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Coir fiber process and opportunities - 2

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Coir Fiber–Process and

Opportunities
a b
Akhila Rajan & T. Emilia Abraham PhD
a
Polymer Section, Chemical Science Division,
Regional Research Laboratory (CSIR),
Thiruvananthapuram, 695 019, Kerala, India
b
Polymer Section, Regional Research Laboratory
(CSIR), Thiruvananthapuram, 695 019, Kerala, India

Available online: 25 Sep 2008

To cite this article: Akhila Rajan & T. Emilia Abraham PhD (2007): Coir Fiber–Process
and Opportunities, Journal of Natural Fibers, 3:4, 29-41

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 Coir Fiber–Process and Opportunities:
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Part 1
Akhila Rajan
T. Emilia Abraham

ABSTRACT. Growing environmental awareness throughout the world

has triggered a paradigm shift towards designing materials compatible
with the environment. Coir–a lignocelluosic natural fiber–has emerging
importance as an engineering material due to its high tensile strength and
elongation properties. The advantages of natural lignocellulosic fibers
include acceptable specific strength properties, low cost, low density
and biodegradability. This work is intended to present an overview of
the main results presented in literature on this topic, focusing the atten-
tion on the fiber properties in terms of physical and chemical structure.
Some aspects related to the traditional uses of coir fibers are also pre-
sented. Coir, as an ecofriendly fiber, has tremendous potential in India as
well as the rest of the World for mattresses, fabric and other novel appli-
cations. Research and development efforts have been underway to find
new use areas for coir. doi:10.1300/J395v03n04_03 [Article copies available
for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH.
E-mail address: <docdelivery@haworthpress.com> Web site: <http://www.
Haworth Press.com> © 2006 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

KEYWORDS. Coir, retting, lignin, cellulose

Akhila Rajan (E-mail: rajanakhi@rediffmail.com) is Project Fellow, Polymer Sec-

tion, Chemical Science Division, and T. Emilia Abraham, PhD, is Senior Scientist,
Polymer Section; both are affiliated with Regional Research Laboratory (CSIR),
Thiruvananthapuram, 695 019, Kerala, India (E-mail: emiliatea@yahoo.com).
Address correspondence to: Dr. T. Emilia Abraham at the above address.
The authors wish to thank the Director of Regional Research Laboratory, Thiru-
vananthapuram, for providing them the necessary facilities for carrying out their work.
Journal of Natural Fibers, Vol. 3(4) 2006
Available online at http://jnf.haworthpress.com
© 2006 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1300/J395v03n04_03 29
 30 JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS

INTRODUCTION
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Palm trees are monocot trees grown along the coastal areas and they
yield commercially important products like nuts, fiber and oil. Among
the palm trees, coconut and arecanut palm are mainly exploited for eco-
nomic purposes (Figure 1).
There have been several attempts to utilize the abundant and renew-
able resources of plant fibers in composite materials with a view to re-
place, at least partially, the use of expensive synthetic fibers and
particulate fillers, for a variety of consumer articles (Satyanarayana et
al., 1981). Plant fibers are of interest archaeologically because they
probably represent the earliest textile materials (Barber, 1991).
Coir (also known as “Kokos” or “Coco”) is a natural seed-hair fiber
obtained from the outer shell (endocarp), or husk, of the coconut, the
fruit of Cocos nucifera, a tropical plant of the Arecaceae (Palmae) fam-
ily, extensively grown in tropical countries. Coir yarn has been pro-
duced in the coastal belt of Kerala from time immemorial, but the first
coir factory for the manufacture of coir products was established at
Alleppy, in Kerala during 1858. The word coir is derived from the
“Kair”– Malayalam, a south Indian language (Tamil, kayiru) meaning
cord; the Portuguese used the form Cairo (Yule, 1903). Coir or coconut
fiber belongs to the group of hard structural fibers, and is lignocellulosic

FIGURE 1. Coconut tree

 Akhila Rajan and T. Emilia Abraham 31

in nature. The coarse, stiff, reddish brown fiber is made up of smaller

threads, each about 0.01 to 0.04 inch (0.03 to 0.1 centimeter) long and
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12 to 24 microns (a micron is about 0.00004 inch) in diameter, com-

posed of lignin, a woody plant substance, and cellulose. Coir fiber has
the advantage of stretching beyond its elastic limit without rupturing, as
well as having the power to take up a permanent stretch. Its resistance to
microbial degradation and salt water is unique. India and Srilanka pro-
duce almost all of the coir and coir products that come to the world mar-
ket (Child, 1964). Indian coir is available in the form of raw fiber, spun
yarn and woven mats, mattings, rugs and carpets, coir rope and a variety
of other articles manufactured out of it (Bhat and Nambudiri, 1971;
Thampan, 1975).

