Boiler and Heat Recovery Steam Generator

Tube Failures: Theory and Practice

Volume 1: Fundamentals

R.B. Dooley
W.P. McNaughton

SED
N
I A L
LICE

M AT E

NOTICE: This report contains proprietary information that is the intellectual

property of EPRI. Accordingly, it is available only under license from EPRI and
may not be reproduced or disclosed, wholly or in part, by any licensee to any
other person or organization.
Boiler and Heat Recovery
Steam Generator Tube Failures:
Theory and Practice
Volume 1: Fundamentals
1012757

Final Report, March 2007

EPRI Project Manager

R. B. Dooley

ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1338 • PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 • USA
800.313.3774 • 650.855.2121 • askepri@epri.com • www.epri.com
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN ACCOUNT OF WORK
SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). NEITHER EPRI, ANY
MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF
OF ANY OF THEM:

(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I) WITH RESPECT TO THE
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OF SUCH DAMAGES) RESULTING FROM YOUR SELECTION OR USE OF THIS DOCUMENT OR ANY INFORMATION,
APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT.

ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)

Cornice Engineering, Inc.

NOTICE: THIS REPORT CONTAINS PROPRIETARY INFORMATION THAT IS THE INTELLECTUAL

PROPERTY OF EPRI. ACCORDINGLY, IT IS AVAILABLE ONLY UNDER LICENSE FROM
EPRI AND MAY NOT BE REPRODUCED OR DISCLOSED, WHOLLY OR IN PART, BY
ANY LICENSEE TO ANY OTHER PERSON OR ORGANIZATION.

NOTE
For further information about EPRI, call the EPRI Customer Assistance Center at 800.313.3774 or
e-mail askepri@epri.com.

Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI, and TOGETHER SHAPING THE FUTURE OF ELECTRICITY are registered service marks
of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.

Copyright © 2007 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
Citations

This report was prepared by

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
1300 W.T. Harris Boulevard
Charlotte, NC 28262
Principal Author
R.B. Dooley
Cornice Engineering, Inc.
42 Aspen Drive DWII
Durango, CO 81301
Principal Author
W. McNaughton
This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.
The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner:
Boiler and Heat Recover Steam Generator Tube Failures: Theory and Practice: Volume 1: Fundamentals. EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: 2007. 1012757.

iii
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION

Boiler and heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) tube failures have been the primary availability problem for opera-
tors of conventional and combined cycle plants for as long as reliable statistics have been kept for each generating
source. This book provides owners and operators with the technical basis to address tube failures and create permanent
solutions.

Results and Findings

Tube failures emanate from poor initial design, poor operation and maintenance, harsh fireside and cycle chemistry
environments, and lack of management support for comprehensive reduction programs. The first volume of this book
provides background information and fundamentals on the operating environments, statistics, and the basic chemistry
and materials. The second volume addresses tube failures in water-touched tubing and the third volume in steam-
touched tubing. A total of 47 tube failure mechanisms are comprehensively covered, with 35 addressing conventional
fossil plants and 25 addressing HRSGs. In each case, the focus is on helping the user to identify the mechanism of fail-
ure and the root cause.

Challenges and Objectives

The majority of tube failures have been repeat failures, indicating that the return to service of a unit has historically
been more important than understanding the mechanism and root cause of each boiler tube failure (BTF) or HRSG
tube failure (HTF). This book provides guidance on addressing the root cause of each tube failure to help eliminate
repeat failures.

Applications, Value, and Use

Tube failures occur in new and old units; in units that cycle and those that operate under baseload conditions; in
supercritical, once-through, and drum units; in HRSGs; and in units burning every sort of combustible material.
EPRI’s BTF benchmarking process indicates that the comprehensive approach advocated in this book will help orga-
nizations to approach and achieve world class performance.

EPRI Perspective
EPRI’s comprehensive BTF reduction program integrated with the cycle chemistry improvement program has been
applied to more than 70 organizations worldwide since 1997. The program has used the technical basis of the first ver-
sion of this EPRI book (TR-105261-V1–V3). Substantial availability improvements have been recorded in the tens to
hundreds of millions of dollars per year, and the results of this program have been published in the EPRI report
1013098. A similar program was initiated in 2002 for HRSG tube failure reduction. This program used the initial
EPRI report, Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failure Manual (1004503), with more than 40 organizations
worldwide. These two programs have provided much technical advancement, which has been combined in this new
BTF/HTF book.

Approach
EPRI reviewed the experiences of using the initial BTF book and the HTF manual worldwide and determined that
identifying the mechanism and root cause of all tube failures continues to be the basis for availability improvements.
EPRI also reviewed the research developments and conference proceedings over the last 10 years and integrated these
into the draft of this combined tube failure book. The book was then reviewed by experts in tube failures, materials,
chemistry, and inspection as well as operators and maintainers.


Keywords
Fossil plants
Combined cycle plants
Heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs)
Tubes
Failures
Root cause

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Acknowledgments

This three-volume work is a compilation of what is currently known about tube failures in boilers, heat recovery steam
generators of combined cycle units, fluidized-bed combustion systems, and waste-to-energy boilers. It is an integration
of the work performed by literally hundreds of researchers over the past 30 years, and the authors have drawn exten-
sively from that work. We have had the privilege to work with an outstanding group of experts and consultants world-
wide who have provided review, comment, supporting documentation, illustrations, and figures for this book and its
precursors, including Boiler Tube Failures: Theory and Practice, published in 1996, and Heat Recovery Steam Generator
Tube Failure Manual, published in 2002.
We would like to acknowledge the following key contributors and reviewers for their assistance with this most recent
compilation.
Individual Organization Country
R. Anderson Competitive Power U.S.A.
D. Aspden Consultant South Africa
W. Bakker Consultant U.S.A.
M. Ball Consultant U.K.
D. Blood E-ON UK U.K.
K. Coleman EPRI U.S.A.
J. Drennen Drennen Engineering U.S.A.
D. Gandy EPRI U.S.A.
A. Howell Xcel Energy U.S.A.
D. Hubbard AEP U.S.A.
P. James E-ON UK U.K.
R. Lynch Detroit Edison U.S.A.
D. O’Connor EPRI U.S.A.
J. Parker Structural Integrity Canada
S. Paterson Aptech Engineering Services U.S.A.
K. Shields EPRI U.S.A.
J. Stallings EPRI U.S.A.
R. Tilley EPRI U.S.A.
S. Walker EPRI U.S.A.
I. Wright Oak Ridge National Laboratory U.S.A.

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Contents

Chapter 1
Introduction and Background 1-1
1.1 Introductory Comments.........................................................................................................................1-1
1.2 Objectives of this Book.........................................................................................................................1-2
1.3 Organization of This Book and How to Use It.........................................................................................1-3
1.3.1 Overview of the Content of the Three Volumes.........................................................................1-3
1.3.2 Organization of Volumes 2 and 3..........................................................................................1-4
1.4 Roadmaps for Solving Boiler and HRSG Tube Failures.............................................................................1-5
1.5 Historical Developments in the Identification, Correction, and Prevention of Boiler Tube Failures.................1-5
1.5.1 Identification of BTF and HTF Mechanisms, Root Causes, and Corrective Actions.........................1-5
1.5.2 On the General Nature of Protective Oxides...........................................................................1-6
1.5.3 Influence of Available Fuel Sources........................................................................................1-6
1.5.4 Influence of Operating Conditions.........................................................................................1-6
1.5.5 BTF and the Choice of Water Chemistry Control......................................................................1-6
1.6 Recent Developments in the Identification, Correction, and Prevention of BTF and HTF...............................1-7
1.6.1 Oxides Research.................................................................................................................1-7
1.6.2 The Increased Usage of Combined Cycle Units and Troublesome Occurrence
of “Early” HRSG Tube Failures............................................................................................1-7
1.6.3 New Cycle Chemistry Understanding.....................................................................................1-7
1.6.4 Importance of Combined BTFR/CCI and HTFR/CCI Programs...................................................1-7
1.6.5 New Philosophy of Layup.....................................................................................................1-7
1.6.6 Advances in Understanding Specific BTF/HTF Mechanisms.......................................................1-8
1.6.7 New Repair Technologies, Particularly for HRSG Units.............................................................1-8
1.7 On-Going Challenges..........................................................................................................................1-8
1.7.1 Repeat Failures....................................................................................................................1-8
1.7.2 Distinguishing Between Similar Mechanisms............................................................................1-9
1.7.3 Nondestructive Examination (NDE) Methods...........................................................................1-9
1.7.4 Need to Assess Unit Conditions Early in the Life of Units to Avoid Failures Proactively,
Not React to Their Occurrence............................................................................................1-9
1.8 References.........................................................................................................................................1-10
Chapter 2
Roadmaps for Avoiding and Analyzing BTF/HTF 2-1
2.1 Roadmap for Conventional Boilers and Boiler Tube Failures (BTF).............................................................2-1
2.2 Roadmap for Combined Cycle Units and HRSG Tube Failures (HTF).........................................................2-7
2.3 For BTF or HTF Mechanisms Not Covered in This Book..........................................................................2-13
Chapter 3
Life Cycle Improvement via BTF/HTF Avoidance 3-1
3.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................3-1

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Chapter 4
Introduction to the Water-Steam Cycle and Primary Components 4-1
4.1 Introduction to the Water-Steam Cycle and Primary Components in Conventional
Fossil-Fuel Power Plants......................................................................................................................4-1
4.2 Introduction to the Water-Steam Cycle and Primary Components in Combined Cycle Units........................4-2
4.2.1 Functions of HRSGs in Combined Cycle and Cogeneration Plants..............................................4-2
4.2.2 Pinch and Approach Temperatures.........................................................................................4-3
4.2.3 HRSG Design Issues – An Overview.......................................................................................4-4
4.2.4 Single Pressure HRSG Cycles................................................................................................4-5
4.2.5 Multi-Pressure HRSGs...........................................................................................................4-5
4.2.6 Cycles with Reheat...............................................................................................................4-6
4.2.7 Drum Versus Once-Through Cycles.........................................................................................4-6
4.2.8 Combination Once-Through Plus Drum Cycles.........................................................................4-7
4.2.9 Supplemental Firing in HRSGs...............................................................................................4-7
4.2.10 Multiple Fuel Options.........................................................................................................4-7
4.2.11 Vertical Tube/Horizontal Gas Path HRSGs............................................................................4-7
4.2.12 Horizontal Tube/Vertical Gas Path HRSGs............................................................................4-7
4.2.13 Integral Deaerator.............................................................................................................4-8
4.2.14 Typical Unit Operating Parameters.......................................................................................4-8
4.3 References...........................................................................................................................................4-9
Chapter 5
Boiler and HRSG Tube Materials and Standards 5-1
5.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................5-1
5.2 Tube Materials and Their Basic Function in Conventional Units.................................................................5-1
5.3 General Tubing Design Considerations in Conventional Units..................................................................5-9
5.3.1 Basic Design Considerations for Waterwalls and Economizers..................................................5-9
5.3.2 Basic Design Considerations for Superheaters and Reheaters..................................................5-10
5.3.3 ASME Code Design Requirements.......................................................................................5-10
5.3.4 International Standards......................................................................................................5-11
5.4 Tube Materials and Their Basic Function in HRSG Units.........................................................................5-11
5.4.1 Basic HRSG Tube Design....................................................................................................5-11
5.4.2 Fin Design and Construction...............................................................................................5-13
5.4.3 Materials of Construction....................................................................................................5-13
5.5 HRSG Design Codes...........................................................................................................................5-15
5.5.1 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (Section I, Section VIII, Div. 1,
and Subsection NH of Section III)......................................................................................5-15
5.5.2 German TRD301...............................................................................................................5-16
5.5.3 European Norms EN 12952 (Water-Tube Boilers and Auxiliary Installations),
prEN 12953-3 (Shell Boilers – Part 3: Design and Calculation), and prEN 13445
(Unfired Pressure Vessels).................................................................................................5-17
5.5.4 British Standards BS1113 and BS5500................................................................................5-17
5.5.5 Further Guidelines Required for Performing Creep-Fatigue Assessments....................................5-17
5.6 References.........................................................................................................................................5-17


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Chapter 6
Waterside/Steamside Oxide Formation and Breakdown 6-1
6.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................6-1
6.2 The Reaction of Iron and Water/Steam: Oxide Formation.......................................................................6-1
6.3 Oxide Development and Breakdown in Water-Touched Tubes .................................................................6-3
6.3.1 Growth of Protective Magnetite.............................................................................................6-3
6.3.2 Scale and Deposition in Waterwall Tubes...............................................................................6-4
6.3.3 Formation of Ripple Magnetite..............................................................................................6-4
6.3.4 Breakdown of Protective Magnetite of Water-Touched Tubes and the Resulting BTF/HTF...............6-5
6.4 Oxide Development in Steam-Touched Tubes of Conventional and HRSG Units - Overview........................6-7
6.5 Growth of Steamside Oxide in Ferritic Materials.....................................................................................6-8
6.5.1 “Normal” Growth of Steamside Oxide in Ferritic Material........................................................6-8
6.5.2 Growth of Steamside Oxide in Ferritic Materials- Some Variations from the Established View........6-9
6.5.3 Growth and Exfoliation on T91 Alloy...................................................................................6-10
6.6 Growth of Steamside Oxide in Austenitic Materials...............................................................................6-11
6.6.1 “Normal” Growth of Steamside Oxide in Austenitic Materials.................................................6-11
6.6.2 Recent Observations About the Oxide Characteristics of Fine-Grained Austenitic Alloys.............6-12
6.7 Exfoliation of Steamside Oxide Scale and Its Effects..............................................................................6-12
6.7.1 Cause of Oxide Strain........................................................................................................6-12
6.7.2 Summary of Effect on Exfoliation of Various Factors ..............................................................6-14
6.7.3 Failure Criterion................................................................................................................6-15
6.7.4 Effects of Exfoliated Oxide..................................................................................................6-16
6.7.5 Rating System for Exfoliation...............................................................................................6-16
6.8 Overview of Thermal-Hydraulic Regimes and Waterside Tube Failures...................................................6-17
6.8.1 Global Thermal-Hydraulic Regimes......................................................................................6-18
6.8.2 Local Thermal-Hydraulic Conditions.....................................................................................6-19
6.9 References.........................................................................................................................................6-20
Chapter 7
Deposition on the Waterside of Boiler and HRSG Tubes 7-1
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................7-1
7.2 Locations of Deposition, Corrosion, and Impurity Ingress in Conventional and HRSG Units.........................7-1
7.3 Effects of Deposition on the Thermal Response of the Tube ......................................................................7-3
7.3.1 How Deposits Increase Tube Temperatures..............................................................................7-3
7.3.2 Increases in Tube Temperatures Caused by Deposits ...............................................................7-4
7.3.3 Heat Flux Effects..................................................................................................................7-4
7.3.4 Methods for Measuring Tube Temperatures.............................................................................7-5
7.3.5 Distribution of Tube Temperature Circumferentially...................................................................7-5
7.4 Effects of Waterside Deposition in Boiler and HRSG Tubes on the Unit......................................................7-5
7.5 Basic Mechanisms of Deposition............................................................................................................7-6
7.6 Factors Influencing Deposition...............................................................................................................7-6
7.6.1 Transient Conditions (Including Startup, Shutdown, Load Changes, and Cycling).........................7-6
7.6.2 Concentrations of Impurities..................................................................................................7-6
7.6.3 Oxidizing Agents (Oxygen) and Particles...............................................................................7-7
7.6.4 pH at Operating Temperatures..............................................................................................7-7

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7.6.5 Mass Transport....................................................................................................................7-7

7.6.6 Condensate Polishing and Filtration.......................................................................................7-7
7.6.7 Chemical Treatment.............................................................................................................7-7
7.6.8 Temperature........................................................................................................................7-8
7.6.9 Agglomeration of Particles....................................................................................................7-8
7.6.10 Steam Quality (Moisture)....................................................................................................7-8
7.6.11 Pressure............................................................................................................................7-8
7.6.12 Tube/Surface and Oxide/Hydroxide Compositions and Interactions........................................7-8
7.6.13 Time.................................................................................................................................7-8
7.6.14 Heat Flux..........................................................................................................................7-8
7.6.15 Steam/Water Properties.....................................................................................................7-9
7.6.16 Size and Shape of Particles................................................................................................7-9
7.6.17 Corrosion Rate..................................................................................................................7-9
7.6.18 Configuration and Hardware..............................................................................................7-9
7.6.19 Zeta Potential....................................................................................................................7-9
7.7 Sources of Contaminants......................................................................................................................7-9
7.8 Deposits in Waterwalls of Conventional Units.......................................................................................7-10
7.8.1 Formation of Ripple Deposits in Once-Through Steam Generators............................................7-10
7.8.2 Possible Effects of Porous Deposits in Drum Boilers in Connection with the Most Frequent
Underdeposit Corrosion Mechanisms................................................................................7-10
7.8.3 Copper Deposition and Behavior in Drum Boilers (1000457, 2000).......................................7-10
7.9 Deposits in Superheaters and Reheaters of Conventional Units...............................................................7-12
7.9.1 Copper Deposits (Copper Compounds and Metallic Copper)..................................................7-12
7.9.2 Sodium Sulfate Deposits.....................................................................................................7-12
7.10 Deposits in HRSG Units.....................................................................................................................7-13
7.11 Modeling the Deposition Processes....................................................................................................7-13
7.12 Actions for Dealing with Deposits......................................................................................................7-13
7.13 References.......................................................................................................................................7-14
Chapter 8
Cycle Chemistry and Boiler/HRSG Tube Failures 8-1
8.1 Introduction and Significance of the Challenge.......................................................................................8-1
8.2 Goals of a Cycle Chemistry Program.....................................................................................................8-3
8.3 Available Cycle Chemistry Tools............................................................................................................8-3
8.4 Customization and Optimization of the Cycle Chemistry Program............................................................8-4
8.5 Key Cycle Chemistry Parameters, Target Values, Monitoring, and Action Levels.........................................8-5
8.5.1 Key Cycle Chemistry Parameters...........................................................................................8-5
8.5.2 Target Values.......................................................................................................................8-6
8.5.3 Monitoring..........................................................................................................................8-8
8.5.4 Action Levels.......................................................................................................................8-9
8.6 Recent Advances in the Derivation of Boiler Water/Steam Purity Requirements.........................................8-9
8.7 Feedwater Treatment – Conventional Units...........................................................................................8-10
8.7.1 Background on Oxygenated Treatment.................................................................................8-10
8.7.2 Major Differences Between OT and AVT...............................................................................8-11

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8.7.3 Optimizing Feedwater Treatment in All-Ferrous Systems of Conventional Units...........................8-11

8.7.4 Optimizing Feedwater Treatment in Mixed-Metallurgy Systems of Conventional Units.................8-12
8.8 Boiler Water Treatment Options...........................................................................................................8-13
8.8.1 Phosphate Continuum (PC)..................................................................................................8-14
8.8.2 All-Volatile Treatment (AVT)..................................................................................................8-16
8.8.3 Caustic Treatment (CT)........................................................................................................8-16
8.8.4 Oxygenated Treatment (OT)................................................................................................8-17
8.9 HRSG Evaporator Water and Feedwater Treatment Options..................................................................8-17
8.9.1 Phosphate Continuum (PC)..................................................................................................8-17
8.9.2 All-Volatile Treatment (AVT)..................................................................................................8-17
8.9.3 Caustic Treatment (CT)........................................................................................................8-17
8.9.4 Oxygenated Treatment (OT)................................................................................................8-17
8.9.5 Important Philosophies for HRSG Cycle Chemistry Treatment...................................................8-18
8.10 Startup, Shutdown, and Layup Requirements for Boilers and HRSGs....................................................8-18
8.10.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................8-18
8.11 Benchmarking Cycle Chemistry – Conventional Units..........................................................................8-19
8.11.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................8-19
8.11.2 Five Assessment Factors....................................................................................................8-19
8.11.3 Assessment Form.............................................................................................................8-20
8.12 Benchmarking HTF/Cycle Chemistry – HRSG Units.............................................................................8-22
8.13 References.......................................................................................................................................8-22
Chapter 9
Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units 9-1
9.1 Introduction to Chemical Cleaning.........................................................................................................9-1
9.2 Assessing the Cleanliness of Waterwall and Economizer Tubes in Conventional Units................................9-1
9.2.1 Tube Sampling Locations......................................................................................................9-1
9.2.2 Tube Removal......................................................................................................................9-2
9.2.3 Waterside Deposit Assessment Activities.................................................................................9-2
9.3 Determining the Need to Clean Waterwall and Economizer Tubes in Conventional Units...........................9-3
9.3.1 Factors Influencing Boiler Tube Cleanliness and the Need to Clean............................................9-3
9.3.2 Overview of Methods for Determining the Need to Clean.........................................................9-4
9.3.3 Methodology for Determining the Need to Clean.....................................................................9-5
9.4 Solvent Selection for Waterwalls and Economizers of Conventional Units ................................................9-7
9.5 Planning and Typical Operations for Chemical Cleaning of Waterwalls and Economizers
in Conventional Units.........................................................................................................................9-8
9.6 Chemical Cleaning of Superheaters and Reheaters in Conventional Units.................................................9-9
9.6.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................9-9
9.6.2 When to Clean Steam-Touched Tubes...................................................................................9-10
9.6.3 Locations to Be Cleaned.....................................................................................................9-11
9.6.5 Planning the Cleaning Process for Steam-Touched Tubes.........................................................9-12
9.6.4 Importance of Sampling and Process Optimization................................................................9-11
9.6.6 Overview of the SH/RH Cleaning Procedure.........................................................................9-12
9.7 Chemical Cleaning of HRSG Units - Introduction...................................................................................9-13
9.8 Preoperational Cleaning of HRSG Units...............................................................................................9-14

