5a. Laura Herta - Suffering Civilians

STUDIAȱUBB.
ȱEUROPAEA,ȱLVIII,ȱ2,ȱ2013,ȱ39Ȭ74ȱ
ȱ
SUFFERINGȱCIVILIANSȱINȱAFRICA:ȱBETWEENȱTHEȱ
JUSTIFICATIONSȱFORȱHUMANITARIANȱWARȱANDȱTHEȱETHICSȱ
OFȱHUMANITARIANȱASSISTANCEȱȱ
–ȱICRCȱANDȱMSFȱPERSPECTIVESȱ–ȱȱ
ȱ
LauraȱM.ȱHerôa ȱ
ȱ
Abstractȱ
Theȱ sufferingȱ ofȱ civiliansȱ inȱ Africanȱ warȬtornȱ countriesȱ triggeredȱ bothȱ theȱ
attentionȱ ofȱ scholarlyȱ accountsȱ andȱ theȱ reactionȱ ofȱ theȱ internationalȱ community;ȱ
theȱlatterȱrespondedȱwithȱaȱdoubleȱapproach:ȱforcibleȱhumanitarianȱinterventionȱ(orȱ
strongȱmilitaryȱactionȱdubbedȱasȱ“humanitarianȱwar”)ȱandȱinternationalȱreliefȱaidȱ
orȱ humanitarianȱ assistance.ȱ Byȱ presentingȱ twoȱ tragicȱ andȱ violentȱ Africanȱ caseȱ
studiesȱ (theȱ warȱ inȱ Nigeria/Biafraȱ inȱ 1967,ȱ andȱ theȱ civilȱ warȱ andȱ humanitarianȱ
emergencyȱinȱSomaliaȱinȱ1991Ȭ1994),ȱtheȱarticleȱfocusesȱonȱpitfalls,ȱshortcomings,ȱ
andȱ ethicalȱ dilemmasȱ resultingȱ fromȱ humanitarianȱ crises.ȱ Theȱ mainȱ researchȱ
questionsȱ tackledȱ inȱ thisȱ articleȱ are:ȱ toȱ whatȱ extantȱ isȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ forceȱ theȱ
appropriateȱ meansȱ toȱ endȱ civilians’ȱ plight?ȱ Whatȱ wereȱ theȱ impedimentsȱ ofȱ Coldȱ
Warȱ geopoliticsȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ reliefȱ actions?ȱ Whatȱ areȱ theȱ featuresȱ ofȱ theȱ newȱ
warsȱinȱAfricaȱthatȱclearlyȱhamperȱtheȱproperȱresponseȱtoȱhumanitarianȱdisasters?ȱ
Keyȱ words:ȱ ethicsȱ ofȱ IR,ȱ humanitarianȱ intervention,ȱ reliefȱ work,ȱ
InternationalȱCommitteeȱofȱRedȱCross,ȱMédicinesȱsansȱFrontièresȱ
ȱ
Introductionȱ
Theȱ articleȱ focusesȱ onȱ pitfalls,ȱ shortcomings,ȱ andȱ ethicalȱ dilemmasȱ
resultingȱ fromȱ humanitarianȱ crisesȱ andȱ isȱ structuredȱ asȱ follows:ȱ theȱ firstȱ
sectionȱseeksȱtoȱpresentȱaȱbriefȱterminologicalȱandȱconceptualȱoverviewȱandȱ
toȱ identifyȱ correlationsȱ betweenȱ reliefȱ activities,ȱ forcibleȱ humanitarianȱ
intervention,ȱ humanitarianȱ assistance,ȱ andȱ featuresȱ ofȱ violentȱ armedȱ

Lauraȱ Herôaȱ hasȱ aȱ PhDȱ inȱ Historyȱ andȱ isȱ currentlyȱ Lecturerȱ inȱ Internationalȱ Relationsȱ
withinȱ theȱ Departmentȱ ofȱ Internationalȱ Relationsȱ andȱ Americanȱ Studiesȱ (BabesȬBolyaiȱ
University).ȱ Sheȱ isȱ conductingȱ lecturesȱ andȱ seminarsȱ onȱ Introductionȱ toȱ theȱ Studyȱ ofȱ
InternationalȱRelations,ȱSociologyȱandȱAnalysisȱofȱInternationalȱRelationsȱandȱInternationalizationȱ
ofȱEthnicȱConflicts.ȱȱ
Contact:ȱlaura.herta@euro.ubbcluj.roȱ
40 LauraȱM.ȱHerôa
conflictsȱ inȱ Africa.ȱ Theȱ secondȱ sectionȱ isȱ dedicatedȱ toȱ theȱ presentationȱ ofȱ
ICRCȱ (Internationalȱ Committeeȱ ofȱ theȱ Redȱ Cross)ȱ andȱ itsȱ coreȱ principles,ȱ
whileȱ theȱ thirdȱ isȱ centredȱ onȱ Médicinesȱ sansȱ Frontièresȱ (MSF)ȱ andȱ itsȱ
pivotalȱtenets.ȱ
Theȱfollowingȱ twoȱ partsȱofȱtheȱtextȱwillȱ presentȱ twoȱmajorȱAfricanȱ
crisesȱ (namelyȱ theȱ warȱ inȱ Nigeria/Biafraȱ fromȱ 1967,ȱ andȱ theȱ civilȱ warȱ inȱ
Somaliaȱ inȱ 1991Ȭ1994)ȱ whileȱ atȱ theȱ sameȱ timeȱ discussingȱ humanitarianȱ
assistanceȱ andȱ itsȱ shortcomings.ȱ Dueȱ toȱ theȱ centralityȱ ofȱ ICRCȱ andȱ MSFȱ
reliefȱoperations,ȱaȱbroaderȱattentionȱwillȱbeȱgivenȱtoȱtheirȱactivitiesȱinȱtheȱ
twoȱcaseȱstudies.ȱ
Theȱlastȱsectionȱofȱtheȱpaperȱwillȱproblematizeȱtheȱoptimalȱmeasuresȱ
meantȱ toȱ protectȱ civilians,ȱ toȱ alleviateȱ humanȱ suffering,ȱ andȱ toȱ secureȱ
humanitarianȱ convoys.ȱ Theȱ mainȱ argumentȱ willȱ focusȱ onȱ limitsȱ inȱ
achievingȱaȱstateȱofȱnormalcyȱbyȱemployingȱoutsideȱforcibleȱhumanitarianȱ
interventionȱrelyingȱonȱfirepower,ȱandȱtheȱpitfallsȱandȱfeaturesȱofȱnewȱwarȱ
scenariosȱ thatȱ transformȱ reliefȱ workersȱ fromȱ humanitariansȱ intoȱ walkingȱ
targets.ȱ
Theȱmainȱresearchȱquestionsȱtackledȱhereȱare:ȱtoȱwhatȱextantȱisȱtheȱ
useȱofȱforceȱtheȱappropriateȱmeansȱtoȱendȱcivilians’ȱplight?ȱWhatȱwereȱtheȱ
impedimentsȱ ofȱ Coldȱ Warȱ geopoliticsȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ reliefȱ actions?ȱ Whatȱ
areȱ theȱ featuresȱ ofȱ theȱ newȱ warsȱ inȱ Africaȱ thatȱ clearlyȱ hamperȱ theȱ properȱ
responseȱtoȱhumanitarianȱdisasters?ȱ
ȱ
Intertwiningȱ termsȱ andȱ ethicalȱ dilemmas:ȱ forcibleȱ humanitarianȱ
intervention,ȱ humanitarianȱ assistance,ȱ NGOs,ȱ reliefȱ work,ȱ andȱ
internationalȱhumanitarianȱlawȱ
Humanitarianȱ intervention,ȱ internalȱ armedȱ conflictsȱ (orȱ “newȱ
wars”)ȱ andȱ internationalȱ humanitarianȱ lawȱ (IHLȱ henceforth)ȱ areȱ
interrelatedȱ keyȱ termsȱ inȱ currentȱ debatesȱ andȱ analysesȱ onȱ internationalȱ
politics,ȱandȱwithinȱtheȱcontemporaryȱlexiconȱofȱInternationalȱRelations.ȱȱ
Theȱ conceptȱ ofȱ humanitarianȱ interventionȱ wasȱ diverselyȱ defined,ȱ
debatedȱonȱ andȱ revisitedȱinȱtheȱscholarlyȱmilieu.ȱEverȱsinceȱtheȱ Coldȱ Warȱ
period,ȱR.ȱJ.ȱVincentȱemphasizedȱaȱchiefȱfeatureȱofȱtheȱbipolarȱinternationalȱ
orderȱandȱanȱadamantȱrestrictionȱinȱinterȬstateȱrelations,ȱnamelyȱtheȱruleȱofȱ
nonȬinterventionȱinȱtheȱdomesticȱpoliticsȱofȱstatesȱ(asȱtwinȱattributeȱofȱstateȱ
sovereignty):ȱ “Activityȱ undertakenȱ byȱ aȱ state,ȱ aȱ groupȱ withinȱ aȱ state,ȱ aȱ
SufferingȱCiviliansȱinȱAfrica...ȱȱ 41
groupȱofȱstatesȱorȱanȱinternationalȱorganizationȱwhichȱinterferesȱcoercivelyȱ
inȱ theȱ domesticȱ affairsȱ ofȱ anotherȱ state.”1ȱ Therefore,ȱ traditionallyȱ
interventionȱ wasȱ regardedȱ asȱ violationȱ ofȱ stateȱ practiceȱ andȱ asȱ aȱ
controversialȱ act,ȱ andȱ Vincentȱ capturedȱ allȱ thisȱ inȱ hisȱ definition:ȱ
“[Intervention]ȱisȱaȱdiscreteȱeventȱhavingȱaȱbeginningȱandȱanȱend,ȱandȱitȱisȱ
aimedȱ atȱ theȱ authorityȱ structureȱ ofȱ theȱ targetȱ state.ȱ Itȱ isȱ notȱ necessarilyȱ
lawfulȱorȱunlawful,ȱbutȱitȱdoesȱbreakȱaȱconventionalȱpatternȱofȱinternationalȱ
relations.”2ȱ However,ȱ theȱ aftermathȱ ofȱ theȱ Coldȱ Warȱ broughtȱ alongȱ intraȬ
stateȱturmoilȱassociatedȱwithȱviolence,ȱhumanitarianȱcatastrophes,ȱsufferingȱ
civiliansȱ andȱ theȱ subsequentȱ destabilizingȱ effectsȱ forȱ entireȱ regions.ȱ
Consequently,ȱ scholarsȱ likeȱ Weissȱ andȱ Hubertȱ focusedȱ onȱ theȱ “theȱ
definitionȱofȱ‘humanitarian’,ȱasȱaȱjustificationȱforȱintervention”,ȱsinceȱitȱ“isȱaȱ
highȱ thresholdȱ ofȱ suffering.ȱ Itȱ refersȱ toȱ theȱ threatȱ orȱ actualȱ occurrenceȱ ofȱ
largeȱ scaleȱ lossȱ ofȱ lifeȱ (including,ȱ ofȱ course,ȱ genocide),ȱ massiveȱ forcedȱ
migrations,ȱ andȱ widespreadȱ abusesȱ ofȱ humanȱ rights.ȱ Actsȱ thatȱ shockȱ theȱ
conscienceȱ andȱ elicitȱ aȱ basicȱ humanitarianȱ impulseȱ remainȱ politicallyȱ
powerful.”3ȱ J.L.ȱ Holzgrefeȱ andȱ Allenȱ Buchananȱ underlinedȱ theȱ actȱ ofȱ
humanitarianȱ reliefȱ andȱ theȱ concernȱ forȱ humanȱ rightsȱ associatedȱ withȱ theȱ
humanitarianȬdrivenȱactȱofȱintervening;ȱtheirȱdefinitionȱisȱspecificȱinȱstatingȱ
thatȱ “[humanitarianȱ intervention]ȱ isȱ theȱ threatȱ orȱ useȱ ofȱ forceȱ acrossȱ stateȱ
bordersȱ byȱ aȱ stateȱ (orȱ groupȱ ofȱ states)ȱ aimedȱ atȱ preventingȱ orȱ endingȱ
widespreadȱ andȱ graveȱ violationsȱ ofȱ theȱ fundamentalȱ humanȱ rightsȱ ofȱ
individualsȱothersȱthanȱitsȱownȱcitizens,ȱwithoutȱtheȱpermissionȱofȱtheȱstateȱ
withinȱ whoseȱ territoryȱ forceȱ isȱ applied.”4ȱ Theȱ correlationȱ betweenȱ theȱ
legitimateȱ useȱ ofȱ forceȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ achieveȱ humanitarianȱ outcomes,ȱ onȱ theȱ
oneȱhand,ȱandȱtheȱsituationsȱthatȱjustifyȱsuchȱaction,ȱonȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱisȱ
1ȱR.ȱJ.ȱVincent,ȱNoninterventionȱandȱInternationalȱOrder,ȱPrinceton:ȱPrincetonȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ
1974,ȱp.ȱ13.ȱSeeȱalso,ȱTimȱDunne,ȱInventingȱInternationalȱSociety.ȱAȱHistoryȱofȱtheȱEnglishȱSchool,ȱ
NewȱYork:ȱSt.ȱMartin’sȱPress,ȱ1998,ȱpp.ȱ161,ȱ164.ȱ
2ȱVincent,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱp.ȱ13.ȱ
3ȱ Thomasȱ G.ȱ Weiss;ȱ Donȱ Hubert,ȱ Theȱ Responsibilityȱ toȱ Protect:ȱ Supplementaryȱ Volumeȱ toȱ theȱ
ReportȱofȱICISS,ȱOttawa:ȱInternationalȱDevelopmentȱResearchȱCenter,ȱ2001,ȱp.ȱ15.ȱ
4ȱ J.ȱ L.ȱ Holzgrefe,ȱ “Theȱ humanitarianȱ interventionȱ debate”,ȱ inȱ J.ȱ L.ȱ Holzgrefe;ȱ Robertȱ O.ȱ
Keohane,ȱ Humanitarianȱ Intervention.ȱ Ethical,ȱ Legal,ȱ andȱ Politicalȱ Dilemmas,ȱ Cambridge:ȱ

CambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2003,ȱp.ȱ18;ȱAllenȱBuchanan,ȱ“Reformingȱtheȱinternationalȱlawȱ
ofȱ humanitarianȱ intervention”,ȱ inȱ J.ȱ L.ȱ Holzgrefe;ȱ Robertȱ O.ȱ Keohane,ȱ Humanitarianȱ
Intervention.ȱ Ethical,ȱ Legal,ȱ andȱ Politicalȱ Dilemmas,ȱ Cambridge:ȱ Cambridgeȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ
2003,ȱp.ȱ130.ȱ
emphasizedȱ byȱ Michaelȱ Walzerȱ whoȱ claimedȱ thatȱ “humanitarianȱ