YIELD OF FIBER FROM HUSK

The yield of fiber is subject to considerable variation depending upon

the season, method of extraction and the quality of fiber produced. The
yield from retted husks is more than that from unretted husks. Retting
process plays a crucial role in coir making. Retting of husk results in the
separation of the leathery exocarp from the fibrous mesocarp (Figure 2).
In the retting process, coconut husk is steeped in shallow water in ar-
eas most often located near the backwaters, which are subjected to tidal
action. The retting period normally ranges from 6 to 10 months. There
are three methods commonly followed in retting. These are net retting,
stake retting and pit retting. All these are similar and only differ in the
method of steeping husks.
FIGURE 2. Coconut husk
 32 JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS

PROCESS OF RETTING
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The steeped husks imbibe water and sinks downward in the water.
Normally it takes two to three months for microorganisms to act upon
the husk. This lag phase or delay is due to phenolic substances present in
the husk. These substances check the proliferation of the microorgan-
isms and retard their activity. The tidal action leaches out the retardants.
The ret liquor becomes slowly turbid with the formation of a scum. This
is followed by a rise in temperature and evolution of foul-smelling gas
resembling that of hydrogen sulphide.

Microbiology of Coir Retting

Microorganisms are the chief agents involved in all natural retting

processes. Retting brings about the loosening of the fiber from the sur-
rounding non-fibrous tissues through the degradation of the binding
materials collectively referred to as pectic substances. The source of the
microorganism involved in the retting could be (1) plant pathogen or
saprophyte or both, carried on by the husk and (2) the air, water or ma-
rine microorganisms. This may be a naturally occurring inhabitant or
invader to the environment.
Pioneering work on the microbiology of coir retting was carried out
by Fowler and Marsden (1924). CCRI Alleppy has developed a consor-
tium of retting microbe called “Coir ret” for faster retting of coconut
husk (Anita et al., 1998).
Betrabet and Bhat (1959) had established that Pseudomonas was the
most dominant and vital species of bacteria concerned in the retting of
Malachara capitata and Hibiscus cannabinus plant straws. Work on
similar lines with sisal (Agave) also brought to light the predominance
of Bacillus, Erwinia, Flavobacterium, Corynebacterium, Xanthomonas,
Aeromonas and Micrococcus species in the ret liquors (Agate, 1965).
Microbiological examination revealed the dominant aerobic bacteria of
coir rets to be made up of the genera Escherichia, Pseudomonas,
Micrococcus, Bacillus, Paracolobactrum and Alcaligenes, the subsid-
iary flora associated with are of the genera Achromobacter, Aerobacter
and Corynebacterium. The predominant yeast species of coir rets were
found to be Sacchoromyces frctuum, Debaromyces hansenii, D. kloeckeri,
Cryptococcus diffluence, Rhodotorula glutinis and R. flavus and the less
dominant was Debaromyces nicotianae. Although retting process is
aerobic, obligate anaerobe Clostridium sp. too is observed.
 Akhila Rajan and T. Emilia Abraham 33