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9.8.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................9-14
9.8.2 Steps to Minimize the Need for Preoperational Chemical Cleaning..........................................9-14
9.8.3 Steps in Preoperational Cleaning.........................................................................................9-16
9.9 Operational Cleaning of HRSG Units...................................................................................................9-16
9.9.1 Methodology for HRSG Tube Cleanliness Surveillance and Determining
the Need to Operationally Clean......................................................................................9-16
9.10 Solvent Selection in HRSG Units........................................................................................................9-18
9.11 Planning and Typical Operations for Chemical Cleaning of HRSGs .....................................................9-20
9.12 Chemical Cleaning in FBC Units........................................................................................................9-20
9.13 References.......................................................................................................................................9-20
Chapter 10
Fireside/Gas-Side Challenges and Control in Conventional and HRSG Units 10-1
10.1 Overview of the Fireside Environment in Conventional Units.................................................................10-1
10.2 Ash Deposition – Its Effects................................................................................................................10-2
10.3 Roadmap for Analysis of Ash Deposition Problems.............................................................................10-3
10.4 Generic Options for Control of Ash Deposition Problems.....................................................................10-4
10.5 Cleaning Options.............................................................................................................................10-4
10.5.1 Wall Blowers (Short Retractable Lances).............................................................................10-4
10.5.2 Water Cannons...............................................................................................................10-5
10.5.3 Long (Retractable) Sootblowers..........................................................................................10-5
10.5.4 Pulse Detonation..............................................................................................................10-5
10.5.5 Explosive Cleaning..........................................................................................................10-5
10.6 Introduction to Sootblowing..............................................................................................................10-5
10.7 Intelligent Sootblowing.....................................................................................................................10-7
10.8 Gas Side Environments in HRSG Units -Fuel Characteristics ................................................................10-8
10.9 Gas Side Environments in HRSG Units - Firing Systems.......................................................................10-9
10.10 Gas Side Environments in HRSG Units - Effect of Flow Levels and Distributions on HTFs.....................10-10
10.11 Gas Side Environments in HRSG Units - Gas Side Condensate Management ...................................10-11
10.11.1 Cold End Corrosion.....................................................................................................10-11
10.11.2 Stress Corrosion..........................................................................................................10-11
10.11.3 Fouling.......................................................................................................................10-11
10.11.4 Potential for Ammonium Sulfate Corrosion......................................................................10-11
10.12 References...................................................................................................................................10-12
Chapter 11
Company-Wide Programs 11-1
11.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................11-1
11.2 Determining the Need for a Formalized Program...............................................................................11-1
11.3 Steps in Implementing a BTFR/CCI Program.......................................................................................11-2
11.4 Factors to Benchmark a Utility’s Boiler Tube Failure Reduction Program.................................................11-7
11.5 Estimating the Value or Cost of BTFR/CCI Program Improvements......................................................11-10
11.6 Moving Toward and Maintaining “World Class” Programs for BTFR/CCI............................................11-11
11.6.1 Moving Toward “World Class” Status for BTFR..................................................................11-11
11.6.2 Maintaining “World Class” Status in BTFR........................................................................11-11
11.6.3 Moving Toward “World Class” Status in CCI.....................................................................11-11
11.6.4 Maintaining “World Class” Status in CCI..........................................................................11-12

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11.7 HRSG Tube Failure Reduction/Cycle Chemistry Improvement (HTFR/CCI) Program..............................11-12

11.8 Benchmarking the HTFR/CCI Program.............................................................................................11-14
11.9 Moving Toward and Maintaining “World Class” Programs for HTFR/CCI...........................................11-16
11.10 References...................................................................................................................................11-17
Chapter 12
Metallurgical Analysis 12-1
12.1 The Role of Metallurgical Analysis for Analyzing Boiler and HRSG Tube Failures . ................................12-1
12.2 Identify Failed or Degraded Tube Sample (Step 1.1, Table 12-1)..........................................................12-2
12.3 Enter Location of the Tube into the Tube Tracking Report or Computer Program (Step 1.2)......................12-2
12.4 Mark and Photodocument the Tube Prior to Its Removal (Step 1.3) . .....................................................12-3
12.5 Perform a Visual Examination of the Boiler/HRSG in the Vicinity of the Failure (Step 1.4)......................12-3
12.6 Remove the Tube (Step 1.5)...............................................................................................................12-3
12.7 Package and Transport the Tube to the Metallurgical Laboratory (Step 1.6)...........................................12-4
12.8 Prepare a Background Information Package for the Tube (Step 2.1).....................................................12-4
12.9 Tube Receipt and Log-In (Step 3.1)....................................................................................................12-4
12.10 Prepare a Metallurgical Evaluation Plan (Step 3.2)...........................................................................12-4
12.11 Visual and Other Nondestructive Examination; Photodocumentation
of the As-Received Tube (Step 3.3)....................................................................................................12-6
12.12 Ring Samples Are Removed for Dimensional Measurements (Step 3.4)...............................................12-6
12.13 Alloy Verification (Step 3.5)............................................................................................................12-6
12.14 Prepare and Evaluate Metallographic Samples (Step 3.6)..................................................................12-6
12.15 Perform Hardness Measurements (Step 3.7).....................................................................................12-7
12.16 Determine the Steamside-Oxide Scale Thickness and Morphology
(Steam-Touched Tubes) (Step 3.8) . ...................................................................................................12-7
12.17 Characterize the Composition, Morphology, and Extent of Waterside Deposits/Scale
(Water-Touched Tubes) (Step 3.9)......................................................................................................12-8
12.18 Characterize the External Scale/Ash Deposits and Morphology of the External Surface (Step 3.10).....12-9
12.19 Preparation of a Metallurgical Report (Step 3.11).............................................................................12-9
12.20 References...................................................................................................................................12-10
Chapter 13
Distinguishing Features Among Mechanisms with Similar Appearances 13-1
13.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................13-1
13.2 Waterside Underdeposit Corrosion Mechanisms: Hydrogen Damage, Caustic Gouging,
and Acid Phosphate Corrosion.........................................................................................................13-1
13.2.1 Features of the Failure......................................................................................................13-2
13.2.2 Effect on Oxide and Characteristic Deposits........................................................................13-3
13.2.3 Microstructural Features....................................................................................................13-3
13.2.4 Sources of Contamination.................................................................................................13-3
13.2.5 Summarizing Comments for the Underdeposit Corrosion Mechanisms....................................13-4
13.3 Water-Touched Tubing: Short-Term Overheating (Three Grades)..........................................................13-4
13.4 Water-Touched Tubing: Corrosion Fatigue Versus OD-Initiated Mechanical Fatigue...............................13-4
13.5 Failure Mechanisms in Economizer Inlet Headers: Thermal Fatigue, Flow-Accelerated
Corrosion, and Flexibility-Induced Cracking.......................................................................................13-6
13.6 SH/RH Tubing: Longterm Overheating (Creep) Versus Fireside Corrosion in Conventional Boilers...........13-6
13.7 SH/RH Tubing: Flyash Erosion Versus Sootblower Erosion...................................................................13-8
13.8 SH/RH Tubing: Graphitization and Longterm Overheating (Creep)......................................................13-9

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13.9 SH/RH Tubing: Intergranular Stress Corrosion Cracking (IGSCC), Intergranular Creep,
and Inter-Granular Corrosion or Attack (IGA)....................................................................................13-9
13.10 Low-Temperature Creep Versus Fatigue or Stress Corrosion Cracking in Waterwall Tubes....................13-9
13.11 Thermal-Mechanical Fatigue Versus Creep-Fatigue.........................................................................13-10
13.12 Secondary (Steam Impingement) Versus Primary Failures................................................................13-10
13.13 References...................................................................................................................................13-10
Chapter 14
Remaining Life Assessment 14-1
14.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................14-1
14.2 Statistical Analysis............................................................................................................................14-1
14.3 Life Assessment for Water-Cooled Tubes Experiencing Wall Loss..........................................................14-2
14.4 Case Study – Wall Thickness Loss Condition and Life Assessment.........................................................14-3
14.5 Life Assessment for Components Experiencing Fatigue........................................................................14-4
14.6 Life Assessment for Components Experiencing Creep - Overview.........................................................14-5
14.7 Remaining Life Assessment for Longterm Overheating/Creep in Ferritic Tubes.......................................14-7
14.7.1 Oxide Scale Analysis for Ferritic Tubes...............................................................................14-7
14.7.2 Spheroidization...............................................................................................................14-9
14.7.3 Hardness......................................................................................................................14-10
14.7.4 Accelerated Creep Rupture Testing...................................................................................14-11
14.8 Remaining Life Assessment for Longterm Overheating/Creep in Austenitic
Stainless Steel Tubes – Overview.....................................................................................................14-11
14.9 “Backcast” Method for Creep Life Assessment in Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubes..................................14-11
14.10 Analysis of Metallurgical Features for Creep Life Assessment in Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubes..........14-11
14.10.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................14-11
14.10.2 Methods to Distinguish Phases in Austenitic Stainless Steels...............................................14-12
14.10.3 Etching to Reveal Creep Microvoids...............................................................................14-12
14.10.4 Electrolytic Oxalic Acid Etch.........................................................................................14-13
14.10.5 List of Etchants.............................................................................................................14-13
14.10.6 Remaining Life Versus Metallurgical State - Sigma Phase Characterization..........................14-13
14.10.7 Examples of Sigma Phase Based Temperature Estimation..................................................14-14
14.10.8 Creep Microvoid Characterization.................................................................................14-15
14.10.9 Remaining Life Versus Metallurgical State - EVP Based Creep Damage Estimates.................14-16
14.10.10 Recommended Reinspection Interval Based on Metallographic Methods...........................14-17
14.10.11 Case Study – Example of Microstructural-Based Creep Damage Estimate..........................14-17
14.11 Statistical Methods for Creep Life Assessment in Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubes.................................14-18
14.11.1 Statistical Analysis and Forecast for Austenitic Tubing
(When 1 to 3 Failures Have Occurred)............................................................................14-18
14.11.2 Statistical Analysis and Forecast for Austenitic Tubing
(When More Than a Few Failures Have Occurred)............................................................14-18
14.12 Roadmap for Evaluating LTOC in Austenitic Tubes Using Cumulative Damage Modeling....................14-18
14.13 References...................................................................................................................................14-21
Chapter 15
Nondestructive Examination, Inspection, and Testing Methods 15-1
15.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................15-1
15.2 Codes and Standards.......................................................................................................................15-3

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15.2.1 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code..............................................................................15-3

15.2.2 ASME B31.1 Power Piping Code......................................................................................15-3
15.2.3 ASTM Standard Practices for NDE.....................................................................................15-3
15.2.4 European Standard EN 12952.........................................................................................15-4
15.3 Surface Preparation.........................................................................................................................15-5
15.3.1 No Surface Preparation....................................................................................................15-5
15.3.2 Surface Debris/Scale Removal..........................................................................................15-5
15.4 Access Limitations............................................................................................................................15-6
15.5 Visual Testing...................................................................................................................................15-6
15.5.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................15-6
15.5.2 Equipment......................................................................................................................15-7
15.6 Dimensional Measurement................................................................................................................15-8
15.7 Magnetic Particle Testing..................................................................................................................15-8
15.7.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................15-8
15.7.2 Applications....................................................................................................................15-9
15.8 Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)..............................................................................................................15-9
15.8.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................15-9
15.8.2 Applications..................................................................................................................15-10
15.9 AC Potential Drop..........................................................................................................................15-10
15.9.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................15-10
15.9.2 Basic Theory.................................................................................................................15-11
15.9.3 Implementation..............................................................................................................15-11
15.10 Ultrasonic Testing.........................................................................................................................15-12
15.10.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................15-12
15.10.2 Method......................................................................................................................15-12
15.10.3 Ultrasonic Testing to Measure Wall Thinning...................................................................15-13
15.10.4 Ultrasonic Testing for Measuring Steamside Oxide Thickness.............................................15-13
15.10.5 Ultrasonic Testing for Measurements of Waterside Deposit Thickness..................................15-14
15.10.6 Ultrasonic Detection of Microstructural Changes..............................................................15-15
15.10.7 Linear Phased Array.....................................................................................................15-15
15.11 Radiographic Testing....................................................................................................................15-15
15.12 Remote Field Eddy Current Testing.................................................................................................15-16
15.13 Pulsed Eddy Current.....................................................................................................................15-17
15.14 Low Frequency Electromagnetic Technique.....................................................................................15-18
15.15 Weld Probes................................................................................................................................15-19
15.16 Laser Profilometry........................................................................................................................15-19
15.17 Acoustic Monitoring.....................................................................................................................15-19
15.18 Quantitative Alloy Identification....................................................................................................15-20
15.19 Replication..................................................................................................................................15-21
15.19.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................15-21
15.19.2 Casting Replication......................................................................................................15-21
15.19.3 Metallurgical Replication..............................................................................................15-21
15.20 Portable Hardness Testing.............................................................................................................15-22

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15.21 Sampling.....................................................................................................................................15-22
15.22 Hydrostatic Testing.......................................................................................................................15-22
15.23 References...................................................................................................................................15-22
Chapter 16
Monitoring 16-1
16.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................16-1
16.2 Monitoring Tube Metal Temperatures.................................................................................................16-1
16.2.1 General Considerations....................................................................................................16-1
16.2.2 Chordal and Groove Type Thermocouple Installations..........................................................16-2
16.2.3 General Procedures for Installation of High Temperature Thermocouples.................................16-3
16.3 Monitoring Heat Flux........................................................................................................................16-4
16.4 Monitoring Displacements and Strains...............................................................................................16-4
16.5 Monitoring Fluid Flow.......................................................................................................................16-6
16.6 Water Chemistry Monitoring.............................................................................................................16-6
16.7 References.......................................................................................................................................16-6
Chapter 17
Repair and Replacement 17-1
17.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................17-1
17.2 Overview and General Comments.....................................................................................................17-2
17.2.1 Overview of Welding Repairs...........................................................................................17-2
17.2.2 General Comments..........................................................................................................17-3
17.3 Applicable Codes for Weld Repairs...................................................................................................17-3
17.3.1 U.S. Codes.....................................................................................................................17-3
17.3.2 International Codes..........................................................................................................17-4
17.4 Specific Repair Procedures for Conventional Units..............................................................................17-6
17.4.1 Tube Section Replacement by ID Welding...........................................................................17-6
17.4.2 Conventional Tube Section Replacement Using OD Welding.................................................17-6
17.4.3 Grinding Out the Defect and Welding................................................................................17-8
17.4.4 Window Welding (Canoe Piece Repair).............................................................................17-9
17.4.5 Pad Welding.................................................................................................................17-10
17.4.6 Large-Scale Tube Replacement.........................................................................................17-12
17.4.7 Repair of Tube-to-Header Stub Tube Damage.....................................................................17-12
17.5 Specific Repair Procedures for HRSG Units.......................................................................................17-12
17.5.1 Tube Replacement on Tubing Away from Headers..............................................................17-13
17.5.2 Tube Plugging Procedures...............................................................................................17-14
17.5.3 Tube Repair..................................................................................................................17-14
17.5.4 Tube-to-Header Weld Repairs..........................................................................................17-14
17.6 Application of Surface Coatings......................................................................................................17-16
17.6.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................17-16
17.6.2 Application of Surface Coatings by Welding.....................................................................17-16
17.6.3 Application of Surface Coatings by Thermal Spraying........................................................17-17
17.7 References.....................................................................................................................................17-18
Index Index-1

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Chapter 1
Introduction and Background

1.1 Introductory Comments

It is extraordinary that relatively simple materials can be designed and constructed to func-
tion so effectively as boiler and HRSG tubes under high temperature and high pressure con-
ditions, subject to potential degradation by a variety of mechanical and thermal stresses, and
with the potential for environmental attack on both the fluid- and fire-/gas-side.
If there are no breakdowns from the original design conditions, water-touched tubes (such
as waterwalls and economizers in conventional boilers) are designed for, and should have,
essentially infinite life. The case for steam-touched tubes, such as in the superheater (SH)
and reheater (RH) sections of modern boilers, is somewhat different because of the inevita-
bility of creep-limited lifetime, although lifetimes well in excess of 200,000 operating hours
are achievable.
Unfortunately, boiler tube failures (BTFs) and cycle chemistry corrosion and deposition
problems in fossil steam plants remain significant and pervasive leading causes of availability
and performance losses worldwide. Further, HRSG tube failures (HTFs) are occurring in
relatively new units at unacceptably high rates. A few statistics highlight some of the impacts
of BTF and HTF.
For BTF:
• Historically, BTFs have been a primary contributor to lost availability in fossil-fired power
plants, ranking as the largest equipment problem around the world and during the forty
years that reliability statistics have been kept in North America.
• The equivalent availability loss due to BTF in coal-fired utility power plants with genera-
tion facilities above 200 MW continues to average around 3% in North America (1013098,
2006).
• Boiler tube failures are the number one cause of forced outages in fossil plants worldwide.
More than 80% of all BTFs result in a unit forced outage.
• A typical BTF forced outage, lasting three days, can cost a utility in excess of $3 million
for replacement power.
• If the BTF happens to occur during the utility’s summer peak, system generating costs (or
lost revenue) can run as high as $12,000/MWhr.
• Failures continue to occur in all boiler areas: economizers, waterwalls, superheaters, and
reheaters.
For HTF:
• HTFs are the third highest cost in combined cycle units.
• HTFs can occur early (6 months) in life or after very few starts.
• Most HTFs result in unit forced outages.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Introduction and Background Volume 1: Fundamentals

• Cycle chemistry deposition and corrosion problems As shown in Table 1-1, many of the common HTF
affecting HRSG tubes are often longterm, but in mechanisms are the same as in conventional plants;
HRSGs can occur in the short term. however, they may have different root causes.
• HTFs can require major maintenance/repair.
• Very little predictive capability is being applied. 1.2 Objectives of This Book
• In the case of HTF, plant design is most often not In 1996 EPRI published Boiler Tube Failures: Theory and
linked with operating with the optimum cycle Practice (TR-105261, 1996). Since that time much tech-
chemistry. nical work has continued to improve the understanding
of BTFs and their solution. In 2002, a parallel effort for
Multi-pressure HRSGs have been operating long enough HTFs, Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failure Man-
to enable recognition of patterns. Primary causes of many ual (1004503, 2002) was published. That was the first
of the HTFs are: comprehensive effort to consolidate the state-of-the-art
• Inadequate chemistry design and very little optimiza- with respect to HTF. Since publication of that docu-
tion during commissioning and early in life. ment, the technical understanding of HTFs, their causes,
• Inadequate thermal analysis decisions during concept and resolution has also evolved considerably.
and design phases. The primary objective of this book is to combine and
• Transient conditions that were either not considered or update the previous documents in order to provide the
are outside the design envelope. most recent knowledge about how to identify boiler tube
• Inadequate or non-existent temperature monitoring and HRSG tube failure mechanisms, determine their
during commissioning and early in life. root cause, and how to apply immediate solutions and
• Poor fabrication and not being preoperationally longer term strategies to prevent their reoccurrence.
cleaned. Additional objectives are:
• To discuss the internal and external environment expe-
The BTF/HTF mechanisms representing the leading
rienced by boiler and HRSG tubes and the response of
causes of availability loss are shown in Table 1-1. These
common tube materials to those environments, so as
results come from surveys conducted during recent Inter-
to aid in the fundamental understanding of why tube
national conferences; similar rankings have been recorded
failures may occur.
in many other countries worldwide, including Canada,
the United Kingdom, Australia, and Russia. • To provide direct, easy-to-follow actions to be taken if
a tube failure has occurred and, more importantly,
Table 1-1 actions to be taken to anticipate and avoid tube failures
Leading BTF/HTF Mechanisms from occurring in the first place.
Source: 1013629, 2006
• To provide sufficient background information, so that
Mechanism
Percentage of Units the reader, if interested, can understand why the pre-
Experiencing this Mechanism
scriptions are made.
2004 2001 1997
Conventional Boilers • To provide guidance about the interactions of boiler
Flyash erosion 71% 75% 74% and HRSG tubes with overall unit health and opera-
Corrosion fatigue 56% 77% 63% tion practices.
Longterm overheating/creep 79% 81% 80% • To provide supporting metallurgical documentation
Sootblower erosion for use in diagnosing and remedying the mechanism of
Hydrogen damage 50% 57% 37%
each tube failure.
Waterwall fireside corrosion 42% 49% 48%
• To provide information on the repair and replacement
HRSGs of boiler and HRSG tubes.
Flow-accelerated corrosion 35% 26% • To provide background on the assessment of damage
Thermal fatigue 20% 31% in boiler and HRSG tubes.
Corrosion fatigue 15% 42% • To provide sufficient information so that a company-
Pitting 11%
wide correction, prevention, and control program can
Hydrogen damage 5%
be established.
Longterm overheating/creep 0%

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Introduction and Background

This compilation includes all known BTF and HTF
mechanisms. It is never possible to anticipate what future
concerns might arise, but a final objective of the work
reported here is to provide enough information about
how the breakdown situations in boiler and HRSG tubes
develop to allow rational approaches to be formulated
for the analysis of as yet unknown challenges.
1.3 Organization of This Book and How to Use It
1.3.1 Overview of the Content of the Three Volumes
This book is organized in three volumes. Volume 1 pro-
vides information that is applicable to many individual
mechanisms. By placing this generic information in
Volume 1, the stage is set for the detailed discussion of
individual mechanisms found in Volumes 2 and 3.
Volume 2 is focused exclusively on BTF and HTF mech-
anisms in water-touched tubing, that is, the waterwalls
and economizers of conventional fossil-fuel power plants
along with the evaporators and economizers in HRSGs.
Volume 3 covers mechanisms that affect superheater/
reheater tubing in conventional boilers and HRSGs. Vol-
ume 3 also contains three mechanisms that affect both
water- and steam-touched tubing (maintenance damage,
material flaws, and welding flaws) and chapters on BTF
mechanisms in FBC units (bubbling bed and circulating
bed) and waste-to-energy units.
Tables 1-2 and 1-3 provide an index to the specific mech-
anism coverage of Volumes 2 and 3, respectively.

Table 1-2
Organization of Volume 2: Water-Touched Tubes

Mechanism Conventional Boilers HRSGs Chapter No.

