
assumed to be infinite. As a result, the magnetic flux
been employed on EV motors, such as the higher power
density should be perpendicular to the silicon steel inter-
density, higher driving-cycle-based efficiency, and lower
face [108]. Compared with the subdomain method, the
cost. Combining the high demand for horsepower and
harmonic modeling method instead divides the whole
mass saving, the power density of EV motors has been
electric machine into several annular layers, while each
designed up to 20 kW/kg [118]. Besides interior-PMSMs,
layer has different permeability distribution [109]. The
the special-type EV motors, such as the PMV machines,
magnetic flux density can be regarded as the product of
PM magnetic-geared machines, and, especially, the multi-
permeability and magnetic field strength. Then, the Fourier
port types, have also been extensively investigated for the
factorization method is adopted to solve the convergence
higher power density [28], [30], [53]. Moreover, various
problem [110]. The harmonic modeling method can take
multiobjective optimization algorithms have been adopted
account into the saturation of ferromagnetic material.
to obtain the high-efficiency performances of different
Hence, the magnetic flux density distribution within elec-
traction motors under different duty cycles and traffic
tric machines can be obtained [111], [112]. The crucial
step is the boundary condition applications between dif- Table 2 Brief Comparison of Analytical Methods
ferent subdomains, where the Fourier coefficients can be
further solved.
The distinct features of the FSM are summarized as
follows.
1) The calculation time of the FSM is short, but it
increases quickly with harmonic order [113].
2) The calculation accuracy of the FSM is high.
3) FSM is very suitable for performance prediction of
flux modulation machines, where there are abundant
harmonics within the whole electric machine [114].
conditions [81], [87], [119]–[121]. Thus, the system-level where v is the order of MMF space harmonic, σsleeve and
machine design concerns can target the whole system for Vsleeve are the conductivity and volume of the iron sleeve,
the machine designs. respectively, and Jsv(r , θ , t) is the EC density of the
vth-order harmonic. The amplitude of Jsv(r , θ , t) can be
D. Power Loss and High-Efficiency Design
expressed as
Concerns
Power loss characteristics are one of the most impor- 4Ns Is kwnv
tant criteria when it comes to traction machine develop- Jsv = (8)
π Ds
ment. A detailed loss analysis should be included in the
design process. In particular, major losses in typical electric
where Ns is the number of turns per phase, kwnv is the
machines can be classified into three major parts: winding
windings factor, and Ds is the stator armature diameter.
copper losses, rotor eddy-current (EC) losses, and stator
iron losses. 3) Stator Iron Loss: Neglecting excess power losses, iron
losses in the lamination include the dynamic and the
1) Winding Copper Loss: Winding copper losses in the
hysteresis losses. A practical iron loss expression often used
electric machine are proportional to the phase resistance
is written as [125], [126]
and the square of the armature current. It can be written
as
wiron = (wiron )dynamic + (wiron )hysteresis (9)
m
wcopper = Rph Is2 (4)
2 where (wiron )dynamic and (wiron )hysteresis represent the iron
dynamic and hysteresis losses, respectively. (wiron )dynamic
where m is the number of phases, Is is the armature can be correctly expressed by using the harmonic compo-
current, and Rph is the phase resistance. Rph can be further nents of the magnetic flux density as
expressed as

Rph = Rdc [1 + α (T − T0 )] (5) (wiron )dynamic = Ae v f
2 2
Bv2 d Viron (10)
iron v
where Rdc is the dc resistance, α is the temperature coeffi-

where Ae is the coefficient of EC losses, Bv is the vth
cient, and T and T0 are the temperature of the calculated
harmonic component of the magnetic flux density, and Viron
point and the reference point, respectively. When the ac
is the volume of the stator core. It should be noted that
losses are considered, the skin depth of copper windings is
Ae = π 2 σ /6 is often applied, with negligible skin effect in
calculated as [122], [123]
the lamination. On the other hand, the hysteresis compo-
nent (wiron )hysteresis depends on the peak induction with the
1 assumption of no minor loops in the B(t) waveform. It can
δ= (6)
π f μ0 μr σ be written by using harmonic components with the simple
expression as
where f is the frequency, μ0 is the vacuum permeability,
μr is the relative permeability, and σ is the conductivity
(wiron )djnamic = Ah Bpeak f d Viron (11)

of copper winding. The skin effect increases the resistance iron
that leads to an increase in copper losses. Most elec-
tric machines adopt a multistrand winding arrangement, where Ah is the coefficients of hysteresis losses and Bpeak
which can reduce the cross-sectional area of the wire to is the amplitude of flux density. Thus, iron losses can be
limit the skin effect. Consequently, it can reduce ac copper expressed as
losses for high-speed machines.

2) Rotor Eddy-Current Loss: The machine with wiron = Ae v f

2 2
Bv2 + Ah Bpeak f d Viron .
fractional-slot concentrated windings usually suffers iron v
from abundant stator MMF space harmonics. Then, high (12)
EC losses in the rotor will generate excessive heat. Also,
with the increase in the armature reaction magnetic V. A D V A N C E D C O N T R O L S T R A T E G I E S
field, these adverse effects will become more severe. FOR ELECTRIC MACHINES
The classical formula for rotor EC losses can be written Control strategies can fully exert the potential of electric
as [124] motors. In general, the main control strategy of the electric
motor applied in EVs is regarded as advanced technol-
J 2 (r, θ, t) ogy and can be further divided into three main types:
sv
wEC = d Vsleve (7)
v
σsleve field-oriented control (FOC), direct torque control (DTC),
Table 3 Comparison of Conventional Advanced Control Strategies for EVs
and MPC. The main differences between these three con- application of three-phase PMSM, the space vector
trollers are shown in Table 3. It needs to be mentioned PWM (SVPWM) is always utilized.
that, in some propulsion applications, the torque refer- The total process of FOC is proposed in Fig. 18. The com-
ence would be given by the central controllers directly, plete FOC controller is a cascade control loop, composed of
which means that the speed PI loop is eliminated. In the two internal PI-current controllers and an external speed PI
application of controllers in EVs, DTC control schemes are controller. The internal PI controllers calculate the control
discussed and can be widely applied in high- and medium- voltage reference u ∗d and u ∗q based on the error between the
power situations [127]. With a clear decoupling matrix current references, i d∗ and i q∗ , and the real currents, i d (k)
of phase currents into a rotation coordinate frame [128], and i q (k), which are calculated by sampled stator current
the FOC controller can be applied to provide precise phase i s (k). The external PI controller calculates the current
voltage. Nowadays, with the great development of the reference based on the error between rotor speed reference
microprocessor, the MPC scheme can be applied in electric ω∗ and real speed ω. It means that tuning of PI controllers
motor controllers [129]. With the complete utilization is difficult and should be returned according to different
of the motor model, MPC provides great flexibility for operating conditions.
controller design, which means that the concept of existing Nowadays, there are some modified FOC controllers to
controllers could be combined under the structure of MPC. meet the special demand for EVs.
Moreover, MPC is also getting increasing attention for EVs 1) Maximum torque per ampere operation with FOC can
due to its wide speed range and fast dynamic response. enhance the acceleration ability of EVs [131].
2) FOC controller with flux weakening design can
A. Field-Oriented Control expand the speed range of electric motor, which
can further increase the maximum speed of
The application of the FOC scheme can ensure the
EVs [132], [133].
precise torque output of EVs [130]. As shown in Fig. 18,
the operation principle of FOC is based on the use of FOC control scheme can provide precise torque output,
an appropriate coordinate system that allows torque and while the higher switching frequency can cause additional
rotor flux to be controlled independent of each other. energy cost. Furthermore, precise torque output is not the
The orientation angle that allows a complete decoupling most urgent need in EVs.
between those two variables is the rotor flux angle.
In this case, all variables are controlled in the rotating B. Direct Torque Control
coordinate frame (d–q frame), and the electromagnetic DTC has been attractive for EVs, particularly for those
torque Te can be controlled by the virtual component of equipped with dual-motor propulsion that desires fast
stator currents, i d and i q . Then, the stator flux can be torque response. Moreover, DTC does not rely on current
expressed as a function of stator currents as control and slightly depends on parameters [134].