Biochemical Aspects
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The principal change brought about in the plant tissue during retting
is the breakdown of pectic substances, which form the chief constituent
of the middle lamellae between the fiber cells and the cementing mate-
rial. During progression of retting, there is a fall in pectin, pentosan, fat
and tannin contents and practically no loss occurs in the cellulose and
lignin contents. The finding of Betrabet and Bhat (1959) led them to the
conclusion that the pectins or the pentocellulose, which probably form
the binding materials, undergo a microbiological degradation during the
process.
Pectic substances are found in primary cell walls and intercellular ce-
menting material. The simplest monomer of pectin is galacturonic acid.
Galacturonic acids are linked in (1-4) fashion. Pectic substances are
classified according to the degree of polymerization of galacturonic ac-
ids. A simplest classification of pectic substance is pectic acid, pectin
and protopectin. Galacturonic acid is a carbon source that is utilized by
the microorganism. Hydrolytic and nonhydrolytic enzymes mediate the
cleavage of galacturonic acid. The action of hydrolytic enzymes results
in galacturonic acid of different sizes. In the nonhydrolytic breakdown,
unsaturated galacturonic acids are formed. Pectic substances are broken
down by the participation of the enzymes like polymethyl galacturonase,
polygalacturonase, pectin methyl esterase, pectin lyase and pectic acid
transliminase.
However, Menon (1935) was of the opinion that biological retting of
coconut husks differs from that of other fibrous materials in that, it is not
confined to pectin decomposition alone but extends also to the disinte-
gration of the phenolic cement, binding the fibers together (Bhat and
Nambudiri, 1971). Leaching of phenol is observed to accelerate the
biochemical activity.
The rise in temperature of the ret liquor is believed to be due to the ac-
tivities of cellulolytic enzymes. Cellulose is the major constituent of
secondary cell walls. Hydrolysis of cellulose ultimately yields glucose,
which is an important energy source of microorganism. The breakdown
of cellulose is mediated by the enzyme cellulase. These enzymes are se-
creted by many microorganisms (Nagarajan et al., 1987).
Essentially, the retting process seems to involve the hydrolysis of
pectins by enzymes from Micrococcus sp as also in sisal (Jayasankar
et al., 1967). Pandalai et al. (1957) has established that the retting water
should be saline and that periodical change of water is an important con-
dition for the production of good quality fiber.
 34 JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS

One of the important observations made in the retting of husks was

that polyphenols from the husks are constantly leached out into the sur-
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rounding steep liquors during the course of retting (Jayasankar, 1966).

Menon and Pandalai (1958) have pointed out the relatively high per-
centage of such polyphenols in coconut husks as the very reason for the
delay in the completion of the retting process.
Examination of the aerobic microflora for their pectinolytic activity
revealed the general ability of several bacterial genera such as Aero-
bacter, Bacillus, Escherichia, Micrococcus and Paracolobactrum to be
particularly conspicious in this respect. Though the ability to degrade
pectin is not as widespread among the yeasts as in bacteria (Bhat, 1966),
Bilimoria and Bhat had demonstrated that pectinolytic activity in Crypto-
coccus lausentii, a marine yeast (Bilimoria, 1962). Hydrolysis of pectin
by certain other salt tolerant yeasts has also been reported (Bilimoria
1962, 1966) by the yeast encountered in coir rets and this property was
restricted to the genera Rhodotorula and Cryptococcus (Jayasankar,
1966).

EXTRACTION OF FIBER

After retting, the husks are taken out of water and washed to get rid of
mud and dirt. The outer skin is then peeled off and the husks placed on
wooden blocks and beaten with a wooden mallet for separating the fiber
from the pith. A further cleaning is done and the fibers thus obtained are
spread out in the sun to dry. It is occasionally beaten and tossed up with
poles to remove the remnants of pith and impurities still adhering to the
fiber. This also helps the mixing of long and short fibers thoroughly. For
making superior type of fibers, especially for spinning, the fiber so ob-
tained is combed in a specially designed combing or willowing ma-
chine. The fiber from the rotted husks is also extracted mechanically.
The beaten husks are torn on rolling cylinders with nails on the cylinder
casting.
The machine helps to soften and remove the last traces of pith on the
fiber and the processed fiber comes out clean and parallel. The fibers are
then rolled into slivers, which are used for spinning.