interventionȱisȱjustifiedȱwhenȱitȱisȱaȱresponseȱ(withȱreasonableȱexpectationsȱ
ofȱsuccess)ȱtoȱactsȱthatȱ‘shockȱtheȱmoralȱconscienceȱofȱmankind’.”5ȱ
Atȱ thisȱ pointȱ aȱ distinctionȱ shouldȱ beȱ madeȱ betweenȱ 1)ȱ theȱ militaryȱ
forceȱ employedȱ toȱ endȱ humanitarianȱ emergenciesȱ andȱ 2)ȱ reliefȱ workȱ orȱ
humanitarianȱ assistanceȱ providedȱ toȱ alleviateȱ humanȱ suffering.ȱ Nicholasȱ
Wheelerȱ andȱ Alexȱ Bellamyȱ distinguishedȱ betweenȱ nonȬconsensual,ȱ forcibleȱ
humanitarianȱinterventionȱandȱnonȬforcibleȱintervention,ȱexplainingȱthatȱwhileȱ
theȱ formerȱ involvesȱ coercionȱ andȱ theȱ breachȱ ofȱ sovereignty,ȱ theȱ latterȱ
“emphasizesȱtheȱpacificȱactivitiesȱofȱstates,ȱinternationalȱorganizations,ȱandȱ
nonȬgovernmentalȱ organizationsȱ inȱ deliveringȱ humanitarianȱ aidȱ andȱ
facilitatingȱ thirdȱ partyȱ conflictȱ resolutionȱ andȱ reconstruction.”6ȱ
Furthermore,ȱ theȱ authorsȱ clarifiedȱ theȱ differenceȱ betweenȱ consensualȱ nonȬ
forcibleȱ interventionȱ andȱ nonȬconsensualȱ nonȬforcibleȱ intervention:ȱ theȱ firstȱ isȱ
illustrativeȱ forȱ theȱ activitiesȱ ofȱ differentȱ humanitarianȱ agenciesȱ orȱ reliefȱ
organizationsȱ andȱ particularlyȱ toȱ theȱ Internationalȱ Committeeȱ ofȱ theȱ Redȱ
Crossȱwhoseȱworkȱisȱcorrelatedȱwithȱconsentȱofȱsovereignȱgovernments;ȱtheȱ
secondȱisȱrelevantȱforȱreliefȱ workȱofȱotherȱNGO’s,ȱandȱoneȱexampleȱisȱtheȱ
activitiesȱ ofȱ Médecinsȱ sansȱ Frontièresȱ whichȱ operatesȱ withoutȱ theȱ consentȱ
ofȱhostȱgovernments.7ȱ
Inȱ ICRC’sȱ terms,ȱ theȱ notionȱ ofȱ humanitarianȱ assistanceȱ isȱ aȱ partȱ ofȱ
humanitarianȱprotectionȱthatȱseeksȱȱ
ȱ
toȱ protectȱ humanȱ dignityȱ inȱ conflictsȱ byȱ threeȱ primaryȱ means:ȱ
developmentȱ ofȱ internationalȱ humanitarianȱ lawȱ (IHL),ȱ detentionȱ
visits,ȱandȱassistance,ȱmostlyȱtoȱcivilians.ȱThisȱassistance,ȱorȱrelief,ȱ
includesȱ provisionȱ ofȱ food,ȱ water,ȱ clothing,ȱ shelter,ȱ andȱ healthȱ
care.ȱItȱalsoȱincludesȱrestoringȱfamilyȱcontactsȱthroughȱtheȱtracingȱ
5ȱ Michaelȱ Walzer,ȱ Justȱ andȱ Unjustȱ Wars.ȱ Aȱ Moralȱ Argumentȱ withȱ Historicalȱ Illustrations,ȱ 4thȱ
edition,ȱ Newȱ York:ȱBasicȱ Books,ȱ 2006,ȱ p.ȱ 107.ȱ Walzerȱ addsȱ thatȱ “itȱ isȱ notȱ theȱ conscienceȱ ofȱ
politicalȱleadersȱthatȱoneȱrefersȱtoȱinȱsuchȱcases.ȱTheyȱhaveȱotherȱthingsȱtoȱworryȱaboutȱandȱ
mayȱ wellȱ beȱ requiredȱ toȱ repressȱ theirȱ normalȱ feelingsȱ ofȱ indignationȱ andȱ outrage.ȱ Theȱ
referenceȱisȱtoȱtheȱmoralȱconvictionsȱofȱordinaryȱmenȱandȱwomen,ȱacquiredȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱ
theirȱeverydayȱactivities.”ȱ
6ȱ NicholasȱJ.ȱ Wheeler;ȱ AlexȱJ.ȱ Bellamy,ȱ “Humanitarianȱ interventionȱ andȱ worldȱ politics”,ȱinȱ
JonȱBaylis;ȱSteveȱSmithȱ(eds.),ȱTheȱ GlobalizationȱofȱWorldȱPolitics,ȱOxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱ
Press,ȱ2001,ȱpp.ȱ573Ȭ574.ȱ
7ȱIbidem.ȱ
ofȱmissingȱpersons,ȱrestorationȱofȱotherȱfamilyȱties,ȱandȱaȱvarietyȱ
ofȱ otherȱ civilianȬrelatedȱ tasksȱ suchȱ asȱ reintegratingȱ formerȱ childȱ
soldiersȱintoȱcivilȱsociety.8ȱ
ȱ
Withȱ respectȱ toȱ NGOs,ȱ thereȱ are,ȱ ofȱ course,ȱ variousȱ definitionsȱ ofȱ
nonȬgovernmentalȱ organizationsȱ (broadlyȱ comprisingȱ “anyȱ organizationȱ
whichȱ isȱ notȱ aȱ governmentalȱ body”);ȱ however,ȱ inȱ aȱ muchȱ narrowerȱ senseȱ
(andȱforȱtheȱpurposeȱofȱthisȱarticle)ȱ“theȱtermȱNGOȱisȱusedȱtoȱreferȱtoȱnotȱforȱ
profitȱ organizations,ȱ whichȱ haveȱ socialȱ andȱ politicalȱ agendasȱ thatȱ aimȱ theȱ
advancementȱ ofȱ aȱ publicȱ good.”9ȱ Asȱ mentionedȱ inȱ theȱ introduction,ȱ thisȱ
studyȱ willȱ focusȱ onȱ theȱ activities,ȱ mandateȱ andȱ principlesȱ ofȱ theȱ
InternationalȱCommitteeȱofȱRedȱCrossȱandȱMédicinesȱsansȱFrontières.ȱ
Inȱ whatȱ concernsȱ theȱ relationȱ betweenȱ internationalȱ humanitarianȱ
lawȱ andȱ internalȱ armedȱ conflicts,ȱ Elisabethȱ Griffinȱ andȱ Baóakȱ Çaliȱ showȱ
thatȱ “historically,ȱ theȱ regulationȱ ofȱ civilȱ warsȱ (referredȱ toȱ byȱ internationalȱ
lawyersȱ asȱ nonȬinternationalȱ armedȱ conflictsȱ orȱ internalȱ conflicts)ȱ wasȱ notȱ
seenȱ asȱ beingȱ anȱ appropriateȱ topicȱ toȱ beȱ addressedȱ inȱ internationalȱ
relations”,ȱ becauseȱ otȱ states’ȱ strictureȱ andȱ reluctanceȱ toȱ allowȱ fissureȱ inȱ
stateȱ sovereignty.ȱ Therefore,ȱ “statesȱ regardȱ dissidentsȱ asȱ criminalsȱ ratherȱ
thanȱcombatants”,ȱbutȱgraduallyȱ changedȱtheirȱattitudeȱtowardsȱtheȱtopic,ȱ
byȱ acceptingȱ thatȱ “minimumȱ considerationsȱ ofȱ humanityȱ shouldȱ applyȱ inȱ
internalȱ armedȱ conflicts”ȱ (inȱ 1949)ȱ and,ȱ sinceȱ 1977,ȱ byȱ contributingȱ toȱ anȱ
increasingȱ humanizationȱ ofȱ IHLȱ coupledȱ withȱ theȱ strengtheningȱ ofȱ theȱ
humanȱrightsȱmovement.”10ȱȱ
Asȱ theȱ empiricalȱ dataȱ indicate,ȱ theȱ proliferationȱ ofȱ armedȱ conflictsȱ
inȱ Africaȱ andȱ theȱ resultingȱ humanȱ tragedyȱ (posingȱ bothȱ aȱ threatȱ toȱ
regioanalȱ stabilityȱ andȱ toȱ internationalȱ peaceȱ andȱ security)ȱ ratherȱ
complicatesȱ theȱ attemptsȱ ofȱ conflictȱ designation;ȱ inȱ manyȱ cases,ȱ whatȱ
8ȱ Davidȱ P.ȱ Forsythe;ȱ BarbaraȱAnnȱ J.ȱ RiefferȬFlanagan,ȱ Theȱ Internationalȱ Committeeȱ ofȱ theȱ Redȱ
Cross.ȱAȱneutralȱhumanitarianȱactor,ȱLondonȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2007,ȱp.ȱ55.ȱ
9ȱMaghnaȱAbraham,ȱ“NonȬgovernmentalȱorganizationsȱandȱinternationalȱlaw”,ȱinȱBaóakȱÇaliȱ
(ed.),ȱ Internationalȱ Lawȱ forȱ Internationalȱ Relations,ȱ Oxford:ȱ Oxfordȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 2010,ȱ p.ȱ
143.ȱ
10ȱ Elisabethȱ Griffin;ȱ Baóakȱ Çali,ȱ “Internationalȱ Humanitarianȱ Law”,ȱ inȱ Baóakȱ Çali,ȱ
InternationalȱLawȱforȱInternationalȱRelations,ȱOxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2010,ȱp.ȱ241.ȱ
initiallyȱ appearsȱ toȱ beȱ anȱ internalȱ armedȱ stuggleȱ turnsȱ outȱ toȱ beȱ anȱ
“internationalizedȱnonȬinternationalȱarmedȱconflict.”11ȱ
Accordingȱ toȱ Scottȱ Peterson,ȱ “Africaȱ hasȱ alwaysȱ knownȱ violenceȱ
andȱ war,ȱ itsȱ soilȱ regularlyȱ stainedȱ withȱ theȱ bloodȱ ofȱ itsȱ people.ȱ Butȱ theȱ
conflictsȱofȱtheȱlastȱtenȱyearsȱofȱtheȱmillenniumȱhaveȱbeenȱtheȱmostȱvicious,ȱ
haveȱcreatedȱtheȱmostȱsuffering,ȱandȱsoȱareȱmostȱworthyȱofȱexamination.”12ȱ
Inȱfact,ȱeverȱsinceȱtheȱColdȱWarȱincreasedȱviolence,ȱmassiveȱrefugeeȱflows,ȱ
andȱ shockingȱ humanȱ tragediesȱ wereȱ associatedȱ withȱ armedȱ conflictsȱ inȱ
Africaȱ(Congoȱinȱtheȱearlyȱ1960s,ȱNigeriaȱinȱtheȱlateȱ1960s,ȱAlgeriaȱetc.).ȱTheȱ
withdrawalȱ ofȱ superpowerȱ supportȱ atȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ theȱ Coldȱ War,ȱ inȱ someȱ
cases,ȱ andȱ theȱ removalȱ ofȱ aȱ longȬtimeȱ dictator,ȱ inȱ otherȱ cases,ȱ oftenȱ ledȱ toȱ
mountingȱ clan/religious/ethnicȱ struggleȱ andȱ theȱ terrorisingȱ ofȱ civiliansȱ asȱ
mainȱ tacticsȱ employedȱ byȱ irregularȱ groupsȱ inȱ Africa.ȱ Inȱ aȱ scenarioȱ ofȱ
lawlessness,ȱ emergingȱ anarchy,ȱ increasingȱ multiplicationȱ ofȱ militaryȱ
irregularȱgroups,ȱchildȬsoldiering,ȱlootingȱandȱbanditry,ȱtheȱkeyȱprovisionsȱ
ofȱ theȱ Genevaȱ Conventionsȱ (orȱ Internationalȱ Humanitarianȱ Law)ȱ seemȱ toȱ
findȱnoȱplace.ȱ
ȱ
ICRCȱandȱcoreȱprinciplesȱ
Theȱ Internationalȱ Committeeȱ ofȱ theȱ Redȱ Crossȱ representsȱ theȱ mostȱ
widelyȱ knownȱ humanitarianȱ symbolȱ andȱ theȱ oldestȱ reliefȱ movement;ȱ itsȱ
longȱ historyȱ goesȱ backȱ toȱ theȱ 19thȱ centuryȱ andȱ toȱ theȱ actionsȱ andȱ ideasȱ ofȱ
Jeanȱ Henriȱ Dunant.13ȱ Theȱ Internationalȱ Committeeȱ ofȱ theȱ Redȱ Crossȱ
(henceforthȱICRC)ȱwasȱestablishedȱinȱ1863,ȱandȱitȱisȱatȱtheȱcentreȱandȱoriginȱ
ofȱ theȱ Genevaȱ Conventionsȱ andȱ theȱ Internationalȱ Redȱ Crossȱ andȱ Redȱ
Crescentȱ Movement.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ itsȱ statedȱ mission,ȱ “itȱ isȱ anȱ impartial,ȱ
neutralȱ andȱ independentȱ organizationȱ whoseȱ exclusivelyȱ humanitarianȱ
missionȱisȱtoȱprotectȱtheȱlivesȱandȱdignityȱofȱvictimsȱofȱarmedȱconflictȱandȱ
otherȱ situationsȱ ofȱ violenceȱ andȱ toȱ provideȱ themȱ withȱ assistanceȱ [and]ȱ itȱ
directsȱ andȱ coordinatesȱ theȱ internationalȱ activitiesȱ conductedȱ byȱ theȱ
11ȱIbidem,ȱp.ȱ242.ȱ
12ȱScottȱPeterson,ȱMeȱagainstȱmyȱBrotherȱ–ȱAtȱWarȱinȱSomalia,ȱSudan,ȱandȱRwanda,ȱNewȱYork,ȱ
London:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2000,ȱp.ȱxiii.ȱ
13ȱ Forȱ aȱ detailedȱ accountȱ ofȱ theȱ initialȱ phaseȱ ofȱ theȱ Redȱ Crossȱ Movementȱ seeȱ Michaelȱ
Ignatieff,ȱTheȱWarrior’sȱHonor.ȱEthnicȱWarȱandȱtheȱModernȱConscience,ȱNewȱYork:ȱHenryȱHoltȱ
andȱCompany,ȱ1997,ȱpp.ȱ109Ȭ163.ȱ
Movementȱinȱarmedȱconflictsȱandȱotherȱsituationsȱofȱviolence.”14ȱAccordingȱ
toȱitsȱmandate,ȱȱ
ȱ
Theȱ ICRCȱ isȱ anȱ independent,ȱ neutralȱ organizationȱ ensuringȱ
humanitarianȱ protectionȱ andȱ assistanceȱ forȱ victimsȱ ofȱ armedȱ
conflictȱandȱotherȱsituationsȱofȱviolence.ȱItȱtakesȱactionȱinȱresponseȱ
toȱ emergenciesȱ andȱ atȱ theȱ sameȱ timeȱ promotesȱ respectȱ forȱ
internationalȱhumanitarianȱlawȱandȱitsȱimplementationȱinȱnationalȱ
law.15ȱ
ȱ
Accordingȱ toȱ Davidȱ Forsythe,ȱ theȱ ICRCȱ isȱ basedȱ “onȱ twoȱ
fundamentalȱ subjects:ȱ theȱ ICRC’sȱ coreȱ roleȱ ofȱ humanizingȱ war,ȱ andȱ theȱ
relevanceȱ toȱ theȱ organizationȱ ofȱ theȱ officialȱ sevenȱ Redȱ Crossȱ principles”,ȱ
namelyȱ humanity,ȱ impartiality,ȱ neutrality,ȱ independence,ȱ unity,ȱ universalism,ȱ
volunteerism.16ȱ Theȱ ICRCȱ hasȱ playedȱ aȱ chiefȱ andȱ uniqueȱ roleȱ inȱ theȱ
developmentȱ ofȱ Internationalȱ Humanitarianȱ Law17ȱ andȱ theȱ firstȱ Genevaȱ
Conventionȱ ofȱ 1864ȱ wasȱ adoptedȱ byȱ statesȱ dueȱ toȱ ICRC’sȱ initiatives.ȱ Inȱ
whatȱconcernsȱtheȱlegalȱbasesȱofȱtheȱactionsȱundertakenȱbyȱtheȱICRC,ȱtheyȱ
includeȱ
ȱ
x Theȱ fourȱ Genevaȱ Conventionsȱ andȱ Additionalȱ Protocolȱ Iȱ
conferȱ onȱ theȱ ICRCȱ aȱ specificȱ mandateȱ toȱ actȱ inȱ theȱ eventȱ ofȱ
internationalȱarmedȱconflict.ȱInȱparticular,ȱtheȱICRCȱhasȱtheȱrightȱtoȱ
visitȱprisonersȱofȱwarȱandȱcivilianȱinternees.ȱTheȱConventionsȱalsoȱ
giveȱtheȱICRCȱaȱbroadȱrightȱofȱinitiative.ȱ
x InȱnonȬinternationalȱarmedȱconflicts,ȱtheȱICRCȱenjoysȱaȱrightȱ
ofȱ humanitarianȱ initiativeȱ recognizedȱ byȱ theȱ internationalȱ
communityȱandȱenshrinedȱinȱArticleȱ3ȱcommonȱtoȱtheȱfourȱGenevaȱ
Conventions.ȱ
14ȱTheȱICRC’sȱMissionȱStatement,ȱavailableȱatȱ
ȱ[http://www.icrc.org/eng/whoȬweȬare/mandate/overviewȬicrcȬmandateȬmission.htm],ȱ
accessedȱAprilȱ2013.ȱ
15ȱTheȱICRC’sȱmandateȱandȱmission,ȱavailableȱatȱ
ȱ[http://www.icrc.org/eng/whoȬweȬare/mandate/overviewȬicrcȬmandateȬmission.htm],ȱ
16ȱ Davidȱ P.ȱ Forsythe,ȱ Theȱ Humanitarians.ȱ Theȱ Internationalȱ Committeeȱ ofȱ theȱ Redȱ Cross,ȱ
Cambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2005,ȱp.ȱ157ȱandȱpp.ȱ161Ȭ190.ȱ
17ȱȱDavidȱP.ȱForsythe;ȱBarbaraȱAnnȱJ.ȱRiefferȬFlanagan,ȱTheȱInternationalȱCommitteeȱofȱtheȱRedȱ
Cross.ȱAȱneutralȱhumanitarianȱactor,ȱLondonȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2007,ȱp.ȱ38.ȱ
x Inȱtheȱeventȱofȱinternalȱdisturbancesȱandȱtensions,ȱandȱinȱanyȱ
otherȱ situationȱ thatȱ warrantsȱ humanitarianȱ action,ȱ theȱ ICRCȱ alsoȱ
enjoysȱaȱrightȱofȱinitiative,ȱwhichȱisȱrecognizedȱinȱtheȱStatutesȱofȱtheȱ
Internationalȱ Redȱ Crossȱ andȱ Redȱ Crescentȱ Movement.ȱ Thus,ȱ
whereverȱinternationalȱhumanitarianȱlawȱdoesȱnotȱapply,ȱtheȱICRCȱ
mayȱ offerȱ itsȱ servicesȱ toȱ governmentsȱ withoutȱ thatȱ offerȱ
constitutingȱ interferenceȱ inȱ theȱ internalȱ affairsȱ ofȱ theȱ Stateȱ
concerned.18ȱ
ȱ
AsȱForsytheȱaccuratelyȱindicated,ȱtheȱmainȱdifferenceȱbetweenȱICRCȱ
andȱ otherȱ organizationsȱ isȱ thatȱ theȱ formerȱ isȱ aȱ consensualȱ typeȱ ofȱ
humanitarianȱ assistance:ȱ “unlikeȱ Amnestyȱ Internationalȱ orȱ Doctorsȱ
WithoutȱBorders,ȱtheȱICRCȱhasȱlongȱpreferredȱaȱcooperativeȱratherȱthanȱanȱ
adversarialȱ roleȱ visȬ`aȬvisȱ publicȱ authorities.ȱ Itsȱ basicȱ modusȱ operandiȱ isȱ aȱ
discreetȱ searchȱ forȱ cooperationȱ inȱ humanitarianȱ matters,ȱ preferablyȱ inȱ
keepingȱwithȱIHL.”19ȱȱ
ȱ
MSFȱandȱcoreȱprinciplesȱ
Médecinsȱ Sansȱ Frontières/Doctorsȱ Withoutȱ Bordersȱ (henceforthȱ
MSF)ȱisȱ“oneȱofȱtheȱworld’sȱleadingȱindependentȱhumanitarianȱmedicalȱaidȱ
organizations,ȱ respondingȱ toȱ theȱ emergencyȱ medicalȱ needsȱ ofȱ peopleȱ
affectedȱbyȱarmedȱconflict,ȱnaturalȱdisasters,ȱandȱsuchȱmedicalȱcatastrophesȱ
asȱmalnutrition,ȱmalaria,ȱAIDS,ȱtuberculosisȱ(TB),ȱkalaȬazar,ȱotherȱneglectedȱ
diseases,ȱ andȱ epidemicȱ outbreaksȱ ofȱ meningitisȱ andȱ cholera.”20ȱ Accordingȱ
toȱ theȱ MSFȱ Charter,ȱ itȱ “isȱ aȱ private,ȱ internationalȱ association”ȱ whichȱ isȱ
“madeȱupȱmainlyȱofȱdoctorsȱandȱhealthȱsectorȱworkersȱandȱisȱalsoȱopenȱtoȱ
allȱotherȱprofessionsȱwhichȱmightȱhelpȱinȱachievingȱitsȱaims.”21ȱ
ȱTheȱcentralȱdoctrineȱisȱcentredȱon:ȱ
18ȱSeeȱTheȱICRC’sȱmandateȱandȱmission,ȱȱ
availableȱ atȱ [http://www.icrc.org/eng/whoȬweȬare/mandate/overviewȬicrcȬmandateȬ
mission.htm],ȱaccessedȱAprilȱ2013.ȱ
19ȱForsythe,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱp.ȱ170.ȱ
20ȱKevinȱP.ȱQ.ȱPhelan,ȱ“FromȱanȱIdeaȱtoȱAction:ȱTheȱEvolutionȱofȱMédecinsȱSansȱFrontières”,ȱ
inȱChrisȱStout,ȱTheȱNewȱHumanitarians.ȱInspiration,ȱInnovations,ȱandȱBlueprintsȱforȱVisionaries,ȱ
Vol.ȱ1ȱȬȱChangingȱGlobalȱHealthȱInequities,ȱLondon:ȱPraeger,ȱ2009,ȱp.ȱ1.ȱ
21ȱ MSFȱ Charterȱ andȱ Principles,ȱ availableȱ atȱ [http://www.msf.org/msfȬcharterȬandȬprinciples],ȱ
1) “assistanceȱtoȱpopulationsȱinȱdistress,ȱtoȱvictimsȱofȱnaturalȱorȱ
manȬmadeȱ disastersȱ andȱ toȱ victimsȱ ofȱ armedȱ conflict.ȱ Theyȱ
doȱ soȱ irrespectiveȱ ofȱ race,ȱ religion,ȱ creedȱ orȱ politicalȱ
convictions;ȱ[...]ȱ
2) independenceȱ fromȱ allȱ political,ȱ economicȱ orȱ religiousȱ
powers”;ȱ
3) volunteerism.22ȱ
Theȱ principlesȱ ofȱ MSFȱ areȱ independence,ȱ impartiality,ȱ neutralityȱ (“inȱ
theȱ nameȱ ofȱ universalȱ medicalȱ ethicsȱ andȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ humanitarianȱ
assistanceȱandȱclaim[ing]ȱfullȱandȱunhinderedȱfreedomȱinȱtheȱexerciseȱofȱitsȱ
functions”),ȱ medicalȱ ethicsȱ (respectingȱ “patients’ȱ autonomy,ȱ patientȱ
confidentialityȱandȱtheirȱrightȱtoȱinformedȱconsent”),ȱbearingȱwitnessȱ(whichȱ
refersȱtoȱtheȱrightȱtoȱspeakȱoutȱpublicly,ȱwhenȱMSFȱ“witnessesȱextremeȱactsȱ
ofȱ violenceȱ againstȱ individualsȱ orȱ groups”ȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ “bringȱ attentionȱ toȱ
extremeȱneedȱandȱunacceptableȱsufferingȱwhenȱaccessȱtoȱlifesavingȱmedicalȱ
careȱisȱhindered,ȱwhenȱmedicalȱfacilitiesȱcomeȱunderȱthreat,ȱwhenȱcrisesȱareȱ
neglected,ȱ orȱ whenȱ theȱ provisionȱ ofȱ aidȱ isȱ inadequateȱ orȱ abused”),ȱ andȱ
accountabilityȱ (inȱ theȱ senseȱ ofȱ “responsibilityȱ ofȱ accountingȱ forȱ actionsȱ toȱ
patientsȱandȱdonors”).23ȱ
However,ȱ inȱ contrastȱ toȱ theȱ ICRC’sȱ principleȱ ofȱ confidentialityȱ (orȱ
theȱ soȬcalledȱ “doctrineȱ ofȱ silence”),ȱ accordingȱ toȱ MSFȱ statement,ȱ “theȱ
principlesȱ ofȱ impartialityȱ andȱ neutralityȱ areȱ notȱ synonymousȱ withȱ
silence.”24ȱ Therefore,ȱ MSFȱ hasȱ tailoredȱ itsȱ reliefȱ profileȱ everȱ sinceȱ itsȱ
inceptionȱ byȱ assumingȱ theȱ underliningȱ roleȱ ofȱ exposingȱ humanȱ tragedies,ȱ
mismanagementȱofȱhumanitarianȱcrises,ȱandȱdisrespectȱforȱtheȱrulesȱofȱwar.ȱ
ȱ
Sufferingȱciviliansȱbetweenȱmilitaryȱtroopsȱandȱhumanitarianȱassistance,ȱ
andȱethicalȱdilemmasȱ
Weȱ selectedȱ twoȱ caseȱ studiesȱ forȱ analysisȱ (Nigeria/Biafraȱ andȱ
Somalia)ȱ andȱ theȱ choiceȱ wasȱ deliberatelyȱ centredȱ onȱ bothȱ theȱ Coldȱ Warȱ
periodȱandȱtheȱpostȬColdȱWarȱoneȱinȱorderȱtoȱcaptureȱtheȱdifferentȱpitfallsȱ
andȱ limitsȱ regardingȱ humanitarianȱ aid.ȱ Theȱ humanitarianȱ crisisȱ inȱ
Nigeria/Biafraȱindicatesȱtheȱshortcomingsȱofȱhumanitarianȱaidȱinȱsituationsȱ
22ȱIbidem.ȱ
23ȱIbidem.ȱ
24ȱIbidem.ȱ
wherebyȱ warlordsȱ manipulateȱ reliefȱ workersȱ andȱ useȱ refugeesȱ andȱ