2
2
ψs = L d id + ψ f + L q iq (13)
3

Tc = Pn ψ f i q + L d − L q i d i q (14)
2
where ψs is the stator flux, L d and L q are stator induc-

tances, ψ f is the flux of PM, and Pn is the pole pairs.
Since the inverter is a discrete actuator, the con-
tinuous voltage reference should be discretized with
the pulsewidth modulation (PWM) technology. In the Fig. 18. Control scheme diagrams of FOC.
one-step predictive model [142]. In general, the process

of inner MPC can be divided into three steps. First,
the present system states are predicted with measured
current and voltage, which is called the delay compensa-
tion. Then, the possible system states at the next moment
under different voltage vectors are predicted through the
predictive model. Finally, the optimal voltage vector is
selected through the cost function [143]. The process of
basic MPC is shown in Fig. 20.
Under the application of EV controllers, the MPC scheme
can obtain faster dynamic performance. Moreover, MPC
Fig. 19. Control scheme diagrams of DTC. can obtain a lower switching frequency, which is suitable
for energy-sensitive occasions, such as EV applications.
Nowadays, MPC can combine with existing control con-
cepts to provide a flexible controller design.
The main idea of DTC is to use two hysteresis controllers
1) PWM technology can be combined with MPC to pro-
for electromagnetic torque and stator flux separately. The
vide more precise torque output [144].
torque hysteresis controller is a three-level comparator
2) There is a variant predictive control, deadbeat pre-
with a bandwidth, whereas the flux hysteresis controller
dictive control scheme [129], [145], which calculates
is a two-level comparator with another bandwidth. The
the reference voltage vectors directly and realizes it
meaning of the output signals of hysteresis controllers is
with PWM technology.
defined as
3) Computation burden-reducing is an important con-
⎧ cept to improve the practicality of MPC [146].
⎨+1 : Te ↑
+1 : ψs ↑ 4) The literature has focused on the parameter indepen-
HT = 0 : Te → , Hψ = (15)
⎩ −1 : ψs ↓ . dence of MPC [147].
−1 : Te ↓
Nowadays, the main disadvantage of MPC applied in
EVs is the computation burden. Luo and Liu [148] provide
The total process of basic DTC is shown in Fig. 19. The
a 40.23-μs computation burden of MPC applied in DSP
flux hysteresis bandwidth mainly affects the motor current
TMS320F28335. The computation burden is higher than
distortion in terms of low-order harmonics. Switching fre-
both FOC and DTC controllers, while, with the further
quency and switching losses are mainly affected by the
development of microprocessors, the higher computation
torque hysteresis bandwidth. In this case, a careful choice
burden of MPC could be eliminated.
of hysteresis bandwidths is necessary. The switching table
Last but not least, the MPC control scheme can provide
can be determined according to the electrical position and
a flexible control scheme. According to the requirements of
hysteresis controllers.
EVs, the switching frequency, torque ripples, and efficiency
However, the total harmonic distortion (THD) perfor-
of MPC can be designed. In the application of EVs, MPC
mance of DTC can be worse because of the hysteresis con-
could further improve the performance of vehicles. For
trollers. Nowadays, the literature has given some improved
instance, the fast response of torque generation could
solutions.
provide faster braking with the motor itself, which could
1) To improve the performance of DTC, the concept of provide additional safety for some dangerous situations,
PWM technology applied in FOC is combined in DTC such as car stalls. Moreover, the model-based controller
to reduce its torque ripples [135]–[137]. could be further combined with the parameter identifi-
2) Some controllers remain the structure of hysteresis cation strategy, which could further ensure the safety of
controllers but subdivide the switching table to pro-
vide a precise voltage vector [138], [139].
3) The deadbeat control concept can be combined with
DTC to obtain faster transient performance and better
steady-state performance [140], [141].
DTC control scheme can provide stable performance in
EVs. Moreover, the parameter independence characteris-
tics of DTC are important advantages in this particular
application.
C. Model Predictive Control

With the application of MPC, the outer speed loop
has remained. The inner current loops are replaced by a Fig. 20. Control scheme diagrams of MPC.
Table 4 Qualitative Comparison of Emerging Control Strategies
the drive system. In conclusion, the structure of the MPC should be the top priority when designing the motor drive
is flexible. Thus, the combination of existing controllers system. The impact of these faults and errors needs to be
and MPC could be applied with small modifications, which mitigated.
means that the MPC could obtain the same steady-state To achieve this requirement, fault-tolerant control is
performance as existing controllers and better dynamic necessary, which usually contains two parts: fault diag-
performance than existing controllers under the same nosis and fault tolerance. For fault diagnosis, the meth-
structure. ods can normally be divided into two groups: the pure
calculation-based methods and the additional device-based
VI. E M E R G I N G C O N T R O L S T R A T E G I E S methods [8], [149]. The former is to analyze the system
FOR ELECTRIC MACHINES state based on the existing sampled data to diagnose sys-
In addition to the basic current or torque loop con- tem fault, while the latter needs additional sensors, such as
trol methods, emerging auxiliary control methods are a dc bus current sensor, to provide more data to diagnose
welcomed to further enhance the reliability and reduce the system fault. On the other hand, the role of fault
the cost of motor drive systems in EV applications. tolerance control is to force the motor to operate relatively
Among these methods, fault-tolerant control, sensorless normally when faults exist, such as open-circuit fault,
control, and high-frequency control are the representa- short-circuit fault, and current-sensor fault [150]–[152].
tives. With technology maturity and commercialization of The general flow diagram of fault-tolerant control is pre-
wide-bandgap (WBG) power devices, it can increase the sented in Fig. 21.
power density of the traction system in EVs. In this section, In addition to the preceding methods, more efforts are
the current state and future trends of these technologies still necessary for the field of fault-tolerant control as
are revealed. The characteristics of these control methods follows.
are listed in Table 4.
1) To guarantee EVs security, the speed of fault diagnosis
A. Fault-Tolerant Control needs to be further increased. The final goal of fault
As a physical system with electric ports and mechanical diagnosis is to detect faults in one control period.
ports, the electric machine drive system in EVs inevitably 2) To reduce the cost of the drive system, addi-
suffers from different kinds of faults and errors, such as tional device-based methods should be avoided,
winding errors and current sensor breakdown. Due to and calculation-based methods should be further
the manned characteristics of EVs, security and stability improved.
3) The operating conditions of EVs are various and com-

plicated. Thus, sensorless control should be robust to
torque variation and disturbance.
4) At low speed, the injection-based methods would
cause additional loss, and the filters used in these
methods would affect the position estimation accu-
racy. To further improve the performance of EVs, this
problem needs to be overcome.
Fig. 21. Typical block diagram of fault-tolerant control.

C. High-Frequency Control With Wide-Bandgap
Devices
3) Since the fault-tolerant control block is not directly WBG devices based on materials, such as silicon car-
used to control the traction motor, the fault-tolerant bide (SiC) and gallium nitrate (GaN), have drawn tremen-
algorithm itself needs to be further simplified without dous attention from both academia and industry during
performance loss. the past decade. One of the most outstanding features
of WBG devices is the high switching frequency, which is
B. Sensorless Control up to the megahertz level. This feature can increase the
bandwidth of the motor control system and enable the
To control the traction motor of EVs in high perfor-
traction motors of EVs to extend operating speed, which
mance, position sensors with high accuracy are essential in
can be beneficial to improve the power density of the entire
the motor drive system. However, these accurate sensors
drive system [159], [160].
are not only expensive but also have a potential risk of
The challenge of high-frequency control with WBG
failure. To solve this problem, in the past decades, sen-
devices is the management of additional electromagnetic
sorless technology has been widely studied and practically
interference (EMI), which leads to substantial common
applied in some commercial products. Introducing sensor-
mode current and damages the traction motor insulation
less technology in the motor drive system in EVs can help
and bearing. To reduce the influences of EMI, several
to calibrate the position sensor and provide fault tolerance.
methods have been conducted. They can be classified into
Thus, the robustness of the system can be improved.
two categories: hardware-based methods and software-
Generally speaking, sensorless control can be classified
based methods. The former utilizes EMI choke filter to
into two categories: the model observer-based method at
suppress EMI, while the latter generally improves the
relatively high speed and the injection-based method at the
PWM strategies to reduce EMI, such as interleaved PWM
relatively low speed [7], [153]. Model observer-based sen-
and zero-CM SVPWM [161], [162]. The printed circuit
sorless control usually consists of two steps: the first one
board (PCB) design is also a vital aspect to degrade
is back EMF or flux observation and the second one is the
EMI [163]. The basic theory of high-frequency control is
position or speed estimation [154]. In this category, several
illustrated in Fig. 23.
control theories can be adopted, such as linear observer,
Based on the state of the arts, several improvements are
sliding mode observer (SMO), and extended Kalman filter
attractive and crucial to realize high-frequency control for
(EKF) [9], [155]. The injection-based methods usually
traction motors of EVs.
consist of two kinds: rotating signal injection and pul-
sating signal injection. The former injects a continuous
sinusoidal signal into the stator αβ frame, while the latter
injects either a pulsating sinusoidal signal or a pulsating
square-wave signal into the rotor dq frame [156]–[158].
A typical block diagram is presented in Fig. 22.
Although sensorless control has been widely researched,
several problems are still waiting to be solved in the motor
drive system in EVs.
1) Sensorless control methods are highly dependent on
motor parameters. To guarantee the accuracy of sen-
sorless control, any little variation of motor parame-
ters must be obtained.
2) Most of the existing sensorless methods focus on
steady-state performance, while the dynamic per-
formance of sensorless control needs to be further
analyzed. Fig. 22. Typical block diagram of sensorless control.
with its motor drive as a single unit [166]. By adopt-