Water-Touched Tubes
Corrosion fatigue in conventional boilers X 19
Corrosion fatigue in HRSGs X 20
Flyash erosion X 21
Hydrogen damage X X 12
Acid phosphate corrosion X X 23
Caustic gouging X X 24
Waterwall fireside corrosion X 25
Thermal fatigue in waterwalls X 26
Thermal fatigue in economizer inlet headers X 27
Thermal-mechanical fatigue and vibration-induced fatigue
X 28
in water-touched tubes
Water blower thermal fatigue X 29
Thermal-mechanical fatigue in HRSG units X 30
Flow-accelerated corrosion in HRSG units X 31
Flow-accelerated corrosion in economizer inlet headers
X 32
of conventional boilers
Sootblower erosion (water-touched tubes) X 33
Short-term overheating in waterwall tubing X X 34
Low temperature creep cracking X X 35
Chemical cleaning damage X X 36
Pitting in water-touched tubes X X 37
Coal particle erosion X 38
Gas-side corrosion and pitting X 39
Falling slag damage X 40
Acid dewpoint corrosion X X 41
Stress corrosion cracking in water-touched tubing X 42

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Introduction and Background Volume 1: Fundamentals

Table 1-3
Organization of Volume 3: Steam-Touched Tubes
Conventional
Mechanism HRSGs Chapter No.
Boilers
Steam-Touched Tubes
Longterm overheating/creep X X 44
SH/RH fireside corrosion (coal plants) X 45
SH/RH fireside corrosion (oil-fired plants) X 46
Dissimilar metal weld failures X 47
Short-term overheating in SH/RH tubing X X 48
Stress corrosion cracking X X 49
SH/RH sootblower erosion X 50
Damage caused by explosive cleaning X 51
Thermal-mechanical fatigue and vibration-induced fatigue in steam-touched tubes X 52
Thermal-mechanical fatigue X 53
Creep fatigue X 54
Flow-induced vibration fatigue X 55
Thermal quenching X 56
Rubbing/fretting X 57
Pitting in steam-touched tubes X X 58
Graphitization X 59
Chemical cleaning damage in SH/RH X X 60
Maintenance damage X X 61
Material flaws X X 62
Welding/repair defects X X 63
Bubbling bed FBCs X 64
Circulating bed FBCs X 65
Waste-to-energy units X 66

1.3.2 Organization of Volumes 2 and 3 Chapters in Volumes 2 and 3 that address both conven-
Major mechanism chapters in Volumes 2 and 3 that tional boilers and HRSGs in a single chapter are orga-
address tube damage in either conventional units or nized in the following manner:
HRSGs (for example, Chapter 19 that covers Corrosion Section
Fatigue in Conventional Boilers or Chapter 20 that cov- No. Topic
ers Corrosion Fatigue in HRSGs) are organized in a con- 1.0 Nature of Damage in Both Conventional
sistent way in the following manner: Boilers and HRSGs
Section 1.1 Features of Damage
No. Topic 1.2 Locations of Damage
1.0 Nature of Damage 1.3 Susceptible Materials (some chapters)
1.1 Features of Damage 2.0 Mechanism of Damage in Both
1.2 Locations of Damage Conventional Boilers and HRSGs
1.3 Susceptible Materials (some chapters) 3.0 Possible Root Causes and Actions to
2.0 Mechanism of Damage Confirm - Conventional Boilers
3.0 Possible Root Causes and Actions to Confirm 4.0 Determining the Extent of Damage -
4.0 Determining the Extent of Damage Conventional Boilers
5.0 Repairs, Immediate Solutions, and Actions 5.0 Repairs, Immediate Solutions, and Actions -
Conventional Boilers
6.0 Longterm Actions and Prevention of Repeat
Failures 6.0 Longterm Actions and Prevention of Repeat
Failures - Conventional Boilers
7.0 Possible Ramifications or Implications to
Other Parts of the Unit 7.0 Possible Ramifications or Implications to
Other Parts of the Unit - Conventional
8.0 Case Studies (if any)
Boilers
9.0 References

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Introduction and Background
8.0 Case Studies - Conventional Boilers (if any)
9.0 Nature of Damage - note for HRSG Units
10.0 Mechanism of Damage - note for
HRSG Units
11.0 Possible Root Causes and Actions to
Confirm - HRSG Units
12.0 Determining the Extent of Damage -
HRSG Units
13.0 Repairs, Immediate Solutions, and Actions - prevention of boiler tube failures has been on-going since
HRSG Units
14.0 Longterm Actions and Prevention of Repeat
Failures - HRSG Units
15.0 Possible Ramifications or Implications to different countries have had, and continue to have,
Other Parts of the Unit - HRSG Units
16.0 Case Studies - HRSG Units (if any)
17.0 References
A key part of each chapter in Volumes 2 and 3 is the
Root Causes Table that shows the possible root causes,
actions to confirm, immediate actions/solutions, and
longterm actions to prevent repeat failures. It is impor-
tant that the root cause of a particular damage mecha-
nism be clearly identified so that the proper short- and
longterm actions can be initiated. To fail in any of these
steps is to open the door to probable repeat failures.
For many tube failure mechanisms, choices for prevent-
ing a reoccurrence of the problem are limited to only one
or two options that directly address the underlying root
cause. For some mechanisms, fireside corrosion is a nota-
ble example, the optimal choice of a longterm strategy
may be as much an economic decision as one driven by
engineering considerations. The importance of economic
evaluation when seeking longterm solutions to tube
failures cannot be overemphasized.
1.4 Roadmaps for Solving Boiler and HRSG
Tube Failures
The first stop for readers should be Chapter 2, which
contains roadmaps for solving boiler and HRSG tube
failures. Also included there are screening tables which
provide a means to perform a preliminary identification
of the damage mechanism based on key damage features
and location of the failures. From that information, the
reader can be directed to the appropriate chapters in Vol-
umes 2 or 3 for additional detailed information about
how to proceed.
The balance of this chapter reviews historical (Section
1.5) and recent (Section 1.6) developments in the identi-
fication, correction and prevention of tube failures, along
with on-going challenges (Section 1.7).
1.5 Historical Developments in the Identification,
Correction, and Prevention of Boiler Tube Failures
Internationally, extensive research into the causes and
the early 1950s. The problems confronted, the solutions
sought, and the progression of technology in different
countries have proceeded along many paths. As a result,
different failure types and have instituted differing
approaches to their resolution.
Factors that have shaped the research on individual boiler
tube failure mechanisms include: (i) fuel sources avail-
able, (ii) design philosophy, (iii) an outbreak of a serious
failure or series of failures, (iv) available technology,
(v) knowledge of prior shortcomings, (vi) the level of
available manufacturing technology and quality control
that could be achieved, (vii) what type of cycle chemistry
control was chosen, and (viii) the flexibility to change
once a decision about one of the above had been made.
1.5.1 Identification of BTF and HTF Mechanisms, Root
Causes, and Corrective Actions
The first compilation of all known boiler tube failure
mechanisms and their direct causes was prepared in the
late 1970s and eventually published by the Canadian
Electric Association as Analysis and Prevention of Boiler
Tube Failures (Dooley, 1983). An updated version, Man-
ual for Investigation and Correction of Boiler Tube Failures,
was published by the Electric Power Research Institute in
the mid-1980s (CS-3945, 1985). A greatly expanded
edition, in which detailed information about all known
BTF mechanisms was the book, Boiler Tube Failures:
Theory and Practice (TR-105261, 1996). The publication
of a Boiler Tube Failure Metallurgical Evaluation Hand-
book (TR-102433, 1993) provided a key resource and a
sharp focus on metallurgical analysis. These technical
compilations were used as the bases for overall manage-
ment-supported, programmatic approaches for the eval-
uation and correction of BTF on a utility-wide basis
(GS-6467, 1989).
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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Introduction and Background Volume 1: Fundamentals
1.5.2 On the General Nature of Protective Oxides
Evaluations of the general nature of protective oxides and
laboratory studies of various boiler tube materials, as well
as the study of specific failure mechanisms and field per-
formance, has been extensively pursued since the 1950s.
The growth of magnetite on tube materials and the attack
caused by acidic or basic solutions was investigated in the
early 1960s (Potter, 1961; Field, 1963). The earliest
extensive U.K. research on the corrosion behavior of
steels in steam environments was a collaborative exercise
in the 1960s between the CEGB, Brown Firth Research
Laboratories, Brown Bayley Steels Ltd., and United Steel
Cos. Ltd (King, 1971).
1.5.3 Influence of Available Fuel Sources
Units in the United Kingdom differ from those in North
America in burning coals containing levels of chlorine up
to 0.7% from which serious problems with waterwall
and SH/RH fireside corrosion have arisen. Because of
the seriousness of the problem, much effort has been,
and still is, being undertaken to understand the basic
mechanisms and to develop the optimal mitigation
strategies.
The recognition of the effect of coal composition on the
incidence of fireside corrosion has influenced U.S.
research into this mechanism as well. In a similar light,
some countries have major problems with highly erosive
(high ash content) coals. In these countries (such as
India, South Africa, and Australia), the problem of flyash
erosion is of major importance.
1.5.4 Influence of Operating Conditions
The advanced steam conditions that were typical of early
once-through supercritical units in the U.S. (following
their introduction in Europe) led to a host of problems
with corrosion and overheating in boilers operating at
621°C (1150°F) and 650°C (1202°F) (Reid, 1971; CS-
5071, 1987). The recognition in the 1950s that high
steam temperatures could cause significant problems
with low melting point ash constituents and extensive
fireside corrosion led to limitations on main steam tem-
perature in coal-fired units. These limitations are, for the
most part, still followed in today’s units, generally to a
maximum temperature of 566°C (1050°F) and pressure
of 24.8 MPa (3600 psig).
1-6
In contrast, many countries including Canada, Australia,
New Zealand, and Hong Kong continued to employ
drum units with 548°C (1000°F) and 17.2 MPa (2500
psig) cycles and as a result, avoided the problems with
serious fireside corrosion that had resulted in the higher
temperature units.
1.5.5 BTF and the Choice of Water Chemistry Control
In the 1950s and 1960s both the U.S. and the U.K. had
serious waterside corrosion problems (TR-104007,
1995). Careful laboratory work in both countries set the
scene for operational limits to water chemistry and inter-
estingly led to two drastically different approaches.
In the U.S., a seminal study was conducted in the early
1960s by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Research Committee on Boiler Feedwater Studies to
identify the cause of this very severe attack of boiler tubes
(Goldstein, 1968; Goldstein, 1969). The cause was iden-
tified as high levels of sodium hydroxide and sodium
phosphate in the treatments, which were standard prac-
tice at the time. As a result, the chemistry of choice
became congruent phosphate treatment so as to move
away from the free hydroxide regime. This choice led to
problems with control because of phosphate hideout and
subsequently to the occurrence of BTF caused by acid
phosphate corrosion. In response, there has been an evo-
lution of phosphate treatment options with the culmina-
tion of the Phosphate Continuum, which was designed
in the early 2000s to overcome all the previous problems
relating to phosphate (1004188, 2004).
In the U.K., the choice in the 1970s was to use NaOH
because of its superior buffering ability against the con-
tamination caused by any ingress of seawater from con-
denser leaks. That choice required strict control of the
level of NaOH to prevent the continuation of waterside
corrosion by a caustic gouging mechanism.
Water chemistry for supercritical units in the U.S. was
derived from that of existing European practice at the
time (early 1950s), which was all-volatile treatment
(AVT). The use of AVT in the reducing mode in once-
through supercritical units subsequently led to problems
including: (i) the production of an excess of feedwater
corrosion products, (ii) excessive boiler pressure drops,
(iii) deposit buildup, (iv) BTF by a supercritical water-
wall cracking mechanism, and (v) condenser tube fail-
ures. In the early 1970s, European utilities changed to an
oxygenated treatment chemistry and have been able to
avoid these problems; similar changes have now occurred
in supercritical units around the world.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Introduction and Background
1.6 Recent Developments in the Identification,
Correction, and Prevention of BTF and HTF
A tremendous amount of active research into the causes
and resolution of boiler and HRSG tube failures has
occurred over the past 10 years. These developments are
reflected throughout this book. Some of the key advances
and recent issues are discussed briefly here.
1.6.1 Oxides Research
Recent work on oxide formation and exfoliation has
found that there are some significant variations from the
traditional understanding of the behavior of oxide growth
and exfoliation on low Cr ferritic steels (up to “normal”
9 Cr). It has been observed (Dooley, 2003) that the oxide
growth and exfoliation process on 91 alloys differs
remarkably from the low Cr ferritics (including T9).
Severe exfoliation has been observed especially in HRSGs
that suffer large thermal transients.
Anomalous oxide growth and exfoliation behavior has
also been observed for some of the newer austenitic alloys
such as Type 347 HFG, which has seen increased usage
in new supercritical units around the world. A number of
early exfoliation events have been observed in this
material.
The oxide scale method for remaining life assessment of
ferritic superheater and reheater tube materials has
become ubiquitous and is now used worldwide. New
methods for estimating the life of austenitic tube materi-
als have also been recently developed.
1.6.2 The Increased Usage of Combined Cycle
Units and Troublesome Occurrence of “Early”
HRSG Tube Failures
During the past 10 years, combined cycle units employ-
ing heat recovery steam generators have become the key
type of generating unit. However, tube failures very early
in the life of such units have occurred with disturbing
frequency. Of particular concern are failures caused by
thermal-mechanical fatigue. It is now clear that monitor-
ing campaigns, starting as early as unit commissioning,
to measure actual thermal transients for all operating
conditions are critical to avoiding this form of damage.
1.6.3 New Cycle Chemistry Understanding
The most direct, most effective, and ultimately the least
expensive means to prevent many serious BTFs/HTFs is
through the appropriate choice, control, and monitoring
of the steam and water purity. There have been a number
of recent advances in the understanding and application
of cycle chemistry to avoid corrosion, deposition, and
damage to tubes and turbines in all types of units.
EPRI has conducted much research over the past 15
years to understand nucleation, early condensate, and
liquid films in the phase transition zone of the low pres-
sure turbine. The results of the work clearly indicated
that to minimize deposition, the steam limits for sodium,
chloride, and sulfate needed to be reduced from the lev-
els indicated in earlier guidelines. This mandated better
boiler water control of contaminants.
The development of new cycle chemistry treatments also
continues. For example, in the early 1990s, guidelines
for equilibrium phosphate treatment (EPT) and phos-
phate treatment (PT) were introduced. These guidelines
brought enormous success to the world of phosphate
treatments in conventional fossil plants. However,
although they were very successful in addressing the main
corrosion concern of acid phosphate corrosion, the appli-
cation of the guidelines was often unsuccessful in address-
ing control and overall boiler corrosion protection
(hydrogen damage). These concerns led to the need for a
new control technology and operating philosophy for
phosphate treatments, termed the Phosphate Contin-
uum (PC) (1004188, 2004).
1.6.4 Importance of Combined BTFR/CCI
and HTFR/CCI Programs
The success of the EPRI Boiler Tube Failure Reduction
Program (BTFRP) in the early 1990s led to the develop-
ment of a similar formalized program for Cycle Chemis-
try Improvement (CCI). These were joined into a
combined BTFR/CCI Program and a parallel program
for HRSGs. All have repeatedly demonstrated that for-
mal, company-wide programs can make a significant
impact toward reducing availability loss in conventional
and combined cycle units.
1.6.5 New Philosophy of Layup
It has long been clear that unit transients such as startup,
shutdown, and layup have significant effects on tube
damage. Recent new developments in the control of
chemistry conditions during layup have been developed.
The newest philosophy consists of three parts:
• Don’t allow the shutdown fluids to become
oxygenated.
• Keep the potential of the liquid the same during
shutdown as during operation.
• Alternatively, keep surfaces dry and clean.
1-7
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Introduction and Background Volume 1: Fundamentals
1.6.6 Advances in Understanding Specific BTF/HTF
Mechanisms
There has been a recent evolution in the understanding
of some key mechanisms and their control. These
include:
Waterwall thermal fatigue (previously called circum-
ferential waterwall cracking), particularly in super-
critical units. In its most common manifestation, this
damage type appears as circumferential cracking in the
waterwalls of coal-fired supercritical units. Extensive
work on this mechanism was conducted in the former
Soviet Union, Germany, and Japan throughout the 1970s
and 1980s and by EPRI in the late 1980s and early
1990s. At that time, the formation of internal “ripple”
magnetite played a major role in the manifestation of
damage by increasing the pressure drop across the water-
wall and the tube wall temperature. With the introduc-
tion of oxygenated treatment, the ripple magnetite
induced problem was controlled and the incidences of
waterwall damage by thermal fatigue were greatly
reduced.
However, in the early 2000s, thermal fatigue re-emerged
in at least two different situations. The first has been iso-
lated to supercritical units in the U.S. Here the introduc-
tion of NOX legislation led to the introduction of low
NOX burners and separated overfire air (SOFA) systems.
The only solution to this problem in the U.S. has been to
install weld overlays on the wall in critical locations. The
contribution of the severe fireside corrosion and the over-
lays has been associated with the return of thermal fatigue
cracking. The second occurrence has been on new super-
critical units in the early 2000s on units without severe
fireside corrosion or weld overlays as a result of increased
heat flux and flame impingement.
Corrosion fatigue. The contributors to corrosion fatigue
have been long identified. However, it continues to be a
major source of availability loss in conventional units. A
refined methodology for identifying specific root causes
and developing appropriate solutions has been devel-
oped. It is clear from extensive recent field results that
monitoring of strains, displacements, and temperatures
is key for identifying highly strained locations. It is criti-
cal to find the time in operating space when the critical
strain (> 0.2% strain) develops and leads to cracking of
the internal protective oxide on tubes. Evaluations need
to consider all operating transients including (i) hydrotest,
(ii) cold, warm, and hot starts, (iii) shutdown (particu-
larly force cool), and (iv) low load transients.
1-8
Thermal-mechanical fatigue in HRSG units. As noted
previously, thermal-mechanical fatigue is a leading
damage type in HRSG units for a variety of reasons.
Recent work has identified 10 specific load types that are
causing the thermal transients that drive this mechanism.
Understanding the sources for significant loads and insti-
tuting a comprehensive monitoring program are key to
preventing HRSG tube failures by this mechanism.
Flow-accelerated corrosion. As a result of the potentially
severe consequences, flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) is
among the most extensively studied failure mechanisms,
and the mechanism is now well understood. FAC dam-
age occurs only under specific conditions of flow, water
chemistry, geometry, and material and is most trouble-
some over a relatively narrow temperature range. The
available control methods are now also in hand. The
majority of FAC-susceptible components and systems,
especially those operating with single-phase (water) and
with all-ferrous feedwater systems, can avoid FAC
through selection of suitable oxidizing feedwater chemis-
tries. A subset of susceptible components, especially
those in systems with mixed-metallurgy feedwater
systems and in regions with two-phase flow, will require
periodic inspections and possible replacement with
materials more resistant to FAC.
1.6.7 New Repair Technologies, Particularly
for HRSG Units
New repair technologies have evolved over the past few
years, particularly for HRSGs. Specific repair techniques
include (i) the ID Tube Welder, which has been commer-
cialized and can perform both HRSG tube-to-tube welds
and waterwall window welds in conventional units and
(ii) an innovative method to perform difficult-to-access
tube-to-header welds in HRSGs by accessing the loca-
tion through a hole or window in the header machined
180° away from the damaged area.
1.7 On-Going Challenges
1.7.1 Repeat Failures
In almost all cases of serious availability or performance
losses, the problems are usually repetitive in nature and
result in multiple forced outages. A repeat tube failure is
defined as multiple failures in the same boiler or HRSG
circuit from the same mechanism and root cause.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Introduction and Background
Without a proper understanding of the mechanism of
failure, the root cause, the appropriate corrective actions,
and the proper execution of those actions, it is not possi-
ble to apply permanent engineering solutions. One of
the purposes of this book is to match mechanism, root
cause, and corrective action to help avoid this problem.
Experience has shown that primary factors influencing
repeat, rather than random, tube failures result from:
(i) lack of management support or resources, (ii) initial
mechanism or root cause of the problem was not deter-
mined, (iii) the root cause was improperly determined
and thus the wrong corrective action was taken, (iv) the
root cause was identified, the proper corrective action
was attempted, but it was not performed correctly, or
(v) no corrective action was taken. Other factors include:
(vi) lack of a multidisciplinary or team approach to the
solution, (vii) lack of action plans to eliminate the repeat
failures, (viii) not following state-of-the-art operating,
maintenance, or engineering practices, (ix) lack of train-
ing, or (x) failure to document the problem in terms of
system impact or costs.
Repeat HTFs occur for basically the same reasons as in
conventional plants:
• Lack of management direction or support.
• Not applying the sequence of mechanism-root
cause-solution.
• Not “killing” the mechanism.
• Applying the wrong solution.
• Missing a multidisciplinary approach.
• Not adopting predictive “world class” thermal and
chemistry practices.
• Allowing repeat situations to exist (severe thermal
transients, inadequate condensate extraction, inad-
equate attemperation).
• Not developing action plans to eliminate repeat
HTF/CC problems.
• Inadequate thermal and chemistry monitoring.
• Lack of documentation.
It is particularly frustrating when repeat failures occur for
mechanisms for which the details of the mechanism, root
causes, and solutions have long been known. Examples
include flyash erosion and the underdeposit corrosion
mechanisms (hydrogen damage, acid phosphate corro-
sion, and caustic gouging).
1.7.2 Distinguishing Between Similar Mechanisms
That there is a significant loss of availability from all
boiler and HRSG tube failure causes is certain as reflected
by the statistics cited previously. It should be noted, how-
ever, that there is some uncertainty as to relative contri-
butions to unavailability for several of the more prominent
mechanisms. This is caused by an inability to distinguish
between some of these mechanisms, usually as a result of
inferior metallurgical analysis. This problem then leads
to incorrect root cause identification followed by an
inappropriate and ineffective solution to the problem.
Chapter 13 of this volume looks specifically at a compar-
ison of some commonly misdiagnosed mechanisms. Key
defining characteristics for each are also given in the
relevant discussions of individual mechanisms.
1.7.3 Nondestructive Examination (NDE) Methods
Developing methods that can reliably locate and size
defects with a minimum of preparation remains one of
the largest challenges in both conventional and HRSG
units. An example is corrosion fatigue. Corrosion fatigue
initiates on the inside surface so that visual examination
of the outside surface cannot locate this type of cracking
early in the lifetime of the damage. Detection of cold-
side cracking damage has remained a challenging prob-
lem because of access restriction due to attachments and
the presence of waterwall membrane. Even in the case of
extensive damage, the backside of waterwall tubes is cov-
ered with insulation and casing steel sheet. As a result,
the tube is normally accessible only from the fireside.
1.7.4 Need to Assess Unit Conditions Early in the Life
of Units to Avoid Failures Proactively, Not React to
Their Occurrence
The experience with early failures in HRSG units and the
fact that essentially all tube failures can be prevented if
the appropriate steps are taken have led to a change in
philosophy from reacting to tube damage toward antici-
pating and preventing tube damage as early in the life of
the unit as possible. For new units, this starts with design
and commissioning. For existing units, this starts with
monitoring for potentially serious conditions (such as
thermal or cycle chemistry transients and shortcomings)
and taking actions prior to the occurrence of tube
failures.
1-9
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Introduction and Background Volume 1: Fundamentals
1.8 References
1004188, 2004. Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil
Plants: PC & CT, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004. 1004188.
1004503, 2002. Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube
Failure Manual, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002. 1004503.
1013098, 2006. Integrated Boiler Tube Failure Reduction/
Cycle Chemistry Improvement Program, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 2006. 1013098.
1013629, 2006. “BTF and HTF Survey Results Con-
ducted at the EPRI BTF/HTF International Confer-
ence,” Proceedings: International Conference on Boiler Tube
and HRSG Tube Failures and Inspections, held in San
Diego, CA, November 2-4, 2004, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2006. 1013629.
CS-3945, 1985. Manual for Investigation and Correction
of Boiler Tube Failures, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1985.
CS-3945.
CS-5071, 1987. Fireside Corrosion and Fly Ash Erosion in
Boilers, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1987. CS-5071.
Dooley, 1983. Dooley, R.B. and H.J. Westwood, Analy-
sis and Prevention of Boiler Tube Failures, Ontario Hydro,
Report 83/237G-31, Canadian Electrical Association,
Montreal, Quebec, November, 1983.
Dooley, 2003. Dooley, R.B. and S.R. Paterson, “Oxide
Growth and Exfoliation in Steam: Plant Experience,”
EPRI-NPL Workshop on Scale Growth and Exfoliation,
November 2003.
Field, 1963. Field, E.M., R.C. Stanley, A.M Adams, D.
R. Holmes, “The Growth, Structure and Breakdown of
Magnetite Films on Mild Steel,” Proc. 2nd Int. Conf.
Metallic Corrosion, New York, 1963, p. 829.
Goldstein, 1968. Goldstein, P., “A Research Study on
Internal Corrosion of High Pressure Boilers,” Trans.
ASME 90(A), 1, 1968, pp. 23-37.
Goldstein, 1969. Goldstein, P. and C.L. Burton,
“A Research Study on Internal Corrosion of High Pres-
sure Boilers - Final Report,” Trans. ASME 91(A), 1969,
pp. 75-101.
1-10
GS-6467, 1989. Boiler Tube Failure: Correction, Preven-
tion, and Control, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1989.
GS-6467.
King, 1971. King, C.W., M.T. Robinson, H. Howarth,
and R. Perry, “Oxidation Behaviour of Steels in High
Temperature Steam,” CEGB Report SSD/MID/
R244/71, 1971, cited in The Spalling of Steam-Grown
Oxide from Superheater and Reheater Tube Steels, EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: 1978. FP-686.
Potter, 1961. Potter, E.C. and G. M. W. Mann, Proc.
1st Int. Cong. Metall. Corrosion, London, Butterworks,
1961, p. 417.
Reid, 1971. Reid, W.T., External Corrosion and Deposits
– Boilers and Gas Turbines, Elsevier, New York,
NY, 1971.
TR-102433, 1993. Boiler Tube Failure Metallurgical
Guide, Volume 1: Technical Report, Volume 2: Appendices,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1993. TR-102433.
TR-104007, 1995. Sodium Hydroxide for Conditioning
the Boiler Water of Drum-Type Boilers, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 1995. TR-1004007. See also M. Ball, “Caustic
Treatment for Drum Boilers,” Fourth International Con-
ference on Cycle Chemistry in Fossil Boilers, held in Atlanta,
Georgia, September 7-9, 1994.
TR-105261, 1996. Boiler Tube Failures: Theory and Prac-
tice, Volume 1: Boiler Tube Fundamentals; Volume 2:
Water-Touched Tubes; Volume 3: Steam-Touched Tubes,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1996. TR-105261.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