sufferingȱ civiliansȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ attractȱ internationalȱ sympathy,ȱ whereasȱ
Somaliaȱ inȱ theȱ 1990’sȱ showsȱ theȱ anarchicalȱ conditionsȱ inȱ whichȱ
humanitarianȱconvoys,ȱconfrontedȱwithȱmassiveȱlootingȱandȱbanditry,ȱtriedȱ
toȱreachȱstarvingȱcivilians.ȱ
ȱ
Nigeria/Biafra,ȱ1967Ȭ1970ȱ
Theȱ civilȱ warȱ inȱ Nigeriaȱ brokeȱ outȱ inȱ 1967,ȱ afterȱ twoȱ coupsȱ inȱ 1966ȱ
andȱsubsequentȱmilitaryȱrule.ȱSeveralȱfactorsȱledȱtoȱtheȱfragmentationȱofȱtheȱ
postȬcolonialȱfragileȱcountry,ȱtoȱtheȱinternationalisationȱofȱtheȱcrisis,ȱandȱtoȱ
theȱshockingȱhumanitarianȱemergency.ȱTheȱliabilitiesȱofȱtheȱNigerianȱstateȱ
areȱ mostlyȱ interlinkedȱ withȱ itsȱ postȬcolonialȱ heritage,ȱ sinceȱ “theȱ stateȱ ofȱ
NigeriaȱwasȱanȱartificialȱBritishȱimperialȱcreation”,ȱcomprisingȱthreeȱ“majorȱ
ethnicȱgroupsȱ–ȱtheȱHausaȬFulaniȱofȱtheȱnorth,ȱtheȱYorubaȱofȱtheȱwest,ȱandȱ
theȱIboȱofȱtheȱeast”,ȱeachȱhavingȱaȱpopulationȱlargerȱ“thanȱmostȱindividualȱ
Africanȱstates”;ȱmoreover,ȱitȱlackedȱaȱ“historicalȱbasisȱforȱtheȱunity”ȱofȱtheȱ
threeȱ regionsȱ “whoseȱ interestsȱ tendedȱ toȱ drawȱ themȱ awayȱ fromȱ centralȱ
authorityȱand,ȱonceȱtheȱBritishȱhadȱdeparted,ȱthereȱwasȱintenseȱrivalryȱasȱtoȱ
whoȱ shouldȱ controlȱ theȱ centre.”25ȱ Similarlyȱ toȱ otherȱ Africanȱ states,ȱ “theȱ
politicalȱ structureȱ inheritedȱ fromȱ theȱ Britishȱ rapidlyȱ brokeȱ downȱ overȱ theȱ
periodȱ1960–1966”,ȱand,ȱasȱGuyȱArnoldȱargued,ȱthisȱwasȱalsoȱeasedȱbyȱtheȱ
factȱ thatȱ “Greatȱ Britainȱ fosteredȱ strongȱ regionalȱ governmentsȱ andȱ
encouragedȱ aȱ senseȱ ofȱ regionalȱ rivalry,ȱ maintainingȱ theȱ balanceȱ betweenȱ
theȱ threeȱ greatȱ regionsȱ fromȱ theȱ centre.”26ȱ Jamesȱ Mayallȱ discussesȱ theȱ factȱ
thatȱ“divideȱandȱruleȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱoldestȱprinciplesȱofȱimperialȱstatecraft”27ȱ
andȱexplainsȱhowȱinȱmostȱcasesȱ“theȱimperialȱpowersȱ frequentlyȱcoȬoptedȱ
minoritiesȱ toȱ helpȱ themȱ runȱ theȱ colonialȱ state”;ȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Nigeria,ȱ
25ȱGuyȱArnold,ȱHistoricalȱDictionaryȱofȱCivilȱWarsȱinȱAfrica,ȱsecondȱedition,ȱUK:ȱTheȱScarecrowȱ
Press,ȱ2008,ȱp.ȱ262.ȱ
26ȱIbidem.ȱ
27ȱ Jamesȱ Mayall,ȱ “Theȱ legacyȱ ofȱ colonialism”,ȱ inȱ Simonȱ Chesterman;ȱ Michaelȱ Ignatieff;ȱ
RameshȱThakurȱ(eds.),ȱMakingȱstatesȱwork:ȱStateȱfailureȱandȱtheȱcrisisȱofȱgovernance,ȱTokyo,ȱNewȱ
York,ȱ Paris:ȱ Unitedȱ Nationsȱ Universityȱ Press,ȱ 2005,ȱ p.ȱ 51.ȱ Theȱ authorȱ arguesȱ thatȱ thisȱ
principleȱusedȱbyȱcolonialȱpowersȱwasȱnotȱalwaysȱdeliberate,ȱsinceȱ“inȱsomeȱcasesȱitȱwasȱanȱ
unintendedȱ consequenceȱ ofȱ aȱ desireȱ toȱ protectȱ weakerȱ communitiesȱ fromȱ thoseȱ whoȱ hadȱ
historicallyȱ preyedȱ onȱ themȱ [whereas]ȱ inȱ others,ȱ itȱ wasȱ aȱ consequenceȱ ofȱ aȱ reluctanceȱ toȱ
meddleȱwithȱestablishedȱreligion.”ȱ
“WesternȬeducatedȱ Ibosȱ spreadȱ allȱ overȱ Nigeriaȱ andȱ madeȱ themselvesȱ aȱ

targetȱ ofȱ resentmentȱ byȱ theȱ northern,ȱ primarilyȱ Hausaȱ Fulani,ȱ majorityȱ
priorȱ toȱ theȱ civilȱ warȱ inȱ 1967.”28ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ almostȱ twoȱ millionsȱ Ibosȱ wereȱ
dispersedȱ inȱ otherȱ partsȱ ofȱ Nigeria,ȱ “manyȱ holdingȱ jobsȱ inȱ theȱ moreȱ
conservativeȱ Islamicȱ northȱ whereȱ theyȱ wereȱ oftenȱ resented.”29ȱ Theȱ eventsȱ
duringȱ theȱ twoȱ coupsȱ precipitatedȱ interȬgroupȱ suspicionȱ andȱ resentment,ȱ
andȱfinallyȱledȱtoȱhorridȱattacksȱandȱslaughterȱofȱhundredsȱofȱpeople.ȱȱ
ȱ
Whenȱ theȱ coupȱ leader,ȱ Generalȱ Ironsiȱ promulgatedȱ aȱ lawȱ statingȱ
thatȱ theȱ federalȱ governmentȱ hadȱ beenȱ abolishedȱ andȱ thatȱ stateȱ
civilȱserviceȱjobsȱwouldȱhenceforthȱbeȱbasedȱonȱmerit,ȱtheȱreactionȱ
wasȱ swift.ȱ Theȱ Igboȱ becameȱ theȱ immediateȱ targetȱ becauseȱ theyȱ
wereȱChristiansȱandȱmoreȱeducatedȱinȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱHausaȱofȱtheȱ
north.ȱ Theȱ latterȱ wereȱ suspiciousȱ thatȱ theȱ formerȱ wouldȱ takeȱ allȱ
theȱ lucrativeȱ jobsȱ offeredȱ byȱ theȱ government.ȱ Theȱ reactionȱ toȱ theȱ
promulgationȱ ledȱ toȱ theȱ deathȱ ofȱ thousandsȱ ofȱ Igboȱ livingȱ inȱ theȱ
north.ȱOnceȱagain,ȱaȱfewȱmonthsȱlater,ȱapproximatelyȱ30,000ȱIgboȱ
perishedȱinȱfurtherȱmassacres.30ȱ
ȱ
Theȱviolenceȱandȱsubsequentȱemergencyȱscenarioȱincludedȱ“antiȬIboȱ
demonstrationsȱ [which]ȱ tookȱ placeȱ inȱ theȱ northȱ andȱ betweenȱ 10,000ȱ andȱ
30,000ȱ Ibosȱ wereȱ killedȱ [...]ȱ resultingȱ inȱ anȱ exodusȱ ofȱ Ibosȱ fromȱ theȱ northȱ
(whereȱ thereȱ wereȱ oneȱ million),ȱ theȱ westȱ (400,000),ȱ andȱ Lagosȱ (100,000)ȱ
backȱ toȱ theȱ Easternȱ Region.”31ȱ Nigeria’sȱ easternȱ regionȱ beganȱ fightingȱ toȱ
breakȱ freeȱ fromȱ theȱ militaryȱ governmentȱ (dominatedȱ byȱ northernȱ ethnicȱ
groups)ȱ whichȱ representedȱ theȱ federalȱ stateȱ ofȱ Nigeria.ȱ Theȱ declarationȱ ofȱ
independenceȱ cameȱ onȱ Julyȱ 6,ȱ 196732ȱ andȱ theȱ newȱ stateȱ wasȱ namedȱ theȱ
RepublicȱofȱBiafra33;ȱaccordingȱtoȱWilliamȱRenoȱ“aȱspokesmanȱjustifiedȱthisȱ
decisionȱinȱtermsȱofȱ‘unworkableȱcolonialȱboundaries’ȱthatȱdeniedȱjusticeȱtoȱ
29ȱArnold,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱp.ȱ262.ȱ
30ȱ Yacobȱ Tesfai,ȱ Holyȱ Warriors,ȱ Infidels,ȱ andȱ Peacemakersȱ inȱ Africa,ȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Palgraveȱ
Macmillan,ȱ2010,ȱp.ȱ47.ȱ
31ȱArnold,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱpp.ȱ263Ȭ264.ȱ
32ȱTesfai,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱp.ȱ47.ȱ
33ȱ Williamȱ Reno,ȱ Warlordȱ Politicsȱ andȱ Africanȱ States,ȱ Boulderȱ London:ȱ Lynneȱ Riennerȱ
Publishers,ȱ1999,ȱp.ȱ18.ȱ
“peopleȱ withinȱ themȱ whoȱ wantȱ nothingȱ moreȱ thanȱ selfȬdetermination.”34ȱ