ing this technique, power density can be improved by
10%–20%, and the manufacturing cost can be reduced
by 30%–40% [167]. There exist four different integra-
tion techniques: radial housing mount, radial stator
mount, axial endplate mount, and axial stator mount
method [168]. They have different pros and cons in terms
of size, integration complexity, and cooling issue [169].
Modularization is often adopted for the motor design
Fig. 23. Typical block diagram of high-frequency control and EMI within an integrated motor drive system to provide
mitigation. better fault-tolerant capability and ease its installation
process [170]. A typical integrated motor drive is given
in Fig. 24.
The distinct features of the integrated motor drive are
1) As for EMI reduction, the hardware-based methods summarized as follows.
need to be avoided since they can occupy significant
1) Since additional housing part and transmission cables
space. Hence, the effectiveness and simplicity of the
can be eliminated, system reliability can be improved
software-based methods should be improved.
with reduced weight by 10%–15%.
2) Some characters in PCB design should be theoret-
2) The whole structure is more compact, and installation
ically quantified, such as parasitic inductance and
spaces are saved for other devices, such as the charg-
capacitance. More theoretical analyses need to be
ing units of EVs.
conducted.
3) Since the upper limit of operating temperature for
3) Effective EMI mitigation methods for parameter vari-
the inverter is much lower than that of the motor,
ation and load torque variation need to be further
the cooling system of the integrated motor drive
developed.
should be carefully designed. For instance, a water
In real electric motor drive systems for EVs, the above- screen should be created between the motor and
mentioned control methods are not independent but inter- inverter by Siemens [171].
connected. For instance, in a WBG-device-fed high-speed 4) SiC and GaN power electronic devices can be applied
motor drive system, the cost for a position sensor can be in the inverter to further reduce weight and thermal
considerable, and the sensor can degrade the high-power- loss [172].
density advantages. Hence, sensorless control is highly
recommended in this system, while this control scheme A possible development direction of the integrated
motor drive is to implement emerging electric machines
for high-speed motor still needs further research [164].
in this area. For instance, the motor drive can be inte-
Besides, the accuracy and robustness of sensorless control
in conditions of faults or errors are the vital problems that grated with DRMs in HEVs, and the whole structure can
become more compact than that of the E-CVT in Toyota
are needed to be solved [165].
Prius. In addition, the motor drive can be integrated with
a Vernier machine and serves as an in-wheel motor for
VII. O T H E R E M E R G I N G
EVs. The integrated motor drive should not be limited
TECHNOLOGIES OF MACHINES AND
to motors and motor drives, while the charging unit can
DRIVES FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES
also be installed nearby the motor to share the same
The progress of automotive electric machines and
cooling system. For the sake of saving space and reducing
drive techniques should be combined with cutting-edge
the manufacturing cost, all the components and functions
disciplines and technologies. This action will hold
within the EVs can be flexibly shared by other units.
up electric machine development to a higher level.
Therefore, the units that need communication or share
In recent years, some emerging technologies are pre-
sented, such as compact system integration design,
lightweight design, wireless power transfer (WPT),
autonomous driving, and artificial intelligence (AI). In this
section, some representatives are given to arouse tech-
nology incorporations into the machine design and drive
control.
A. Integrated Motor Drive

The crucial requirements of motors for commercial EVs
are high efficiency and high power density. There is a
trend for automakers to integrate the motor together Fig. 24. Typical integrated motor drive.
Fig. 25. Classifications of wireless motor drives. (a) Low coupling. (b) Moderate coupling. (c) High coupling.
similar functions can be put together to achieve integration the wireless motor drives can be categorized into three
within EVs. types as shown in Fig. 25: low-coupling wireless motor
drive, moderate-coupling wireless motor drive, and high-
coupling wireless motor drive.
B. Wireless Motor Drive
1) Low-coupling wireless motor drive: The receiver
A wireless motor can eliminate parts of coils and invert-
still needs to be complete rectifiers and inverters
ers for power conversion. It can decrease the weight and
to achieve the conversion of high-frequency energy to
size of the motor and drive, which can enhance the flex-
low-frequency energy. The controlled signals need to
ibility and performance of the system. From a technical
be sent to the receiver side to control the wireless
perspective, it is a new concept to combine WPT with
motor by some extra communication circuits.
an electric motor eliminating most of the power devices
2) Moderate-coupling wireless motor drive: Some power
in the system, which was first proposed in [173] by the
electronic devices are omitted at the receiver, and
researchers from The University of Tokyo. The proposed
parts of the rectifier and inverter are retained. The
wireless motor is used as an in-wheel motor for EVs.
control signals can be mixed in the power flow and
Then, the researchers from The University of Hong Kong
then transmitted to the receiver side to control the
and the City University of Hong Kong propose the new
wireless motor. In some good designs, the receiver
wireless motors and first try to further define the wireless
side can work without control signals.
motor [174], [175]. In [174], the LCC-compensated wire-
3) High-coupling wireless motor: There is no conversion
less switched reluctance motor is proposed, which does not
circuit in the receiver. Energy amplitude and fre-
need extra inverters in the secondary side for the converter
quency are fully controlled by the transmitter accord-
to the received power to drive the motor. Jiang et al. [175]
ing to the requirements of the motor. In some good
proposed a wireless servo motor, which can operate in two
designs, a part of the stator coils can be used as the
directions without extra power converters or controllers
receiver coils.
at the motor side. In general, the research work of the
wireless motor involves multidisciplinary interactions and A low-coupling wireless motor is not a real wireless
is still in its infancy. With an increasing demand for WPT motor, which, in fact, is a simple combination of a WPT
in different motor applications, this technology has broad module and a cable charged motor. The drive signals still
application prospects, hence attracting more attention need to be sent to inverters from the receiver side to
recently. control the motor. A moderate-coupling wireless motor
Based on the above literature, according to different is optimized to realize the goal that the wireless motor
coupling degrees of WPT system and motor characteristics, is controlled by the transmitter. A high-coupling wireless
The perception layer aims at vehicle positioning and