Chapter 2
Roadmaps for Avoiding
and Analyzing BTF/HTF

The roadmap for conventional boilers and boiler tube failures (BTFs) is discussed in
Section 2.1; that for heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs) and HRSG tube failures
(HTFs) is provided in Section 2.2.

2.1 Roadmap for Conventional Boilers and Boiler Tube Failures (BTF)
Figure 2-1 provides a roadmap for (i) solving boiler tube failures – mechanism unknown,
(ii) solving boiler tube failures – mechanism known, and (iii) anticipating and preventing
future boiler tube failures.
As shown, three avenues are open to the investigator or BTF team, depending upon the
status of the BTF event:
• A: BTF with mechanism unknown. If a BTF has occurred for the first time or a number
of repeat failures have occurred and the mechanism is not known, then the charts of typi-
cal appearance and location, Tables 2-1 and 2-2, should be consulted for water-touched
and steam-touched tubes, respectively. Note that these tables are based on simple, gener-
ally macroscopic features of failure and should be used as a guide to a particular chapter for
further analysis.
• B: BTF with “known” mechanism. If the BTF team has knowledge from past failures
that a particular mechanism is the likely cause, then Table 2-3, the index to all the BTF
mechanisms and their location in Volumes 2 and 3, can be used to go directly to the appro-
priate chapter. Here the team can follow step-by-step the seven steps to confirming the
mechanism, establishing the root cause, and formulating/executing the appropriate
solutions.
• C: Anticipating and preventing future BTFs. Historically, utilities and operators
responded to tube damage only after failures had occurred. This reactive response is eco-
nomically costly and, as the understanding of key mechanisms has improved, not neces-
sary. The modern approach for world class units is to understand the conditions in the
boiler, generally through monitoring activities, and to prevent tube failures from occur-
ring. Chapter 3 specifically looks at life cycle activities to avoid the occurrence of BTF and
HTF. Throughout all the volumes of this book, actions are identified that will help prevent
failures, particularly repeat failures, from occurring in either conventional or combined
cycle units.

2-1
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Roadmaps for Avoiding and Analyzing BTF/HTF Volume 1: Fundamentals

Figure 2-1
Roadmap of actions for identifying, evaluating, solving, and anticipating boiler tube failures (BTF).

2-2
 Table 2-1
Screening Table for Water-Touched Boiler Tube Failures
Typical Fracture Surface
Appearance
Thick-Edged Fracture
Surface
Thick-edged or large
window blowout (pinhole
leak or circular cracking is
also possible)
Thick-edged, leak or
window blowout
Thick-edged
Thick-edged, leak or crack
Thick-edged
Thick-edged
Thick-edged
Thin-Edged Fracture
Surface
Thin-edged, longitudinal,
“cod-“or “fish-mouth”
Thin-edged, leak or split
Thin-edged, leak or split
Thin-edged, long “fish-
mouth”
Thin-edged rupture
2-3
Other Likely Macroscopic and Metallographic Features Typical Locations Possible Chapter in
Mechanism Volume 2
Multi-array, multiple, transgranular cracks that initiate on the Near attachments, particularly where high restraint stresses Corrosion 19
inside of the tube; cracks often associated with corrosion pits can develop. Fatigue
Volume 1: Fundamentals
or other surface discontinuities. Near or associated with bends, particularly neutral axis.
Generally initiates on cold side of the tube, but can be
fireside.
Internal damage: gouging, wall thinning; tube deposits. High heat flux areas; hot side of tube; horizontal or inclined Hydrogen 22
tubing; pad welds; locations with local flow disruptions such Damage
as upstream of weld, backing ring, or other discontinuities.
Multiple, parallel cracks on the outside tube surface or on Maximum heat flux locations; fireside of waterwall tubing or Waterwall 26
membrane; sharp, V-shaped oxide coated cracks; wall membranes between tubes. Thermal Fatigue
thinning from external surface when found with fireside Cracking
corrosion. Can occur on weld overlays.
First sign as pinhole leak at toe of stub weld; multiple, Economizer inlet header stub tubes nearest the feedwater Thermal Fatigue 27
longitudinal, transgranular cracks; borehole cracking. inlet. in Economizer
Inlet Headers
Outside surface initiated, intergranular crack growth with Predominant in tube bends, particularly at intrados on Low 35
significant microfissuring aligned parallel with the main outside surface, and other locations subject to high residual, Temperature
crack and significant secondary cracking; evidence of grain forming, or service stresses. Creep Cracking
boundary creep cavitation and creep voids.
Transgranular cracking, OD-initiated and associated Near attachments, particularly solid or jammed sliding Thermal- 28
with tubing (at tube bends - longitudinal or attachments - attachments; at bends in tubing. Mechanical
transverse) or headers (particularly at the ends). Fatigue
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Damage to outside tube surface - multiple, closely spaced Waterwalls cleaned with water blowers (lances or cannons). Water Blower 29
circumferential cracks, although longitudinal cracks may also Thermal Fatigue
form; “crazing” pattern; no wastage.
Polishing of tube outside surface; very localized damage, Near side and rear walls; near economizer banks; near Flyash Erosion 21
wastage flats. plugged or fouled passages; where previous baffles have
been installed; driven by high local velocities.
Internal damage: gouging, wall thinning; tube deposits. As for hydrogen damage. Acid Phosphate 23
Corrosion
Internal damage: gouging, wall thinning; tube deposits. As for hydrogen damage. Caustic 24
Gouging
External wastage; probably affecting a number of tubes; Areas with locally substoichiometric environment; side and Fireside 25
maximum wastage at crown facing flame (maybe flame rear walls near burners; highest heat flux areas. Corrosion (coal-
impingement); damage extending in 120° arc around tube; fired units)
On units with low NOX burners and SOFAs, the corrosion is
hard deposits on tube outside surface. usually maximum just above the burners.
Erosion, wall thinning from inside; continuous scallop or Economizer inlet header stub tubes nearest to point of Flow- 32
“orange peel” appearance. feedwater inlet. Accelerated
Corrosion
Roadmaps for Avoiding and Analyzing BTF/HTF
 Table 2-1 (continued)

2-4
Screening Table for Water-Touched Boiler Tube Failures
Typical Fracture Surface Other Likely Macroscopic and Metallographic Features Typical Locations Possible Chapter in
Appearance Mechanism Volume 2
Thin-edged, “fish-mouth” Wastage flats on tube external surface at 45° around tube Circular pattern around wall blowers. Sootblower 33
from sootblower direction, little or no ash on tube surface. Erosion
Generally thin-edged Often shows signs of tube bulging or “fish-mouth” Highest heat flux locations above locations such as the site Short-Term 34
appearance; real keys will be transformation products of a tube or orifice blockage or in horizontal tubing where a Overheating
in microstructure. May also be thick-edged under certain downcomer steam “slug” can occur.
circumstances.
Thin-edged External wall thinning and wastage, little or no surface ash; Tubes near replaceable wear liners in cyclone burners; Coal Particle 38
location should be key. throat or quarl region of burners. Erosion
Thin-edged External erosion or mechanical impact damage features. Sloping wall tubes and/or ash hopper near bottom. Falling Slag 40
Damage
Thin-edged External, thinned or missing external oxide; final failure Low temperature areas of economizer. Acid Dewpoint 41
typically thin-edged, transgranular and ductile; presence of Corrosion
Roadmaps for Avoiding and Analyzing BTF/HTF

sulfur in ash deposits remaining on tube.

Pinhole Damage
Pitting Internal tube surface damage; distinctive aspect ratio of Locations where boiler water can stagnate during unit Chemical 36 or 37
damage - deep relative to area; partial or total (through-wall) shutdown (pitting). Cleaning
dissolution of the tube wall metal may be observed. Damage or
Pitting
Miscellaneous Damage
Types
Depends on underlying Usually obvious from type of damage and correspondence to Maintenance Chap. 61,
cause past maintenance activity. Damage Volume 3
Depends on defect Materials Flaws Chap. 62,
Volume 3
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

Usually thick-edged Care required to separate weld defects from another problem Welding Flaws Chap. 63,
located at a weld. Volume 3
Volume 1: Fundamentals
 Table 2-2
Screening Table for Steam-Touched Boiler Tube Failures
Typical Fracture Surface Other Likely Macroscopic and Typical Locations Possible Chapter in
Appearance Metallographic Features Mechanism Volume 3
Thick-Edged Fracture
Surface
Thick-edged Outside surface initiated, intergranular crack growth Predominant in lower temperature regions in tube bends, Low Chap. 35
with significant microfissuring aligned parallel with particularly at intrados on outside surface, and other locations Temperature Volume 2
Volume 1: Fundamentals

the main crack and significant secondary cracking; subject to high residual, forming, or service stresses. Creep
evidence of grain boundary creep cavitation and Cracking
Found in the lower temperature regions of the reheater and in
creep voids. primary superheater.
Thick-edged In ferritic materials, thick, internal oxide scales Highest temperature locations: near material transitions, where there Longterm 44
cracked longitudinally (alligator hide appearance); is a variation in gas-touched length, in or just beyond cavities, in the Overheating
potentially external wastage typically at 10 o’clock final leg of tubing just prior to the outlet header. (Creep)
and 2 o’clock positions; generally longitudinal
(axial) orientation; damage on heated side of
tube; microstructural damage by overheat and
intergranular or transgranular creep.
Also longitudinal cracking on austenitic tubing.
Thick-edged, leak Usually fusion line cracking at or near the At dissimilar metal welds (transitions between ferritic and austenitic Dissimilar 47
heat-affected zone on low alloy side of weld, materials). Metal Weld
circumferential orientation. Failure
Thick-edged (may manifest Cracking is transgranular or intergranular usually Bends and straight tubing with low spots; points with the highest Stress 49
as a pinhole) with significant branching; initiation can be at concentration of contaminants; high stress locations are particularly Corrosion
ID (most common) or on OD, circumferential or susceptible at bends, welds, tube attachments, supports, or spacers. Cracking
longitudinal orientation; may involve blowout of
window-type pieces. Sometimes around attachments
to SH or RH tubing.
Thick-edged Typically straight, transgranular cracking, OD- Tubing-related failures associated with attachments or bends in Fatigue 52
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

initiated and associated with tubing (at tube bends or tubing; header-related generally at ends of header.
attachments) or headers (particularly at the ends)
Thick-edged, leak May have helical fracture path; most commonly in Low temperature regions of the SH/RH; adjacent to weld fusion line Graphitization 59
HAZ of C or C-Mo steel tubes, although may also be at heat affected zone most common.
remote from weld; key is microstructure appearance
of graphite particles or nodules
Thick-edged Brittle fracture; typically ID initiating cracks. Locations where explosive cleaning has been used. Explosive 51
Cleaning
Damage
Thin-Edged Fracture
Surface
Thin-edged (unless creep- External polishing of tube surface; very localized Most prominent in backpass regions; bends near to walls. Flyash Erosion Chap. 21
assisted) damage Volume 2
Thin-edged External damage; wastage at 10 and 2 o’clock (flue Highest temperature tubes: leading tubes, near transitions, tubes out Fireside 45
gas at 12 o’clock); longitudinal cracking; perhaps of alignment, tubes around radiant cavities. Corrosion (Coal-fired
“alligator hide” appearance; real key to identification (coal-fired units units)
will be the presence of low-melting point ash in and oil-fired 46
external deposits units) (Oil-fired
units)

2-5
Roadmaps for Avoiding and Analyzing BTF/HTF
 Table 2-2 (continued)

2-6
Screening Table for Steam-Touched Boiler Tube Failures

Typical Fracture Surface Other Likely Macroscopic and Typical Locations Possible Chapter in
Appearance Metallographic Features Mechanism Volume 3
Thin-edged Often shows signs of tube bulging or “fish-mouth” Most commonly near bottom bends in vertical loops of SH/RH; Short-Term 48
appearance, longitudinal orientation. outlet legs, and near material transitions. Overheating
Thin-edged, pinhole or Wall thinning caused by external wastage flats First tubes in from wall entrance of retractable blowers; tubes in Sootblower 50
“thin” longitudinal blowout around tube from sootblower direction, little or no direct path of retractable blowers. Erosion
ash deposits on tube.
Thin-edged External damage; obvious metal-to-metal contact on Rubbing/ 57
tube surface Fretting
Pinhole Damage

Pitting Internal tube surface damage; distinctive aspect ratio For pitting: Tubes where condensate can form and remain during Chemical 58 or 60
of damage - deep relative to area; partial or total shutdown: bottoms of pendant loops on either SH or RH, low points Cleaning
Roadmaps for Avoiding and Analyzing BTF/HTF

(through-wall) dissolution of the tube wall metal may in sagging horizontal tubes. Damage or
be observed. Pitting
Various Other Damage
Types

Depends on the underlying Usually obvious from type of damage and Maintenance 61
cause correspondence to past maintenance activity Damage
Depends on defect Materials Flaws 62
Usually thick-edged or Care required to separate weld defects from another Welding Flaws 63
pinholes problem located at a weld
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Volume 1: Fundamentals
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Roadmaps for Avoiding and Analyzing BTF/HTF

Table 2-3
2.2 Roadmap for Combined Cycle Units and HRSG
Chapters for Conventional Boiler Tube Failure Mechanisms
Tube Failures (HTF)
Mechanism Chapter No.
Water-Touched Tubes
Figure 2-2 provides a roadmap for HRSG tube failures
Corrosion Fatigue 19 that is similar to that presented for conventional units.
Flyash Erosion 21 Three paths are open to the investigator or HRSG team
Hydrogen Damage 22 depending upon the status of the HRSG event:
Acid Phosphate Corrosion 23 • A: HTF with mechanism unknown. If an HTF has
Caustic Gouging 24 occurred for the first time or a number of repeat fail-
Waterwall Fireside Corrosion 25 ures have occurred and the mechanism is not known,
Thermal Fatigue in Waterwalls 26 then the charts of typical appearance and location,
Thermal Fatigue in Economizer Inlet Headers 27
Tables 2-4 and 2-5, should be consulted for water-
Thermal-Mechanical Fatigue and Vibration-Induced 28
Fatigue in Water-Touched Tubes
touched and steam-touched tubes, respectively. Note
Water Blower Thermal Fatigue 29 that these tables are based on simple, generally macro-
Flow-Accelerated Corrosion 32 scopic features of failure and should be used as a guide
Sootblower Erosion (Water-Touched Tubes) 33 to a particular chapter for further analysis. They can
Short-Term Overheating in Waterwall Tubing 34 provide a first suggestion toward a specific chapter in
Low Temperature Creep Cracking 35 Volumes 2 and 3 where confirmation can occur and
Chemical Cleaning Damage 36 where actions to be taken are delineated.
Pitting in Water-Touched Tubes 37 • B: HTF with “known” mechanism. If the HTF team
Coal Particle Erosion 38
has knowledge from past failures that a particular
Falling Slag Damage 39
mechanism is the likely cause, then Table 2-6, the
Acid Dewpoint Corrosion 41
index to all the HTF mechanisms and their location in
Steam-Touched Tubes
Volumes 2 and 3, can be used to go directly to the
Longterm Overheating/Creep 44
SH/RH Fireside Corrosion (Coal Plants) 45
appropriate chapter. Here the team can follow step-by-
SH/RH Fireside Corrosion (Oil-Fired Plants) 46 step the seven steps to confirming the mechanism,
Dissimilar Metal Weld Failures 47 establishing the root cause, and formulating/executing
Short-term Overheating in SH/RH Tubing 48 the appropriate solutions.
Stress Corrosion Cracking 49 • C: Anticipating and preventing future HTF. This is a
SH/RH Sootblower Erosion 50 vital step for HRSG units, which, because of their rela-
Damage Caused by Explosive Cleaning 51 tive youth have suffered less damage and fewer tube
Thermal-Mechanical Fatigue and Vibration-Induced 52 failures than conventional boilers. However, unsettling
Fatigue in Steam-Touched Tubes
Rubbing/Fretting 57
trends have been seen to indicate that tube failures will
Pitting in Steam-Touched Tubes 58
be occurring with increasing frequency if underlying
Graphitization 59 problems are not diagnosed and corrected in these
Chemical Cleaning Damage in SH/RH 60 units. Chapter 3 looks specifically at activities through-
Maintenance Damage 61 out the life cycle of HRSG units to avoid the occur-
Material Flaws 62 rence of HRSG tube failures.
Welding/Repair Defects 63
Bubbling Bed FBCs 64
Circulating Bed FBCs 65
Waste-to-Energy Units 66

2-7
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Roadmaps for Avoiding and Analyzing BTF/HTF Volume 1: Fundamentals

Figure 2-2
Roadmap of actions for identifying, evaluating, solving and anticipating heat recovery steam generator tube
failures (HTF).