PROPERTIES OF COIR FIBER

Morphological studies of coir fibers show a framework of organized

aggregates of cellulose molecules called micro fibrils embedded in a
 Akhila Rajan and T. Emilia Abraham 35

matrix of non-cellulosic polysaccharides and lignin. Among the non-

saccharide components of the cell wall, lignin stands out as the unique
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aromatic polymer. The middle lamella and primary cell wall undergoes
the greatest lignification and the least is secondary wall. The purpose
of lignification appears to be one of strengthening the cell wall by ce-
menting the cellulose micro fibrils together and protecting them from
chemical and physical attack.
Coir fiber is multicellular in nature and the largest fibers may have a
length of 35 cm and diameter of 0.3 to 1 mm being thickest in the middle
of their length (Table 1). Coir is light, elastic and water resistant and
also resistant to mechanical wear. It is a natural cellulosic fiber and
apart from cellulose contains lignin and other substances, which serve
as building materials for the cell structure. When the fibers first become
differentiated in the tissue of the mesocarp, they are almost white and as
they become increasingly lignified they darken first to a golden yellow,
which is the color of the coir prepared from the slightly immature nuts.
From the dry husks of well-matured nuts, the coir is darker in color hav-
ing red-brown tinge. Good quality coir is clean, golden yellow in color
with unbroken individual fibers. Thermal stability studies of coir fibers
by means of TG showed a two-step decomposition curve and an onset
of degradation between 190 and 230⬚C (Bismarck et al., 2001).
Coir having the highest lignin content is the most resistant to chemi-
cal and microbial attack among the natural fibers. Coir is highly ligni-
fied and contains less cellulose.
Menon (1936) did some preliminary studies on the chemical changes
leading to the lignocellulose complex of mature coir. The lignocellulosic
nature of coir makes it biodegradable (Table 2). Because of high lignin
content coir is more durable when compared with other natural fibers.
The following are the advantages of coir fibers:

• 100% natural,
• biodegradable,
• made from infinitely replenishable resources,
• high water retention,
• moth and rot resistant,
• good insulator of heat and sound.

The percentages of the constituents–cellulose, cellulosan, lignin and

hemicellulose vary largely, depending upon the age of the nut from
which the coir is derived (Menon, 1936). In this respect, coir fiber dif-
fers from jute in that the latter has a uniform chemical composition at all
 36 JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS

TABLE.1 Physical properties of coir fiber (Bledzki et al., 1996; Chand and
Rohatgi, 1994)
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Length in cm 15-20
Diameter (µm) 100-450
Density (g/c m3) 1.15
Tenacity (g/tex) 10.0
Tensile strength (MPa) 131-175
Young’s modulus (GPa) 4-6
Elongation at break (%) 15-40
Swelling in water (%) 6-8.5

TABLE 2. Chemical composition of coir (wt %) (Ugbolue, 1990; Varma, 1984,

1986)

Lignin 41-45
Cellulose 36-43
Pectin 3-4
Hemicellulose 0.15-0.25
Microfibrillar/spiral angle (Deg.) 41-45
Moisture content 8.0

stages of the plant growth, from the earliest stage to maturity. The aro-
matic compounds of phenolic nature present in the husk of tender coco-
nut (Menon, 1936) serve as lignin precursors. The nature of the lignin
complex and the various constituents of the fiber are suggested to be in
some form of association or in combination (Prabhu, 1957).

VARIETIES OF FIBER AND GRADES

Grading of coir yarn is made according to color, scorage, moisture

content and presence of sand, salt, etc. Bright golden colored yarns are
considered the best, while the lower grades are comparatively dull and
dark in color.
Coir is graded according to the color and length of the fiber and also
its refraction content. For the best quality coir, coconuts are harvested
while still green. According to the method of extraction and use, coir fi-
ber is classified into three main classes. The three commercial varieties
of fibers are
 Akhila Rajan and T. Emilia Abraham 37

• mat fiber,
• curled or mattress fiber,
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• bristle fiber.
Mat Fiber (White Fiber). The fine yarn fiber or mat fiber is the finest
and longest variety obtained from the retted husks. It is highly resistant
to microbial decay.
Mattress Fiber. Fiber of inferior quality (shorter, staple fiber) and the
mattress fiber obtained by partial retting of husks. It is considered the
best fiber for curling prior to the impregnation with rubber latex.
Bristle Fiber. The thicker and coarser variety extracted from dry co-
conut husks is known as the bristle fiber. Bristle and mattress fiber are
often referred to as brown fiber (Jasper Guywoodroof, 1978).