object recognition. The planning layer gets the information
from the perception layer and feedback from the control
layer, while decision instruction is issued by the learning
algorithm. Decision instructions include following the car,
overtaking, accelerating, braking, slowing down, steering,
turning, and so on. The basic level related to driving
Fig. 26. Topology of high compact AF electric machine. motion and route is the motor drive system. As multiple
motors collaboratively operate, the starting, stopping, and
steering should be quickly achieved in order to support the
planning layer.
motor can be regarded as the real wireless motor, which
According to the instructions issued by the decision-
consists of few/no power electronic devices in the receiver.
making level, the control layer can implement specific
As summarized earlier, the wireless motor proposed
controls, including throttle control, brake control, steering
in [173] can only be regarded as a low-coupling wireless
wheel control, and gear control. All these control details
motor, while the two in [174] and [175] can be regarded
from planning are realized by specific electric motor sys-
as a moderate-coupling wireless motor. There is still a huge
tems. A concentrated motor drive system provides the
research gap relating to the high-coupling wireless motor.
source power, which makes full use of advanced control
strategies. The steering is powered with differentials, while
C. Flying EVs With Ultralightweight Propulsion
the brake is controlled by brake motor systems through
Flying EV is a type of civilian or personal electrified air gearboxes. There are measurements inside the motor con-
vehicle that provides both on-road driving and over-road trol system, and it can control the motion by comparing
hovering. This is an emerging door-to-door transportation the vehicle measurements with the state that we expect to
type that largely avoids traffic jams. A crucial difference output. This process is known as feedback control.
between the traditional EVs and flying EVs comes from the
fact that the latter one requires ultralightweight propul- E. Other Emerging Technologies
sion systems [176]. Therefore, propulsion machines with
Other emerging technologies with incorporation
high-power density and low overall weight are urgently
into motor drives would strengthen the reliability
desired [177].
and intelligence of EVs, including 5G communication,
To achieve lightweight propulsion, radial-flux electric
millimeter-wave radar, AI, and so on. They all can
machines do not meet the requirements. They are unable
contribute to a sustained, best-performed, small and
to reduce overall weight due to serious waste of internal
light electric motor drive systems together with a smart,
space. In contrast, axial-flux (AF) electric machines have
intelligent, strong, safe, and reliable vehicle system.
become more popular [178]. As illustrated in Fig. 26,
Currently, these technologies give only a glimpse of
AF machines have a flat outline that can be regarded as
motor drives but are potential future trends. If these
a disk-type structure. Its stator and rotor can make full use
new technologies involve in machine design and control,
of the internal space for torque generation. Undoubtedly,
the propulsion performances would become smarter and
AF machine is a very promising future trend for high-dense
more accurate.
propulsion systems.
The advanced features and merits of AF electric
machines for flying EVs are summarized as follows. VIII. C O N C L U S I O N
Electric machines are the heart of EVs, while the control
1) Disk-type machine arrangement contributes to a
strategies are the command from the brain of EVs. This
highly compact structure.
article has thoroughly investigated the key technologies of
2) AF machines reduce overall weight and improve effec-
electric machines and their controls for EVs. Their features,
tive space utilization of the whole system.
pros and cons, and foresight are addressed. The aim of this
3) The structure of disk-type stators and rotors is robust.
article is to offer a clear roadmap and future trends for
4) The stack usage of multiple machines can be easily
achieved. electric machines and their controls in EV applications.
5) The compact structure facilitates integration of elec-
tric machine and drive system. Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Jincheng Yu, Yang Xiao,
D. Autonomous Driving of EVs Hang Zhao, Senyi Liu, Yongcan Huang, Wusen Wang, and
The architecture of an autonomous driving system is Kuo Feng for their contributions to the preparation of this
stratified into three layers: the perception layer, the plan- work. They would also like to thank Prof. C. C. Chan and
ning layer, and the control layer. Each layer can be con- other colleagues in electric machines and drives for their
sidered to infuse with electric motor drive and control contributions to better our world. They would also like to
techniques as a possibility for future development. express the deepest appreciation for their family members.
REFERENCES
[1] C. Liu et al., “Guest editorial emerging electric vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 245–254, Oct. 2015. Magn., vol. 48, no. 8, pp. 2374–2384, Aug. 2012.
machines and drives for smart energy [19] P. B. Reddy, A. M. El-Refaie, K.-K. Huh, [36] A. S. Thomas, Z. Q. Zhu, and G. W. Jewell,
conversion,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 33, J. K. Tangudu, and T. M. Jahns, “Comparison of “Proximity loss study in high speed flux-switching
no. 4, pp. 1931–1933, Dec. 2018. interior and surface PM machines equipped with permanent magnet machine,” IEEE Trans. Magn.,
[2] C. Liu, C. Jiang, and C. Qiu, “Overview of coil fractional-slot concentrated windings for hybrid vol. 45, no. 10, pp. 4748–4751, Oct. 2009.
designs for wireless charging of electric vehicle,” traction applications,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., [37] L. Hao, M. Lin, D. Xu, N. Li, and W. Zhang,
in Proc. IEEE PELS Workshop Emerg. Technol. vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 593–602, Sep. 2012. “Analysis of cogging torque reduction techniques
Wireless Power Transf. (WoW), May 2017, pp. 1–6. [20] P. B. Reddy, K.-K. Huh, and A. M. EL-Refaie, in axial-field flux-switching permanent-magnet
[3] K. T. Chau, C. C. Chan, and C. Liu, “Overview of “Generalized approach of stator shifting in machine,” IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond., vol. 26,
permanent-magnet brushless drives for electric interior permanent-magnet machines equipped no. 4, Jun. 2016, Art. no. 5200605.
and hybrid electric vehicles,” IEEE Trans. Ind. with fractional-slot concentrated windings,” IEEE [38] W. Zhao, X. Pan, J. Ji, L. Xu, and J. Zheng,
Electron., vol. 55, no. 6, pp. 2246–2257, Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 61, no. 9, “Analysis of PM eddy current loss in four-phase
Jun. 2008. pp. 5035–5046, Sep. 2014. fault-tolerant flux-switching permanent-magnet
[4] G. Buja, M. Cheng, and M. G. Jovanovic, [21] Q. Wang and S. Niu, “Overview of machines by air-gap magnetic field modulation
“Emerging multiport electrical machines and flux-controllable machines: Electrically excited theory,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 67, no. 7,
systems—Part I,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., machines, hybrid excited machines and memory pp. 5369–5378, Jul. 2020.
vol. 65, no. 11, pp. 9030–9034, Nov. 2018. machines,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 68, [39] L. Mo, X. Zhu, T. Zhang, L. Quan, Y. Wang, and
[5] G. Buja, M. Cheng, and M. G. Jovanovic, pp. 475–491, Feb. 2017. J. Huang, “Temperature rise calculation of a
“Emerging multiport electrical machines and [22] N. Bianchi, S. Bolognani, E. Carraro, M. Castiello, flux-switching permanent-magnet double-rotor
systems—Part II,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., and E. Fornasiero, “Electric vehicle traction based machine using electromagnetic-thermal coupling
vol. 66, no. 1, pp. 627–630, Jan. 2019. on synchronous reluctance motors,” IEEE Trans. analysis,” IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 54, no. 3,
[6] M. Cheng, P. Han, G. Buja, and M. G. Jovanovic, Ind. Appl., vol. 52, no. 6, pp. 4762–4769, pp. 1–4, Mar. 2018.
“Emerging multiport electrical machines and Nov./Dec. 2016. [40] G. Zhang, W. Hua, and M. Cheng, “Rediscovery of
systems: Past developments, current challenges, [23] S. Taghavi and P. Pillay, “A sizing methodology of permanent magnet flux-switching machines
and future prospects,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., the synchronous reluctance motor for traction applied in EV/HEVs: Summary of new topologies
vol. 65, no. 7, pp. 5422–5435, Jul. 2018. applications,” IEEE J. Emerg. Sel. Topics Power and control strategies,” Chin. J. Electr. Eng., vol. 2,
[7] G. Wang, M. Valla, and J. Solsona, “Position Electron., vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 329–340, Jun. 2014. no. 2, pp. 31–42, 2016.
sensorless permanent magnet synchronous [24] C. M. Spargo, B. C. Mecrow, J. D. Widmer, and [41] J. Yu and C. Liu, “DC-biased operation of a
machine drives—A review,” IEEE Trans. Ind. C. Morton, “Application of fractional-slot double-stator hybrid flux switching
Electron., vol. 67, no. 7, pp. 5830–5842, Jul. 2020. concentrated windings to synchronous reluctance permanent-magnet machine,” IEEE Trans. Magn.,
[8] C. Gan, Y. Chen, R. Qu, Z. Yu, W. Kong, and Y. Hu, motors,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 51, no. 2, vol. 56, no. 2, pp. 1–6, Feb. 2020.
“An overview of fault-diagnosis and pp. 1446–1455, Mar./Apr. 2015. [42] H. Hua and Z. Q. Zhu, “Novel partitioned stator
fault-tolerance techniques for switched reluctance [25] P. B. Reddy, A. M. El-Refaie, S. Galioto, and hybrid excited switched flux machines,” IEEE
machine systems,” IEEE Access, vol. 7, J. P. Alexander, “Design of synchronous reluctance Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 32, no. 2,
pp. 174822–174838, 2019. motor utilizing dual-phase material for traction pp. 495–504, Jun. 2017.
[9] P. P. Acarnley and J. F. Watson, “Review of applications,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 53, no. 3, [43] Y. Wang, W. N. Fu, and S. Niu, “A novel structure
position-sensorless operation of brushless pp. 1948–1957, May/Jun. 2017. of dual-stator hybrid excitation synchronous
permanent-magnet machines,” IEEE Trans. Ind. [26] G. H. B. Foo and X. Zhang, “Robust direct torque motor,” IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond., vol. 26,
Electron., vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 352–362, Apr. 2006. control of synchronous reluctance motor drives in no. 4, pp. 1–5, Jun. 2016.
[10] C. Liu, K. T. Chau, D. Wu, and S. Gao, the field-weakening region,” IEEE Trans. Power [44] X. Zhao and S. Niu, “Design and optimization of a
“Opportunities and challenges of vehicle-to-home, Electron., vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 1289–1298, new magnetic-geared pole-changing hybrid
vehicle-to-vehicle, and vehicle-to-grid Feb. 2017. excitation machine,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron.,
technologies,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 101, no. 11, [27] J. Yu, C. Liu, and H. Zhao, “Design and vol. 64, no. 12, pp. 9943–9952, Dec. 2017.
pp. 2409–2427, Nov. 2013. multi-mode operation of double-stator [45] Y. Chen, W. Fu, and X. Weng, “A concept of general
[11] F. Bu et al., “Induction-machine-based toroidal-winding PM Vernier machine for flux-modulated electric machines based on a
starter/generator systems: Techniques, wind-photovoltaic hybrid generation system,” unified theory and its application to developing a
developments, and advances,” IEEE Ind. Electron. IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 55, no. 7, pp. 1–7, novel doubly-fed dual-stator motor,” IEEE Trans.
Mag., vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 4–19, Mar. 2020. Jul. 2019. Ind. Electron., vol. 64, no. 12, pp. 9914–9923,
[12] P. Han, M. Cheng, and Z. Chen, [28] J.-W. Kwon and B.-I. Kwon, “Investigation of Dec. 2017.
“Dual-electrical-port control of cascaded dual-stator spoke-type Vernier machine for EV [46] C. Liu, K. T. Chau, and J. Z. Jiang,
doubly-fed induction machine for EV/HEV application,” IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 54, no. 11, “A permanent-magnet hybrid brushless integrated
applications,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 1–5, Nov. 2018. starter–generator for hybrid electric vehicles,”
pp. 1390–1398, Mar./Apr. 2017. [29] J. Yu and C. Liu, “Multi-objective optimization of a IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 57, no. 12,
[13] N. Rivière, G. Volpe, M. Villani, G. Fabri, double-stator hybrid-excited flux-switching pp. 4055–4064, Dec. 2010.
L. Di Leonardo, and M. Popescu, “Design analysis permanent-magnet machine,” IEEE Trans. Energy [47] L. Cao, K. T. Chau, C. H. T. Lee, and W.-H. Lam,
of a high speed copper rotor induction motor for a Convers., vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 312–323, Mar. 2020. “Design and analysis of a new
traction application,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Electr. [30] S. Niu, S. L. Ho, and W. N. Fu, “A novel parallel-hybrid-excited machine with
Mach. Drives Conf. (IEMDC), May 2019, double-stator double-rotor brushless electrical harmonic-shift structure,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
pp. 1024–1031. continuously variable transmission system,” IEEE Electron., vol. 67, no. 3, pp. 1759–1770,
[14] J. W. Jiang, B. Bilgin, and A. Emadi, “Three-phase Trans. Magn., vol. 49, no. 7, pp. 3909–3912, Mar. 2020.
24/16 switched reluctance machine for a hybrid Jul. 2013. [48] X. Zhu, D. Fan, L. Mo, Y. Chen, and L. Quan,
electric powertrain,” IEEE Trans. Transport. [31] M. Cheng, W. Hua, J. Zhang, and W. Zhao, “Multiobjective optimization design of a
Electrific., vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 76–85, Mar. 2017. “Overview of stator-permanent magnet brushless double-rotor flux-switching permanent magnet
[15] W. Uddin, T. Husain, Y. Sozer, and I. Husain, machines,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 58, machine considering multimode operation,” IEEE
“Design methodology of a switched reluctance no. 11, pp. 5087–5101, Nov. 2011. Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 66, no. 1, pp. 641–653,
machine for off-road vehicle applications,” IEEE [32] Y. Gao, D. Li, R. Qu, and J. Li, “Design procedure Jan. 2019.
Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 2138–2147, of flux reversal permanent magnet machines,” [49] Y. Yang, N. Schofield, and A. Emadi, “Double-rotor
May/Jun. 2016. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 53, no. 5, switched reluctance machine (DRSRM),” IEEE
[16] W. Ding, S. Yang, Y. Hu, S. Li, T. Wang, and Z. Yin, pp. 4232–4241, Sep. 2017. Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 30, no. 2,
“Design consideration and evaluation of a 12/8 [33] D. Kim, H. Hwang, S. Bae, and C. Lee, “Analysis pp. 671–680, Jun. 2015.
high-torque modular-stator hybrid excitation and design of a double-stator flux-switching [50] T. Guo, N. Schofield, and A. Emadi, “Double
switched reluctance machine for EV applications,” permanent magnet machine using ferrite magnet segmented rotor switched reluctance machine
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 64, no. 12, in hybrid electric vehicles,” IEEE Trans. Magn., with shared stator back-iron for magnetic flux
pp. 9221–9232, Dec. 2017. vol. 52, no. 7, pp. 1–4, Jul. 2016. passage,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 31,
[17] A. M. Omekanda, “Switched reluctance machines [34] C. H. T. Lee, J. L. Kirtley, and M. Angle, no. 4, pp. 1278–1286, Dec. 2016.
for EV and HEV propulsion: State-of-the-art,” in “A partitioned-stator flux-switching [51] Y. Yang and A. Emadi, “Double-rotor switched
Proc. IEEE Workshop Electr. Mach. Design, Control permanent-magnet machine with mechanical flux reluctance machine,” U.S. Patent 10 333 376,
Diagnosis (WEMDCD), Mar. 2013, pp. 70–74. adjusters for hybrid electric vehicles,” IEEE Trans. Jun. 25, 2019.
[18] Z. Yang, F. Shang, I. P. Brown, and Magn., vol. 53, no. 11, pp. 1–7, Nov. 2017. [52] L. L. Wang, J. X. Shen, P. C. K. Luk, W. Z. Fei,