Whatȱ wasȱ initiallyȱ believedȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ secessionistȱ attemptȱ thatȱ wouldȱ beȱ
quicklyȱ hamperedȱ (sinceȱ “atȱ theȱ beginningȱ ofȱ theȱ warȱ theȱ federalȱ
governmentȱ assumedȱ thatȱ Biafraȱ wouldȱ collapseȱ inȱ aȱ matterȱ ofȱ weeks”35),ȱ
turnedȱoutȱtoȱbeȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱviolentȱarmedȱconflictsȱinȱtheȱlateȱ1960’s,ȱaȱ
“fullȱ scaleȱ civilȱ war”ȱ whichȱ ledȱ toȱ theȱ followingȱ dramaticȱ results:ȱ
“Estimatedȱ casualtiesȱ wereȱ 100,000ȱ militaryȱ (onȱ bothȱ sides)ȱ andȱ betweenȱ
500,000ȱandȱtwoȱmillionȱcivilians,ȱmainlyȱtheȱresultȱofȱstarvation,ȱwhileȱ4.6ȱ
millionȱ Biafransȱ becameȱ refugees.ȱ Inȱ theȱ end,ȱ 900ȱ daysȱ ofȱ warȱ hadȱ notȱ
destroyedȱ Africa’sȱ largestȱ blackȱ state,ȱ whileȱ Biafra’sȱ bidȱ forȱ secessionȱ andȱ
independenceȱhadȱfailed.”36ȱ
Similarlyȱ toȱ otherȱ modernȱ civilȱ warsȱ orȱ “newȱ war”ȱ scenarios,ȱ theȱ
armedȱ conflictȱ inȱ Nigeria/Biafraȱ wasȱ anȱ internalȱ andȱ internationalizedȱ one.ȱ
Coldȱ Warȱ geopoliticsȱ playedȱ aȱ considerableȱ roleȱ inȱ rallyingȱ statesȱ (andȱ
subsequentȱ armsȱ provisions)ȱ eitherȱ aroundȱ theȱ Nigerianȱ federalȱ
governmentȱ (thusȱ resistingȱ secessionismȱ andȱ Africanȱ postȬcolonialȱ stateȱ
fragmentation),ȱorȱaroundȱtheȱBiafranȱselfȬdeclaredȱstateȱandȱtheȱleaderȱofȱ
theȱrebellionȱChukweumekaȱOdumegwuȱOjukwuȱ(thusȱlegitimizingȱclaimsȱ
ofȱBiafrans,ȱevenȱthoughȱforȱcontroversialȱandȱvariedȱreasons).ȱ
Asȱ Renoȱ underlines,ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ “Biafra’sȱ armyȱ provedȱ toȱ beȱ
almostȱasȱmilitarilyȱcapableȱasȱNigeria’s”,ȱ“thisȱwasȱnotȱenoughȱtoȱconvinceȱ
mostȱotherȱgovernmentsȱtoȱrecognizeȱBiafra’sȱindependence”ȱandȱthereforeȱ
theȱ onlyȱ Africanȱ countriesȱ whichȱ “extendedȱ diplomaticȱ recognitionȱ toȱ
Biafra,ȱ aȱ flagrantȱ contraventionȱ ofȱ Africanȱ normsȱ endorsingȱ oldȱ colonialȱ
boundaries,ȱ [were]ȱ Zambia,ȱ Tanzania,ȱ Gabon,ȱ andȱ Côteȱ d’Ivoire.”37ȱ Asȱ farȱ
asȱ otherȱ statesȱ wereȱ concerned,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ Guyȱ Arnold,ȱ Nigeria’sȱ oilȱ
wealthȱ“ensuredȱaȱhighȱlevelȱofȱinternationalȱinterestȱinȱtheȱwarȱasȱwellȱasȱaȱ
readinessȱonȱtheȱpartȱofȱoutsideȱpowersȱtoȱintervene”ȱespeciallyȱinȱtheȱcaseȱ
ofȱGreatȱBritainȱwhichȱhadȱ“substantialȱinvestments”ȱandȱwhoseȱ“twoȱgiantȱ
oilȱ companies,ȱ Britishȱ Petroleumȱ andȱ Shell,ȱ wereȱ heavilyȱ involvedȱ inȱ theȱ
exploitationȱofȱ theȱcountry’sȱoil.”38ȱJustȱlikeȱ inȱtheȱcaseȱofȱCongo,ȱ whereinȱ
34ȱKennethȱDike,ȱ“BiafraȱExplainsȱitsȱCase,”ȱNewȱYorkȱTimes,ȱ28ȱAprilȱ1969,ȱapudȱibidem.ȱ
37ȱReno,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱp.ȱ18.ȱ
theȱsecessionȱofȱtheȱprovinceȱKatangaȱwasȱhamperedȱafterȱaȱfourȬyearȱwarȱ
andȱ massiveȱ UNȱ militaryȱ intervention,ȱ theȱ Biafranȱ warȱ triggeredȱ
internationalȱ reactionȱ andȱ supportȱ alongsideȱ ideologicalȱ orȱ economicȱ
interests;ȱ therefore,ȱ theȱ internationalizationȱ ofȱ theȱ warȱ pittedȱ theȱ
internationalȱcommunityȱasȱfollows:ȱ
ȱ
Britainȱ[...]ȱcameȱdownȱfirmlyȱonȱtheȱsideȱofȱtheȱfederalȱgovernmentȱ
andȱwasȱtoȱbeȱitsȱprincipalȱsourceȱofȱlightȱarmsȱthroughoutȱtheȱwar.ȱ
France,ȱinȱpursuitȱofȱitsȱownȱgeopoliticalȱinterestsȱinȱtheȱregionȱandȱ
theȱ hopeȱ ofȱ increasingȱ itsȱ influenceȱ generallyȱ inȱ westernȱ Africa,ȱ
supportedȱ breakawayȱ Biafraȱ whichȱ itȱ aidedȱ withȱ armsȱ andȱ otherȱ
assistanceȱ throughȱ itsȱ proxiesȱ Côteȱ d’lvoireȱ andȱ Gabon.ȱ Theȱ USSRȱ
[...]ȱ wasȱ ideologicallyȱ opposedȱ toȱ theȱ breakupȱ ofȱ aȱ federationȱ andȱ
Moscowȱ sawȱ providingȱ assistanceȱ toȱ Nigeriaȱ asȱ aȱ wayȱ ofȱ obtainingȱ
influenceȱ inȱ aȱ regionȱ inȱ which,ȱ upȱ toȱ thatȱ time,ȱ itȱ hadȱ hadȱ littleȱ
impact,ȱandȱduringȱtheȱcourseȱofȱtheȱwarȱitȱsuppliedȱaboutȱ30ȱpercentȱ
ofȱ theȱ armsȱ importedȱ byȱ theȱ federalȱ sideȱ [...].ȱ Theȱ Unitedȱ Statesȱ
signalledȱ itsȱ intentionȱ ofȱ remainingȱ outsideȱ theȱ conflictȱ [...].ȱ Bothȱ
Portugalȱ andȱ Southȱ Africa,ȱ whichȱ wereȱ facingȱ growingȱ problemsȱ
justifyingȱ whiteȱ minorityȱ ruleȱ toȱ anȱ increasinglyȱ hostileȱ world,ȱ
supportedȱbreakawayȱBiafraȱonȱtheȱgeneralȱgroundsȱofȱprolongingȱaȱ
warȱ(andȱchaos)ȱinȱtheȱlargestȱindependentȱblackȱAfricanȱstate,ȱsoȱasȱ
toȱbolsterȱtheirȱclaimsȱonȱbehalfȱofȱwhiteȱminorityȱruleȱinȱtheȱsouthȱofȱ
theȱcontinent.39ȱ
ȱ
Theȱviolentȱnatureȱofȱthisȱarmedȱconflictȱwasȱcausedȱbyȱaȱnumberȱofȱ
factors:ȱfirstȱofȱall,ȱaccordingȱtoȱGuyȱArnoldȱtheȱpresenceȱofȱmercenariesȱonȱ
bothȱ sidesȱ ofȱ theȱ conflictȱ contributedȱ toȱ “unwelcomeȱ complications”ȱ andȱ
theȱstrategyȱofȱtheȱNigerianȱfederalȱgovernmentȱtriggeredȱmassiveȱcivilianȱ
sufferingȱ sinceȱ itȱ aimedȱ “toȱ blockadeȱ theȱ shrinkingȱ enclaveȱ ofȱ Biafraȱ andȱ
bringȱaboutȱitsȱsurrenderȱbyȱstarvation.”40ȱSecondly,ȱtheȱproponentsȱofȱtheȱ
secessionȱarguedȱthatȱseparationȱwasȱanȱexistentialȱissueȱandȱ“thatȱitȱwasȱinȱ
searchȱ ofȱ securityȱ forȱ theȱ Igbo”;ȱ theȱ warȱ wasȱ basedȱ onȱ representationsȱ ofȱ
struggleȱ betweenȱ “theȱ ‘Christianȱ nation’ȱ ofȱ Biafraȱ andȱ theȱ Muslimsȱ ofȱ
39 ȱIbidem,ȱp.ȱ265.ȱ
Northernȱ Nigeriaȱ whoȱ launchedȱ aȱ jihadȱ againstȱ theȱ Igbo.”41ȱ Guyȱ Arnoldȱ
believesȱthatȱtheȱwarȱwasȱactuallyȱprolongedȱbecauseȱofȱstrongȱ“Iboȱbeliefȱ
cultivatedȱbyȱitsȱownȱpropagandaȱthatȱtheyȱwereȱfightingȱforȱsurvivalȱandȱ
facedȱ genocide.”42ȱ Finallyȱ (andȱ ofȱ utmostȱ importanceȱ forȱ ourȱ topic),ȱ theȱ
sufferingȱandȱstarvingȱBiafransȱwereȱnotȱonlyȱtargetedȱbyȱtheȱmilitary,ȱbutȱ
theyȱ alsoȱ becameȱ instrumentalizedȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ achieveȱ internationalȱ
recognitionȱ forȱ Biafra’sȱ secessionistȱ effortȱ andȱ internationalȱ reliefȱ aid.ȱ
Accordingȱ toȱ Guyȱ Arnoldȱ theȱ reliefȱ workersȱ andȱ reliefȱ agenciesȱ wereȱ
caughtȱ inȱ aȱ trapȱ becauseȱ “internationalȱ charities,ȱ aidedȱ byȱ mercenaryȱ
airliftsȱofȱsupplies,ȱprovidedȱreliefȱwhenȱotherwiseȱBiafraȱwouldȱhaveȱbeenȱ
forcedȱ toȱ surrender.ȱ Theȱ warȱ becameȱ aȱ causeȱ forȱ variousȱ charitiesȱ whoseȱ
propagandaȱ ‘toȱ feedȱ theȱ starvingȱ Biafrans’,ȱ howeverȱ wellȬintentioned,ȱ inȱ
factȱprolongedȱtheȱwarȱandȱtheȱsuffering.”43ȱ
ȱ
TheȱICRCȱandȱNigeria/Biafraȱ
Asȱ alreadyȱ indicated,ȱ theȱ Internationalȱ Committeeȱ ofȱ theȱ Redȱ
Cross’sȱ involvementȱ inȱ theȱ Nigerianȱ conflictȱ wasȱ “aȱ precursorȱ toȱ theȱ
widespreadȱmanipulationȱofȱhumanitarianȱissuesȱbyȱfightingȱparties.”44ȱJustȱ
asȱICRCȱpersonnelȱwouldȱactȱlaterȱ(inȱSomaliaȱorȱinȱBosniaȱinȱtheȱ1990’s),ȱinȱ
theȱ midstȱ ofȱ theȱ Biafranȱ violenceȱ theȱ reliefȱ workersȱ wereȱ tryingȱ toȱ findȱ
solutionsȱtoȱhelpȱstarvingȱcivilians,ȱwhileȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱtryingȱtoȱprotectȱ
themselvesȱandȱremainȱloyalȱtoȱICRC’sȱprinciples,ȱespeciallyȱtheȱessenceȱofȱ
itsȱ involvement,ȱ namelyȱ consentȱ ofȱ allȱ warringȱ parties.ȱ Davidȱ Forsytheȱ
explainsȱ theȱ effortsȱ andȱ subsequentȱ ethicalȱ dilemmasȱ confrontedȱ byȱ ICRCȱ
volunteers,ȱbutȱalsoȱtheȱfactȱthatȱBiafraȱrepresentedȱaȱturningȱpointȱinȱICRCȱ
history:ȱȱ
ȱ
Atȱ timesȱ theȱ ICRCȱ proceededȱ withȱ reliefȱ flightsȱ intoȱ Biafra,ȱ ‘atȱ itsȱ
ownȱ risk’ȱ inȱ theȱ wordsȱ ofȱ Lagos,ȱ mixingȱ itsȱ planesȱ withȱ flightsȱ
runningȱ weaponsȱ toȱ theȱ rebels,ȱ andȱ thusȱ contributingȱ indirectlyȱ toȱ
theȱ rebels’ȱ fightingȱ ability.ȱ Butȱ afterȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ planesȱ onȱ loanȱ toȱ itȱ
wasȱshotȱdownȱbyȱFederalȱfighterȱaircraftȱwithȱlossȱofȱlife,ȱtheȱICRCȱ
revertedȱ toȱ theȱ moreȱ cautiousȱ positionȱ that,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ theȱ
41ȱTesfai,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱp.ȱ47.ȱ
43ȱIbidem.ȱ
principlesȱ ofȱ humanitarianȱ law,ȱ Lagosȱ hadȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ superviseȱ
reliefȱflightsȱtoȱinspectȱforȱcontraband.45ȱ
ȱ
Ifȱ reliefȱ work’sȱ essenceȱ isȱ providingȱ helpȱ toȱ thoseȱ whoȱ sufferȱ fromȱ
atrocitiesȱ ofȱ warȱ andȱ ifȱ theȱ sufferingȱ ofȱ thousandsȱ ofȱ civiliansȱ doomedȱ toȱ
starvationȱ wasȱ conspicuouslyȱ signallingȱ anȱ internationalȱ humanitarianȱ
emergency,ȱwhatȱwasȱICRCȱ(orȱotherȱreliefȱorganizations)ȱexpectedȱtoȱdo?ȱ
Severalȱcoursesȱofȱactionȱareȱavailable,ȱbutȱnoneȱwouldȱactuallyȱhaveȱbeenȱ
ableȱ toȱ stopȱ theȱ sufferingȱ immediately:ȱ onȱ theȱ oneȱ hand,ȱ theȱ ICRCȱ couldȱ
haveȱ maintainedȱ absoluteȱ loyaltyȱ toȱ theȱ principleȱ ofȱ neutralityȱ andȱ moveȱ
awayȱ(whenȱwarnedȱbyȱtheȱNigerianȱgovernment)ȱfromȱdyingȱandȱstarvingȱ
innocentsȱinȱaȱviolentȱandȱgraduallyȱshrinkingȱBiafraȱ(dueȱtoȱattacksȱfromȱ
Nigerianȱ army,ȱ theȱ blockadesȱ ofȱ roadsȱ forȱ humanitarianȱ convoys).ȱ Thisȱ
optionȱ wouldȱ beȱ basedȱ onȱ closeȱ collaborationȱ withȱ authoritiesȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ
haveȱ accessȱ toȱ theȱ sufferingȱ peopleȱ andȱ presumablyȱ bestȱ serveȱ theȱ
humanitarianȱ cause.ȱ Anotherȱ courseȱ ofȱ actionȱ inȱ suchȱ situationsȱ couldȱ beȱ
centredȱ onȱ departureȱ fromȱ keyȱ principles,ȱ onȱ expressingȱ publicȱ outrageȱ
concerningȱ immenseȱ humanȱ tragedyȱ thatȱ shocksȱ theȱ conscience,ȱ andȱ onȱ
helpingȱ thoseȱ inȱ needȱ inȱ anyȱ wayȱ possible.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ Nigeria/Biafraȱ wasȱ aȱ
crucialȱ eventȱ resultingȱ inȱ theȱ separationȱ ofȱ theȱ twoȱ mutuallyȱ exclusiveȱ
coursesȱ ofȱ actionȱ andȱ onȱ theȱ distinctionȱ betweenȱ whatȱ weȱ currentlyȱ
designateȱasȱconventionalȱorȱtraditionalȱhumanitariansȱ(ICRC),ȱonȱtheȱoneȱ
hand,ȱ andȱ radicalȱ andȱ “newȱ humanitarians”ȱ (Amnestyȱ International,ȱ
MédecinsȱSansȱFrontières,ȱHumanȱRightsȱWatch),ȱonȱtheȱother.ȱ
AccordingȱtoȱDavidȱForsytheȱandȱRiefferȬFlanagan,ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ Nigerianȱ Civilȱ Warȱ (1967–70)ȱ demonstratedȱ toȱ theȱ worldȱ (viaȱ
mediaȱ coverage)ȱ andȱ evenȱ toȱ theȱ ICRCȱ itself,ȱ thatȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ itsȱ
policiesȱandȱproceduresȱneededȱrethinking.ȱTheȱICRCȱenteredȱthisȱ
warȱ withoutȱ aȱ wellȱ developedȱ strategyȱ andȱ wasȱ unableȱ toȱ copeȱ
withȱ newȱ challenges,ȱ suchȱ asȱ intenseȱ mediaȱ coverage,ȱ otherȱ
humanitarianȱ actorsȱ workingȱ inȱ theȱ country,ȱ lackȱ ofȱ wellȱ trainedȱ
professionalȱ staff,ȱ andȱ theȱ politicalȱ implicationsȱ ofȱ someȱ ofȱ itsȱ
decisions.ȱ Followingȱ itsȱ controversialȱ performanceȱ inȱ theȱ Nigerianȱ
Civilȱ War,ȱ theȱ ICRCȱ agreed,ȱ withoutȱ enthusiasm,ȱ toȱ aȱ reviewȱ ofȱ
Redȱ Crossȱ activitiesȱ byȱ aȱ teamȱ ofȱ internationalȱ scholarsȱ andȱ