2-8
 Table 2-4
Screening Table for Water-Touched HRSG Tube Failures
Typical Fracture Surface
Appearance
Thick-Edged Fracture
Surface
Thick-edged (pinhole leak
or circular cracking is also
possible)
Thick-edged, leak or
window blowout
Thick-edged
Thick-edged
Thick-edged (or pinhole)
Thin-Edged Fracture
Surface
Thin-edged, leak or split
Thin-edged, leak or split
Thin-edged rupture
Generally thin-edged
2-9
Other Likely Macroscopic and Typical Locations Possible Chapter in
Metallographic Features Mechanism Volume 2
Multi-array, multiple, transgranular cracks that Most often occurs in LP economizers, but may occur in other circuits Corrosion 20
initiate on the inside of the tube; cracks often including SH/RH; common locations header/tubing weld connections, Fatigue
Volume 1: Fundamentals
associated with corrosion pits or other surface bends and at attachments.
discontinuities.
Internal damage: gouging, wall thinning; tube HP (and a few IP) evaporators. Damage corresponds to the locations Hydrogen 22
deposits. of highest deposition rates. Tubes in the outermost assemblies or Damage
between modules; top ID surface of a horizontal tube. For horizontal
gas path HRSGs, hydrogen damage generally occurs on the leading
crown (facing the combustion turbine). For vertical gas path HRSGs, it
can occur on top or bottom crown.
Outside surface initiated, intergranular crack Predominant in tube bends, particularly at intrados on outside surface, Low 35
growth with significant microfissuring aligned and other locations subject to high residual, forming, or service Temperature
parallel with the main crack and significant stresses. Higher temperature regions of economizer tubes, lower Creep
secondary cracking; evidence of grain boundary temperature regions of the reheater, and primary superheater. Does Cracking
creep cavitation and creep voids. not occur in very low or very high temperature regions.
Single, sharp-tipped, tight transgranular cracks All HRSG sections; in the presence of locations with significant thermal Thermal- 30
(except for thermal shock, which produces multiple stresses caused by restraint of temperature differences or introduction Mechanical
cracks); OD-initiated; propagating around 180° of of fluid with significantly higher or lower temperature than the tube. Fatigue
the tube. Most often at tube-to-header location.
Thick-edged, brittle failures, may involve blow out Locations with the potential for the highest concentration of Stress 42
of small “window-type” pieces. May also be seen contaminants, such as where condensate can form during shutdown Corrosion
as a pinhole leak. Cracks can be circumferential (e.g., bends and straight tubing with low spots). Cracking
or longitudinal; cracks may have significant High stress locations such as bends, welds, tube attachments, supports
branching. Initiation on ID or OD. or spacers, and locations near welds, especially where a change in
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
thickness occurs.
Internal damage: gouging, wall thinning; tube As for hydrogen damage. Acid 23
deposits Phosphate
Corrosion
Internal damage: gouging, wall thinning; tube As for hydrogen damage. Caustic 24
deposits Gouging
Wall thinning from inside; continuous scallop or LP evaporators (most); IP evaporators (some) ; LP and HP economizer Flow- 31
“orange peel” appearance. or preheater tubing (isolated incidents). Most likely to develop at Accelerated
bends in piping and tubing, at tube bends near headers or at other Corrosion
locations where component geometry influences flow conditions.
Often shows signs of tube bulging or “fish-mouth” Highest heat flux locations above locations such as the site of a tube Short-Term 34
appearance; real keys will be transformation or orifice blockage or in horizontal tubing where a downcomer steam Overheating
products in microstructure. May also be thick- “slug” can occur.
edged under certain circumstances.
Roadmaps for Avoiding and Analyzing BTF/HTF
 Table 2-4 (continued)

2-10
Screening Table for Water-Touched HRSG Tube Failures
Typical Fracture Surface Other Likely Macroscopic and Typical Locations Possible Chapter in
Appearance Metallographic Features Mechanism Volume 2
Wall thinning leading to Wall or fin metal loss (corrosion); geometry ranges Various depending on the underlying cause of the different potential Gas-side 39
thin-edged rupture from pits to generalized surface loss depending on corrodents. Corrosion and
the underlying cause; possibly deposits – nature Pitting
depending on cause.
Pinhole Damage

Pinhole External, thinned or missing external oxide; Where tube metal temperatures are below the acid dewpoint. Acid Dewpoint 41
affected tubing is at very low pressures and as a Corrosion may be most severe on the tube surface and at the base of Corrosion
result failures are more often pinholes than thinning the fins or on the surfaces of air-cooled probes or casing.
Pitting Internal tube surface damage; distinctive aspect Pitting can occur on surfaces of any HRSG component that is (i) Pitting or 36 or 37
ratio of damage - deep relative to area; partial intentionally maintained wet during idle periods or (ii) intended to be Chemical
Roadmaps for Avoiding and Analyzing BTF/HTF

or total (through-wall) dissolution of the tube wall dry, but subject to either water retention due to incomplete draining, Cleaning
metal may be observed. condensation, or moisture during the idle period. Horizontal tubing is Damage
particularly vulnerable to pitting if not fully drainable and not provided
with a protective environment during shutdown periods. Pitting is most
prevalent in economizers, but is possible at any wet surface.
Miscellaneous Damage
Types
Depends on underlying Usually obvious from type of damage and Maintenance Chap. 61,
cause correspondence to past maintenance activity. Damage Volume 3
Depends on defect Materials Chap. 62,
Flaws Volume 3
Usually thick-edged Care required to separate weld defects from Welding Flaws Chap. 63,
another problem located at a weld. Volume 3
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals
 Table 2-5
Screening Table for Steam-Touched HSRG Tube Failures
Typical Fracture Surface Other Likely Macroscopic and
Appearance Metallographic Features
Thick-Edged Fracture
Surface
Thick-edged Outside surface initiated, intergranular crack growth
with significant microfissuring aligned parallel with
the main crack and significant secondary cracking;
evidence of grain boundary creep cavitation and
creep voids.
Thick-edged In ferritic materials, thick, internal oxide scales
cracked longitudinally; generally longitudinal
(axial) orientation; damage on heated side of
tube; microstructural damage by overheat and
intergranular or transgranular creep.
Thick-edged (may manifest Cracking is transgranular or intergranular usually
as a pinhole) with significant branching; initiation can be at
ID (most common) or on OD, circumferential or
longitudinal orientation; may involve blowout of
window-type pieces
Thick-edged Single, sharp-tipped, tight transgranular cracks
(except for thermal shock which produces multiple
cracks); OD-initiated; propagating around 180° of
the tube.
Thick-edged Generally OD-initiated, single, wide, oxide-filled and
blunt-tipped cracks. Microstructurally signs of creep
cavitation, severe spheroidization or graphitization.
Thick-edged Initiation from OD. Single, tight cracks, typically
circumferential orientation. Typical fatigue features
microscopically such as beach marks, fatigue
striations, transgranular morphology.
Thin-Edged Fracture
Surface
Thin-edged Often shows signs of tube bulging or “fish-mouth”
appearance, longitudinal orientation.
Ductile fracture (typically Circumferential, ductile 45° shear fracture. Extensive
thinned section at failure) ovalization of the tubing possible. One or multiple
tube failures. Necking, increased hardness, and
grain elongation near the fractures.
2-11
Typical Locations Possible Chapter in
Mechanism Volume 3
Predominant in tube bends, particularly at intrados on outside Low Chap. 35
surface, and other locations subject to high residual, forming, or Temperature Volume 2
Volume 1: Fundamentals
service stresses. Higher temperature regions of economizer tubes, Creep
lower temperature regions of the reheater, and primary superheater. Cracking
Does not occur in very low or very high temperature regions.
Highest temperature locations and those associated with Longterm 44
supplementary firing – leading tube. Overheating
(Creep)
Bends and straight tubing with low spots; points with the highest Stress 49
concentration of contaminants; high stress locations are particularly Corrosion
susceptible at bends, welds, tube attachments, supports, or spacers. Cracking
Locations where condensate from contaminated attemperator sprays
can flash to steam.
All HRSG sections; in the presence of locations with significant Fatigue 53
thermal stresses caused by restraint of temperature differences or
introduction of fluid with significantly higher or lower temperature
than the tube. Most typical location is tube-to-header joint.
SH/RH tubes, usually in the final pass sections. Most likely failure Creep-Fatigue 54
locations are at tube attachments to headers. Locations with
significant thermal-mechanical stress, resulting from restrained
thermal expansion or from introduction of fluid that has a
significantly higher or lower temperature than the tube.
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
All sections of HRSG; most prominently to date in HP SH/RH. Likely Flow Induced 55
failure locations: (i) at welded connections, (ii) at bends, and (iii) at Vibration
attachments. In HRSGs, the prevalent location is close to supports Fatigue
and restraints.
Can occur in either SH or RH. Most common to date in leading row Short-Term 48
superheater tubes on units that utilize duct burners. Other locations: Overheating
(i) tubing nearest to the gas inlet, especially just downstream of
supplemental burners and (ii) tubing downstream of bends and
other locations where exfoliated oxide, debris, condensate, etc. can
accumulate and cause a blockage.
Most common in RH; in HP SH less frequently. Locations: (i) near to Thermal 56
attemperators, (ii) unfinned sections of tubing near the intermediate Quenching
or the outlet headers, (iii) at toe of the tube-to-header connection,
(iv) in the tube base metal close to the header, (v) often in tubes
offset from centerline of the header.
Roadmaps for Avoiding and Analyzing BTF/HTF
 Table 2-5 (continued)

2-12
Screening Table for Steam-Touched HSRG Tube Failures
Typical Fracture Surface Other Likely Macroscopic and Typical Locations Possible Chapter in
Appearance Metallographic Features Mechanism Volume 3
Pinhole Damage
Pitting Internal tube surface damage; distinctive aspect ratio For pitting: tubes where condensate can form and remain during Chemical 58 or 60
of damage - deep relative to area; partial or total shutdown: bottoms of pendant loops on either SH or RH, low points Cleaning
(through-wall) dissolution of the tube wall metal may in sagging horizontal tubes. Damage or
be observed. Pitting
Various Other Damage
Types
Depends on the underlying Usually obvious from type of damage and Maintenance 61
cause correspondence to past maintenance activity Damage
Depends on defect Materials 62
Flaws
Usually thick-edged or Care required to separate weld defects from another Welding Flaws 63
Roadmaps for Avoiding and Analyzing BTF/HTF

pinholes problem located at a weld

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Volume 1: Fundamentals
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Roadmaps for Avoiding and Analyzing BTF/HTF

Table 2-6
2.3 For BTF or HTF Mechanisms Not Covered in This
Chapters for Combined Cycle HRSG Tube Failure
Mechanisms Book
Mechanism Chapter No. If, having gone through the roadmaps in Figures 2-1 or
Water-Touched Tubes 2-2, it appears that the tube failure experienced is not
Corrosion fatigue in HRSGs 20 covered in this book or if multiple mechanisms appear to
Hydrogen damage 22 be operative, then the generic investigation procedure
Acid phosphate corrosion 23 shown in those figures is still applicable. Specifically, it is
Caustic gouging 24 important that the following sequence be followed:
Thermal-mechanical fatigue in HRSG units 30
Flow-accelerated corrosion in HRSG units 31 Understand the mechanism ->
Short-term overheating in waterwall tubing 34 Determine the root cause ->
Low temperature creep cracking 35 Apply proper longterm solution
Chemical cleaning damage 36
Removal of a tube sample and use of metallurgical tech-
Pitting in water-touched tubes 37
niques should provide an understanding of the underly-
Gas-side corrosion and pitting 39
ing damage (erosion, corrosion, overheating, creep,
Acid dewpoint corrosion 41
Stress corrosion cracking in water-touched tubing 42
fatigue, environmentally-assisted cracking, etc.) and may
Steam-Touched Tubes
help move the investigator to one of the covered mecha-
Longterm overheating/creep 44 nisms for additional specific guidance.
Short-term overheating in SH/RH tubing 48
Stress corrosion cracking 49
Thermal-mechanical fatigue 53
Creep fatigue 54
Flow-induced vibration fatigue 55
Thermal quenching 56
Pitting in steam-touched tubes 58
Chemical cleaning damage in SH/RH 60
Maintenance damage 61
Material flaws 62
Welding/repair defects 63

2-13
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

Chapter 3
Life Cycle Improvement
via BTF/HTF Avoidance

3.1 Introduction
Historically, approaches to boiler tube failures were based on those actions required after the
failures had occurred. Gradually, the emphasis shifted to preventive measures with consider-
ation of how to avoid repeat tube failures (those failures that result from the same mecha-
nism, caused by the same root cause in the same section or another section of the boiler).
Most recently, the philosophy has again advanced, this time to include identifying and con-
trolling precursors to tube failures—essentially preventing first instances of tube failures.
This change in perspective has occurred in part because of the opportunity afforded for life-
long failure avoidance resulting from the construction of new combined cycle units. It has
also come about because of the increased understanding of the key controllable factors that,
if implemented, can avoid failures starting from early stages of life of the unit. Finally, it has
occurred as confirmation that the implementation of these actions, can lead to significant,
quantifiable, direct benefits for “world class” units. A discussion of all of the features of world
class programs is contained in Chapter 11.
Actions to prevent tube failures, in both conventional and HRSG units, are contained
throughout this book. The purpose of this chapter is to consolidate key actions as a function
of the stage of unit life (owner specification, design, fabrication/erection, commissioning,
operations, and maintenance) to optimize the prevention of tube failures. Because of the
likelihood that new construction will be primarily of combined cycle units, the focus in this
chapter is on actions specifically for avoiding HRSG tube failures. However, the astute reader
will recognize that many of the actions would be appropriate for conventional units at all
stages of life and similar, parallel, actions are appropriate for conventional units.
The balance of this chapter consists of a table for each of the life cycle stages described above.
Each table contains the action(s) to be taken, the objective (or reason) for that action, and
the tube failure mechanism that is being addressed. To follow through on these actions, the
reader can obtain additional information by consulting the appropriate mechanism chapter
in Volume 2 or 3.
Note that there are many other key tube damage avoidance actions that will be required at
each stage of unit life. Those listed here provide a starting point for a proactive program.

3-1
 Table 3-1

3-2
Actions To Be Taken During the Owner Specification Stage To Avoid Early Life Operational HTF
Actions Objective Mechanism(s)
Chemistry-Related Actions
• Ensure EPRI HRSG Cycle Chemistry Guidelines and Shutdown, Startup, and • To minimize frequency of poor chemistry operation; to Any cycle chemistry influenced HTF such
Layup Guidelines for Combined Cycle Units are included in specification. control the contamination of the water and steam throughout as corrosion fatigue; flow-accelerated
the cycle and thus minimize potential for deposition. corrosion; excessive internal deposits;
• Require cycle chemistry that meets the appropriate guidelines, including
caustic gouging; pitting
during all transient conditions.
• Ensure that a reducing agent will not be used in the cycle.
• Specify appropriate hardware to achieve cycle chemistry targets.
• Require instrumentation and controls for monitoring and control of cycle • Have a continuous monitoring/control system that can Corrosion fatigue
chemistry during startups and shutdowns. ensure that corrosive water is prevented during transient and
steady state operation.
• Require that the HRSG has the proper hardware and procedures to meet • Have the means and methods to prevent out-of-service pitting Corrosion fatigue; pitting
the EPRI short and longterm layup guidelines. corrosion, which can act as initiating sites for corrosion
Life Cycle Improvement via BTF/HTF Avoidance

fatigue.
• Ensure shutdown protection is defined in specification.
• Specify a condensate polisher to help maintain appropriate levels of • To control the level of impurities in the HRSG water and Hydrogen damage
impurities, aid in mitigating condenser leakage, improving startup time, steam.
reducing blowdown, and reducing the need for chemical cleaning.
• Specify that only tri-sodium phosphate will be used and allow for injection • To ensure that acid phosphates will not be used. Acid phosphate corrosion; flow-
into evaporator drums, especially in the low pressure (LP) drum of a triple- accelerated corrosion
pressure HRSG. This requires that the LP drum doesn’t provide feed for
higher pressures and/or attemperation.
• Require consideration of pitting as part of the design package. • Require a clear understanding of conditions, which can lead Pitting
to pitting.
Design-Related Actions
• Require that the designer work together with the owner and gas/steam • Define the unit life mission and cycling characteristics, and Corrosion fatigue; thermal-mechanical
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

turbine vendors to define the characteristics of the “design basis operating obtain a design that is flexible and has design details with fatigue; creep fatigue
transients.” low stress concentration factors.
• Include analysis of expected life for chosen material and design details, •To obtain a design that has the optimal materials, wall Thermal-mechanical fatigue; creep
including a definition of the yearly and total lifetime number of each type thicknesses, and geometry transitions. fatigue; corrosion fatigue
of operational transients.
• Specify what design calculations and methods, design limits, and reports • To obtain a design that considers appropriate calculations All mechanisms, with specific emphasis
are required. for damage prevention. on thermal-mechanical fatigue; creep
fatigue; corrosion fatigue
• Reject designs that have the potential to cause uncontrollable transients • To prevent unacceptable thermal transients. Thermal-mechanical fatigue; creep
with large tube-to-tube or row-to-row temperature differences during startups fatigue; corrosion fatigue
or shutdowns.
• Specify that the design of all pressure parts operating within their creep • Design that has the optimal materials, wall thicknesses, and Creep fatigue
temperature regime must conform to the appropriate standards, for geometry transitions.
example, ASME Section III, Division 1, Subsection NH or equivalent for all
design basis operating transients.
• Specify what damage monitoring instrumentation, controls, data acquisition • To “catch” the presence of damaging thermal transients as Thermal-mechanical fatigue; creep
systems, data evaluation algorithms, and tests are (i) required, (ii) to be early in unit life as possible and to monitor whether they fatigue; corrosion fatigue
used during commissioning, and (iii) to be used throughout the lifetime of develop during operation.
the unit.
Volume 1: Fundamentals
 Table 3-1 (continued)
Actions To Be Taken During the Owner Specification Stage To Avoid Early Life Operational HTF
Actions Objective Mechanism(s)
• Require that the gas velocity, natural frequency, vortex shedding frequency, • Ensure that the vortex shedding frequency is not near the Flow-induced vibration fatigue
and damping coefficient for all sections/bundles of tubing be determined fundamental natural frequency of the tubing.
and adjusted to prevent flow-induced vibration under all design basis
operating cases.
• Require flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) analysis as part of the design • Require a clear understanding of potentially susceptible Flow-accelerated corrosion
Volume 1: Fundamentals

package. locations.
Other
• Specify a leak-tight, titanium-tubed condenser. • To control the level of impurities in the HRSG water and Hydrogen damage
steam.
• Require consideration of gas-side corrosion as part of the design package. • Require a clear understanding of conditions which can lead Gas-side corrosion
to gas-side corrosion.
• Require consideration of acid dewpoint corrosion as part of the • Require a clear understanding of conditions, which can Acid dewpoint corrosion
design package. Provide a listing of anticipated fuels so that cold end lead to acid dewpoint corrosion and potentially susceptible
temperatures can be calculated. locations.
• Require consideration of stress corrosion cracking as part of the design • Require a clear understanding of conditions, which can Stress corrosion cracking
package. lead to stress corrosion cracking and potentially susceptible
locations.
• Requirement for design basis life assessment of all steam-cooled tubing as • To ensure an adequate design lifetime for creep damage in Short-term overheating; longterm
described in “Design” above. SH/RH tubes. overheating
• Require consideration of the potential for thermal quenching as part of the • Require a clear understanding of conditions, which can lead Thermal-quenching induced fracture
design package. to thermal quenching.
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

3-3
Life Cycle Improvement via BTF/HTF Avoidance
 Table 3-2

3-4
Actions To Be Taken During the Design Stage To Avoid Early Life Operational HTF
Actions Objective Mechanism(s)
Chemistry-Related Actions
• Design and optimize entire cycle chemistry effort: choice of feedwater • To control the contamination of the water and steam throughout • Acid phosphate corrosion; caustic
and HRSG treatments; control during operation, layup, and shutdown; the cycle and thus minimize potential for deposition and gouging; hydrogen damage;
appropriate monitor systems; choice of appropriate ancillary hardware concentration of damaging constituents. corrosion fatigue; flow-accelerated
(condensate polishers, makeup water treatment, deaeration, etc.). corrosion; excessive internal deposits
• Develop optimum HRSG treatment for each pressure circuit • To minimize the potential for contaminant levels above • Acid phosphate corrosion, caustic
evaporator control curves or low pH excursions. gouging, hydrogen damage;
corrosion fatigue; flow-accelerated
corrosion
• Design instrumentation and controls for monitoring and control of cycle • To monitor that appropriate cycle chemistry is maintained. • Corrosion fatigue; flow-accelerated
chemistry during operation and all transients. corrosion
• Design cycle chemistry program to avoid reducing conditions, including • Prevent localized dissolution of protective oxide and initiation • Flow-accelerated corrosion
eliminating reducing agent and designing for an oxidizing environment of the corrosion process.
Life Cycle Improvement via BTF/HTF Avoidance

for all-ferrous systems, to prevent single phase FAC. For possible two
phase FAC, design for possible injection of phosphate or caustic into LP
evaporator drum.
• Develop proper shutdown and layup procedures. Ensure equipment to • To avoid the formation of stagnant, oxygenated water with no • Pitting; corrosion fatigue; stress
provide shutdown protection is provided in the design. protective environment (such as nitrogen blanket). corrosion cracking
Design-Related
• Execute design-related activities contained in Table 3-1 that were part of the • Various • Various
owner’s specification such as preparing design basis operating transients,
calculating expected lives for all materials/components, designing to avoid
large thermal transients, and designing monitoring equipment, including
specific mechanism avoidance (such as FAC and flow-induced vibration
calculations/designs).
• Prepare cyclic life expenditure curves for all thick section pressure parts • To estimate allowable combinations of temperature changes • Thermal-mechanical fatigue; creep
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

(i.e., tube-to-header connections, header boreholes). and rates of change and relate these to operating limitations. fatigue
• Set allowable component operating limits compatible with the specific • To ensure adequate component life. • Many mechanisms, most notably
cyclic life and calculated life expenditure results. thermal-mechanical fatigue
• Prescribe the operating procedures and permissibles to ensure that the • To develop appropriate operating procedures to avoid tube • Many mechanisms, most notably
component operating limits are not exceeded. damage accumulation. thermal-mechanical fatigue
• Ensure that proper drains, valving, vents, sparging systems, startup • To minimize the potential for excessive thermal transients • Thermal-mechanical fatigue; creep
feedwater preheating capability, etc., have been included in design resulting from introduction of hot fluid into cold pressure parts fatigue; corrosion fatigue; short term
and that operating procedures provide adequate coverage for these or cold fluids into hot pressure parts or imbalanced fluid overheating
components. temperatures into banks of tubing.
• To minimize condensate formation during shutdown and
subsequent forward flow during startups.
• Proper design of attemperation, valve, and drain systems, including • To prevent inadvertent flooding of hot tubes with saturated or • Thermal quenching-induced fracture
operational and control logic. subcooled liquid.
• Design basis life assessment of all steam-cooled tubing including: • To ensure an adequate design lifetime for creep damage in • Longterm overheating/creep; creep
(i) an estimate of the steam, gas, and midwall temperature as a function of SH/RH tubes. fatigue
the gas-touched length, (ii) design temperature of each section of unique
tubing, (iii) an appropriate allowance for steam and gas-side wall loss,
(iv) an estimated cumulative damage fraction at the end of the anticipated
life of the HRSG.
Volume 1: Fundamentals
 Table 3-2 (continued)
Actions To Be Taken During the Design Stage To Avoid Early Life Operational HTF
Actions Objective Mechanism(s)
• Design of supplementary burners and related control system. • To avoid higher than anticipated gas/tube temperatures from • Short term overheating
overfiring, control malfunction.
• Design to keep applied stresses below the stress corrosion cracking (SCC) • To minimize local stresses. • Stress corrosion cracking
threshold and also to minimize residual stresses at locations such as bends,
welds, supports, spacers, or tube attachments that can be susceptible to
Volume 1: Fundamentals

SCC.
• Perform design checks for flow-induced vibration. • To avoid a critical confluence of gas velocity, tube dimensions, • Flow-induced vibration
support spacing, and damping.
Materials-Related
• Identify highly turbulent locations and determine whether the tube material • Clearly understand potentially susceptible locations and • Flow-accelerated corrosion
needs to include a resistant (chromium containing) alloy, in addition to design-in protection via material choice, if chemistry options
cycle chemistry actions. will not be sufficient.
• Specify thicker tube if corrosion anticipated (such as for units designed to • Improved corrosion allowance. • Gas-side corrosion
dual fire with oil).
• Consider upgrading material to more resistant grade if significant sulfur • To avoid excessive corrosion rates. • Gas-side corrosion
bearing oil co-firing is anticipated.
• Include adequate weld performance factors in the design, especially for • Ensure that there are sufficient design margins to prevent • Creep fatigue
weld connections made between alloys with more than a few percent excessive stresses at welds.
difference in chromium content.
• Optimize the design of tube-to-header welds (geometry, size, and strength). • To provide maximum resistance to fracture if thermal • Thermal-mechanical fatigue;
quenching occurs. corrosion fatigue; thermal quenching-
induced fracture
• Evaluate whether cold end metal temperatures, in conjunction with • To determine potential for acid dewpoint corrosion. • Acid dewpoint corrosion
expected level of contaminants and tube alloys used, are likely to result in
significant deposition and corrosion problem.
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

•Include SCC resistance and sensitization as factors governing material • To minimize, where possible, use of sensitized material. • Stress corrosion cracking
choice in susceptible locations.
Other
• Develop proper chemical cleaning procedures. • To avoid chemical cleaning errors. • Pitting; stress corrosion cracking
• Include instrumentation that will allow the cyclic life expenditure of key • To monitor life expenditure. • Thermal-mechanical fatigue; creep
components, such as LP economizer inlet header and high pressure (HP) fatigue
superheater (SH) outlet header, to be monitored.
• Use damping fixtures such as staking that will ensure that flow-induced • To optimize use of damping as a mitigation choice. • Flow-induced vibration fatigue
vibration will not occur.
• Establish proper attemperation practices. • To avoid locally high temperature regimes. • Excessive internal deposits
• Design to avoid crevices (use full penetration welds, no tight, closely • To minimize locations where moisture and contaminants can • Stress corrosion cracking
contacting surfaces between tubes and other tubes, seals, insulation, etc.). accumulate.