M. Krishnamurthy, “Comparative study of interior [35] R. Cao, C. Mi, and M. Cheng, “Quantitative C. F. Wang, and H. Hao, “Development of a
permanent magnet, induction, and switched comparison of flux-switching permanent-magnet magnetic-geared permanent-magnet brushless
reluctance motor drives for EV and HEV motors with interior permanent magnet motor for motor,” IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 45, no. 10,
applications,” IEEE Trans. Transport. Electrific., EV, HEV, and PHEV applications,” IEEE Trans. pp. 4578–4581, Oct. 2009.
[53] P. Chmelicek, S. D. Calverley, R. S. Dragan, and DC motors. II. Armature-reaction field,” IEEE [87] G. Pellegrino, A. Vagati, B. Boazzo, and
K. Atallah, “Dual rotor magnetically geared power Trans. Magn., vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 136–142, P. Guglielmi, “Comparison of induction and PM
split device for hybrid electric vehicles,” IEEE Jan. 1993. synchronous motor drives for EV application
Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 55, no. 2, pp. 1484–1494, [71] M. V. K. Chari and P. Silveste, “Finite-element including design examples,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl.,
Mar. 2019. analysis of magnetically saturated D-C machines,” vol. 48, no. 6, pp. 2322–2332, Nov./Dec. 2012.
[54] K. Atallah and D. Howe, “A novel IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-90, no. 5, [88] F. Lei, K. Gu, B. Du, and X. Xie, “Comprehensive
high-performance magnetic gear,” IEEE Trans. pp. 2362–2372, Sep. 1971. global optimization of an implicit constrained
Magn., vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 2844–2846, Jul. 2001. [72] Z. J. Csendes and P. Silvester, “Numerical solution multi-physics system for electric vehicles with
[55] X. Li, K.-T. Chau, M. Cheng, and W. Hua, of dielectric loaded waveguides: I—Finite-element in-wheel motors,” Energy, vol. 139, pp. 523–534,
“Comparison of magnetic-geared analysis,” IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Techn., Nov. 2017.
permanent-magnet machines,” Prog. Electromagn. vol. MTT-18, no. 12, pp. 1124–1131, Dec. 1970. [89] X. Ling, B. Li, L. Gong, Y. Huang, and C. Liu,
Res., vol. 133, pp. 177–198, Jan. 2013. [73] J. H. Kim, Y. Li, and B. Sarlioglu, “Novel six-slot “Simulation of switched reluctance motor drive
[56] J. Bai, P. Zheng, C. Tong, Z. Song, and Q. Zhao, four-pole axial flux-switching permanent magnet system based on multi-physics modeling method,”
“Characteristic analysis and verification of the machine for electric vehicle,” IEEE Trans. IEEE Access, vol. 5, pp. 26184–26189, 2017.
Magnetic-field-modulated brushless double-rotor Transport. Electrific., vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 108–117, [90] D. Guo, F. Chu, and D. Chen, “The unbalanced
machine,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 62, no. 7, Mar. 2017. magnetic pull and its effects on vibration in a
pp. 4023–4033, Jul. 2015. [74] T. Raminosoa et al., “Reduced rare-earth three-phase generator with eccentric rotor,”
[57] Y. Wang, S. Niu, and W. Fu, flux-switching machines for traction applications,” J. Sound Vib., vol. 254, no. 2, pp. 297–312,
“Electrical-continuously variable transmission IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 51, no. 4, Jul. 2002.
system based on doubly fed flux-bidirectional pp. 2959–2971, Jul./Aug. 2015. [91] T. Davin, J. Pellé, S. Harmand, and R. Yu,
modulation,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 64, [75] X. Zhao, S. Niu, X. Zhang, and W. Fu, “A new “Experimental study of oil cooling systems for
no. 4, pp. 2722–2731, Apr. 2017. relieving-DC-saturation hybrid excitation Vernier electric motors,” Appl. Thermal Eng., vol. 75,
[58] X. Ren, D. Li, R. Qu, Z. Liang, and X. Han, machine for HEV starter generator application,” pp. 1–13, Jan. 2015.
“A brushless dual-electrical-port IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 67, no. 8, [92] L. J. Wu, Z. Q. Zhu, D. Staton, M. Popescu, and
dual-mechanical-port machine with integrated pp. 6342–6353, Aug. 2020. D. Hawkins, “An improved subdomain model for
winding configuration,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., [76] C. Lv, X. Hu, A. Sangiovanni-Vincentelli, Y. Li, predicting magnetic field of surface-mounted
early access, Mar. 11, 2020, C. M. Martinez, and D. Cao, “Driving-style-based permanent magnet machines accounting for
doi: 10.1109/TIE.2020.2978725. codesign optimization of an automated electric tooth-tips,” IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 47, no. 6,
[59] H. Zhao, C. Liu, Z. Song, and W. Wang, “Analytical vehicle: A cyber-physical system approach,” IEEE pp. 1693–1704, Jun. 2011.
modeling of a double-rotor multiwinding machine Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 66, no. 4, [93] A. Dalal and P. Kumar, “Analytical model for
for hybrid aircraft propulsion,” IEEE Trans. pp. 2965–2975, Apr. 2019. permanent magnet motor with slotting effect,
Transport. Electrific., vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 1537–1550, [77] K. M. Rahman, N. R. Patel, T. G. Ward, armature reaction, and ferromagnetic material
Dec. 2020. J. M. Nagashima, F. Caricchi, and F. Crescimbini, property,” IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 51, no. 12,
[60] X. Ren, D. Li, R. Qu, W. Kong, X. Han, and T. Pei, “Application of direct-drive wheel motor for fuel pp. 1–10, Dec. 2015.
“Analysis of spoke-type brushless dual-electrical cell electric and hybrid electric vehicle propulsion [94] M. Cheng, K. T. Chau, C. C. Chan, E. Zhou, and
-port dual-mechanical-port machine with system,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 42, no. 5, X. Huang, “Nonlinear varying-network magnetic
decoupled windings,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., pp. 1185–1192, Sep. 2006. circuit analysis for doubly salient
vol. 66, no. 8, pp. 6128–6140, Aug. 2019. [78] X. Zhu, Z. Xiang, L. Quan, Y. Chen, and L. Mo, permanent-magnet motors,” IEEE Trans. Magn.,
[61] L. Sun, M. Cheng, and H. Jia, “Analysis of a novel “Multimode optimization research on a multiport vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 339–348, Jan. 2000.
magnetic-geared dual-rotor motor with magnetic planetary gear permanent magnet [95] H. W. Derbas, J. M. Williams, A. C. Koenig, and
complementary structure,” IEEE Trans. Ind. machine for hybrid electric vehicles,” IEEE Trans. S. D. Pekarek, “A comparison of nodal-and
Electron., vol. 62, no. 11, pp. 6737–6747, Ind. Electron., vol. 65, no. 11, pp. 9035–9046, mesh-based magnetic equivalent circuit models,”
Nov. 2015. Nov. 2018. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 24, no. 2,
[62] X. Han et al., “Modeling and drive control of a [79] J. Druant, H. Vansompel, F. De Belie, and pp. 388–396, Jun. 2009.
brushless dual-mechanical-port machine with P. Sergeant, “Optimal control for a hybrid excited [96] J. M. Kokernak and D. A. Torrey, “Magnetic circuit
integrated winding,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., dual mechanical port electric machine,” IEEE model for the mutually coupled
vol. 68, no. 3, pp. 2059–2071, Mar. 2021. Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 32, no. 2, switched-reluctance machine,” IEEE Trans. Magn.,
[63] M. Wang, C. Tong, Z. Song, J. Liu, and P. Zheng, pp. 599–607, Jun. 2017. vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 500–507, Mar. 2000.
“Performance analysis of an axial [80] Y. Amara, L. Vido, M. Gabsi, E. Hoang, A. H. B. [97] C. Gerada et al., “The results do mesh,” IEEE Ind.
magnetic-field-modulated brushless double-rotor Ahmed, and M. Lecrivain, “Hybrid excitation Appl. Mag., vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 62–72, Mar. 2007.
machine for hybrid electric vehicles,” IEEE Trans. synchronous machines: Energy-efficient solution [98] S. Jiang, G. Liu, W. Zhao, L. Xu, and Q. Chen,
Ind. Electron., vol. 66, no. 1, pp. 806–817, for vehicles propulsion,” IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., “Modeling and analysis of spoke-type permanent
Jan. 2019. vol. 58, no. 5, pp. 2137–2149, Jun. 2009. magnet Vernier machine based on equivalent
[64] J. Du, Y. Xue, and X. Yang, “Modeling and [81] V. Ruuskanen, J. Nerg, M. Rilla, and J. Pyrhonen, magnetic network method,” Chin. J. Electr. Eng.,
inner–outer decoupling of dual-rotor machines for “Iron loss analysis of the permanent-magnet vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 96–103, 2018.
continuous variable transmission systems,” IEEE synchronous machine based on finite-element [99] M.-F. Hsieh and Y.-C. Hsu, “A generalized magnetic
Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 64, no. 11, analysis over the electrical vehicle drive cycle,” circuit modeling approach for design of surface
pp. 8472–8483, Nov. 2017. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 63, no. 7, permanent-magnet machines,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
[65] J. Druant, H. Vansompel, F. De Belie, J. pp. 4129–4136, Jul. 2016. Electron., vol. 59, no. 2, pp. 779–792, Feb. 2012.
Melkebeek, and P. Sergeant, “Torque analysis on a [82] A. Athavale, K. Sasaki, B. S. Gagas, T. Kato, and [100] K. T. Chau, M. Cheng, and C. C. Chan, “Nonlinear
double rotor electrical variable transmission with R. D. Lorenz, “Variable flux permanent magnet magnetic circuit analysis for a novel stator doubly
hybrid excitation,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., synchronous machine (VF-PMSM) design fed doubly salient machine,” IEEE Trans. Magn.,
vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 60–68, Jan. 2017. methodologies to meet electric vehicle traction vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 2382–2384, Sep. 2002.
[66] E. Nordlund and C. Sadarangani, “The requirements with reduced losses,” IEEE Trans. [101] S.-H. Han, T. M. Jahns, and W. L. Soong,
four-quadrant energy transducer,” in Proc. Conf. Ind. Appl., vol. 53, no. 5, pp. 4318–4326, “A magnetic circuit model for an IPM synchronous
Rec. IEEE Ind. Appl. Conf. 37th IAS Annu. Meeting, Sep. 2017. machine incorporating moving airgap and
vol. 1, Oct. 2002, pp. 390–397. [83] Z. Song, C. Liu, and H. Zhao, “Investigation on cross-coupled saturation effects,” in Proc. IEEE Int.
[67] J. Druant, H. Vansompel, F. De Belie, and magnetic force of a flux-modulated double-rotor Electr. Mach. Drives Conf., May 2007, pp. 21–26.
P. Sergeant, “Efficiency of a CVT-operated EVT permanent magnet synchronous machine for [102] F. W. Carter, “The magnetic field of the
experimentally evaluated against half-toroidal and hybrid electric vehicle,” IEEE Trans. Transport. dynamo-electric machine,” J. Inst. Electr. Eng.,
push-belt CVTs,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 65, Electrific., vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 1383–1394, Dec. 2019. vol. 64, no. 359, pp. 1115–1138, Nov. 1926.
no. 4, pp. 3095–3103, Apr. 2018. [84] S. Rick, A. K. Putri, D. Franck, and K. Hameyer, [103] Z. Q. Zhu and D. Howe, “Instantaneous magnetic
[68] L. Cao, K. T. Chau, C. H. T. Lee, and H. Wang, “Hybrid acoustic model of electric vehicles: Force field distribution in brushless permanent magnet
“A double-rotor flux-switching permanent-magnet excitation in permanent-magnet synchronous DC motors. III. Effect of stator slotting,” IEEE
motor for electric vehicles with magnetic machines,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 52, no. 4, Trans. Magn., vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 143–151,
differential,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 68, pp. 2979–2987, Jul./Aug. 2016. Jan. 1993.
no. 2, pp. 1004–1015, Feb. 2021. [85] Y. Fang and T. Zhang, “Sound quality investigation [104] D. Zarko, D. Ban, and T. A. Lipo, “Analytical
[69] K. Zhou, A. Ivanco, Z. Filipi, and H. Hofmann, and improvement of an electric powertrain for solution for cogging torque in surface
“Finite-element-based computationally efficient electric vehicles,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., permanent-magnet motors using conformal
scalable electric machine model suitable for vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 1149–1157, Feb. 2018. mapping,” IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 44, no. 1,
electrified powertrain simulation and [86] K. Zhou, J. Pries, and H. Hofmann, pp. 52–65, Jan. 2008.
optimization,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 51, “Computationally efficient 3-D [105] T. A. Driscoll and L. N. Trefethen,
no. 6, pp. 4435–4445, Nov. 2015. finite-element-based dynamic thermal models of Schwarz-Christoffel Mapping. Cambridge, U.K.:
[70] Z. Q. Zhu and D. Howe, “Instantaneous magnetic electric machines,” IEEE Trans. Transport. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2002.
field distribution in brushless permanent magnet Electrific., vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 138–149, Aug. 2015. [106] K. Abbaszadeh and F. R. Alam, “On-load field
component separation in surface-mounted machine with form-wound windings,” IEEE Trans. IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 34, no. 2,
permanent-magnet motors using an improved Ind. Electron., vol. 61, no. 6, pp. 3038–3045, pp. 1622–1634, Feb. 2019.
conformal mapping method,” IEEE Trans. Magn., Jun. 2014. [141] Y. Ren and Z. Q. Zhu, “Reduction of both
vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 1–12, Feb. 2016. [124] D. A. Stone, P. H. Mellor, D. Howe, and K. Atallah, harmonic current and torque ripple for dual
[107] Z. Q. Zhu, L. J. Wu, and Z. P. Xia, “An accurate “Rotor loss in permanent-magnet brushless AC three-phase permanent-magnet synchronous
subdomain model for magnetic field computation machines,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 36, no. 6, machine using modified switching-table-based
in slotted surface-mounted permanent-magnet pp. 1612–1618, Nov. 2000. direct torque control,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron.,
machines,” IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 46, no. 4, [125] I. Petrov, D. Egorov, J. Link, R. Stern, S. Ruoho, vol. 62, no. 11, pp. 6671–6683, Nov. 2015.
pp. 1100–1115, Apr. 2010. and J. Pyrhonen, “Hysteresis losses in different [142] S. Vazquez, J. Rodriguez, M. Rivera,
[108] B. L. J. Gysen, K. J. Meessen, J. J. H. Paulides, and types of permanent magnets used in PMSMs,” L. G. Franquelo, and M. Norambuena, “Model
E. A. Lomonova, “General formulation of the IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 64, no. 3, predictive control for power converters and
electromagnetic field distribution in machines and pp. 2502–2510, Mar. 2017. drives: Advances and trends,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
devices using Fourier analysis,” IEEE Trans. Magn., [126] J. Zheng, W. Zhao, J. Ji, J. Zhu, C. Gu, and S. Zhu, Electron., vol. 64, no. 2, pp. 935–947, Feb. 2017.
vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 39–52, Jan. 2010. “Design to reduce rotor losses in fault-tolerant [143] C. S. Lim, E. Levi, M. Jones, N. A. Rahim, and
[109] H. Zhao, C. Liu, Z. Song, and J. Yu, “Analytical permanent-magnet machines,” IEEE Trans. Ind. W. P. Hew, “FCS-MPC-based current control of a
modeling and comparison of two consequent-pole Electron., vol. 65, no. 11, pp. 8476–8487, five-phase induction motor and its comparison
magnetic-geared machines for hybrid electric Nov. 2018. with PI-PWM control,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron.,
vehicles,” Energies, vol. 12, no. 10, p. 1888, [127] T. G. Habetler, F. Profumo, M. Pastorelli, and vol. 61, no. 1, pp. 149–163, Jan. 2014.
May 2019. L. M. Tolbert, “Direct torque control of induction [144] J. A. Riveros, F. Barrero, E. Levi, M. J. Durán,
[110] L. Li, “Use of Fourier series in the analysis of machines using space vector modulation,” IEEE S. Toral, and M. Jones, “Variable-speed five-phase
discontinuous periodic structures,” J. Opt. Soc. Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 1045–1051, induction motor drive based on predictive torque
Amer. A, vol. 13, no. 9, pp. 1870–1876, 1996. Sep./Oct. 1992. control,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 60, no. 8,
[111] R. Sprangers, “Towards increased understanding [128] F. Blaschke, “The principle of field orientation as pp. 2957–2968, Aug. 2013.
of low-power induction and synchronous applied to the new transvector closed-loop system [145] P. Kakosimos and H. Abu-Rub, “Deadbeat