TRADITIONAL USES

Coir geotextiles have been developed for application towards erosion

control, to make use of the positive attributes such as high water absorp-
tion, drapability, formation of mini check dams etc. Schurholz (1988)
mentions his first trial in 1983 in Germany, whereas in India such mesh
matting (also called coir rettings) have been used as early as 1968
(Venkatappa Rao, 1995).
Coir as an Engineering Material. Coir fibers exhibit a wide range of
dimensions, varying from 50 to 300 mm in length and between 100 mi-
crons to 400 microns in diameter in such a way that longer fibers are
also thicker. Their elongation break is around 40%.
By embedding cheap, renewable natural fibers for example, kenaf,
jute, coir, sisal into a biodegradable polymeric matrix, new fiber rein-
forced materials called “biocomposites” can be produced. As far as the
mechanical properties are concerned, biocomposites can be comparable
wih glass fiber reinforced plastics (GRP) (Mohanty et al., 2000).
Biofiber-based composites are mainly commodity composites that
will have adequate properties for the desired performance at relatively
low cost. Since the natural fibers are biodegradable, the composites of
natural fibers and synthetic polymers (which are non-biodegradable)
may offer a new class of materials that can provide environmental pro-
tection partially although not fully (Rout et al., 2001).
Erosion Control. The selection and installation of an effective ero-
sion control material will reduce the impact of raindrops on the soil
and impede overland wake flow. Protection of the soil surface using
 38 JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS

permanent vegetation is an efficient and aesthetically pleasing form of

erosion control. This has lead to the development of Rolled Erosion
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Control Products (RECPS) which consists of Nettings (ECN), Meshes

(ECM), Blankets (ECB) with single/double net and Geosynthetic (poly-
meric) Mattings or Turt Reinforcement Mats (TRM).
Low Velocity Degradable RECPs. This category encompasses single
net organic fiber erosion control blankets, biodegradable natural-fiber
meshes and photodegradable geosynthetic meshes.
High Velocity Degradable RECPs. These materials are similar to low
velocity degradable RECPs in terms of installation and function but are
designed for more severe site conditions. The construction results in
heightened durability, effectiveness and in some cases, longevity.
Road Underlays. The use of geotextiles as an interface between the
subgrade and the sub-base increases the strength of the pavement and
prevents intermingling of the soils and the granular sub-base and im-
proves drainary.
Coir fabric due to its inherent tensile strength will act as a support
membrane and reduce localized distress to the road surface by redistrib-
uting traffic loads over a wide area of the surface.
Ground Improvement. Pre-fabricated vertical drains (PVD) using
synthetic polymer products (composed of non-woven geotextile sleeve)
and core/mesh have been used all over the world for consolidating soft
clays to improve the ground.
Road Edge Drains. The road condition can be significantly improved
by constructing geotextile lined trench drains. In some cases, a non-wo-
ven coir blanket has high potential, particularly in rural roads.
Reinforcement. Coir netting with its tensile strength and the friction
between coir and soil is adequate to justify its application for use in
slope stability. This would act as reinforcement for the earth fill and will
not allow any shear surface to develop during failure. Coir geotextiles
can be effectively used as reinforcement materials in soft soil stabiliza-
tion. Sarsby et al. (1992) report that a retaining wall reinforced with
simple ropes made from natural fibers in a similar manner to that of con-
ventional steel strips can be used to enhance the strength of soils
significantly.
Agro-based natural fibers with their favorable aspect ratios and high
specific properties at low costs have the potential to be outstanding rein-
forcements in thermoplastics (D’Almeida, 2001).
Biocomposites can be designed and engineered from plant biofibers
and a blend of unsaturated polyester resin and derivatized vegetable oil
to replace existing glass fiber-polyester composites for use in housing
 Akhila Rajan and T. Emilia Abraham 39

applications. Natural fiber composites (biocomposites) would provide

environmental gains, reduced energy consumption, lighter weight, in-
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sulation and sound absorption properties. (Mehta et al., 2004)

The future prospects to manufacture “high quality” natural fiber
composites for lower mechanical loads are very promising.

CONCLUSION

The background of the research that has been carried out is the aware-
ness that the demand for coir and coir products is slowly decreasing and
that other profitable markets have to be found for this commodity. The
best way to bring the existing coir industry to a higher level is the devel-
opment of new coir products with higher added value.

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SUBMITTED: August 11, 2005

REVIEWED: October 24, 2005
ACCEPTED: December 8, 2005

doi:10.1300/J395v03n04_03

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