3-5
Life Cycle Improvement via BTF/HTF Avoidance
 Table 3-3

3-6
Actions To Be Taken During Fabrication/Erection To Avoid Early Life Operational HTF
Actions
General
• Ensure that any field modifications are reviewed by the Engineer for
conformance with appropriate standard.
• Ensure the as-built configuration is within the design limits,
especially with regard to attachments, weld connections, and
flexible supports such as pipe/header spring hangers.
• Ensure that the as-built configuration is within the specified design
limits, especially with regard to the tubing/fin configurations and
vibration damping fixtures.
• Minimize construction methods that can cause flow disruptions.
Welding
Objective Mechanism(s)
• Don’t allow as-built configuration to have less flexibility or • Corrosion fatigue
higher peak cyclic stress range than the design.
• Ensure flexible/low stress concentration factor as-built • Thermal-mechanical fatigue; creep fatigue
configuration.
• To avoid a critical confluence of gas velocity, tube • Flow-induced vibration fatigue
dimensions, support spacing, and damping.
• To minimize flow disruption. • Excessive internal deposits; underdeposit
corrosion mechanisms
Life Cycle Improvement via BTF/HTF Avoidance

• Ensure that the welding procedure specifications and post weld heat • Avoid high residual stresses, undesirable microstructures, etc.
treatments are adequate and are closely followed.
• Avoid use of weld details that could cause flow disruption, such as
backing bars, internally protruding weld beads, etc.
• Ensure that the weld quality (especially with regard to excess weld
root reinforcement, incomplete penetration, or incomplete fusion) is
within the design requirements.
• Avoid heat treatment procedures that sensitize susceptible materials
such as austenitic stainless steels.
Cycle Chemistry
• Install appropriate cycle chemistry monitoring systems.
• Creep fatigue; corrosion fatigue; stress
corrosion cracking
• To prevent deposition from initiating. • Hydrogen damage; acid phosphate
corrosion; caustic gouging
• Don’t allow the introduction of crevices or root profiles that • Corrosion fatigue
will create corrosion cells or stress concentrators.
• To minimize extent of sensitized material. • Stress corrosion cracking
• Preparation for measuring key cycle chemistry parameters. • Many mechanisms including acid phosphate
corrosion; caustic gouging; hydrogen
damage; corrosion fatigue; flow-accelerated
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

corrosion; excessive internal deposits

Other
• Ensure that hydrotest water is properly treated and is fully drained • Don’t allow conditions that will lead to pre-service corrosion. • Corrosion fatigue
immediately following testing.
• Perform adequate chemical cleaning and passivation treatments. • Ensure that all potential corrosion cells, such as from mill • Corrosion fatigue; excessive internal deposits
scale or debris are eliminated and the water-touched surfaces
of the tubing enters service with an intact protective waterside
oxide scale.
• Ensure that resistant material is applied in correct (high velocity and • Minimize susceptibility of target locations. • Flow-accelerated corrosion
turbulence) locations.
• Protect tubes against corrosion during transport, storage, erection, • To avoid the formation of stagnant, oxygenated water on the • Pitting
and after hydrotesting of completed tube assemblies. tube surface.
• Minimize residual stresses such as present in bends, welds, • To minimize local stresses. • Stress corrosion cracking
supports, spacers, or tube attachments that can lead to SCC
(normalizing bends, post weld stress relief, etc.).
• Installation of thermocouples to verify design basis gas, steam, and • To confirm that actual temperatures are within appropriate • Short term overheating; longterm
tube metal temperatures. range to achieve design lifetime. overheating/creep
Volume 1: Fundamentals
 Table 3-4
Actions To Be Taken During Commissioning To Avoid Early Life Operational HTF
Actions
Cycle Chemistry
• Measure key cycle chemistry parameters. Establish optimum chemistry,
controls, monitoring instrumentation, procedures, and action levels in a
program to minimize contaminant levels, corrosion product formation and
transport, and the formation of deposits.
Objective Mechanism(s)
• To establish optimum chemistry for each • All chemistry related mechanisms including acid
circuit. phosphate corrosion; caustic gouging; hydrogen
damage; corrosion fatigue; stress corrosion cracking;
flow-accelerated corrosion; pitting; excessive internal
Volume 1: Fundamentals

deposits
• Measure carryover rates for each drum (in multi-pressure HRSG units). Monitor • To control impurity levels and establish • Acid phosphate corrosion, hydrogen damage, caustic
feedwater and evaporator contaminant levels to verify compliance with evaporator control curves. gouging, excessive internal deposits; stress corrosion
specifications and suitability of chemical treatment and operating practices. cracking
• Establish optimum shutdown and layup procedures. Verify that transients • To minimize corrosion and subsequent • All chemistry related mechanisms including pitting;
for key parameters such as pH and sodium carryover do not occur during transport of contaminant on startup; prevent acid phosphate corrosion; caustic gouging; hydrogen
shutdowns and startups. deposits on startup. damage; corrosion fatigue; stress corrosion cracking;
• To evaluate whether shutdown conditions are flow-accelerated corrosion; excessive internal deposits
sufficient to avoid pitting.
• Confirm that condensate polisher and other chemistry control devices are not • To avoid carryover of sodium sulfate. • Pitting
allowing slippage of sodium sulfate.
Temperatures, Stresses, Strains
• Perform tests to verify that the design basis gas, steam and tube metal • To confirm that actual temperatures are • Short term overheating; longterm overheating;
temperatures and rates of change of temperatures were conservatively within an appropriate range to achieve thermal-mechanical fatigue; creep fatigue; corrosion
estimated for all of the anticipated operating scenarios (e.g., full load, low design lifetime. fatigue
load, with supplementary burners in operation, trips with rapid restarts, normal • To verify that the design/control/operating
starts, fast starts, etc.) in key locations. parameters will prevent excessive thermal
transients.
• Review SH/RH circuit material diagrams and calculate the GTL to the • To confirm that actual temperatures are • Short term overheating; longterm overheating
position(s) of failure. Plot the manufacturer’s recommended temperature within an appropriate range to achieve
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

limits (based on acceptable oxidation rates) for each material in the circuit. design lifetime.
Superimpose any information on measured steam and tube metal temperatures
to determine whether the actual temperatures are over the design limits.
• Eliminate areas of localized overheating caused by firing auxiliary fuels and • To prevent formation of local hot spots that • Acid phosphate corrosion; caustic gouging; hydrogen
firing equipment (duct burners). can lead to excessive rates of deposits. damage; stress corrosion cracking
• Evaluate whether combustion gas flow conditions (such as laning) are resulting • To avoid locally high tube temperatures. • Excessive internal deposits
in locally high temperatures.
• If evidence of flow-induced vibration (unusual noise or vibration or visual • To detect and fix the problem before crack • Flow-induced vibration fatigue
evidence of high frequency/low displacement motion/rubbing between tubes initiation occurs.
and vibration dampers/tube supports) is present, perform measurements of the
natural frequency and tubing displacements/strain.

3-7
Life Cycle Improvement via BTF/HTF Avoidance
 Table 3-4 (continued)

3-8
Actions To Be Taken During Commissioning To Avoid Early Life Operational HTF

Other
• Evaluate whether ammonia slip is occurring when an SCR is installed. • To anticipate the formation of ammonium • Gas-side corrosion
sulfates.
• Evaluate back end gas dewpoint temperature. Verify feedwater inlet • To determine whether there is likely to be a • Acid dewpoint corrosion
temperatures for various operating modes. developing corrosion problem.
• Monitor tube and gas temperatures and dewpoint to verify that moisture will • To minimize moisture accumulation. • Stress corrosion cracking
not be present during operation.
• Monitor and tune the CT and supplementary burners, SCR, and CO catalyst. • To minimize SCC-influencing contaminants • Stress corrosion cracking
(sulfur, ammonia, etc.).
• Provide experienced operators during commissioning. • To prevent actions which lead to inadvertent • Thermal quenching-induced fracture
thermal quenching.
Life Cycle Improvement via BTF/HTF Avoidance
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals
 Table 3-5
Actions To Be Taken As a Part of Operations To Prevent HTF
Actions Objective Mechanism(s)
Cycle Chemistry
• Use optimized cycle chemistry during operation and confirm • To control the level of impurities in the HRSG water and steam. • For all chemistry-influenced tube failure
against EPRI’s Cycle Chemistry Guidelines. • To prevent corrosion and deposits. mechanisms
• Monitor impurity levels through appropriate instrumentation and • To minimize the frequency of undesirable chemistry conditions
Volume 1: Fundamentals

react to any chemistry problems. (low pH, high dissolved oxygen, excessive levels of phosphate
or caustic.)
• Use optimized shutdown and layup procedures. • To minimize corrosion and subsequent transport of contaminant • For all chemistry-influenced tube failure
on startup; prevent deposits on startup. mechanisms
• To prevent out-of-service pitting.
• Monitor and maintain drum level control to minimize mechanical • To minimize the possibility of deposits in the steam-touched • Corrosion fatigue
carryover into the steam-touched tubing. tubing that may acidify if moisture is ever present.
• Use chemistry control logs to detect whether there is an ongoing • For early detection of a developing chemistry problem. • For all chemistry-influenced tube failure
problem with chemistry-related issues such as phosphate hideout, mechanisms
excessive caustic, chlorides, low pH, high cation conductivity.
• Don’t use mono-sodium phosphate or an excess of di-sodium • Minimize the potential for concentration of acidic phosphates • Acid phosphate corrosion
phosphate as a control technique. within deposits.
Temperatures, Stresses, Strains
• Ensure that the operation is within the design limits or review the • Balance the cyclic life goals with the dispatch goals. • Thermal-mechanical fatigue; creep fatigue;
actual operation and determine the effect on the cyclic life. • To ensure that high strain ranges are not occurring during unit corrosion fatigue
transients.
• Confirm that combustion conditions are within design parameters. • To avoid overheating by excessive gas temperatures, periodic • Short term overheating; longterm overheating
overfiring, or uneven firing of supplemental burners.
• Be aware that changes in fuel firing that create higher heat • To prevent formation of local hot spots that can lead to excessive • Acid phosphate corrosion, caustic gouging,
transfer rates may initiate deposition in previously clean HRSG rates of deposits. hydrogen damage, excessive internal deposits
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

tubes.
• Revise operating procedures to minimize metal temperature • To prevent formation of local hot spots that can lead to excessive • Acid phosphate corrosion, caustic gouging,
excursions above design values. rates of deposits. hydrogen damage, excessive internal deposits
Other
• Control condensation and HRSG tube atmosphere during • To ensure that condensate does not accumulate at the bottom of • Short term overheating
shutdown. SH/RH loops or bends.
• To maintain clean cycle chemistry on unit restart.
• Operate within the design basis gas flow conditions. • To avoid excessive velocities. • Stress corrosion cracking; pitting
• If vibration is felt/heard/seen, then either return the unit back to • To ensure that the extent of time that vibration occurs is • Flow-induced vibration fatigue
its design basis flow conditions or remove the HRSG from service minimized (i.e., to prevent crack initiation).
and perform an examination of the tubing and vibration damping
fixtures.
• Lessen amount of oil firing or change to lower sulfur content oil. • To minimize the sulfur level, decrease the formation of sulfates, • Gas-side corrosion; acid dewpoint corrosion.
and lower the acid dewpoint.
• Change SCR procedures to lessen ammonia slip. • To decrease the formation of ammonium sulfates. • Gas-side corrosion
• Maintain HRSG feedwater inlet temperatures above the gas • To maintain tube temperatures above the dewpoint and lessen • Acid dewpoint corrosion
dewpoint. condensation on susceptible surfaces.
• Formalize and follow operating procedures, training, and • To ensure that design basis temperatures are not exceeded, hold • All tube failure mechanisms.

3-9
Life Cycle Improvement via BTF/HTF Avoidance

monitoring practices/systems. chemistries are within acceptable limits, and optimize tube life.
 Table 3-6

3-10
Actions To Be Taken As a Part of Maintenance To Prevent HTF
Actions Objective Mechanism(s)
Inspections
• Perform appropriate nondestructive examinations of suspect tube to header • Detect damage early so that life optimization corrective •Thermal-mechanical fatigue; creep
connections, header boreholes, and attachments if unanticipated transients have actions can produce a significant improvement and so fatigue
occurred or other conditions suggest that thermal-mechanical fatigue damage may through wall failures are prevented.
have initiated.
• Periodically inspect the header/tubing attachments, header/drum internals, and • Ensure that the flexibility, water/steamside scale, and •Corrosion fatigue; creep fatigue
selected tube internal surfaces to ensure that: (i) tube deformation or temporary drum steam separation internals do not degrade.
field repairs/modifications are not leading to a loss of flexibility or condensate/ • Ensure that corrosive water/condensate and corrosion
water draining capability, (ii) steam separators are intact and minimizing initiating conditions such as deposit buildup or
mechanical carryover, (iii) slip-type connections are not locking up, (iv) there is maintenance debris are not present.
no evidence of mechanical disruption of the waterside oxide scale, (v) there is
no standing water or condensate in the tubing during outages, (vi) there is no • To prevent corrosion, debris buildups, thermal
deposition/ pitting/oriented pitting/cracking on the inside diameter surfaces of deformation, etc. from changing the flexibility and
thermal restraint of the pressure parts.
Life Cycle Improvement via BTF/HTF Avoidance

the tubing, (vii) maintenance debris is not introduced into the pressure parts.

• Periodic examinations of internal oxide scale and wall thickness through the life of • To ensure that the design basis wall loss rates and metal •Longterm overheating
the HRSG; selective tube sampling. temperatures are not being exceeded.
• To metallurgically characterize tube condition and
assess remaining life.
• Visual examination for gas laning and tube misalignment; confirmation with • To look for local hot spots and areas of high heat •Longterm overheating
thermocouple data or steamside scale surveys. transfer.

• Perform periodic inspection (fiber optics, etc.) and/or selective evaporator tube • To identify locations of deposits. •Acid phosphate corrosion, caustic
sampling from suspect regions for evidence of significant deposition, fouling, or gouging, hydrogen damage; excessive
• To detect damage initiation.
corrosion. internal deposits; pitting; gas-side
corrosion
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

• Perform periodic inspection (ultrasonic wall thickness testing, internal fiber optics) • To ensure that wall thinning due to FAC is not occurring. •Flow-accelerated corrosion
at susceptible locations.
• Periodically examine and maintain the tube supports and vibration damping • Make sure that the damping characteristics of the tube •Flow-induced vibration fatigue
fixtures. bundles do not change over time due to a change of
slip/friction between the tubing and supports/damping
fixtures resulting from wear, corrosion, or debris
buildup.
• Periodic inspection for evidence of significant fin, under-fin, or tube corrosion • Detect incipient damage. •Acid dewpoint corrosion
(visual and ultrasonic thickness testing).
• Perform examinations during off-line periods for moisture accumulation. • To verify that pressure parts are properly dried and free •Stress corrosion cracking
of condensate. •Pitting
• Periodic visual examination for signs of missing supports, etc. that could lead to • To identify locations where locally high stresses might •Stress corrosion cracking
high residual stresses. eventually lead to SCC.
• Periodic inspection and maintenance of mechanical components (linkages, valves, • Prevent mechanical failures, which can result in thermal •Thermal quenching-induced fracture
etc.). quenching.
Volume 1: Fundamentals
 Table 3-6 (continued)
Actions To Be Taken As a Part of Maintenance To Prevent HTF
Actions Objective Mechanism(s)
Other
• Establish chemical cleaning procedures to be used when deposits exceed • To remove deposits before underdeposit corrosion • Acid phosphate corrosion, caustic
established levels and perform chemical cleaning at appropriate intervals to processes can begin. gouging, hydrogen damage;
remove deposit buildup. excessive internal deposits; pitting;
• Proper procedures can prevent pitting.
short term overheating; stress
Volume 1: Fundamentals

• To ensure that adequate flushing occurs following corrosion cracking

cleaning to remove all cleaning fluid, oxide scale, and
cleaning residue.
• Periodic water washing to remove deposits (if oil-firing) and application of • Prevent buildup of potentially corrosive species. • Acid dewpoint corrosion
corrosion inhibitor during shutdowns.
• Perform gas-side maintenance to avoid improper heat distribution or circulation. • To prevent formation of local hot spots that can lead to • Acid phosphate corrosion, caustic
excessive rates of deposits. gouging, hydrogen damage;
excessive internal deposits
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

3-11
Life Cycle Improvement via BTF/HTF Avoidance
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

Chapter 4
Introduction to the Water-Steam
Cycle and Primary Components

4.1 Introduction to the Water-Steam Cycle and Primary Components in Conventional

Fossil-Fuel Power Plants
There are several excellent reviews of the design and operation of conventional fossil-fueled
power plants; see for example (Steam, 1992; Singer, 1991). A very much simplified review of
primary power plant components and the water-steam cycle is provided here.
Water is preheated to a relatively low temperature by passing through a series of low pressure
(LP) and high pressure (HP) feedwater heaters. It then passes through the various parts of
the boiler where it is heated to superheated steam. From the exit from the boiler, the steam
is allowed to expand through the high pressure (HP) turbine from which it may be reheated
and passed through intermediate pressure (IP) and low pressure (LP) turbines where further
work is extracted. Exit steam from the LP turbine is condensed and fed back into the boiler
through the feedwater heaters. Figures 4-1 and 4-2 provide a schematic of this cycle for drum
and once-through cycles, respectively. Also shown in those figures are the locations in the
cycles where ingress, corrosion, and deposition can occur. The ingress of contaminants and
its deposition and corrosion have major implications to the analysis of boiler tube failures.

Figure 4-1
Major unit components and locations of impurity ingress, corrosion and deposition in
drum cycles.

4-1
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Introduction to the Water-Steam Cycle and Primary Components Volume 1: Fundamentals
Boiler tube temperatures are another important factor
that will determine when failures will occur. Tube metal
temperatures depend on the heat flux from the fireside,
the internal fluid flow, and the condition of the working
fluid. The lowest temperature fluid is in the economizer
and waterwall sections. The fluid enters the economizer
as a liquid and becomes a steam-liquid mixture in the
waterwalls caused by heat transfer through the walls.
Temperatures in the fluid for subcritical boilers are lim-
ited to saturation temperatures for the given boiler pres-
sure; thus tube temperatures are typically around 400°C
(~ 750°F). In supercritical units, waterwall materials typ-
ically operate at slightly higher temperatures: 454°C
(849°F).
The steam next flows into superheater/reheater sections.
There is a distribution of increasingly higher tempera-
tures as the fluid moves through the circuit. This results
in more severe demands on the tube materials including
the need for better creep and oxidation resistance. For
final steam temperatures of 538 to 565°C (1000 to
1050°F), tube temperatures in excess of 600° C (~1110°F)
can be reached during the final stages of the superheater
and reheater sections.
Additional detail on the design, constructional materials,
and demands placed on boiler tubes in the various sec-
tions of the boiler is provided in Chapter 5.
4-2
4.2 Introduction to the Water-Steam Cycle and
Primary Components in Combined Cycle Units
4.2.1 Functions of HRSGs in Combined Cycle and
Cogeneration Plants
HRSGs are tubular, counter-flow heat exchangers in
which the heat content of the exhaust from a gas turbine
is transferred to the steam and water contained in the
tubes. Incoming water enters the economizer tubes at the
cold end and is heated by the outgoing gas to slightly
below the saturation temperature (in a non-steaming
economizer design). From there it flows to the drum (in
drum units) and the evaporator section. Heat is added to
the water in the evaporator to produce steam. Because
the evaporation process occurs essentially at constant
temperature, there is very little temperature rise from the
inlet to the outlet of the evaporator. A two phase mixture
of water and steam is discharged from the evaporator
into a drum (in drum units). The drum internals separate
the steam from the water and dry steam is fed into the
superheater (SH). The SH then further heats the dry
steam and discharges the superheated steam, where, after
attemperation as needed, it is directed to the steam tur-
bine. Steam for process use, if required, may be extracted
from the steam turbine or, more typically, from the LP or
IP steam circuits.
HRSG units may be designed to generate steam for
export and/or for power generation. In cogeneration
combustion turbine combined cycles, the steam gener-
ated by the HRSG, above and beyond that admitted to
the steam turbine or used within the plant, is produced
for the exclusive use of district heating or for an industrial
Figure 4-2
Major unit components and locations
of impurity ingress, corrosion, and
deposition in once-through cycles.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Introduction to the Water-Steam Cycle and Primary Components

process. Any electricity produced may also be used in the
industrial process and/or fed into a grid system. Com-
bined cycle designs are also utilized strictly for electric
power production. A simplified combined cycle system
schematic is shown in Figure 4-3.
During the past few years, HRSG designs have become
remarkably complex, with the HRSG consisting of up to
three pressure drum systems, once-through systems, or
combined drum/once-through systems. There are many
variations within these basic designs.
The basic tradeoffs in design of optimal HRSG circuits
are: (i) to decrease the gas temperature to the lowest pos-
sible stack temperature (taking into account corrosion
concerns), which will reflect the highest heat recovery,
and (ii) to keep the difference between gas and water
flows as high as possible, which will result in a more cost-
effective HRSG (Pasha, 1994).
4.2.2 Pinch and Approach Temperatures
For optimum thermal efficiency and design economy,
the HRSG must incorporate pinch and approach tem-
perature levels that allow for the cycle employed and the
mode of operation (baseload or cycling). Pinch tempera-
ture is defined as the differential between the flue gas
temperature leaving the evaporating sections and the sat-
uration temperature at the respective operating pressure.