reluctance machines: Harmonic modeling of for rotating-field machines,” Siemens Rev., vol. 34, predictive control for PMSM drives with 3-L NPC
complex electromagnetic phenomena,” Technische no. 3, pp. 217–220, 1972. inverter accounting for saturation effects,” IEEE
Univ. Eindhoven, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, [129] W. Xie et al., “Finite-control-set model predictive J. Emerg. Sel. Topics Power Electron., vol. 6, no. 4,
Tech. Rep. 978-90-386-3914-7, 2015. torque control with a deadbeat solution for PMSM pp. 1671–1680, Dec. 2018.
[112] Z. Djelloul-Khedda, K. Boughrara, F. Dubas, drives,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 62, no. 9, [146] L. Guo and L. Parsa, “Model reference adaptive
A. Kechroud, and B. Souleyman, “Semi-analytical pp. 5402–5410, Sep. 2015. control of five-phase IPM motors based on neural
magnetic field predicting in many structures of [130] J. Holtz, “Pulsewidth modulation for electronic network,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 59, no. 3,
permanent-magnet synchronous machines power conversion,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 82, no. 8, pp. 1500–1508, Mar. 2012.
considering the iron permeability,” IEEE Trans. pp. 1194–1214, Aug. 1994. [147] P. G. Carlet, F. Tinazzi, S. Bolognani, and
Magn., vol. 54, no. 7, pp. 1–21, Jul. 2018. [131] K. Li and Y. Wang, “Maximum torque per ampere M. Zigliotto, “An effective model-free predictive
[113] E. Devillers, J. Le Besnerais, T. Lubin, M. Hecquet, (MTPA) control for IPMSM drives based on a current control for synchronous reluctance motor
and J.-P. Lecointe, “A review of subdomain variable-equivalent-parameter MTPA control law,” drives,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 55, no. 4,
modeling techniques in electrical machines: IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 34, no. 7, pp. 3781–3790, Jul./Aug. 2019.
Performances and applications,” in Proc. 22nd Int. pp. 7092–7102, Jul. 2019. [148] Y. Luo and C. Liu, “Model predictive control for a
Conf. Electr. Mach. (ICEM), Sep. 2016, pp. 86–92. [132] D. J. Evans, Z. Q. Zhu, H. L. Zhan, Z. Z. Wu, and six-phase PMSM motor with a reduced-dimension
[114] Y. Oner, Z. Q. Zhu, L. J. Wu, X. Ge, H. Zhan, and X. Ge, “Flux-weakening control performance of cost function,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 67,
J. T. Chen, “Analytical on-load subdomain field partitioned stator-switched flux PM machines,” no. 2, pp. 969–979, Feb. 2020.
model of permanent-magnet Vernier machines,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 52, no. 3, [149] B. A. Welchko, T. A. Lipo, T. M. Jahns, and
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 63, no. 7, pp. 2350–2359, May/Jun. 2016. S. E. Schulz, “Fault tolerant three-phase AC motor
pp. 4105–4117, Jul. 2016. [133] Y. Inoue, S. Morimoto, and M. Sanada, drive topologies: A comparison of features, cost,
[115] F. Dubas and A. Rahideh, “Two-dimensional “Comparative study of PMSM drive systems based and limitations,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron.,
analytical permanent-magnet eddy-current loss on current control and direct torque control in vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 1108–1116, Jul. 2004.
calculations in slotless PMSM equipped with flux-weakening control region,” IEEE Trans. Ind. [150] R. Cui, Y. Fan, and M. Cheng, “A new
surface-inset magnets,” IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 50, Appl., vol. 48, no. 6, pp. 2382–2389, zero-sequence current suppression control
no. 3, pp. 54–73, Mar. 2014. Nov./Dec. 2012. strategy for five-phase open-winding fault-tolerant
[116] Z. Djelloul-Khedda, K. Boughrara, F. Dubas, [134] F. M. Borujeni and M. Ardebili, “DTC-SVM control fractional-slot concentrated winding IPM motor
A. Kechroud, and A. Tikellaline, “Analytical strategy for induction machine based on indirect driving system,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 55,
prediction of iron-core losses in flux-modulated matrix converter in flywheel energy storage no. 3, pp. 2731–2740, May 2019.
permanent-magnet synchronous machines,” IEEE system,” in Proc. 6th Power Electron., Drive Syst. [151] I. Jeong, B. J. Hyon, and K. Nam, “Dynamic
Trans. Magn., vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 1–12, Jan. 2019. Technol. Conf. (PEDSTC), Feb. 2015, pp. 352–357. modeling and control for SPMSMs with internal
[117] P. Liang, F. Chai, Y. Yu, and L. Chen, “Analytical [135] H. Moghbeli, M. Zarei, and S. S. Mirhoseini, turn short fault,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron.,
model of a spoke-type permanent magnet “Transient and steady states analysis of traction vol. 28, no. 7, pp. 3495–3508, Jul. 2013.
synchronous in-wheel motor with trapezoid motor drive with regenerative braking and using [152] M. Hu, W. Hua, Z. Wu, N. Dai, H. Xiao, and
magnet accounting for tooth saturation,” IEEE modified direct torque control (SVM-DTC),” in W. Wang, “Compensation of current measurement
Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 66, no. 2, Proc. 6th Power Electron., Drive Syst. Technol. Conf. offset error for permanent magnet synchronous
pp. 1162–1171, Feb. 2019. (PEDSTC), Feb. 2015, pp. 615–620. machines,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 35,
[118] R. Lakshmi Suresh Nimmana and A. Chiba, [136] C. Lascu, I. Boldea, and F. Blaabjerg, no. 10, pp. 11119–11128, Oct. 2020.
“Design of high power density motor for EV “Variable-structure direct torque control—A class [153] L. Harnefors and M. Hinkkanen, “Stabilization
applications,” in Proc. 21st Int. Conf. Electr. Mach. of fast and robust controllers for induction methods for sensorless induction motor
Syst. (ICEMS), Oct. 2018, pp. 104–108. machine drives,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., drives—A survey,” IEEE J. Emerg. Sel. Topics Power
[119] E. Carraro, M. Morandin, and N. Bianchi, vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 785–792, Aug. 2004. Electron., vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 132–142, Jun. 2014.
“Traction PMASR motor optimization according to [137] L. Tang, L. Zhong, M. F. Rahman, and Y. Hu, [154] Z. Chen, M. Tomita, S. Doki, and S. Okuma, “An
a given driving cycle,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., “A novel direct torque control for interior extended electromotive force model for sensorless
vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 209–216, Jan. 2016. permanent-magnet synchronous machine drive control of interior permanent-magnet
[120] A. Fatemi, D. M. Ionel, M. Popescu, Y. C. Chong, with low ripple in torque and flux—A speed synchronous motors,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron.,
and N. A. O. Demerdash, “Design optimization of -sensorless approach,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 288–295, Apr. 2003.
a high torque density spoke-type PM motor for a vol. 39, no. 6, pp. 1748–1756, Nov. 2003. [155] T. Tuovinen, M. Hinkkanen, L. Harnefors, and
formula e race drive cycle,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., [138] W. Xu and R. D. Lorenz, “Dynamic loss J. Luomi, “Comparison of a reduced-order
vol. 54, no. 5, pp. 4343–4354, Sep. 2018. minimization using improved deadbeat-direct observer and a full-order observer for sensorless
[121] A. G. Sarigiannidis, M. E. Beniakar, and torque and flux control for interior synchronous motor drives,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl.,
A. G. Kladas, “Fast adaptive evolutionary PM permanent-magnet synchronous machines,” IEEE vol. 48, no. 6, pp. 1959–1967, Nov./Dec. 2012.
traction motor optimization based on electric Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 1053–1065, [156] J. Holtz, “Sensorless control of induction
vehicle drive cycle,” IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., Mar. 2014. machines—With or without signal injection?” in
vol. 66, no. 7, pp. 5762–5774, Jul. 2017. [139] C. Xia, S. Wang, Z. Wang, and T. Shi, “Direct Proc. 9th Int. Conf. Optim. Electr. Electron. Equip.,
[122] R. Wrobel, D. E. Salt, A. Griffo, N. Simpson, and torque control for VSI–PMSMs using vol. 3, 2004, pp. 17–39.
P. H. Mellor, “Derivation and scaling of AC copper four-dimensional switching-table,” IEEE Trans. [157] A. H. Almarhoon, Z. Q. Zhu, and P. Xu, “Improved
loss in thermal modeling of electrical machines,” Power Electron., vol. 31, no. 8, pp. 5774–5785, rotor position estimation accuracy by rotating
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 61, no. 8, Aug. 2016. carrier signal injection utilizing zero-sequence
pp. 4412–4420, Aug. 2014. [140] X. Wang, Z. Wang, and Z. Xu, “A hybrid direct carrier voltage for dual three-phase PMSM,” IEEE
[123] D. A. Gonzalez and D. M. Saban, “Study of the torque control scheme for dual three-phase PMSM Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 64, no. 6,
copper losses in a high-speed permanent-magnet drives with improved operation performance,” pp. 4454–4462, Jun. 2017.
[158] C.-Y. Yu, J. Tamura, D. D. Reigosa, and [165] L. Zhang, Y. Fan, C. Li, A. Nied, and M. Cheng, [172] J. Wang, Y. Li, and Y. Han, “Integrated modular
R. D. Lorenz, “Position self-sensing evaluation of a “Fault-tolerant sensorless control of a five-phase motor drive design with GaN power FETs,” IEEE
FI-IPMSM based on high-frequency signal FTFSCW-IPM motor based on a wide-speed Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 51, no. 4,
injection methods,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 49, strong-robustness sliding mode observer,” IEEE pp. 3198–3207, Jul. 2015.
no. 2, pp. 880–888, Mar./Apr. 2013. Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 87–95, [173] M. Sato, G. Yamamoto, D. Gunji, T. Imura,
[159] A. K. Morya et al., “Wide bandgap devices in AC Mar. 2018. and H. Fujimoto, “Development of wireless
electric drives: Opportunities and challenges,” [166] R. Abebe et al., “Integrated motor drives: State of in-wheel motor using magnetic resonance
IEEE Trans. Transport. Electrific., vol. 5, no. 1, the art and future trends,” IET Electr. Power Appl., coupling,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron.,
pp. 3–20, Mar. 2019. vol. 10, no. 8, pp. 757–771, Sep. 2016. vol. 31, no. 7, pp. 5270–5278,
[160] D. Han, Y. Li, and B. Sarlioglu, “Analysis of SiC [167] W. Lee, S. Li, D. Han, B. Sarlioglu, T. A. Minav, and Jul. 2016.
based power electronic inverters for high speed M. Pietola, “A review of integrated motor drive [174] C. Jiang, K. T. Chau, W. Liu, C. Liu, W. Han, and
machines,” in Proc. IEEE Appl. Power Electron. and wide-bandgap power electronics for W. H. Lam, “An LCC-compensated
Conf. Expo. (APEC), Mar. 2015, pp. 304–310. high-performance electro-hydrostatic actuators,” multiple-frequency wireless motor system,” IEEE
[161] R. Lai, Y. Maillet, F. Wang, S. Wang, R. Burgos, IEEE Trans. Transport. Electrific., vol. 4, no. 3, Trans. Ind. Informat., vol. 15, no. 11,
and D. Boroyevich, “An integrated EMI choke for pp. 684–693, Sep. 2018. pp. 6023–6034, Nov. 2019.
differential-mode and common-mode noise [168] M. Nikouie, H. Zhang, O. Wallmark, and H.-P. Nee, [175] C. Jiang, K. T. Chau, C. H. T. Lee, W. Han, W. Liu,
suppression,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 25, “A highly integrated electric drive system for and W. H. Lam, “A wireless servo motor drive with
no. 3, pp. 539–544, Mar. 2010. tomorrow’s EVs and HEVs,” in Proc. IEEE Southern bidirectional motion capability,” IEEE Trans. Power
[162] D. Jiang, J. Chen, and Z. Shen, “Common mode Power Electron. Conf. (SPEC), Dec. 2017, pp. 1–5. Electron., vol. 34, no. 12, pp. 12001–12010,
EMI reduction through PWM methods for [169] S. Chowdhury, E. Gurpinar, G.-J. Su, Dec. 2019.
three-phase motor controller,” CES Trans. Electr. T. Raminosoa, T. A. Burress, and B. Ozpineci, [176] P. Lindh et al., “Direct liquid cooling method
Mach. Syst., vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 133–142, “Enabling technologies for compact integrated verified with an axial-flux permanent-magnet
Jun. 2019. electric drives for automotive traction traction machine prototype,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
[163] J. Hammer, M. Ordonez, and P. Ksiazek, applications,” in Proc. IEEE Transp. Electrific. Conf. Electron., vol. 64, no. 8, pp. 6086–6095,
“Modeling the effects of printed-circuit-board Expo (ITEC), Jun. 2019, pp. 1–8. Aug. 2017.
parasitics on the switching performance of [170] N. R. Brown, T. M. Jahns, and R. D. Lorenz, [177] W. Deng and S. Zuo, “Axial force and vibroacoustic
wide-bandgap applications,” in Proc. IEEE Appl. “Power converter design for an integrated analysis of external-rotor axial-flux motors,” IEEE
Power Electron. Conf. Expo. (APEC), Mar. 2019, modular motor drive,” in Proc. IEEE Ind. Appl. Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 65, no. 3,
pp. 1231–1236. Annu. Meeting, Sep. 2007, pp. 1322–1328. pp. 2018–2030, Mar. 2018.
[164] J. Kim, I. Jeong, K. Nam, J. Yang, and T. Hwang, [171] Siemens Integrates EV Motor and Inverter in Single [178] N. Taran, V. Rallabandi, G. Heins, and D. M. Ionel,
“Sensorless control of PMSM in a high-speed Housing; Common Cooling and SKiN. Accessed: “Coreless and conventional axial flux permanent
region considering iron loss,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Sep. 15, 2020. [Online]. Available: https:// magnet motors for solar cars,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electron., vol. 62, no. 10, pp. 6151–6159, www.greencarcongress.com/2014/10/ Appl., vol. 54, no. 6, pp. 5907–5917,
Oct. 2015. 20141017-siemens.html Nov. 2018.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Chunhua Liu (Senior Member, IEEE) ENGINEERING, and an Editor of the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
received the B.Eng., M.Eng., and Ph.D. MAGNETICS—CONFERENCES.
degrees in automatic control from Beijing
Institute of Technology, Beijing, China, and
in electrical and electronic engineering from
The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong K. T. Chau (Fellow, IEEE) received the B.Sc.
SAR, in 2002, 2005, and 2009, respectively. (Eng.), M.Phil., and Ph.D. degrees in elec-
He is currently an Associate Professor with trical and electronic engineering from The
the School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR,
University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China. His research in 1988, 1991, and 1993, respectively.
interests include electric machines and drives, electric vehicles Since 1995, he has been with The Univer-
and aircraft, electric robotics and ships, renewables and microgrid, sity of Hong Kong, where he is currently a
power electronics, and wireless power transfer. In these areas, Professor and the Head of the Department of
he has published over 200 refereed articles. Electrical and Electronic Engineering. He is
Dr. Liu is the Chair and the Founder of the Hong Kong Chapter of the author of seven books and more than 300 journal articles.
the IEEE Vehicular Technology Society and the Hong Kong His research interests include electric and hybrid vehicles, power
& Guangzhou Joint Chapter of the IEEE Industrial Electronics electronics and drives, and renewable energies.
Society, respectively. He is also an Associate Editor of the IEEE Prof. Chau is a Fellow of the Institution of Engineering and
TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS and an Editor of Technology (IET), U.K., and the Hong Kong Institution of Engineers.
the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY and IEEE He was a recipient of the Changjiang Chair Professorship from the
TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION. He is also an Editor Ministry of Education, China, and the Environmental Excellence in
of Energies, the Deputy Editor of the IET Renewable Power Transportation Award for Education, Training, and Public Awareness
Generation, a Subject Editor of Wireless Power Transfer (Cambridge from the Society of Automotive Engineers International. He is also
University), an Associate Editor of the Open Journal of the Industrial a Coeditor of the Journal of Asian Electric Vehicles. He is also a
Electronics Society and the IEEE CHINESE JOURNAL OF ELECTRICAL Chartered Engineer in Hong Kong.
Christopher H. T. Lee (Senior Member, Zaixin Song (Student Member, IEEE)