officials.46ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ ICRC’sȱ involvementȱ inȱ Nigeriaȱ wasȱ linkedȱ toȱ theȱ Biafranȱ
“televisedȱ disaster”47,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ itȱ meantȱ theȱ realizationȱ ofȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ
Biafranȱ leadersȱ manipulatedȱ reliefȱ issuesȱ toȱ attractȱ international,ȱ andȱ
mostlyȱ Western,ȱ supportȱ forȱ theirȱ cause,ȱ asȱ Forsytheȱ accuratelyȱ expressedȱ
it:ȱ
ȱ
Oneȱ ofȱ theȱ bestȱ “weapons”ȱ theyȱ had,ȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ drawȱ attentionȱ toȱ
theirȱ secessionistȱ efforts,ȱ wasȱ theȱ mediaȱ imageȱ ofȱ starvingȱ children.ȱ
BiafranȱleadersȱwouldȱnotȱagreeȱtoȱbalancedȱorȱLagosȬinspectedȱreliefȱ
schemesȱthatȱwouldȱcutȱoffȱthatȱimage.ȱTheyȱalsoȱwantedȱtoȱuseȱreliefȱ
shipmentsȱ toȱ contributeȱ toȱ weaponsȱ delivery.ȱ Thusȱ Biafranȱ leadersȱ
profitedȱ fromȱ theȱ spectreȱ ofȱ massȱ starvationȱ supposedlyȱ causedȱ byȱ
theȱ Federalȱ side,ȱ andȱ forȱ aȱ timeȱ theyȱ countedȱ onȱ theȱ reluctanceȱ ofȱ
LagosȱtoȱattackȱtheȱnightȱtimeȱweaponsȱflightsȱforȱfearȱofȱhittingȱRedȱ
Crossȱplanesȱinȱtheȱprocess.48ȱ
ȱ
Onȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱtheȱworkȱofȱICRCȱwasȱconsiderableȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱ
Nigeria,ȱ becauseȱ “itȱ hadȱ noȱ troubleȱ mobilizingȱ considerableȱ assistanceȱ
basedȱ onȱ theȱ assessmentsȱ providedȱ byȱ Hoffmannȱ andȱ Lindt”ȱ (theȱ ICRCȱ
delegates)ȱ andȱ “bothȱ Westernȱ governmentsȱ andȱ Redȱ Crossȱ societiesȱ
providedȱtheȱgoods,ȱservices,ȱpersonnel,ȱequipment,ȱandȱmoneyȱneededȱforȱ
aȱ majorȱ reliefȱ effort.”49ȱ Moreover,ȱ “theȱ ICRCȱ deliveredȱ 120,000ȱ tonsȱ ofȱ
nutritionalȱ andȱ medicalȱ assistanceȱ duringȱ theȱ conflict,ȱ whileȱ operatingȱ
fortyȬfiveȱmedicalȱteams,ȱfiftyȬthreeȱfirstȱaidȱstations,ȱandȱfiveȱhospitals;ȱtheȱ
totalȱ costȱ toȱ theȱ organizationȱ atȱ thatȱ timeȱ wasȱ aboutȱ 600ȱ millionȱ Swissȱ
francs;ȱfourteenȱpersonsȱworkingȱforȱtheȱICRCȱpaidȱwithȱtheirȱlives.”50ȱTheȱ
amountȱofȱ humanitarianȱ aidȱ cameȱ fromȱ severalȱotherȱ reliefȱagencies,ȱsuchȱ
asȱJointȱChurchȱ AidȱandȱCaritas,ȱasȱwellȱasȱfromȱcertainȱAfricanȱcountriesȱ
46ȱDavidȱP.ȱForsythe;ȱBarbaraȱAnnȱJ.ȱRiefferȬFlanagan,ȱTheȱInternationalȱCommitteeȱofȱtheȱRedȱ
Cross.ȱAȱneutralȱhumanitarianȱactor,ȱLondonȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱRoutledge,ȱ2007,ȱpp.ȱ22Ȭ23.ȱ
47ȱIgnatieff,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱp.ȱ124.ȱ
49ȱForsythe;ȱRiefferȬFlanagan,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱp.ȱ63.ȱ
likeȱ Rhodesiaȱ (atȱ theȱ timeȱ onȱ theȱ vergeȱ ofȱ becomingȱ independent)ȱ andȱ
Haiti.51ȱȱ
Onȱ theȱ otherȱ hand,ȱ ICRCȱ foundȱ itselfȱ trappedȱ byȱ bothȱ sidesȱ toȱ theȱ
conflictȱ whichȱ sawȱ reliefȱ “inȱ politicalȱ terms”,ȱ andȱ wasȱ “competingȱ
particularlyȱwithȱJointȱChurchȱAidȱforȱ‘marketȱshare’ȱinȱdeliveringȱrelief”,ȱ
sinceȱICRCȱwasȱ“basedȱinȱproȬBiafraȱEurope”ȱ(butȱitsȱentireȱactivitiesȱwere,ȱ
everȱ sinceȱ itsȱ inceptionȱ andȱ formulationȱ ofȱ Dunant’sȱ goals,ȱ theȱ foundingȱ
fatherȱofȱtheȱRedȱCross,ȱbuiltȱonȱtheȱdoctrineȱofȱsilenceȱandȱonȱtheȱprincipleȱ
ofȱneutrality)ȱandȱ“JointȱChurchȱAid,ȱaȱWesternȱfaithȬbasedȱconsortiumȱofȱ
reliefȱ NGOsȱ [...]ȱ tendedȱ towardȱ solidarityȱ withȱ Biafra,ȱ notȱ beingȱ muchȱ
interestedȱinȱniceȱnotionsȱofȱRedȱCrossȱneutrality”52).ȱAdditionally,ȱitȱfacedȱ
aȱfragmentationȱofȱtheȱRedȱCrossȱMovement.ȱTheȱFrenchȱandȱtheȱSwedishȱ
Redȱ Crossȱ Societiesȱ wereȱ proȬBiafraȱ andȱ especiallyȱ theȱ Frenchȱ Nationalȱ
Societyȱ ofȱ Redȱ Crossȱ workedȱ separatelyȱ fromȱ itsȱ British,ȱ Finnishȱ orȱ evenȱ
Swissȱ ones.ȱ Theȱ involvementȱ inȱ Nigeria/Biafraȱ alsoȱ indicatesȱ internalȱ
mismanagement.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ Davidȱ Forsytheȱ “ICRCȱ headquarters,ȱ
despiteȱhavingȱsomeȱknowledgeableȱpersonsȱonȱtheȱgroundȱinȱNigeriaȱ(e.g.ȱ
GeorgȱHoffmann),ȱneverȱfullyȱunderstoodȱtheȱvariousȱissuesȱinȱtheȱconflictȱ
andȱ neverȱ developedȱ aȱ clearȱ andȱ viableȱ strategicȱ visionȱ forȱ itsȱ
management”ȱ whichȱ meantȱ thatȱ “ICRCȱ inȱ theȱ lateȱ 1960sȱ wasȱ stillȱ aȱ veryȱ
amateurishȱorganization.”53ȱȱ
Theȱ ICRCȱ developedȱ itsȱ entireȱ doctrineȱ onȱ complianceȱ toȱ
internationalȱhumanitarianȱlawȱ(andȱproperȱconductȱduringȱarmedȱconflictȱ
consistentȱtoȱprovisionsȱofȱtheȱGenevaȱConventions)ȱandȱassumedȱtheȱchiefȱ
roleȱ inȱ “civilizingȱ war”54,ȱ namelyȱ itȱ gainedȱ internationalȱ recognitionȱ forȱ
supervisingȱ howȱ warringȱ partiesȱ orȱ combatantsȱ lawfullyȱ conductȱ armedȱ
hostilitiesȱ inȱ aȱ mannerȱ thatȱ limitsȱ humanȱ suffering.ȱ Thisȱ roleȱ isȱ presentȱ inȱ
IHL,ȱwhichȱȱ
ȱ
isȱtheȱonlyȱbodyȱofȱinternationalȱlawȱthatȱprovidesȱaȱspecialȱstatusȱ
andȱ roleȱ toȱ anȱ internationalȱ humanitarianȱ organization.ȱ Theȱ 1949ȱ
Genevaȱ Conventionsȱ taskȱ theȱ ICRCȱ toȱ playȱ aȱ majorȱ roleȱ inȱ
52ȱForsythe;ȱRiefferȬFlanagan,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱpp.ȱ63Ȭ64.ȱ
54ȱIgnatieff,ȱop.ȱcit.ȱ
encouragingȱcomplianceȱwithȱIHLȱandȱitȱisȱrecognizedȱinȱtreatyȱlawȱ
asȱ havingȱ theȱ authorityȱ toȱ visitȱ prisoners,ȱ organizeȱ reliefȱ
operations,ȱ reuniteȱ separatedȱ families,ȱ andȱ carryȱ outȱ otherȱ
humanitarianȱ activitiesȱ duringȱ armedȱ conflicts.ȱ Manyȱ statesȱ
recognizeȱ theȱ internationalȱ legalȱ personalityȱ ofȱ theȱ ICRCȱ andȱ
accordȱitȱprivilegesȱandȱimmunitiesȱunderȱtheirȱdomesticȱlaws.55ȱ
ȱ
Theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Nigeria/Biafraȱ indicatedȱ aȱ debilitatingȱ momentȱ forȱ theȱ
coreȱactivitiesȱofȱICRC.ȱAccordingȱtoȱDavidȱP.ȱForsytheȱandȱBarbaraȱAnnȱJ.ȱ
RiefferȬFlanagan,ȱ “theȱ ICRCȱ asȱ anȱ organizationȱ paidȱ tooȱ littleȱ attentionȱ toȱ
IHLȱandȱitsȱprinciplesȱconcerningȱneutralȱrelief”ȱandȱdueȱtoȱtheȱfactȱthatȱitȱ
wasȱ “caughtȱ upȱ inȱ competitionȱ withȱ Jointȱ Churchȱ Aid,ȱ itȱ paidȱ tooȱ littleȱ
attentionȱ toȱ theȱ normȱ thatȱ belligerentsȱ hadȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ superviseȱ reliefȱ toȱ
guaranteeȱ itsȱ neutrality”;ȱ inȱ theȱ end,ȱ theȱ authorsȱ show,ȱ “itȱ tiltedȱ towardȱ
Biafra,ȱwasȱmanipulatedȱbyȱ[...]ȱBiafranȱleaders,ȱandȱpaidȱtooȱlittleȱattentionȱ
toȱ theȱ effortsȱ atȱ reasonableȱ reliefȱ byȱ [...]ȱ Federalȱ officials.ȱ Theȱ ICRCȱ wasȱ
unwillingȱtoȱrecognizeȱtheȱimplicationsȱofȱRedȱCrossȱneutrality.”56ȱ
Theȱ factȱ remainsȱ thatȱ theȱ violenceȱ inȱ Nigeria/Biafraȱ raisedȱ severalȱ
questionsȱ aboutȱ theȱ properȱ responseȱ toȱ alleviateȱ humanȱ suffering,ȱ andȱ
aboutȱ Coldȱ Warȱ geopoliticsȱ andȱ stateȱ attitudeȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ crisesȱ
implyingȱsecessionistȱattempts.ȱ
ȱ
TheȱMSFȱandȱNigeria/Biafraȱ
Eventsȱ inȱ Nigeriaȱ inȱ theȱ lateȱ 1960’sȱ alsoȱ signifiedȱ aȱ majorȱ turningȱ
pointȱ forȱ theȱ subsequentȱ evolutionȱ ofȱ Médecinsȱ Sansȱ Frontières/Doctorsȱ
withoutȱ Borders.ȱ Someȱ ofȱ theȱ doctorsȱ whoȱ setȱ upȱ theȱ organizationȱ hadȱ
workedȱforȱtheȱFrenchȱRedȱCrossȱinȱtheȱBiafranȱbrutalȱconflict.ȱOthersȱhadȱ
beenȱ involvedȱ inȱ reliefȱ activitiesȱ inȱ easternȱ Pakistanȱ (whichȱ laterȱ becameȱ
Bangladesh)ȱ duringȱ theȱ disastrousȱ tidalȱ waveȱ thatȱ resultedȱ inȱ astonishingȱ
humanȱ suffering.ȱ Thoughȱ operatingȱ inȱ differentȱ typesȱ ofȱ conditions,ȱ bothȱ
“groupsȱdiscoveredȱ(theȱfirstȱduringȱaȱwar,ȱtheȱsecondȱduringȱtheȱaftermathȱ
ofȱaȱnaturalȱdisaster)ȱtheȱshortcomingsȱofȱinternationalȱaid”;ȱtherefore,ȱ“byȱ
formingȱMSF,ȱthisȱcoreȱgroupȱintendedȱtoȱchangeȱtheȱwayȱhumanitarianȱaidȱ
55ȱ Elisabethȱ Griffin;ȱ Baóakȱ Çali,ȱ “Internationalȱ Humanitarianȱ Law”,ȱ inȱ Baóakȱ Çali,ȱ
InternationalȱLawȱforȱInternationalȱRelations,ȱOxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱ2010,ȱp.ȱ242.ȱ
56ȱForsythe;ȱRiefferȬFlanagan,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱpp.ȱ64Ȭ65.ȱ
wasȱdeliveredȱbyȱprovidingȱmoreȱ medicalȱassistanceȱmoreȱrapidlyȱandȱbyȱ
beingȱlessȱdeterredȱbyȱnationalȱbordersȱduringȱtimesȱofȱcrisis.”57ȱOneȱofȱtheȱ
chiefȱ MSFȱ founders,ȱ Bernardȱ Kouchner,ȱ “wasȱ anȱ exȬmilitantȱ fromȱ theȱ
CommunistȱStudentsȱUnion”ȱandȱwasȱ“activeȱinȱleftȬwing,ȱanticolonial,ȱandȱ
activistȱ causesȱ duringȱ France’sȱ turbulentȱ 1960s.”58ȱ Asȱ weȱ shallȱ see,ȱ heȱ
playedȱaȱkeyȱroleȱinȱsettingȱtheȱcoreȱdoctrineȱofȱlaterȱMSF.ȱTheȱevolutionȱofȱ
theȱMSFȱisȱbasedȱonȱpreviousȱactivitiesȱwithinȱtheȱFrenchȱSocietyȱofȱtheȱRedȱ
Cross,ȱbutȱalsoȱonȱtheȱunderstandingȱthat,ȱalthoughȱ“duringȱtheȱearlyȱpartȱ
ofȱ theȱ twentiethȱ century,ȱ humanitarianȱ emergencyȱ aidȱ wasȱ providedȱ
primarilyȱ byȱ theȱ Redȱ Crossȱ movement,ȱ [...]ȱ theȱ effectivenessȱ ofȱ itsȱ actionsȱ
wasȱ compromisedȱ byȱ slowȱ transportȱ facilitiesȱ andȱ cumbersomeȱ
administrativeȱ andȱ diplomaticȱ formalities.”59ȱ Duringȱ theȱ warȱ inȱ Biafra,ȱ
someȱ ofȱ theȱ futureȱ foundersȱ ofȱ MSFȱ departedȱ fromȱ ICRC’sȱ strictȱ rulesȱ inȱ
providingȱ assistance,ȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ theȱ personnel’sȱ “reservedȱ publicȱ
attitudeȱ towardȱ theȱ eventsȱ theyȱ witnessȱ duringȱ anȱ assignment”60;ȱ inȱ
addition,ȱ sinceȱ ICRCȱ alwaysȱ operatesȱ withȱ theȱ consentȱ ofȱ theȱ involvedȱ
partiesȱ (andȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Biafraȱ thisȱ meantȱ allowanceȱ byȱ theȱ Nigerianȱ
government),ȱȱ
ȱ
Severalȱdoctorsȱdefiedȱthisȱprohibitionȱbyȱorganizingȱaȱ‘committeeȱ
againstȱtheȱBiafranȱgenocide’ȱasȱsoonȱasȱtheyȱwereȱbackȱinȱFranceȱ–ȱ
lessȱ toȱ makeȱ theȱ publicȱ awareȱ ofȱ theȱ plightȱ ofȱ theȱ Biafranȱ
populationȱ thanȱ toȱ denounceȱ theȱ politicalȱ sourcesȱ ofȱ thisȱ conflict,ȱ
whichȱ wereȱ tooȱ oftenȱ hiddenȱ byȱ theȱ journalisticȱ accountsȱ ofȱ theȱ
war.ȱByȱdroppingȱtheirȱapoliticalȱstance,ȱthough,ȱtheȱFrenchȱdoctorsȱ
gaveȱlegitimacyȱtoȱtheȱrebels’ȱsecessionistȱcause.61ȱ
ȱ
Theȱresultȱwasȱthatȱafterȱtheȱconflict,ȱBernardȱKouchnerȱestablishedȱ
MédecinsȱSansȱFrontières,ȱandȱlaterȱDoctorsȱofȱ theȱWorld,ȱ andȱtheȱ pivotalȱ
doctrineȱ wasȱ fosteredȱ byȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ heȱ andȱ hisȱ colleaguesȱ wereȱ
completelyȱdissatisfiedȱwithȱ“theȱlimitationsȱimposedȱbyȱtheȱnotionȱofȱRedȱ
Crossȱneutrality.ȱHeȱwantedȱaȱreliefȱorganizationȱthatȱcouldȱdoȱwellȱonȱtheȱ
57ȱPhelan,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱp.ȱ2.ȱ
59ȱCf.ȱibidem.ȱ
60ȱIbidem.ȱ
61ȱIbidem.ȱ
ground,ȱ butȱ thatȱ wouldȱ alsoȱ speakȱ outȱ againstȱ civilianȱ distressȱ andȱ otherȱ
violationsȱ ofȱ humanȱ rightsȱ andȱ humanitarianȱ norms.ȱ Heȱ wantedȱ activeȱ
solidarityȱ withȱ ‘victims’,ȱ notȱ neutrality.”62ȱ Consequently,ȱ “theȱ notionȱ ofȱ
témoignage,ȱ orȱ speakingȱ out,ȱ coupledȱ withȱ appealsȱ toȱ theȱ massȱ mediaȱ
becameȱ anȱ integralȱ partȱ ofȱ MSF’sȱ conceptȱ ofȱ modernȱ humanitarianȱ
action.”63ȱ
ȱ
Somaliaȱ (1991Ȭ1994):ȱ betweenȱ humanitarianȱ interventionȱ andȱ reliefȱ
aidȱ
Somaliaȱgainedȱindependenceȱinȱ1960,ȱevenȱthoughȱtheȱremnantsȱofȱ
Britishȱ Somalilandȱ inȱ theȱ Northȱ andȱ Italianȱ Somalilandȱ inȱ theȱ Southȱ
(“whichȱ hadȱ beenȱ madeȱ aȱ Trusteeshipȱ Territoryȱ ofȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Nationsȱ inȱ
1945”64)ȱhaveȱneverȱ beenȱproperlyȱreconciledȱorȱunified;ȱatȱbest,ȱSomalia’sȱ
cohesivenessȱ asȱ aȱ nationȱ wasȱ precarious.ȱ Historicallyȱ speaking,ȱ Somaliaȱ
“has,ȱforȱcenturies,ȱbeenȱaȱ landȱinhabitedȱbyȱitinerantȱherders”,ȱsinceȱ“theȱ
dusty,ȱ dryȱ earthȱ didȱ notȱ nurtureȱ aȱ settledȱ lifestyle”,ȱ andȱ “theȱ constantȱ
searchȱforȱwater,ȱfood,ȱandȱshadeȱbredȱinsteadȱaȱlooselyȱconnectedȱwebȱofȱ
nomads”;ȱ consequently,ȱ “suchȱ aȱ harshȱ heritageȱ ofȱ wanderlustȱ makesȱ
Somalis,ȱ byȱ nature,ȱ fiercelyȱ independent.”65ȱ Inȱ contrastȱ toȱ otherȱ Africanȱ
countriesȱ whereȱ internalȱ divisionsȱ andȱ rivalriesȱ rangeȱ acrossȱ ethnicȱ linesȱ
andȱ correspondingȱ minorityȬmajorityȱ conflictsȱ (suchȱ asȱ Rwanda,ȱ Burundi,ȱ
andȱ D.ȱ R.ȱ Congo)ȱ orȱ acrossȱ religiousȱ linesȱ (suchȱ asȱ theȱ violentȱ conflictȱ inȱ
Nigeria),ȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Somaliaȱ displaysȱ differentȱ features:ȱ “Thoughȱ allȱ oneȱ
ethnicȱtribe,ȱSomalisȱareȱdividedȱbyȱclans,ȱandȱthoseȱcleavagesȱareȱdeep.”66ȱ
Accordingȱ toȱ aȱ formerȱ seniorȱ UNȱ official,ȱ Somaliaȱ “isȱ aȱ nomadicȱ societyȱ
withȱ veryȱ oddȱ institutionsȱ [since]ȱ powerȱ isȱ spreadȱ inȱ peculiarȱ ways,ȱ
throughȱstrongmen,ȱtribalȱinstitutionsȱandȱvillageȱelders”,ȱandȱtherefore,ȱ“itȱ
isȱ aȱ veryȱ difficultȱ societyȱ toȱ penetrate.”67ȱ Inȱ theȱ wordsȱ ofȱ Somaliȱ historianȱ
Saidȱ Samatar,ȱ “extremeȱ individualismȱ isȱ theȱ politicalȱ culture,ȱ soȱ thatȱ itȱ isȱ
62ȱForsythe;ȱRiefferȬFlanagan,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱp.ȱ65.ȱ
65ȱCf.ȱAprilȱOliver,ȱ“TheȱSomaliaȱSyndrome”,ȱinȱRoderickȱvonȱLipseyȱ(ed.)ȱBreakingȱtheȱCycle,ȱ
NewȱYork:ȱSt.ȱMartin’sȱPress,ȱ1997,ȱpp.ȱ121Ȭ122.ȱ
67ȱCf.ȱBrianȱUrquhart,ȱquotedȱinȱibidem.ȱ
practicallyȱimpossibleȱforȱoneȱSomaliȱtoȱcommandȱtheȱallegianceȱofȱanotherȱ
Somali;ȱeveryoneȱisȱaȱkingȱuntoȱhimself.”68ȱȱ
Afterȱ itsȱ independence,ȱ Somaliaȱ experiencedȱ aȱ nineȬyearȱ calmȱ
period,ȱ untilȱ 1969,ȱ when,ȱ followingȱ aȱ coup,ȱ strongmanȱ Muhammadȱ Siadȱ
Barreȱ becameȱ president,ȱ rulingȱ “asȱ anȱ increasinglyȱ dictatorialȱ figureȱ untilȱ
hisȱ overthrowȱ inȱ 1991.”69ȱ Moreover,ȱ Siadȱ Barreȱ “triedȱ toȱ forbidȱ clanȱ
loyaltiesȱ(theȱcoreȱofȱSomaliȱlife)ȱandȱattemptedȱtoȱpersuadeȱclanȱeldersȱinȱ
theȱ ruralȱ areasȱ toȱ makeȱ hisȱ banȱ stick”70ȱ andȱ hisȱ despoticȱ ruleȱ graduallyȱ
createdȱ “increasingȱ politicalȱ andȱ economicȱ disparitiesȱ betweenȱ clans,ȱ byȱ
favouringȱ hisȱ own”,ȱ whichȱ inȱ turnȱ augmentedȱ Somalisȱ dissatisfactionȱ
throughoutȱtheȱcountryȱwhoȱ“feltȱdisenfranchised.”71ȱColdȱWarȱgeopoliticsȱ
andȱtheȱimpactȱofȱproxyȱwarsȱalsoȱplayedȱaȱmajorȱroleȱinȱtheȱevolutionȱofȱ
Somalia’sȱ destiny.ȱ Thoughȱ atȱ theȱ beginningȱ aȱ clientȱ stateȱ ofȱ USSR,ȱ Barre’sȱ
territorialȱ ambitionsȱ whichȱ triggeredȱ theȱ warȱ withȱ SovietȬbackedȱ
neighbouringȱEthiopiaȱinȱ1977ȱ(overȱtheȱOgadenȱregion)ȱresultedȱinȱshiftingȱ
ColdȱWarȱallegianceȱtowardsȱtheȱUSA.ȱTherefore,ȱ“overȱtheȱnextȱtenȱyears,ȱ
theȱUnitedȱStatesȱpouredȱnearlyȱ$ȱ250ȱmillionȱinȱlethalȱandȱnonlethalȱarmsȱ
intoȱSomalia”ȱsoȱthatȱ“theȱcombinedȱstockpilesȱofȱSovietȱandȱU.S.ȱweaponryȱ
turnedȱSomaliaȱintoȱanȱarsenal,ȱwithȱmoreȱmachineȱguns,ȱautomaticȱrifles,ȱ
mines,ȱtanks,ȱandȱmortarsȱthanȱalmostȱanyȱotherȱcountryȱinȱAfrica.”72ȱAprilȱ
Oliverȱaccuratelyȱindicatedȱthatȱ“muchȱofȱtheȱweaponryȱwouldȱbeȱusedȱnotȱ
againstȱ aȱ Sovietȱ threat,ȱ however,ȱ butȱ againstȱ theȱ Somaliȱ peopleȱ byȱ theirȱ
ownȱleader”73.ȱȱ
Theȱ ruleȱ ofȱ Siadȱ Barreȱ becameȱ increasinglyȱ contestedȱ andȱ severalȱ
groupsȱ roseȱ againstȱ theȱ regime,ȱ withȱ twoȱ majorȱ separatistȱ groupsȱ
emerging:ȱ Theȱ Somaliȱ Nationalȱ Movementȱ andȱ theȱ Democraticȱ Frontȱ forȱ theȱ
Salvationȱ ofȱ Somalia.ȱ Barre’sȱ “poorȱ humanȱ rightsȱ recordȱ steadilyȱ alienatedȱ
internationalȱopinion”ȱandȱ“byȱ1990,ȱheȱhadȱnotȱonlyȱfailedȱtoȱeliminateȱtheȱ
Somaliȱ clanȱ system,ȱ butȱ hadȱ producedȱ aȱ situationȱ inȱ whichȱ thereȱ wasȱ
escalatingȱ fightingȱ bothȱ amongȱ clansȱ andȱ betweenȱ clansȱ andȱ theȱ
68ȱSaidȱSamatar,ȱquotedȱinȱibidem.ȱ
71ȱOliver,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱpp.ȱ122Ȭ123.ȱ
73ȱIbidem.ȱ
government,ȱsoȱthatȱtheȱcountryȱhadȱbeenȱreducedȱtoȱaȱstateȱofȱanarchyȱandȱ
Barreȱ wasȱsteadilyȱ losingȱcontrol.”74ȱInȱtheȱ periodȱ1990Ȭ1991ȱtheȱtraumaticȱ
experienceȱ ofȱ growingȱ civilȱ warȱ wasȱ doubledȱ inȱ disastrousȱ effectsȱ byȱ theȱ
drought.ȱTheȱ Governmentȱdeclaredȱaȱstateȱofȱemergency75ȱandȱ “accordingȱ
toȱ Officeȱ ofȱ Foreignȱ Disasterȱ Assistanceȱ reports,ȱ foodȱ pricesȱ beganȱ toȱ riseȱ
sharplyȱ inȱ theȱ cities,ȱ asȱ muchȱ asȱ 1.000ȱ percent;ȱ thisȱ encouragedȱ hijackingȱ
andȱlootingȱofȱreliefȱsuppliesȱbyȱruthlessȱprofiteers.”76ȱ
Theȱ soȬcalledȱ Magadishuȱ Manifesto,ȱ signedȱ byȱ 114ȱ Somaliȱ
politiciansȱ andȱ intellectuals,ȱ expressedȱ willingnessȱ toȱ organizeȱ aȱ nationalȱ
reconciliationȱ conferenceȱ andȱ urgedȱ Barreȱ toȱ resign.77ȱ Theȱ countryȱ wasȱ
fragmentingȱandȱfinallyȱBarreȱwasȱoustedȱfromȱpowerȱinȱJanuaryȱ1991;ȱtheȱ
removalȱ ofȱ theȱ autocraticȱ strongmanȱ leftȱ behindȱ aȱ powerȱ vacuumȱ whichȱ
wasȱ notȱ filledȱ inȱ byȱ anotherȱ politicalȱ figureȱ (enjoyingȱ countrywideȱ
legitimacy)ȱ thusȱ turningȱ Somaliaȱ intoȱ anȱ archetypalȱ exampleȱ ofȱ whatȱ
scholarȱ Williamȱ Zartmanȱ hasȱ coinedȱ “collapsedȱ state”.ȱ Asȱ Aprilȱ Oliverȱ
pointedȱ out,ȱ “prominentȱ oppositionȱ groupsȱ fought,ȱ butȱ neverȱ formallyȱ