Figure 4‑3
Simplified combined cycle system schematics.
Source: TR-110051, 1998

4-3
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Introduction to the Water-Steam Cycle and Primary Components Volume 1: Fundamentals

This defines the amount of steam generation. The

approach temperature is the differential between the sat-
uration temperature and the economizer outlet water
temperature. This parameter is important as it is an indi-
cator of the potential for economizer steaming: a condi-
tion that is prone to occurring during load cycling, which
can cause thermal fatigue and other tube failure mecha-
nisms, in addition to causing operating problems in
drum level control and water hammer in HRSG piping
systems. Generally, cycling units are designed with higher
approach temperatures than baseloaded installations to Figure 4-5
Illustration of approach temperature.
prevent these problems. The superheater approach, as the [1000 psig = 6.895 MPa; °C = (°F – 32)/1.8]
name implies for a counter current design section,
is the difference between the minimum flue gas tempera-
ture and the superheater outlet steam temperature.
Typical values for these parameters are: Pinch Point: 11.1
- 27.8°C (20 - 50°F), Economizer Approach: 5.6 - 16.7°C
(10 - 30°F), and Superheat Approach: 22.2 - 33.3°C
(40 - 60°F).
A typical “pinch-point” design for a single pressure unit
is shown in Figure 4-4. The turbine exhaust gas tempera-
ture as it moves through the circuit is shown as the
decreasing top line. The increasing water/steam tempera- Figure 4-6
ture (the lower line) is shown as the fluid moves through Illustration of pinch temperature.
[1000 psig = 6.895 MPa; °C = (°F – 32)/1.8]
the economizer, evaporator, and SH sections of the
circuit.
4.2.3 HRSG Design Issues – An Overview
Important differences in actual HRSG configurations
include, but are by no means limited to the following:
• HRSG design concepts and details
• Single pressure, dual pressure, and multi-pressure
designs
• Vertical and horizontal tube/flow designs
• Inclusion of reheaters
• Natural circulation, assisted circulation, or forced
circulation
• Drum or once-through evaporator circuits
• BOP design differences
• Supplemental (duct) firing
Figure 4-4 • Multiple fuel options
Temperature profile in a single pressure HRSG.
• Exhaust bypass and/or stack closure dampers may or
Source: TR-110051, 1998 may not be present
Figures 4-5 and 4-6 further illustrate the approach and • Feedwater heaters/preheaters may or may not be
pinch temperatures. present
• Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) for NOX control
and oxidation catalyst for CO abatement may or may
not be present

4-4
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Introduction to the Water-Steam Cycle and Primary Components
• Water from the LP circuit may or may not be fed to
IP and HP circuits
• Water from the IP circuit may or may not be fed to
the HP circuit
• Cascade blowdown may be practiced on multiple
pressure drum HRSGs
• Attemperation water may be taken from various
sources
• Deaeration may be performed only in the condenser
or using a deaerator in the feedwater system or LP
circuit
• Condenser may be water cooled or air cooled
• Condensate polishers may or may not be present
Figure 4-7
Natural circulation, vertical tubed, single pressure HRSG.
The downcomers and lower header interconnection piping
are not shown.
Source: TR-110051, 1998
4.2.4 Single Pressure HRSG Cycles
The earliest HRSG cycles contained single pressure
designs, typically with three sections: a superheater, an
evaporator, and an economizer. Figures 4-7 and 4-8 sche-
matically show single pressure designs.
4.2.5 Multi-Pressure HRSGs
Triple pressure combined cycle systems can recover ther-
mal energy from the gas turbine exhaust more efficiently
to produce more steam turbine power and lower stack
temperatures than single pressure systems, thus increas-
ing the thermal efficiency of the cycle. A schematic of a
triple pressure system is shown in Figure 4-9.
Figure 4‑8
Assisted circulation, horizontal tubed, single pressure HRSG.
The latest vertical gas path HRSG designs use natural
circulation for HP evaporators. A small pump is used to
establish initial circulation during startup.
Source: TR-110051, 1998
Figure 4‑9
Natural circulation, vertical tubed,
multi-pressure HRSG.
Source: TR-110051, 1998
4-5
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Introduction to the Water-Steam Cycle and Primary Components Volume 1: Fundamentals
The benefit of lower stack temperature is available only
with natural gas firing. For units which also burn low
sulfur-containing liquid fuels (such as No. 2 oil), it is
necessary to bypass the LP economizer / feedwater pre-
heater or to recirculate part of the feedwater to keep the
tube metal temperatures at the inlet above the gas dew-
point in order to avoid potentially serious corrosion
problems.
4.2.6 Cycles with Reheat
In more advanced cycles, reheat may be added. Exhaust
steam from the high pressure steam turbine is returned to
the HRSG for reheating and then is returned to the cycle
to do additional work in the IP and HP turbines. Reheat
increases steam quality and, therefore, increases total
plant efficiency. It was originally thought to be difficult
to implement reheating in HRSG units because the
steam temperatures in the SH and reheat (RH) were
identical; however, by staging the SH and RH sections,
this has not proved to be difficult (Pasha, 1994).
4.2.7 Drum Versus Once-Through Cycles
HRSG drum units may have two or three steam drums,
each operating at a different pressure. Drum units may
be either natural or assisted circulation types. In a typical
three drum design, there is an HP drum, an IP drum,
and an LP drum, each supplying steam to the corre-
sponding section of the turbine. To minimize heat and
demineralized water losses, many plants cascade the
blowdown from one drum to the next, increasing the risk
of corrosion problems and complicating management of
the drum water chemistry.
Once-through designs have a lower water content and
lower thermal inertia, permitting faster response (TR-
105013, 1996). The design requires higher purity feed-
water. Once-through designs can have either vertical or
horizontal tubing and can be designed with multiple
pressure loops, as with drum units. The flow cycle for a
once-through combined cycle is shown in Figure 4-10.
4-6
In this simplified cycle, the LP section is fed by an LP
boiler feedpump, and the HP section is fed by an HP
boiler feedpump that takes suction from the LP feed
pump discharge. Both LP and HP steam feed a condens-
ing steam turbine. Although not shown in the figure,
part of the LP steam could be used for cogeneration
purposes.
The advantage of once-through designs is that thick-
walled drums can be avoided and, thus, thermal inertia is
somewhat less of a problem for cycling operation. Once-
through designs, however, do not overcome all of the key
cycling-related damage mechanism issues. One of the
difficulties with conventional once-through boilers has
been achieving acceptably small tube-to-tube tempera-
ture differences because of small differences in heat flux
or in tube fouling or in fluid distribution between tubes.
Once-through HRSGs may require much greater flexi-
bility in tube arrangements than is usually provided in
natural circulation designs of vertical-tubed HRSGs. For
example, once-through units may be designed to start
dry, leading to the use of high alloy tubing, which
depending on the material used, has been found to be
prone to high differential thermal expansion induced
fatigue failures. In addition, the HP superheater headers
and tube-to-header connections, rather than the HP
drum, may become the life-limiting components for
highly cycled once-through units. This must be managed
by modifying the header and connection designs or
through the use of optimal shutdown/startup procedures.
Figure 4‑10
Once-through combustion turbine combined cycle.
Source: TR-110051, 1998
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4.2.8 Combination Once-Through Plus Drum Cycles
In some HRSGs, a once-through system may be used for
the HP section while drum-type systems are retained in
the IP and LP sections (Svoboda, 1997; Rziha, 2002).
Figure 4-11 shows a schematic of the design. Another
design consists of LP and HP once-through HRSGs and
an LP drum boiler.
Figure 4‑11
Combination drum and once-through HRSG.
Source: TR-110051, 1998
4.2.9 Supplemental Firing in HRSGs
High air input to the gas turbine means that exhaust
gases are relatively high in oxygen content and, thus,
supplemental firing can be supported. Supplemental fir-
ing is most widely employed to boost combined cycle
steam output by raising the temperature of, or reheating,
the gas turbine exhaust. Supplemental firing is typically
produced using duct burners. This is accomplished by
burning fuel either upstream of the superheater section
or between superheater sections. Supplemental firing is
further discussed in Chapter 10.
4.2.10 Multiple Fuel Options
Multiple fuel options can be used in conjunction with
HRSGs. The most common fuel used in recent designs is
natural gas. Natural gas has advantages compared to fuel
oil. HRSGs designed for and run only on natural gas can
have high fin densities, unless they have a selective
catalytic reduction (SCR) system, in which case fin spac-
ing must be wider downstream of the SCR. However, if
fuel oil is used, fouling and pluggage of the fins can
result. Natural gas tends to be low in sulfur content and,
therefore, acid dewpoint corrosion is less of a problem on
the cold end of HRSGs than it is for sulfur-bearing oils.
Further assurance that acid dewpoint corrosion is avoided
is accomplished by recirculating warm feedwater from
the LP economizer/ feedwater preheater outlet to temper
the cold feedwater at the inlet to the preheater to above
the dewpoint. Unit design as a result should take into
account issues such as: (i) fuel oil characteristics,
(ii) frequency of fuel oil use, (iii) cleaning provisions, and
(iv) performance required (Pasha, 1994).
4.2.11 Vertical Tube/Horizontal Gas Path HRSGs
Large HRSGs of the horizontal gas path type have many
rows of vertical tubes with all tubes in each row welded
to the same pair of upper and lower headers. These
HRSG types are also called natural circulation HRSGs.
Water circulation is induced by the density difference
between the cold feedwater supply in the downcomer
tubes and the water/steam mixture in the evaporator
tubes. Figure 4-7 shows a simplified diagram of a natural
circulation, single pressure, vertical tube HRSG; addi-
tional detail for a multi-pressure design is shown in
Figure 4‑9.
4.2.12 Horizontal Tube/Vertical Gas Path HRSGs
Vertical gas path HRSGs have predominately horizontal
tubes, and the gas rises vertically through the heating sur-
face sections. These are also called tower configuration
HRSGs. They are generally assisted-circulation systems,
typically requiring circulating pumps to establish circula-
tion in evaporators during startup. However, natural cir-
culation, horizontal tube, vertical gas path units have
also been in operation since 1995 (Rath, 1997).
Some older, often unsatisfactory designs of HRSGs used
with smaller combustion turbines had tubes in some
heating sections with a single horizontal pass across the
HRSG duct and attached to inlet and outlet headers on
opposite sides of the duct. For installations with larger
capacity combustion turbines, most current designs of
vertical gas path HRSGs have tubes of each heating sec-
tion arranged predominately horizontally in two or more
passes interconnected by return bends into a serpentine
tube configuration between inlet and outlet headers.
4-7
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Inlet and outlet headers can be located on opposite sides
of the vertical duct or one above the other on the same
side of the HRSG. Figure 4‑8 shows a simplified forced-
circulation, horizontal tube, vertical gas path HRSG. A
schematic diagram of a more complex arrangement con-
sisting of multiple pressure loops is shown in
Figure 4-12.
Figure 4‑12
Horizontal tube typical configuration for drum-type HRSG.
There are significant differences in the design of tube
supports. Some designs have no fins at the tube supports
and permit reliable sliding to accommodate tube expan-
sion and contraction. Other designs support the tubes at
the OD of the fins, and these are more vulnerable to
lock-up. The serpentine tube arrangement has more tube
flexibility than the stiffer arrangement typical of horizon-
tal gas path HRSGs. While horizontal serpentine tubes
4-8
provide enhanced flexibility, the slide supports are diffi-
cult to design, and debris- or oxidation-induced “lock-
up” and wear from friction can be a concern. Horizontal
tube, vertical gas path HRSGs typically have a smaller
plan “footprint” than vertically tubed HRSGs and incor-
porate multiple uncooled tube supports to prevent sag-
ging of tubes.
The boiling process in horizontally tubed HRSGs is
somewhat more complex than in vertically tubed units.
There is a driving force tending toward stratification of
the steam and water flows in the horizontal tubes (steam
to the top of the tubes and water to the bottom). Return
bends will modify this distribution somewhat.
4.2.13 Integral Deaerator
Conventional plants typically use a deaerator in the feed-
water circuit to remove gases, particularly oxygen, from
the boiler feedwater. In multi-pressure HRSGs, however,
for minimum installed cost many units employ a deaera-
tor that is an integral part of the LP circuit. Such a design
has the functions of (i) deaeration, (ii) raising the feed-
water and makeup water temperatures, and (iii) provid-
ing suction for the IP and HP boiler feedwater pumps
(Daniels, 1999). Some units, especially those designed
for cycling service involving frequent shutdowns and
starts, employ a separate deaerator vessel which utilizes a
portion of the steam from the LP drum for deaeration of
the feedwater. A separate deaerator vessel with facility to
recirculate feedwater to the inlet of the feedwater pre-
heater provides thermal-mechanical, chemical, and oper-
ational advantages, which are particularly important
during startups.
4.2.14 Typical Unit Operating Parameters
The general range of current HRSG operating parame-
ters is shown in Table 4‑1.
Table 4‑1
Typical HRSG Operating Parameters
Turbine Application Range
Gas turbine sizes 1 MW to 400 MW
Gas flow 25,000 to 5,000,000 lb/h
(0.32 to 630 kg/s)
Gas turbine outlet temperature < 657°C (1215°F)
Supplemental firing temperature < 899°C (1650°F)
Steam flow 15,000 to 1,000,000 lb/h
(1.9 to 127 kg/s)
Steam temperature Up to 580°C (1076°F)
Supplemental fuels #2 oil, natural gas
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Most HRSGs currently operate at pressures around Further increases in gas and steam temperatures and
13.45 MPa (1950 psig) or below, although supplemental pressures will bring significantly more problems with
firing could increase that into the range of 13.8 MPa unreliability and durability in HRSG pressure parts as
(2000 psig) to 16.55 MPa (2400 psig). Operating pres- well as in gas turbine component life.
sure ranges are shown in Table 4‑2, with more detail in
Figure 4-13. 4.3 References
Bygate, 1995. Bygate, P.J. and D. Bell, “Material
Table 4‑2
Typical HRSG Operating Pressures and Temperatures Selection and Fabrication in Heat Recovery Steam
Source: TR-110051, 1998; Svoboda, 2000 Generators,” 1995.
Circuit Pressure Range Temperature Range Daniels, 1999. Daniels, D., “HRSGs: A Different Breed
High > 15.2 MPa Up to 580°C of Boiler,” Power, November/December, 1999, p. 59+.
(> 2200 psi) (1076°F)
Intermediate 0.34 to 4 MPa Up to 567°C
Pasha, 1994. Pasha, A. and S. Jolly, “Advanced HRSGs:
(50 to 580 psi) (1050°F) Available Concepts and Emerging Innovations,”
Low 0.1 to 0.7 bar 154°C presented at ABMA 1994 Clean Power for the 90s:
(15 to 100 psi) (310°F)
World Class Technology Conference, Arlington, VA,
May 11‑13, 1994.
Rath, 1997. Rath, D., et al., “Vertical Design HRSG
with Natural Circulation Successful in Operation,” Paper
No. 97‑AA-121, American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers, Proceedings of the 1997 ASME ASIA Congress &
Exhibition held in Singapore, New York, NY, 1997.
Rziha, 2002. Rziha, M., B. Senger, S. Merry, and
A. Greig, “Chemical Operating Experience with CPPP
Coltam.” In International Conference on Boiler Tube Fail-
ures and HRSG Tube Failures and Inspections, Phoenix,
AZ, November 6-8, 2001. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002.
1007347.
Singer, 1991. Singer, J.G., ed., Combustion Fossil Power:
A Reference Book on Fuel Burning and Steam Generation,
4th Edition, Combustion Engineering, Inc., Windsor,
Connecticut, 1991.
Steam, 1992. Stultz, S.C. and J.B. Kitto, eds. Steam: Its
Generation and Use, 40th Edition, Babcock & Wilcox
Company, Barberton, Ohio, 1992.
Svoboda, 1997. Svoboda, R., E. Liebig, H. Sandmann,
and F. Gabrielli, “Cycle Chemistry Features in Advanced
Combined Cycle Power Plants,” in Fifth International
Conference on Cycle Chemistry in Fossil Plants, EPRI, Palo
Figure 4‑13
Options for HRSGs/OTSGs. Alto, CA: 1997. TR‑108459.
Given recent trends in the industry, it is anticipated that Svoboda, 2000. Svoboda, R., F. Gabrielli, E. Liebig,
temperatures will continue to increase, with gas turbine H. Hehs, and H. Sandmann, “Combined Cycle Power
exhaust temperatures increasing to in excess of 600°C Plant Chemistry – Concepts and Field Experience,” in
(1112°F), perhaps as high as 649°C (1200°F), with steam Sixth International Conference on Cycle Chemistry in Fossil
temperatures to the steam turbine as high as 600°C Plants, held June 27‑29, 2000, Columbus, OH, EPRI,
(1112°F) (Bygate, 1995). It is also likely that steam pres- Palo Alto CA: 2000.
sures will rise further as OTSG development progresses.

4-9
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TR-105013, 1996. Material Considerations for HRSGs

in Gas Turbine Combined Cycle Plants, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 1996. TR‑105013.
TR-110051, 1998. Interim Cycle Chemistry Guidelines
for Combined Cycle Heat Recovery Steam Generators
(HRSGs), EPRI, Palo Alto CA: 1998. TR‑110051.

4-10
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Chapter 5
Boiler and HRSG Tube
Materials and Standards

5.1 Introduction
With the exception of the limitations on SH/RH tube life introduced by longterm creep,
boiler and HRSG tube failures occur because of some deviation or breakdown (mechanical,
chemical, or thermal) of the normally protective oxide. This chapter provides background
information about the materials and basic function and general tubing design considerations
for water- and steam-touched tubing in conventional units (Sections 5.2 and 5.3) and in
HRSG units (Sections 5.4 and 5.5).
This chapter sets the stage for examining the formation of normally protective oxides and
their waterside breakdown (Chapter 6), waterside deposition in tubes (Chapter 7), and the
fireside environment and oxide breakdown (Chapter 10). Material in those chapters is closely
related to the information provided here.
Throughout this chapter, although obviously important to the occurrence of BTF and HTF,
the details of the specific unit designs are not discussed because of the complexity and the
number of varieties. Some introductory discussion of overall unit designs in conventional
and HRSG units is contained in Chapter 1.