IEEE) received the B.Eng. (First Class Hon- received the B.Eng. and M.Eng. degrees in
ors) and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engi- electrical engineering and automation from
neering from the Department of Electrical Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT), Harbin,
and Electronic Engineering, The University China, in 2016 and 2018, respectively. He is
of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, in 2009 and currently working toward the Ph.D. degree in
2016, respectively. electrical and electronic engineering at City
He is currently an Assistant Professor with University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR.
Nanyang Technological University, Singa- He has been working on electric machines
pore, a Visiting Assistant Professor with the Massachusetts Institute for years. His research interests include the design, analysis, opti-
of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA, and an Honorary Assistant mization, and control of emerging permanent magnet machines,
Professor with The University of Hong Kong. His research interests particularly the high-speed machines and multiphase machines,
include electric machines and drives, renewable energies, and propulsion motors for automotive and aerospace applications, and
electromechanical propulsion technologies. In these areas, he has multiphysics modeling, simulation, and testing.
published one book, three book chapters, and over 80 referred
articles.
Dr. Lee received many awards, including the NRF Fellowship, the
Nanyang Assistant Professorship, the Li Ka Shing Prize (the best
Ph.D. thesis prize), and the Croucher Foundation Fellowship. He is
also an Editor of the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION
and an Associate Editor of IEEE ACCESS and IET Renewable Power
Generation. He is also a Chartered Engineer in Hong Kong.