unitedȱ againstȱ Siadȱ Barre”ȱ andȱ evenȱ thoughȱ groupsȱ likeȱ Somaliȱ Nationalȱ
Movement,ȱSomaliȱSalvationȱDemocraticȱFront,ȱUnitedȱSomaliȱCongress,ȱandȱtheȱ
SomaliȱPatrioticȱMovementȱwereȱ“joinedȱbyȱtheirȱhatredȱofȱBarre,ȱ[they]ȱwereȱ
dividedȱbyȱclanȱandȱideologyȱasȱwellȱasȱgeography.”78ȱAnotherȱdisturbingȱ
factorȱwasȱtheȱpresenceȱofȱlocalȱwarlordsȱandȱtheirȱincreasingȱcontrolȱoverȱ
partsȱ ofȱ theȱ Somaliȱ territoryȱ whileȱ institutionalȱ capacityȱ wasȱ breakingȱ
down,ȱ lawlessnessȱ andȱ lootingȱ becameȱ anȱ everyȬdayȱ experienceȱ andȱ fearȱ
turnedȱintoȱanȱendemicȱfeatureȱofȱdailyȱlife.ȱScottȱPeterson,ȱaȱjournalistȱwhoȱ
witnessedȱ atrocitiesȱ inȱ Somalia,ȱ vividlyȱ describedȱ theȱ situationȱ whereinȱ
humanitarianȱaidȱwasȱhijackedȱorȱstolenȱandȱusedȱasȱransom:ȱhumanitarianȱ
agenciesȱ“[...]ȱunloadedȱ[...]ȱtonsȱofȱreliefȱfood,ȱmeantȱtoȱhelpȱsaveȱtheȱlivesȱ
ofȱ Somalisȱ madeȱ miserableȱ byȱ theȱ reignȱ ofȱ warlordsȱ andȱ militia,ȱ byȱ
tempestuousȱ gunmenȱ [...];ȱ theseȱ wereȱ theȱ predatorsȱ thatȱ madeȱ Somalisȱ
75ȱIbidem.ȱ
76ȱOliver,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱp.ȱ125.ȱ
77ȱSeeȱdetailsȱinȱibidem,ȱp.ȱ125ȱandȱArnold,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱp.ȱ331.ȱ
suffer,ȱ theȱ militiamenȱ whoȱ foragedȱ toȱ survive,ȱ abusingȱ andȱ lootingȱ atȱ
whim.”79ȱ
Theȱ dramaticȱ situationȱ inȱ 1991ȱ determinedȱ Oliverȱ toȱ stateȱ thatȱ
“Mogadishuȱ wasȱ hellȱ onȱ earth”ȱ andȱ theȱ appallingȱ crisisȱ andȱ mountingȱ
starvationȱshockedȱtheȱinternationalȱcommunity.ȱInȱAprilȱ1992,ȱtheȱUnitedȱ
Nationsȱ Securityȱ Councilȱ issuedȱ Resolutionȱ 751ȱ establishedȱ UNOSOMȱ Iȱ
(UnitedȱNationsȱOperationȱinȱSomalia)80;ȱthisȱwasȱaȱpeacekeepingȱmission,ȱ
setȱ upȱ becauseȱ aȱ fragileȱ peaceȱ agreementȱ wasȱ reachedȱ amongȱ differentȱ
militaryȱ groupsȱ andȱ warlords.ȱ Also,ȱ theȱ UNȱ dispatchedȱ aȱ factȬfindingȱ
missionȱ ledȱ byȱ Mohamedȱ Sahnounȱ (who,ȱ inȱ theȱ wordsȱ ofȱ Aprilȱ Oliver,ȱ
couldȱnotȱhaveȱbeenȱaȱbetterȱchoice).ȱSahnounȱreportedȱtheȱ“totalȱdisaster”ȱ
andȱ urgedȱ forȱ theȱ provisionȱ ofȱ “urgentlyȱ neededȱ humanitarianȱ
assistance.”81ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ hisȱ testimonialȱ accountȱ “moreȱ thanȱ 3.000ȱ –ȱ
mostlyȱwomen,ȱchildren,ȱandȱoldȱmenȱ–ȱwereȱdyingȱdailyȱfromȱstarvation.ȱ
Thatȱ wasȱ theȱ tragicȱ situationȱ inȱ Somaliaȱ atȱ theȱ beginningȱ ofȱ 1992”.82ȱ Inȱ aȱ
reportȱsentȱtoȱtheȱUNȱheadquartersȱheȱwarnedȱthatȱ“someȱ4.500.000ȱpeopleȱ
[were]ȱ inȱ urgentȱ needȱ forȱ food”ȱ andȱ thatȱ “anȱ absenceȱ ofȱ foodȱ breedsȱ
insecurityȱwhich,ȱinȱturn,ȱcausesȱinstabilityȱleadingȱtoȱstarvation,ȱsufferingȱ
andȱ disease.ȱ Breakingȱ thisȱ diabolicalȱ andȱ viciousȱ cycleȱ mayȱ beȱ theȱ keyȱ toȱ
resolvingȱ theȱ intricateȱ socialȱ andȱ politicalȱ problemsȱ inȱ Somalia.”83ȱ Dueȱ toȱ
increasedȱ levelsȱ ofȱ violenceȱ andȱ dangerousȱ conditions,ȱ mostȱ ofȱ theȱ UNȱ
reliefȱagenciesȱhaveȱleftȱSomaliaȱinȱ199184ȱandȱ“theirȱabsenceȱofȱnearlyȱoneȱ
yearȱ hadȱ createdȱ intenseȱ angerȱ amongȱ Somaliȱ [who]ȱ feltȱ abandonedȱ andȱ
79ȱPeterson,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱp.ȱ5.ȱ
80ȱSeeȱfullȱtextȱofȱUNSCȱResolutionȱ751ȱ
availableȱatȱ[http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/751(1992)],ȱaccessedȱ
Aprilȱ2013.ȱ
81ȱMohamedȱSahnoun,ȱSomalia:ȱTheȱMissedȱOpportunities,ȱWashington:ȱUnitedȱStatesȱInstituteȱ
ofȱPeaceȱPress,ȱ1994,ȱp.ȱvii.ȱ
84ȱ Theȱ mainȱ Unitedȱ Nationsȱ organizationsȱ operatingȱ ȱ inȱ Somaliaȱ wereȱ theȱ Foodȱ andȱ
Agricultureȱ Organizationȱ ofȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Nationsȱ (FAO),ȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Nationsȱ Developmentȱ
Programmeȱ (UNDP),ȱ UNICEF,ȱ theȱ Officeȱ ofȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Nationsȱ Highȱ Commissionerȱ forȱ
Refugeesȱ (UNHCR),ȱ Worldȱ Foodȱ Programmeȱ (WFP),ȱ andȱ theȱ Worldȱ Healthȱ Organizationȱ
(WHO).ȱMoreȱthanȱotherȱ30ȱNGOsȱhadȱbeenȱpresentȱinȱSomaliaȱworkingȱinȱpartnershipȱwithȱ
theȱUnitedȱNations.ȱ
sawȱ noȱ reasonȱ toȱ trustȱ theȱ UN.”85ȱ Whileȱ Sahnoun’sȱ effortsȱ toȱ mountȱ
necessaryȱ andȱ appropriateȱ measures,ȱ showingȱ thatȱ thereȱ wasȱ notȱ onlyȱ aȱ
foodȱ crisis,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ aȱ securityȱ crisis,ȱ wereȱ considerable,ȱ theȱ UNOSOMȱ
troopsȱprovedȱtoȱbeȱcompletelyȱinefficientȱinȱtheȱHobbesianȱstatusȱnaturalisȱ
thatȱSomaliaȱhadȱregressedȱinto,ȱgivenȱtheirȱlimitedȱpeacekeepingȱmandate.ȱ
AprilȱOliverȱemphasizedȱthatȱtheȱUSȱStateȱDepartmentȱinsistedȱonȱlabellingȱ
theȱ situationȱ asȱ aȱ “foodȱ problem”,ȱ andȱ notȱ “aȱ securityȱ one”ȱ andȱ thusȱ theȱ
solutionȱwasȱtoȱdeliverȱmoreȱprovisions;ȱinȱfact,ȱ“theȱmoreȱfoodȱwasȱsentȱin,ȱ
theȱ moreȱ wasȱ stolen.ȱ Theȱ moreȱ thatȱ wasȱ stolen,ȱ theȱ moreȱ theȱ warlords’ȱ
politicalȱ capitalȱ increased.ȱ Duringȱ theȱ finalȱ monthsȱ beforeȱ theȱ USȱ militaryȱ
intervention,ȱ asȱ muchȱ asȱ 80%ȱ ofȱ UNȱ reliefȱ mayȱ haveȱ beenȱ looted,ȱ orȱ
blockedȱinȱtheȱwarehousesȱandȱharbour,ȱwhileȱSomalisȱstarved.”86ȱȱ
Withȱ respectȱ toȱ aidȱ agenciesȱ inȱ Somalia,ȱ Oliverȱ discussesȱ theȱ
“fissuresȱinȱtheȱReliefȱCommunity”ȱandȱshowsȱthatȱ
ȱ
Perhapsȱ foremost,ȱ theȱ crisisȱ deepenedȱ inȱ Somaliaȱ asȱ aȱ resultȱ ofȱ aȱ
humanitarianȱ communityȱ that,ȱ forȱ understandableȱ reasons,ȱ pulledȱ
outȱ whenȱ itȱ becameȱ tooȱ dangerous.ȱ [...]ȱ Exceptȱ forȱ theȱ Internationalȱ
CommitteeȱofȱtheȱRedȱCrossȱ(ICRC)ȱandȱaȱfewȱNGOs,ȱmostȱreliefȱgroupsȱ
fledȱ Somaliaȱ duringȱ theȱ crucialȱ yearȱ ofȱ 1991,ȱ afterȱ Siadȱ Barre’sȱ
departure.ȱTheȱUNȱitselfȱwasȱtotallyȱabsentȱduringȱtheȱcrucialȱyearȱ
ofȱ 1991.ȱ Thoseȱ whoȱ stayedȱ riskedȱ theirȱ lives.ȱ Asȱ conditionsȱ
deterioratedȱ insideȱ Somalia,ȱ soȱ didȱ securityȱ forȱ theȱ NGOs.ȱ Asȱ aȱ
result,ȱtheȱICRCȱhiredȱarmedȱprotectionȱforȱtheȱfirstȱtimeȱinȱtheirȱhistory.ȱ
Theyȱhiredȱasȱmanyȱasȱ20.000ȱSomalisȱatȱsomeȱpointȱlabellingȱthemȱ
(andȱtheirȱarmedȱvehicles)ȱ‘technicalȱassistance’87.ȱSomeȱ‘technicals’ȱ
turnedȱ onȱ theȱ agenciesȱ themselves.ȱ Manyȱ reliefȱ workersȱ lostȱ theirȱ
lives;ȱothersȱwereȱseverelyȱinjuredȱtryingȱtoȱdeliverȱorȱprotectȱsupplies.88ȱ
ȱ
85ȱOliver,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱp.ȱ128.ȱSeeȱalsoȱJohnȱHarriss,ȱ“Introduction:ȱaȱtimeȱofȱtroublesȱ–ȱproblemsȱofȱ
internationalȱ humanitarianȱ assistanceȱ inȱ theȱ 1990’s”,ȱ inȱ Johnȱ Harrissȱ (ed.),ȱ Theȱ Politicsȱ ofȱ
HumanitarianȱIntervention,ȱLondonȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱPinter,ȱ1995,ȱp.ȱ5.ȱ
87ȱ Theȱ termȱ “technicals”ȱ refersȱ toȱ theȱ armedȱ trucksȱ orȱ otherȱ vehiclesȱ equippedȱ withȱ heavyȱ
gunsȱandȱusedȱforȱrampageȱridesȱorȱlootingȱ(or,ȱinȱsomeȱcasesȱinȱSomalia,ȱforȱprotectionȱofȱ
humanitarianȱconvoys).ȱ
88ȱIbidem,ȱp.ȱ134.ȱOurȱemphasis.ȱ
Ourȱ centralȱ pointȱ ofȱ discussionȱ isȱ centredȱ onȱ theȱ optimalȱ waysȱ forȱ
protectionȱ ofȱ sufferingȱ civiliansȱ andȱ onȱ theȱ lessonsȱ thatȱ couldȱ beȱ drawnȱ
fromȱ Africanȱ caseȱ studies.ȱ Theȱ questionȱ isȱ whetherȱ inȱ suchȱ casesȱ ofȱ
immenseȱ violenceȱ anȱ outsideȱ heavilyȱ militaryȱ interventionȱ (authorizedȱ
underȱ Chapterȱ VIIȱ andȱ comprisingȱ ofȱ troopsȱ readyȱ toȱ engageȱ inȱ militaryȱ
action)ȱisȱtheȱadequateȱresponse,ȱinȱorderȱtoȱbestȱrestoreȱnormalcy,ȱlawȱandȱ
order,ȱ andȱ furtherȱ alleviateȱ theȱ suffering;ȱ or,ȱ whetherȱ aȱ lessȱ militaryȬ
centredȱreaction,ȱandȱaȱmoreȱrelief,ȱhumanitarianȬcentredȱoneȱisȱinȱorder,ȱsoȱ
thatȱtheȱpresenceȱofȱmilitaryȱdoesȱnotȱfrustrateȱtheȱwarlordsȱthusȱtriggeringȱ
revengeȱandȱelevatingȱtheȱstateȱofȱviolence;ȱbesides,ȱinȱtheȱlatterȱscenario,ȱaȱ
combatȱ mission,ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ aimingȱ atȱ humanitarianȱ outcomes,ȱ mightȱ
produceȱ “collateralȱdamage”,ȱ accidentallyȱ killingȱinnocentȱ civilians,ȱ asȱ weȱ
shallȱseeȱwasȱtheȱcaseȱofȱSomalia.ȱ
Thisȱ dilemmaȱ alsoȱ placedȱ theȱ reliefȱ communityȱ inȱ twoȱ opposingȱ
views:ȱ onȱ theȱ oneȱ hand,ȱ someȱ rejectedȱ theȱ ideaȱ ofȱ militaryȱ intervention,ȱ
fearingȱthatȱthisȱmightȱ“hinderȱtheirȱwork,ȱmakingȱthemȱvulnerableȱpawnsȱ
inȱaȱwar”ȱwhileȱothersȱbelievedȱthatȱinterventionȱcouldȱ“obstructȱtheȱfragileȱ
politicalȱ reconciliationȱ process.”89ȱ Theȱ factȱ remainsȱ thatȱ inȱ manyȱ casesȱ theȱ
mereȱpresenceȱofȱhumanitariansȱinȱtheȱtheatreȱofȱconflictȱisȱregardedȱwithȱ
suspicion90ȱandȱoftenȱbelligerentsȱdoȱnotȱseeȱ“humanitarianȱagenciesȱasȱtrueȱ
neutrals,ȱ butȱ insteadȱ asȱ agentsȱ ofȱ outsideȱ powers.”91ȱ Onȱ theȱ otherȱ hand,ȱ
InterActionȱ whichȱ reunitedȱ elevenȱ reliefȱ agenciesȱ (amongȱ whichȱ Oxfamȱ
America,ȱ CARE,ȱ andȱ theȱ Internationalȱ Rescueȱ Committee)ȱ heldȱ aȱ pressȱ
conferenceȱ inȱ Washingtonȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ attractȱ internationalȱ protectionȱ forȱ
theirȱconvoys;ȱhowever,ȱHumanȱRightsȱWatch,ȱforȱinstanceȱdidȱnotȱwantȱaȱ
fullȬscaleȱ nationȱ buildingȱ operation,ȱ butȱ ratherȱ “aȱ moreȱ minimalȱ strategicȱ
interventionȱ –ȱ toȱ protectȱ theȱ portsȱ andȱ airports,ȱ andȱ protectȱ theȱ truckȱ
convoysȱ soȱ foodȱ couldȱ beȱ distributed”;ȱ accordingȱ toȱ aȱ representativeȱ ofȱ
HRWȱ (inȱ aȱ telephoneȱ interviewȱ withȱ Aprilȱ Oliver),ȱ “weȱ didȱ notȱ wantȱ
90ȱ Shannonȱ Bosch,ȱ “Reliefȱ workersȱ inȱ Africanȱ conflictȱ zones:ȱ neutrals,ȱ targetsȱ orȱ unlawfulȱ
participants?”,ȱAfricanȱSecurityȱReview,ȱLondon:ȱRoutledge,ȱissueȱ19:3,ȱ2010,ȱp.ȱ81.ȱ
91ȱ K.ȱ Anderson,ȱ “Humanitarianȱ inviolabilityȱ inȱ crisis:ȱ theȱ meaningȱ ofȱ impartialityȱ andȱ
neutralityȱ forȱ UNȱ andȱ NGOȱ agenciesȱ followingȱ theȱ 2003–2004ȱ Afghanistanȱ andȱ Iraqȱ
conflicts”,ȱquotedȱinȱibidem.ȱ
AmericanȱsoldiersȱinvolvedȱinȱallȱaspectsȱofȱSomaliȱsociety.ȱWeȱknewȱthatȱ
wouldȱhaveȱaȱbadȱeffect.”92ȱ
Finally,ȱinȱDecemberȱ1992ȱtheȱUnitedȱNationsȱsanctionedȱResolutionȱ
794ȱauthorizingȱUNITAFȱ(UnitedȱNationsȱInternationalȱTaskȱForce),ȱledȱbyȱ
theȱUnitedȱStates,ȱcomprisingȱofȱ 28.000ȱAmericanȱsoldiersȱandȱotherȱmoreȱ
thanȱ10.000ȱtroops,ȱwithȱaȱmandateȱenablingȱitȱtoȱuseȱ“allȱnecessaryȱmeans”ȱ
inȱorderȱtoȱsolveȱtheȱhumanitarianȱcrisis.ȱWhileȱneverȱreceivingȱtheȱformalȱ
ChapterȱVIIȱauthorization,ȱUNITAFȱisȱregardedȱasȱaȱChapterȬsixȬandȬaȬhalfȱ
operation,ȱ namelyȱ itȱ hadȱ theȱ abilityȱ toȱ useȱ forceȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ achieveȱ itsȱ
goals.ȱ Resolutionȱ 794ȱ determinedȱ “theȱ magnitudeȱ ofȱ theȱ humanȱ tragedyȱ
causedȱ byȱ theȱ conflictȱ inȱ Somalia,ȱ furtherȱ exacerbatedȱ byȱ theȱ obstaclesȱ
beingȱ createdȱ toȱ theȱ distributionȱ ofȱ humanitarianȱ assistance,ȱ constitutesȱ aȱ
threatȱ toȱ internationalȱ peaceȱ andȱ security”,ȱ expressedȱ thatȱ theȱ UNȱ isȱ
“gravelyȱ alarmedȱ byȱ theȱ deteriorationȱ ofȱ theȱ humanitarianȱ situationȱ inȱ
Somalia”,ȱ underlinedȱ “theȱ urgentȱ needȱ forȱ theȱ quickȱ deliveryȱ ofȱ
humanitarianȱ assistanceȱ inȱ theȱ wholeȱ country”,ȱ andȱ expressedȱ “graveȱ
alarmȱ atȱ continuingȱ reportsȱ ofȱ widespreadȱ violationsȱ ofȱ humanitarianȱ
internationalȱ lawȱ occurringȱ inȱ Somalia,ȱ includingȱ reportsȱ ofȱ violenceȱ [...]ȱ
againstȱ personnelȱ participatingȱ lawfullyȱ inȱ impartialȱ humanitarianȱ reliefȱ
activities,ȱ deliberateȱ attacksȱ onȱ nonȬcombatantsȱ [...]ȱ andȱ impedingȱ theȱ
deliveryȱ ofȱ foodȱ andȱ medicalȱ suppliesȱ essentialȱ forȱ theȱ survivalȱ ofȱ theȱ
civilianȱ population.”93ȱ Mostȱ analystsȱ agreeȱ thatȱ UNITAFȱ wasȱ theȱ mostȱ
successfulȱattemptȱtoȱsolveȱtheȱcrisisȱinȱSomalia.94ȱUNITAFȱhadȱaȱclearȬcutȱ
(thoughȱlimitedȱasȱfarȱtheȱdeepȬrootedȱproblemsȱofȱSomalia’sȱpoliticalȱandȱ
socialȱlifeȱwasȱconcerned)ȱsetȱofȱgoalsȱaimingȱatȱsecuringȱreliefȱconvoysȱandȱ
endingȱ starvation;ȱ inȱ tacticalȱ terms,ȱ USȱ forceȱ commanderȱ Robertȱ Johnstonȱ
correspondedȱtheȱgoalsȱofȱtheȱmissionȱintoȱfourȱ“no’s”:ȱ“noȱtechnicalsȱ(trucksȱ
orȱ otherȱ vehiclesȱ withȱ crewȬservicedȱ weaponsȱ suchȱ asȱ heavyȱ machineȱ guns);ȱ noȱ
93ȱSeeȱfullȱtextȱofȱUNSCȱResolutionȱ794,ȱȱ
availableȱatȱ[http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/794(1992)],ȱaccessedȱ
Aprilȱ2013.ȱ
94ȱ Seeȱ Oliver,ȱ op.ȱ cit.,ȱ p.ȱ 136;ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ Thomasȱ R.ȱ Mockaitis,ȱ “Fromȱ Counterinsurgencyȱ toȱ
PeaceȱEnforcement:ȱNewȱNamesȱforȱOldȱGames”,ȱinȱErwinȱA.ȱSchmidlȱ(ed.),ȱPeaceȱOperationsȱ
betweenȱ Peaceȱ andȱ War:ȱ Fourȱ Studies,ȱ Vienna:ȱ
Landesverteidigungnsakademie/Militärwissenshaftlichesȱ Büro,ȱ Nummerȱ 11,ȱ September,ȱ
1998,ȱpp.ȱ21Ȭ36.ȱ
banditry;ȱ noȱ roadblocks;ȱ noȱ visibleȱ weapon”.95ȱ Oneȱ ofȱ theȱ achievementsȱ ofȱ
UNITAFȱ wasȱ thatȱ itȱ forgedȱ aȱ coherentȱ civilȬmilitaryȱ strategy,ȱ namelyȱ theȱ
Civil/Militaryȱ Operationsȱ Centreȱ (CMCO),ȱ whichȱ “aimedȱ toȱ provideȱ aȱ
workableȱ interfaceȱ betweenȱ theȱ NGOs,ȱ whoȱ coordinatedȱ theirȱ effortsȱ
throughȱ theȱ Humanitarianȱ Operationsȱ Centreȱ (HOC),ȱ andȱ UNITAF”96;ȱ byȱ
appointingȱ dailyȱ meetingsȱ theȱ twoȱ centresȱ wereȱ interconnectedȱ andȱ
producedȱaȱcertainȱlevelȱofȱcommunicationȱandȱcooperation,ȱalthoughȱ
ȱ
CMOC/HOCȱ didȱ notȱ alwaysȱ workȱ well,ȱ andȱ Marineȱ andȱ NGOsȱ
perceptionsȱ ofȱ itsȱ successȱ varyȱ widely.ȱ Reliefȱ workersȱ whoȱ hadȱ
beenȱ inȱ theȱ countryȱ forȱ aȱ longȱ timeȱ resentedȱ theȱ Marines’ȱ “takeȱ
chargeȱ attitude”ȱ andȱ consideredȱ theȱ soldiersȱ insensitiveȱ toȱ localȱ
culture.ȱ Theȱ Marinesȱ inȱ turnȱ believedȱ thatȱ theȱ NGOsȱ withheldȱ
valuableȱ informationȱ onȱ theȱ Somaliȱ factionsȱ andȱ cooperatedȱ withȱ
theȱmilitaryȱonlyȱwhenȱitȱsuitedȱthem.97ȱ
ȱ
Sinceȱ UNITAFȱ hadȱ aȱ sixȱ monthȱ mandate,ȱ inȱ Mayȱ 1993ȱ itȱ handedȱ
overȱtheȱoperationȱtoȱtheȱUN.ȱTherefore,ȱ“theȱmandateȱofȱUNOSOMȱII,ȱasȱ
approvedȱ byȱ theȱ Securityȱ Councilȱ inȱ resolutionȱ 814ȱ (1993)ȱ underȱ Chapterȱ
VIIȱofȱtheȱCharter,ȱcoveredȱtheȱwholeȱterritoryȱofȱSomaliaȱandȱincluded:ȱȱ
x monitoringȱthatȱallȱfactionsȱcontinuedȱtoȱrespectȱtheȱcessationȱofȱhostilitiesȱ
andȱotherȱagreementsȱtoȱwhichȱtheyȱhadȱconsented;ȱȱ
x preventingȱ anyȱ resumptionȱ ofȱ violenceȱ and,ȱ ifȱ necessary,ȱ takingȱ
appropriateȱaction;ȱȱ
x maintainingȱcontrolȱofȱtheȱheavyȱweaponsȱofȱtheȱorganizedȱfactionsȱwhichȱ
wouldȱhaveȱbeenȱbroughtȱunderȱinternationalȱcontrol;ȱȱ
x seizingȱtheȱsmallȱarmsȱofȱallȱunauthorizedȱarmedȱelements;ȱȱ
x securingȱ allȱ ports,ȱ airportsȱ andȱ linesȱ ofȱ communicationsȱ requiredȱ forȱ theȱ
deliveryȱofȱhumanitarianȱassistance;ȱȱ
x protectingȱ theȱ personnel,ȱ installationsȱ andȱ equipmentȱ ofȱ theȱ Unitedȱ
Nationsȱandȱitsȱagencies,ȱICRCȱasȱwellȱasȱNGOs;ȱȱ
x continuingȱmineȬclearing,ȱand;ȱȱ
x repatriatingȱrefugeesȱandȱdisplacedȱpersonsȱwithinȱSomalia.”98ȱ
95ȱMockaitis,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱp.ȱ28.ȱ
96ȱIbidem,ȱpp.ȱ8Ȭ9.ȱ
98ȱSeeȱSomaliaȱȬȱUNOSOMȱII,ȱȱ
ȱ
UNOSOMȱ setȱ upȱ aȱ moreȱ ambitiousȱ role,ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ itȱ hadȱ soȱ
muchȱ moreȱ modestȱ resources,ȱ itȱ targetedȱ oneȱ ofȱ warlordsȱ (Aideed),ȱ
consideredȱ chiefȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ Somaliȱ problems,ȱ itȱ establishedȱ aȱ ransomȱ forȱ
capturingȱ Aideedȱ andȱ initiatedȱ theȱ manhunt99,ȱ thusȱ departingȱ fromȱ theȱ
strictlyȱ humanitarianȬorientedȱ mission,ȱ andȱ finallyȱ itȱ initiatedȱ severalȱ
militaryȱactionsȱmeantȱtoȱcaptureȱAideedȱandȱthenȱtoȱproceedȱtoȱfullȬscaleȱ
disarmamentȱ whichȱ producedȱ theȱ deathȱ ofȱ innocentȱ Somaliȱ civilians.ȱ
Consequently,ȱ theȱ UNȱ “wasȱ noȱ longerȱ anȱ impartialȱ peacemaker”ȱ becauseȱ
“itȱ hadȱ takenȱ sidesȱ decisivelyȱ inȱ theȱ conflict”100;ȱ theȱ moreȱ Aideedȱ wasȱ
hunted,ȱtheȱmoreȱtheȱSomaliȱsupportȱforȱtheȱlatterȱgrew,ȱandȱtheȱmoreȱtheȱ
UNȱ wasȱ perceivedȱ asȱ anȱ intruder.ȱ Theȱ resultȱ wasȱ thatȱ “beyondȱ
strengtheningȱ Aideed”ȱ theȱ manhuntȱ operationȱ “wasȱ aȱ neglectȱ ofȱ
humanitarianȱwork”ȱandȱdueȱtoȱthisȱ“reliefȱeffortsȱwereȱreducedȱbyȱhalf.”101ȱ
Accordingȱ toȱ Thomasȱ Mockaitis,ȱ UNOSOMȱ IIȱ lamentablyȱ failedȱ andȱ “itȱ
demonstratesȱ theȱ consequencesȱ ofȱ relyingȱ onȱ militaryȱ forceȱ toȱ solveȱ aȱ
politicalȱ andȱ humanitarianȱ problem”;ȱ therefore,ȱ inȱ tryingȱ toȱ achieveȱ aȱ
humanȬsufferingȱalleviatingȱoutcome,ȱ
ȱ
UNITAFȱ hadȱ foundȱ anȱ appropriateȱ mixȱ ofȱ humanitarianȱ aidȱ andȱ
theȱ useȱ ofȱ forceȱ toȱ protectȱ itsȱ deliveryȱ andȱ hadȱ keptȱ inȱ constantȱ
touchȱwithȱtheȱSomaliȱfactionȱleaders.ȱUNOSOMȱIIȱplacedȱmilitaryȱ
activityȱ aheadȱ ofȱ diplomaticȱ andȱ humanitarian,ȱ overȬreliedȱ onȱ
firepower,ȱ andȱ concentratedȱ tooȱ muchȱ onȱ arrestingȱ individualsȱ
ratherȱthanȱonȱstabilizingȱtheȱsituation.102ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
availableȱ atȱ [http://www.un.org/Depts/DPKO/Missions/unosom2b.htm],ȱ accessedȱ Aprilȱ