Review of Machines and Drives)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Review of Machines and Drives)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Critical Review of Advanced

Electric Machines and

1004 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021

Fig. 1. Classification of electric machines for EVs.

Fig. 2. Classification of control strategies of electric machines for EVs.

Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021 | P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE 1005

1006 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021

Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021 | P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE 1007

receives energy mainly from the outer windings of the

1008 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021

Fig. 6. FSPM machine topologies for HEV systems. (a) DS.

ripple analysis of FSPM machines for HEV applications

Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021 | P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE 1009

The distinct features of DRSRMs are summarized as

where pin is the pole-pair number of PMs on the inner

1010 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021

differentials, which can further connect to wheels for

pr (Nin − Nour ) pr Nout

where f in and f out are the electric frequencies of inner rotor

Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021 | P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE 1011

A. Finite Element Method

1012 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021

Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021 | P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE 1013

1014 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021

as a transformation function. Finally, the electromagnetic

Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021 | P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE 1015

where Rdc is the dc resistance, α is the temperature coeffi-

(wiron )djnamic = Ah Bpeak f d Viron (11)

2) Rotor Eddy-Current Loss: The machine with wiron = Ae v f

1016 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021

Table 3 Comparison of Conventional Advanced Control Strategies for EVs

where ψs is the stator flux, L d and L q are stator induc-

Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021 | P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE 1017

one-step predictive model [142]. In general, the process

C. Model Predictive Control

1018 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021

Table 4 Qualitative Comparison of Emerging Control Strategies

Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021 | P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE 1019

3) The operating conditions of EVs are various and com-

Fig. 21. Typical block diagram of fault-tolerant control.

1020 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021

with its motor drive as a single unit [166]. By adopt-

A. Integrated Motor Drive

Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021 | P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE 1021

1022 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021

The perception layer aims at vehicle positioning and

Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021 | P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE 1023

1024 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021

Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021 | P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE 1025

1026 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021 | P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE 1027

Christopher H. T. Lee (Senior Member, Zaixin Song (Student Member, IEEE)

1028 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 109, No. 6, June 2021

You might also like