2013.ȱ
99ȱSeeȱUNȱSecurityȱCouncilȱResolutionȱ837,ȱavailableȱatȱ
[http://daccessȬddsȬ
ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N93/332/32/IMG/N9333232.pdf?OpenElement],ȱaccessedȱAprilȱ
2013.ȱ
101ȱIbidem.ȱ
102ȱMockaitis,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱp.ȱ30.ȱ
TheȱICRCȱandȱSomaliaȱ
Inȱ Somalia,ȱ theȱ ICRSȱ “oneȱ ofȱ theȱ firstȱ organizationsȱ toȱ soundȱ theȱ
alarmȱaboutȱtheȱplightȱofȱtheȱcivilianȱpopulation”ȱandȱ“despiteȱtheȱdeathȱofȱ
oneȱ ofȱ itsȱ Belgianȱ expatriates,ȱ theȱ ICRCȱ stayedȱ inȱ theȱ countryȱ toȱ tryȱ toȱ
deliverȱ humanitarianȱ assistance.”103ȱ Also,ȱ itȱ playedȱ aȱ majorȱ roleȱ inȱ
attractingȱ internationalȱ attentionȱ toȱ theȱ plightȱ ofȱ theȱ Somalisȱ (thoughȱ inȱ
contradictionȱ toȱ itsȱ coreȱ principles,ȱ especiallyȱ theȱ soȬcalledȱ doctrineȱ ofȱ
silence):ȱȱ
ȱ
theȱICRC,ȱwithȱsomeȱreluctanceȱaboutȱtheȱethicsȱinvolved,ȱpaidȱ
forȱ journalistsȱ toȱ comeȱ seeȱ theȱ miseryȱ atȱ firstȱ hand.ȱ ‘[I]nȱ theȱ
courseȱ ofȱ fiveȱ weeksȱ betweenȱ Augustȱ andȱ Septemberȱ [...]ȱ 730ȱ
journalistsȱ wereȱ broughtȱ fromȱ Nairobiȱ intoȱ Somaliaȱ andȱ
transportedȱbackȱtoȱKenya,ȱbriefedȱandȱotherwiseȱtakenȱcareȱofȱ
byȱ theȱ ICRC.’ȱ Thisȱ effort,ȱ alongȱ withȱ publicityȱ fromȱ otherȱ
groups,ȱ finallyȱ producedȱ coverageȱ byȱ theȱ Newȱ Yorkȱ Times,ȱ theȱ
BBC,ȱLeȱMonde,ȱandȱotherȱmajorȱwesternȱmediaȱcentres.104ȱ
ȱ
TheȱICRCȱworkedȱwithȱtheȱSomaliȱRedȱCrescentȱandȱestablishedȱaȱ
complexȱfoodȱdistributionȱnetwork,ȱsoȱthatȱȱ
ȱ
betweenȱ Februaryȱ andȱ Juneȱ 1992ȱ theȱ ICRCȱ broughtȱ inȱ aȱ totalȱ ofȱ
53.900ȱ MTȱ ofȱ foodȱ intoȱ Somaliaȱ throughȱ twentyȱ differentȱ entryȱ
points,ȱ byȱ sea,ȱ byȱ air,ȱ andȱ overlandȱ acrossȱ theȱ Kenya–Somaliaȱ
border.ȱ Multipleȱ deliveryȱ pointsȱ atȱ smallȱ locationsȱ circumventedȱ
theȱ extortionȱ networkȱ thatȱ wasȱ centeredȱ onȱ Mogadishuȱ [...]ȱ Theȱ
ICRCȱ alsoȱ handledȱ theȱ distributionȱ ofȱ foodȱ toȱ severalȱ hospitalsȱ inȱ
variousȱcitiesȱ[...].ȱMostȱofȱtheȱUSȱfoodȱsentȱtoȱSomaliaȱwasȱhandledȱ
byȱtheȱICRC.105ȱ
ȱ
Theȱhiringȱofȱlocalȱarmedȱmenȱforȱprotectionȱwasȱnecessaryȱdueȱtoȱ
violentȱ conditionsȱ (asȱ previouslyȱ discussed)ȱ butȱ inȱ abstractȱ thinkingȱ
constitutedȱaȱsmallȱcontributionȱtoȱtheȱperpetuationȱofȱviolenceȱandȱtoȱtheȱ
warȱ economy,ȱ thusȱ raisingȱ ethicalȱ dilemmas:ȱ shouldȱ theȱ ICRCȱ haveȱ
103ȱForsythe;ȱRieffe,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱp.ȱ70.ȱ
105ȱIbidem,ȱp.ȱ117ȱandȱSahnoun,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱpp.ȱ20Ȭ21.ȱ
retreatedȱasȱotherȱUNȱagenciesȱandȱstayedȱloyalȱtoȱitsȱprinciples?ȱOr,ȱwithȱ
theȱ purposeȱ ofȱ savingȱ sufferingȱ civilians,ȱ shouldȱ itȱ haveȱ remainedȱ inȱ
operationȱ andȱ adjustȱ itsȱ reliefȱ activitiesȱ toȱ theȱ “newȱ warȱ scenario”ȱ inȱ
Somalia?ȱ
Throughoutȱitsȱreliefȱ humanitarianȱ history,ȱtheȱ ICRCȱrefusedȱtoȱbeȱ
accompaniedȱ byȱ armedȱ militaryȱ transports,ȱ butȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Somaliaȱ
anotherȱdepartureȱfromȱstrictȱICRCȱrequirementsȱwasȱsignalledȱbecauseȱ
ȱ
forȱ theȱ firstȱ timeȱ inȱ itsȱ history,ȱ theȱ ICRCȱ tookȱ theȱ decisionȱ toȱ
operateȱ asȱ partȱ ofȱ aȱ militaryȱ mission,ȱ becauseȱ thatȱ wasȱ theȱ onlyȱ
way,ȱ inȱ theȱ viewȱ ofȱ theȱ topȱ decisionȬmakersȱ ofȱ theȱ organization,ȱ
thatȱ widespreadȱ starvationȱ couldȱ beȱ checkedȱ inȱ Somaliaȱ [...]ȱ theȱ
ICRCȱfinallyȱdevelopedȱaȱcloseȱpartnershipȱwithȱanȱinternationallyȱ
approvedȱmilitaryȱforce,ȱalthoughȱinȱrealityȱitȱwasȱoverwhelminglyȱ
aȱUSȱmilitarizedȱsupplyȱchain.106ȱ
ȱ
Accordingȱ toȱ Forsytheȱ andȱ Rieffe,ȱ suchȱ tacticsȱ wereȱ notȱ
incorporatedȱbyȱInternationalȱHumanitarianȱLaw,ȱbutȱitȱ“demonstratedȱtheȱ
creativityȱandȱpragmatismȱofȱtheȱICRCȱonȱbehalfȱofȱtheȱusualȱprinciplesȱofȱ
impartialȱandȱneutralȱhumanitarianism.”107ȱ
Theȱ ethicalȱ dilemmaȱ isȱ againȱ resurfacing:ȱ howȱ toȱ positivelyȱ assessȱ
theȱ activitiesȱ ofȱ humanitariansȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ ICRCȱ inȱ Somalia?ȱ Basedȱ onȱ
positiveȱoutcomes,ȱnoȱmatterȱtoȱwhatȱextantȱstrategiesȱemployedȱdepartedȱ
fromȱ coreȱ principlesȱ ofȱ theȱ organization?ȱ Or,ȱ basedȱ onȱ strictureȱ ofȱ basicȱ
principles,ȱ andȱ thusȱ irrefutableȱ ethicalȱ tenure,ȱ butȱ withȱ limitedȱ
humanitarianȱoutcome?ȱ
ȱ
TheȱMSFȱandȱSomaliaȱ
Whenȱ theȱ fierceȱ fightingȱ brokeȱ outȱ inȱ Mogadishu,ȱ whenȱ lawȱ andȱ
orderȱ completelyȱ vanished,ȱ andȱ anarchyȱ prevailed,ȱ “MSFȱ wasȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ
fewȱorganizations,ȱalongȱwithȱtheȱICRCȱandȱSaveȱtheȱChildrenȬUK,ȱwhichȱ
managedȱ toȱ maintainȱ aȱ presenceȱ inȱ theȱ warȬtornȱ city,ȱ providingȱ surgicalȱ
servicesȱ inȱ highlyȱ insecureȱ conditions.”108ȱ Ifȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ Nigeria/Biafraȱ
106ȱForsythe;ȱRieffe,ȱop.ȱcit.,ȱpp.ȱ70Ȭ71.ȱ
showedȱ theȱ opposingȱ viewsȱ ofȱ emergingȱ MSF,ȱ onȱ theȱ oneȱ hand,ȱ andȱ theȱ
ICRC,ȱ theȱ massiveȱ humanitarianȱ crisisȱ inȱ Somaliaȱ isȱ indicativeȱ forȱ theȱ
sharedȱ strategiesȱ byȱ theȱ twoȱ reliefȱ organizations.ȱ Firstȱ ofȱ all,ȱ bothȱ
organizationsȱ maintainedȱ theirȱ reliefȱ effortsȱ inȱ highlyȱ dangerousȱ
conditions,ȱ asȱ alreadyȱ mentioned.ȱ Secondly,ȱ justȱ likeȱ theȱ ICRC,ȱ anarchicalȱ
violenceȱinȱSomaliaȱ“compelledȱMSFȱ[...]ȱtoȱuseȱarmedȱguards,ȱaȱ‘necessaryȱ
evil’ȱ whoseȱ costsȱ wouldȱ becomeȱ increasinglyȱ apparent.”ȱ Kevinȱ Phelanȱ
showedȱ thatȱ “inȱ time,ȱ MSFȱ teamsȱ wouldȱ haveȱ aȱ smallȱ militiaȱ onȱ hireȱ toȱ
protectȱ theirȱ travelȱ andȱ work,ȱ fuellingȱ theȱ ‘warȱ economy’”,ȱ butȱ heȱ alsoȱ
exposedȱtheȱclearȬcutȱassessmentȱofȱMSFȱactivityȱinȱSomalia,ȱbyȱstatingȱthatȱ
“theȱ benefitsȱ ofȱ MSF’sȱ surgicalȱ andȱ nutritionalȱ programsȱ inȱ thisȱ massiveȱ
crisisȱoverrodeȱtheseȱconcerns.”109ȱThirdly,ȱMSFȱjoinedȱtheȱICRCȱandȱotherȱ
organizationsȱinȱtheȱeffortsȱtoȱpublicizeȱtheȱSomalis’ȱsufferingȱandȱtheȱneedȱ
toȱ endȱ starvationȱ byȱ providingȱ protectionȱ toȱ reliefȱ aidȱ convoys.ȱ Basically,ȱ
theȱ costsȱ andȱ apparentȱ unethicalȱ shortcomingsȱ ofȱ theȱ reliefȱ strategyȱ wereȱ
definitelyȱoutmatchedȱbyȱtheȱlivesȱsaved.ȱ
ȱ
Conclusionȱ
Severalȱ questionsȱ wereȱ raisedȱ throughoutȱ theȱ articleȱ andȱ ethicalȱ
dilemmasȱwereȱpinpointed.ȱTheȱmainȱresearchȱquestionsȱtackledȱhereȱwere:ȱ
toȱ whatȱ extantȱ isȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ forceȱ theȱ appropriateȱ meansȱ toȱ endȱ civilians’ȱ
plight?ȱWhatȱwereȱtheȱimpedimentsȱofȱColdȱWarȱgeopoliticsȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱ
reliefȱactions?ȱWhatȱareȱtheȱfeaturesȱofȱtheȱnewȱwarsȱinȱAfricaȱthatȱclearlyȱ
hamperȱtheȱproperȱresponseȱtoȱhumanitarianȱdisasters?ȱ
Inȱthisȱconcludingȱsectionȱofȱtheȱarticleȱweȱshallȱtryȱtoȱproblematizeȱ
theȱ solutionsȱ advancedȱ byȱ theȱ internationalȱ communityȱ forȱ theȱ protectionȱ
ofȱ sufferingȱ civiliansȱ andȱ theirȱ correspondingȱ ethicalȱ dilemmas,ȱ andȱ
provideȱ answersȱ toȱ theȱ questionsȱ posed.ȱ Itȱ isȱ ourȱ contentionȱ thatȱ theȱ newȱ
warsȱ(thatȱsawȱaȱmultiplicationȱandȱaȱfullȬscaleȱviolenceȱinȱAfrica)ȱdisplayȱ
certainȱ featuresȱ thatȱ hamperȱ properȱ humanitarianȱ aidȱ andȱ adequateȱ
internationalȱactionȱaimingȱatȱrestoringȱpeace,ȱaȱstateȱofȱnormalcy,ȱandȱtheȱ
reimpositionȱofȱlawȱ andȱorder.ȱTheȱnewȱ warȱscenariosȱincludeȱlootingȱtheȱ
humanitarianȱ convoys;ȱ attacksȱ againstȱ civilians;ȱ warlordȱ tacticsȱ meantȱ toȱ
increaseȱ individualȱ powerȱ (sometimesȱ withȱ noȱ subsequentȱ politicalȱ goal)ȱ
andȱbasedȱonȱtheȱprivatizationȱofȱmilitaryȱirregularȱtroops;ȱandȱsometimesȱ
109 ȱIbidem.ȱ
aȱregressionȱtoȱaȱHobbesianȱstateȱofȱnature.ȱInȱsuchȱaȱviolentȱscenario,ȱtheȱ
humanitariansȱ becomeȱ targets,ȱ fearȱ becomesȱ endemicȱ andȱ lootingȱ andȱ
indiscrimateȱkillingȱturnȱintoȱdailyȱexperience.ȱTheȱcaseȱofȱSomaliaȱthisȱwasȱ
illustrativeȱ inȱ thisȱ respect,ȱ andȱ asȱ Forsytheȱ showed,ȱ althoughȱ theȱ Securityȱ
Councilȱ “decreedȱ thatȱ toȱ interfereȱ withȱ thatȱ assistanceȱ wasȱ aȱ warȱ crime”,ȱ
mostȱ “Somaliȱ armedȱ groupsȱ paidȱ littleȱ attentionȱ toȱ suchȱ legalisticȱ
statementsȱ emanatingȱ fromȱ Newȱ York.ȱ Afterȱ all,ȱ thisȱ wasȱ aȱ countryȱ inȱ
whichȱ virtuallyȱ noȱ oneȱ withȱ aȱ weaponȱ hadȱ heardȱ ofȱ theȱ Genevaȱ
Conventions.”110ȱ Itȱ wasȱ alsoȱ theȱ contentionȱ ofȱ ICRCȱ thatȱ “civiliansȱ areȱ noȱ
longerȱfundamentallyȱviewedȱasȱextraneousȱtoȱwarȱitself,ȱnorȱevenȱusedȱasȱ
aȱ ‘base’ȱ ofȱ logisticȱ andȱ politicalȱ support,ȱ butȱ haveȱ becomeȱ stakesȱ inȱ theȱ
conflictȱorȱevenȱtheȱveryȱreasonȱforȱit.”111ȱȱ
TheȱcaseȱofȱSomaliaȱpointedȱtoȱtheȱineffectivenessȱofȱoutsideȱheavilyȱ
militaryȱ interventionȱ (authorizedȱ underȱ Chapterȱ VIIȱ andȱ comprisingȱ ofȱ
troopsȱreadyȱtoȱengageȱinȱmilitaryȱaction)ȱaimingȱatȱcapturingȱwarlordsȱinȱ
orderȱ toȱ restoreȱ normalcyȱ andȱ toȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ aȱ combinedȱ military/reliefȱ
operationȱwithȱaȱsensitiveȱeyeȱforȱlocalȱSomaliȱcultureȱandȱlongerȱtimetableȱ
mightȱhaveȱprotectedȱciviliansȱonȱtheȱlongȱrun.ȱTheȱcaseȱofȱBiafraȱshowedȱ
thatȱ Coldȱ Warȱ geopoliticsȱ wasȱ capabableȱ toȱ produceȱ breachesȱ withinȱ theȱ
internationalȱ humanitarianȱ movement,ȱ andȱ thatȱ (neutral)ȱ reliefȱ wasȱ
impossible:ȱTheȱICRCȱplacedȱitselfȱatȱtheȱmercyȱ(andȱapproval)ȱofȱNigerianȱ
government,ȱ andȱ whenȱ itȱ didȱ notȱ doȱ so,ȱ itȱ sufferedȱ theȱ deathȱ ofȱ itsȱ
personnel,ȱwhileȱtheȱemergingȱMSF,ȱ“hauntedȱbyȱtheȱpassivityȱofȱtheȱICRCȱ
duringȱ Worldȱ Warȱ IIȱ whenȱ confrontedȱ byȱ theȱ Holocaust”,ȱ conceivedȱ theȱȱ
conceptȱofȱmodernȱhumanitarianȱȱ(centredȱonȱtémoignage,ȱorȱspeakingȱout),ȱ
evenȱ though,ȱ “ironically,ȱ untilȱ 1977,ȱ MSFȱ actuallyȱ forbadeȱ itsȱ membersȱ toȱ
talkȱaboutȱwhatȱtheyȱhadȱwitnessedȱduringȱtheirȱmissions,ȱdespiteȱanȱearlyȱ
recordȱ ofȱ oppositionȱ toȱ theȱ ICRC’sȱ reservedȱ policy.ȱ Thisȱ silenceȱ wasȱ
intendedȱ asȱ aȱ strongȱ symbolȱ ofȱ politicalȱ neutralityȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ aȱ strategicȱ
postureȱtoȱensureȱitsȱabilityȱtoȱperformȱ‘borderȬfree’ȱoperations.”112ȱ
111ȱ ICRC,ȱ Respectȱ forȱ andȱ protectionȱ ofȱ theȱ personnelȱ ofȱ humanitarianȱ organizations,ȱ 19Ȭ01Ȭ1998ȱ
Report,ȱPreparatoryȱdocumentȱdraftedȱbyȱtheȱInternationalȱCommitteeȱofȱtheȱRedȱCrossȱforȱ
theȱfirstȱperiodicalȱmeetingȱonȱinternationalȱhumanitarianȱlawȱGeneva,ȱ19ȱȬȱ23ȱJanuaryȱ1998ȱ
[http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/report/57jp85.htm],ȱaccessedȱAprilȱ2013.ȱ
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STUDIAȱUBB.

Keohane,ȱ Humanitarianȱ Intervention.ȱ Ethical,ȱ Legal,ȱ andȱ Politicalȱ Dilemmas,ȱ Cambridge:ȱ

emphasizedȱ byȱ Michaelȱ Walzerȱ whoȱ claimedȱ thatȱ “humanitarianȱ

wherebyȱ warlordsȱ manipulateȱ reliefȱ workersȱ andȱ useȱ refugeesȱ andȱ

“WesternȬeducatedȱ Ibosȱ spreadȱ allȱ overȱ Nigeriaȱ andȱ madeȱ themselvesȱ aȱ

“peopleȱ withinȱ themȱ whoȱ wantȱ nothingȱ moreȱ thanȱ selfȬdetermination.”34ȱ

Redȱ Crossȱ activitiesȱ byȱ aȱ teamȱ ofȱ internationalȱ scholarsȱ andȱ

availableȱ atȱ [http://www.un.org/Depts/DPKO/Missions/unosom2b.htm],ȱ accessedȱ Aprilȱ

21. Mockaitis,ȱ Thomasȱ R.ȱ (1998),ȱ “Fromȱ Counterinsurgencyȱ toȱ Peaceȱ

32. UNȱ Securityȱ Councilȱ Resolutionȱ 751,ȱ availableȱ atȱ

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