5.2 Tube Materials and Their Basic Function in Conventional Units

At its most basic, the purpose of a boiler tube is to transfer heat generated by the combustion
process to the water and/or steam within the tube. The tube must have sufficient mechanical
strength (a function of its diameter, wall thickness, and material of construction) to contain
the internal pressure, as well as adequate resistance to corrosion on both fluid and fireside
surfaces. These requirements must be continuously met over the required life of the boiler,
usually well in excess of 100,000 operating hours. Finally, economic considerations require
that the cheapest adequate materials be used. Worldwide these demands are met by a num-
ber of international materials and design codes.
Material choice is a function of expected temperature of operation. Economizers and water-
wall sections are usually constructed with a mild or medium carbon steel while low alloy fer-
ritic steels are used for most superheater and reheater sections, with austenitic stainless steels
specified for the highest temperature circuits or corrosion performance.
Alloys for use as boiler tube materials in the United States are identified by an ASME (Amer-
ican Society of Mechanical Engineers) designation (SA-XXX) or an essentially equivalent
ASTM designation (A-XXX). For example, ASME-SA213 and ASTM A213 are identical.
ASME material specifications are found in ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel (B&PV) Code,
Section II, Part A: “Materials Specifications for Ferrous Materials.” These are complete speci-
fications that are generally adequate for procurement purposes. The specific grade of material

5-1
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is required as well as the specification number. Many of
the ASTM specifications are oriented toward perfor-
mance of the fabricated end product with considerable
latitude in chemical composition of the steel used to
make the end product.
There are many international standards for designating
materials. British Standards (BS) are developed by the
British Standards Institute in London, England.
The British designation includes a product form and an
alloy code.
DIN standards are developed by the Deutsches Institut
für Normung in the Federal Republic of Germany.
All German steel specifications are preceded by the
uppercase letters DIN followed by an alphanumeric or
numeric code. The latter code, known as the Werkstoff
number, only uses numbers with a decimal point after
the first digit.
JIS standards are developed by the Japanese Industrial
Standards Committee. The JIS steel specifications begin
with the upper case letters JIS and are followed by an
uppercase letter (G in the case of carbon steel and low
alloy steels) designating the division (product form) of
the standard. This letter is followed by a series of num-
bers and letters that indicate the specific steel.
AFNOR standards are developed by the Association
Française de Normalisation in Paris, France. The correct
format for reporting AFNOR standards is: the uppercase
letters NF are placed to the left of a code consisting of an
uppercase letter followed by a series of digits, which are
subsequently followed by an alphanumeric sequence.
5-2
UNI standards are developed by the Ente Nazionale Ital-
iano di Unificazione in Milan, Italy. Italian standards are
preceded by the uppercase letters UNI followed by a
four-digit product form code subsequently followed by
an alphanumeric alloy identification.
Swedish standards are prepared by the Swedish Standards
Institute in Stockholm. Designations begin with the let-
ters SS followed by the number 14 (all Swedish carbon
and low-alloy steels are covered by SS14). This number is
followed by a four-digit numerical sequence similar to
the German Werkstoff number.
To obtain more details on any particular standards, the
reader should refer directly to articles, reports and other
documents that describe the applicable national or inter-
national standard.
Table 5-1 provides a list of the typical materials used in
boiler and HRSG tubing. The table contains the class of
material, general properties, ASTM/ASME specification
number, and basic composition. A comparison with des-
ignations from British, German, and Japanese Standards
is also included. This table is only a guide and should not
be used for design. There is seldom a direct match
between specifications in two different standards. The
table should be used to find an approximate equivalent
and then the details of the specification should be com-
pared to determine if substitution is permissible
(1004509, 2005).
 Table 5-1
Comparison of Selected Specifications for Common Boiler and HRSG Tubing Alloys
Sources: 1004509, 2005; 1004503, 2002

Class of General Properties ASME/ASTM BS DIN JIS

Material
Carbon Steel • Hypoeutectoid steels. SA-178 A (welded carbon steel) 3059 ERW 320 17177 St37.8 G 3461 STB35E
• Mild corrosion resistance. SA-178 C (welded carbon steel) 3059 ERW 440 17177 St42.8 G 3461 STB42E
Volume 1: Fundamentals

• Moderate strength up to SA-178 D (welded carbon steel) G 3461 STB52E

538°C (1000°F). SA-192 (seamless C-Si steel) 3059 S1 360 17175 St35.8 G 3461 STB35S
• Susceptible to SA-210 A1 (seamless C-Mn-Si steel) 3059 S1 440 17175 St45.8 G 3461 STB52S
graphitization above SA-210 C (seamless C-Mn-Si steel) G 3461 STB42S
427°C (800°F).
Carbon • Greater creep strength than SA-209 T1 (seamless C – ½ Mo steel) 3059 S1 243 17175 15Mo3 G 3462 STBA12S
Molybdenum carbon steels. SA-209 T1a (seamless C – ½ Mo steel) G 3462 STBA13S
Steel
• Susceptible to SA-209 T1b (seamless C – ½ Mo steel)
graphitization with
prolonged exposure above SA-250 T1 (welded C – ½ Mo steel) G 3462 STBA12S
468°C (875°F). SA-250 T1a (welded C - ½ Mo steel) G 3462 STBA13S
Chromium • Most common boiler and SA-213 T2 (seamless ½ Cr – ½ Mo steel) G 3462 STBA20S
– Molybdenum HRSG tube materials SA-213 T12 (seamless 1Cr – ½Mo steel) 17175 13CrMo4-4 G 3462 STBA22
Steel (particularly T22 and T11).
SA-213 T11 (seamless 1¼Cr – ½Mo steel) 3059 S1 620-460 17175 13CrMo4-4 G 3462 STBA23
• Each increase in Cr content
yields improved properties, SA-213 T23 (seamless 2¼ Cr – ¼ Mo-V-X (W/Cb/B/N/Al)
particularly higher steel))
strength, creep properties, SA-213 T22 (seamless 2¼Cr – 1Mo steel) 3059 S1 622-490 17175 10CrMo9-10 G 3462 STBA24
and improved corrosion SA-213 T21 (seamless 3Cr-1Mo steel)
resistance.
SA-213 T5 (seamless 5Cr-½Mo steel) G 3462 STBA25
• Resistant to graphitization.
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

SA-213 T5b (seamless 5Cr-½ Mo steel)

SA-213 T7 (seamless 7Cr – ½Mo steel)
SA-213 T9 (seamless 9Cr-1Mo steel) 3059 S1 629-470 G 3462 STBA26
SA-213 T91 (seamless 9Cr-1Mo-V-X (Cb/N/Ni/Al) steel)) 3059-2 Gr. 91 17175- G 3462 STBA28
X10CrMoVNb9-1
SA-213 T92 (seamless 9Cr-1Mo-V-X (W/Cu/Cb/B/N/Ni/Al)
steel)
Austenitic • Excellent oxidation SA-213 TP304 (seamless 18Cr-8Ni austenitic stainless steel) 17456 X2CrNi1911 G 3462 SUS304TB
Stainless resistance and good
Steel elevated temperature SA-213 TP304H (seamless 18Cr-8Ni austenitic stainless steel) 3059 CFS304S51 G 3463 SUS304HTB
strength.
• An “H” following the SA-213 TP316 (seamless 16Cr-12Ni-2Mo austenitic stainless 17456 G 3463 SUS316TB
designation indicates a steel) X5CrNiMo17122
higher carbon content and SA-213 TP316H (seamless 16Cr-12Ni-2Mo austenitic stainless 3059 CFS316S51 G 3463 SUS316HTB
slightly higher solution heat steel)
treat temperature.
SA-213 TP321 (seamless 17Cr-11Ni-Ti austenitic stainless steel) 17456 G 3463 SUS 321TB
X6CrNiTi1810
SA-213 TP321H (seamless 17Cr-11Ni-Ti austenitic stainless steel) 3059 G 3463 SUS321HTB

5-3
Boiler and HRSG Tube Materials and Standards

CFS321S51
 Table 5-1 (continued)

5-4
Comparison of Selected Specifications for Common Boiler and HRSG Tubing Alloys
Sources: 1004509, 2005; 1004503, 2002

Class of General Properties ASME/ASTM BS DIN JIS

Material
Austenitic SA-213 TP347 (seamless 18Cr-10Ni-Cb austenitic stainless steel) 17456 G 3463 SUS347TB
Stainless X5CrNiNB1810
Steel SA-213 TP347H (seamless 18Cr-10Ni-Cb austenitic stainless 3059 G 3463 SUS347HTB
(continued) steel) CFS347S51
Grade 253MA (21Cr-11Ni-N austenitic stainless steel) G 3463 SUS310TB
TP 310 (25Cr-20Ni austenitic stainless steel) G 3463
SUS310J1TB
TP310CbN (25Cr-20NiNbN stainless steel)
Boiler and HRSG Tube Materials and Standards

Alloy 800
Alloy 800H (21Cr-32NiTiAl NCF800HTB
Ferritic Stainless • For use in highly aggressive
Steel or high temperature
environments.
Martensitic • For use in highly aggressive
Stainless Steel or high temperature
environments.
Duplex • For use in highly aggressive 2205 (22Cr-6Ni-3Mo-N duplex stainless steel)
Stainless Steel or high temperature
environments.
Nonferrous • For use in highly aggressive Ni-Cr (Alloy 600)
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

Alloys or high temperature

environments.
ASME – American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM – ASTM International (ASTM specs are generally identical to ASME)
BS – British Standards
DIN – Deutsches Institut für Normung (German Standards)
JIS – Japanese Industrial Standards
Note: Alloy comparisons are for reference only. Refer to the actual specification for design purposes. There is seldom an exact match between specifications in two different standards.
Volume 1: Fundamentals
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Volume 1: Fundamentals Boiler and HRSG Tube Materials and Standards

Chemical composition of some of the more commonly used boiler tube materials is provided in Table 5-3. The
used materials is provided in Table 5-2. A list of the min- maximum tube metal temperatures for a selection of
imum tensile and yield strengths of some commonly materials is provided in Table 5-4.

5-5
 Table 5-2

5-6
Chemical Composition of Some Selected Boiler and HRSG Tube Materials
Source: 1004509, 2005

Material ASME C Si Mn P S Cr Mo W Ni V B N Others

Spec.
C-Si steel SA192 0.06-0.18 0.25 max 0.27- 0.048 max 0.058 max
0.63
C-Mn-Si steel SA210 A1 0.27 max 0.1 max 0.93 0.048 max 0.058 max
max
C – ½Mo steel SA209 T1 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.5 0.3-0.8 0.045 max 0.045 max 0.44-0.65
½Cr – ½ Mo SA213 T2 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.61 0.025 max 0.025 max 0.5-0.8 NA
steel
1Cr – ½ Mo SA213 0.05-0.15 0.5 max 0.3-0.61 0.025 max 0.025 max 0.8-1.25 0.44-0.65
steel T12
1¼ Cr – ½ Mo SA213 0.05-0.15 0.5-1.0 0.3-0.6 0.025 max 0.025 max 1.0-1.5 0.44-0.65
Boiler and HRSG Tube Materials and Standards

steel T11
2¼ Cr – 1 Mo SA213 0.05-0.15 0.5 max 0.3-0.6 0.025 max 0.025 max 0.9-2.6 0.87-1.13
steel T22
5Cr – ½ Mo SA213 0.15 max 0.5 max 0.3-0.6 0.025 max 0.025 max 4.0-6.0 0.45-0.65
steel T5
9Cr – 1 Mo steel SA213 0.15 max 0.25- 1.0 0.3-0.6 0.025 max 0.025 max 8.0-10.0 0.9-1.1
T9
9Cr – 1 Mo-V-X SA213 0.08-0.12 0.2-0.5 0.3-0.6 0.02 max 0.01 max 8.0-9.5 0.85-1.05 NA 0.18- NA 0.03- 0.06-0.1 Cb
steel T91 0.25 0.07 0.04 max Al
0.4 max Ni
9Cr – 1 Mo-V-X SA213 0.07-0.13 0.5 max 0.3-0.6 0.02 max 0.01 max 8.5-9.5 0.3-0.6 1.5- 0.15- 0.001- 0.03- 0.04-0.09 Cb
steel T92 2.0 0.25 0.006 0.07 0.04 max Al
0.4 max Ni
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18Cr-8Ni SA213 0.04-0.1 0.75 max 2.0 max 0.04 max 0.03 max 18.0-20.0 NA 8.0-11.0 See note 1.
TP304H
16Cr-12Ni-2Mo SA213 0.04-0.1 0.75 max 2.0 max 0.04 max 0.03 max 16.0-18.0 2.0-3.0 11.0-14.0 See note 1.
TP316H
17Cr-11Ni-Ti SA213 0.04-0.1 0.75 max 2.0 max 0.04 max 0.03 max 17.0-20.0 NA 9.0-13.0 See notes 1
TP321H and 2.
18Cr-10Ni-Cb SA213 0.04-0.1 0.75 max 2.0 max 0.04 max 0.03 max 17.0-20.0 NA 9.0-13.0 See notes 1,
TP347H 3, and 4.
Notes:
1. In each case, regular grade has carbon level of 0.08 max.
2. In 321 and 321H grades, Ti content is not less than four times the carbon to a maximum of 0.6%.
3. In 347 grade, Cb+Ta is not less than ten times the carbon and not more than 1.0%.
4. In 347H grade, Cb+Ta is not less then eight times the carbon and not more than 1.0%.
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Table 5-3
Minimum Tensile and Yield Strength for Common Boiler Tube Materials
Tube Steel Type ASME Specification Grade Minimum Tensile Minimum Yield
Strength (ksi) Strength (ksi)
Carbon Steel
Electric resistance welded SA-178 A 47b 26b
C 60 37
Seamless SA-192 - 47b 26b
Seamless SA-210 A1 60 37
C 70 40
Electric resistance welded SA-226 - 47b 26b
Ferritic Alloy
Electric resistance welded SA-250 T1 55 30
Seamless SA-209 T1 55 30
T1a 55 30
T1b 55 30
T2 60 30
Seamless SA-213 T5c 60 30
T9c 60 30
T11 60 30
T12 60 30
T22 60 30
T91 85 60
Austenitic Stainless Steel
Seamless SA-213 TP304H 75 30
TP316H 75 30
TP321 75 30
TP347 75 30
TP347H 75 30
Notes:
a
ASME Boiler and Pressure Code, Section I, Power Boilers - Part PG-9, Pipes, Tubes and Pressure-Containing Parts.
b
Not required by ASME material specification. For purposes of design, these tensile properties may be assumed.
c
Not commonly used in modern boilers.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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Table 5-4
Maximum Tube Metal Temperatures
Tube Steel Type ASME Spec. No. ASME1 Max. B&W2 Max. C-E3 Max. Riley4 Max.
°F °F °F °F
(°C) (°C) (°C) (°C)
Carbon steel SA-178C 1000 950 850 850
(538)5, 6 (510) (454) (454)
“ SA-192 1000 950 850 850
(538)5, 6 (510) (454) (454)
“ SA-210 A1 1000 950 850 850
(538)5, 6 (510) (454) (454)
Carbon Moly SA-209 T1 1000 -- 900 900
(538)7 (482) (482)
“ SA-209 T1a 1000 975 -- --
(538)7 (524)
Chrome Moly SA-213 T11 1200 1050 1025 1025
(649) (566) (552) (552)
“ SA-213 T22 1200 1115 1075 1075
(649) (602) (580) (580)
Stainless SA-213 321H 1500 1400 -- 1500
(816) (760) (816)
“ SA-213 347H 1500 -- 1300 --
(816) (704)
SA-213 304H 1500 1400 1300 --
(816) (760) (704)
1
From ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Table PG-23.1. This is the highest metal temperature for which maximum
allowable stress values are given.
2
From (Stultz, 1992), 1978 edition, p. 29-11, Table 3.
3
From (Singer, 1991), 1981 edition, p. 6-43, Table IV.
4
From (French, 1983), 1983 edition, p. 263, Table VI.
5
Upon prolonged exposure to temperatures above about 800°F (427°C), the carbide phase of carbon steel may be
converted to graphite.
6
Only killed steels shall be used above 850°F (454°C).
7
Upon prolonged exposure to temperatures above about 875°F (468°C), the carbide phase of carbon-molybdenum
may be converted to graphite.
Note: Direct comparison of maximum metal temperature is not meaningful without information on design heat transfer analysis and
actual material properties.
An extensive catalog of properties for boiler tube materi- Further, some care is required to ensure that the
als, including high temperature properties and the micro- “upgraded” material has the necessary properties to meet
structure of original and service-exposed material, is all the requirements of the location. For example,
available in the EPRI Boiler Tube Failure Metallurgical increased erosion resistance may not be found in con-
Guide (TR-102433, 1993) and the EPRI Metallurgical junction with increased creep strength in a particular
Guidebook for Fossil Plant Boilers (1004509, 2005). alloy. When looking for an upgraded property of one
type, care must be taken to ensure that deterioration of
“Upgrading” materials is, for some BTF mechanisms,
another key property is not incurred.
the optimal strategy. For example, where persistent long-
term overheating and creep damage is occurring in the Because several materials are usually used in the SH/RH
lower grade of two materials near a transition, extending sections, a schematic showing the locations of materials
the use of the higher grade material can often be the most and the transitions is critical, both for tracking materials
cost-effective solution. If a material change is made, care- and for developing the appropriate weld procedures. An
ful documentation should be made of the new material example is shown in Figure 5-1 for conventional units.
and its location so that, if needed, repairs can be properly
executed.

5-8
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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Figure 5-1
Example of conventional boiler superheater tubing materials and sizes per section.
Source: TR-101699, 1993

5.3 General Tubing Design Considerations in Tube metal temperatures are an important factor in the
Conventional Units manner in which BTFs develop. Tube metal tempera-
tures depend on the heat flux from the fireside, the inter-
5.3.1 Basic Design Considerations for Waterwalls nal flow rate, and the condition of the working fluid.
and Economizers
Under normal conditions in waterwall tubes for subcriti- Heat transfer through the tube wall is mainly by conduc-
cal boilers, the steam-water temperature is limited to the tion and involves several temperature gradients, as shown
saturation temperature for the given boiler pressure and schematically for a subcritical waterwall in Figure 5-2.
thus the tube temperatures are typically less than 400°C
(~ 750°F). In supercritical units, the waterwall materials
typically operate to slightly higher temperatures (454°C
(849°F)). As a result, high temperature creep is not a
consideration and waterwall tubes are designed on the
basis of short term tensile strength properties and for
indefinite life. In practice, however, this goal is not
achieved; waterwall failures usually account for the larg-
est fraction of BTF. Also, low temperature creep can
occur in economizer tubing bends and in the low tem-
perature sections of superheaters and reheaters.
Plain carbon steels, such as SA210 or SA192, are most
often used for subcritical boilers, with 1¼ Cr or 2¼ Cr
alloys, such as SA 213 T11 or T22, being used in some Figure 5-2
Schematic of a typical temperature profile through a
cases; the latter are usually the materials of choice for waterwall tube. [°F = (°C x 1.8) + 32]
supercritical units.

5-9
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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Furnace gas temperatures near to the wall are typically
around 1200°C (~ 2200°F) but a massive gradient exists
between this and the tube metal, mainly due to the cool-
ing effect of the internal fluid, but also to low conductiv-
ity of the gas boundary layer and fireside scale.
Under normal circumstances, without heavy internal
deposits, the gradient through the tube metal is small,
typically about 25°C (45°F), and a further drop occurs
through the waterside magnetite layer and the boundary
layer in the steam/water mixture. Important consequences
are: (i) tube metal temperature in the subcritical steam
generating tubes is normally below 400°C (~ 750°F), and
(ii) excessive waterside deposit growth raises tube metal
temperature by restricting heat flow. Waterside deposits
in conventional units are discussed extensively in
Chapter 7. Excess fireside corrosion scaling reduces metal
temperature in the affected area but can cause problems
due to excess heat flux elsewhere in the boiler.
5.3.2 Basic Design Considerations for Superheaters
and Reheaters
The design of superheater/reheater (SH/RH) sections is
more involved. There will be a distribution of increas-
ingly higher metal temperatures through the circuit,
necessitating tubes with increasing wall thickness and/or
material changes. Thus the primary stages may use car-
bon steel tubing, followed by progressive change to low
alloy ferritic steels for increasing creep and oxidation
resistance, and finally to the use of austenitic stainless
tubes for the highest temperature sections, Figure 5-1.
Superheater and reheater tubes operate at temperatures
ranging from around 400°C (~ 750°F) to over 600°C
(~ 1110°F), depending on location and design. Because
of the higher operating temperatures and as a result of
the progressive buildup of internal steamside oxide
(which increases tube metal temperatures) they are sub-
ject to accumulation of damage by creep, which ulti-
mately causes rupture. Such tubes therefore have a finite
service life, in contrast to economizer and waterwall
tubes which should in principle last indefinitely.
An additional consideration is the formation of wustite
(FeO), a non-protective form of oxide at temperatures in
excess of 570°C (~ 1060°F). This can lead to very rapid
oxidation rates in superheater/reheater tubes and has led
to limiting allowable temperatures on carbon steels to
about 454 to 510°C (~ 850 to 950°F); for T-11 to 552 to
566° (~ 1025 to 1050°F) and for T-22 to 580 to 602°C
(~ 1075 to 1115°F).
5-10
Each manufacturer specifies a maximum operating tem-
perature for each material, based on laboratory oxidation
experiments. Thus, during the design stage, a tube mate-
rial is used up to the gas-touched length (tube heated
length within the furnace) at which it is estimated the
maximum oxidation temperature is reached. Transition
is then made to the next higher grade material.
In superheater and reheater tubes, the dry steam temper-
ature has no saturation limitation and is simply deter-
mined by the balance between heat flux and internal flow
rate. Depending on the design, final steam temperatures
of 538 to 565°C (1000 to 1050°F) can require tube metal
temperatures in excess of 600°C (~1110°F) in the last
stages of the SH and RH sections. Tube materials are
initially selected by performing a heat balance analysis.
This starts with the gas outlet temperature from the air
heater and works backward through all the convection
and radiant sections to achieve the desired furnace gas
outlet temperature by inserting the appropriate amount
of tubing in each section to achieve the rated steam con-
ditions. This is achieved by having bank effectiveness fac-
tors, which vary with the heat pickup for each individual
section or bank of tubing.
5.3.3 ASME Code Design Requirements
Section I of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
(ASME, 1995) applies to boilers, superheaters, econo-
mizers, and any other pressure parts connected directly
to the boiler. Essentially, the code sets limits on wall
thickness based on boiler pressure and operating temper-
ature of the specific tube. Tube diameter is selected by
the manufacturer based on experience and is not gov-
erned by the Code. Section I is a design by rule code and
does not provide any guidance on fatigue or creep fatigue.
As a result, other sections of this Code or other interna-
tional codes are often used for fatigue design.
Maximum allowable design stress for SH/RH tubes as
specified in the ASME Code is chosen to be no higher
than the lowest of:
(i) 1/4 of the specified minimum tensile strength at
room temperature;
(ii) 1/4 of the tensile strength at design temperature;
(iii) 5/8 of the specified minimum yield strength at
room temperature;
(iv) 5/8 of the yield strength at design temperature.
For SH and RH tubes, the stresses are based on 100% of
the stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01%/1000 hours
(which equates to a creep rate of 1%/100,000 hours), as
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Boiler and HRSG Tube Materials and Standards
determined from the most appropriate available data. In
addition, code stresses are limited to 67% of the average
stress to produce rupture in 100,000 hours, or 80% of
the minimum stress for rupture in 100,000 hours, which-
ever is lower. RH tubes are relatively thin walled com-
pared with SH tubes since the pressure in the RH is
substantially lower than the rated boiler pressure. For
example, for boilers operating at 16.2 MPa (2350 psi),
RH pressure is typically 3.4 MPa (500 psi).
The following formulae are currently used for minimum
wall thickness and maximum operating pressure:
(5.1)
(5.2)
where T = minimum wall thickness (in.)
D = outer diameter (in.)
P = maximum allowable working pressure (psi)
S = maximum allowable stress value at
operating temperature of metal as given
in reference table (psi)
e = thickness factor (in.) used for tubes that
are in rolled joints. For tubes strength- conventional units:
welded to headers and drums, e = 0.
There is no corrosion allowance, per se, in the ASME
Code, but effectively the term 0.005D covers this factor.
Also, for cold drawn seamless tubing, the ASME SA450
allows +22% on the calculated wall thickness, hence the
conservatism in the Code. The maximum allowable
stresses are determined on the basis of the operating
metal temperature. Additional detail on ASME Code
requirements can be found in (1004509, 2005).
5.3.4 International Standards
In 1997, the European Union legislated a Pressure Equip-
ment Directive (PED), which has been implemented
and is now mandatory in most European Union member
countries. Standards for boilers are provided in the Euro-
pean Norms, some of which have yet to be issued. The
European design codes EN 12953 (EN 12953, 2002) on
shell boilers and EN 12952 (EN 12952, 2001) on water-
tube boilers and auxiliary installations cover a wide range
of components. Thermal design of furnace tubes is speci-
fied to give the minimum furnace tube inside diameter
for heat input from coal, gas, and oil firing. Dimensions
of pressure parts are defined where the wall thickness and
other parts of pressure equipment are sufficient to with-
stand the calculation pressure at the calculation tempera-
ture. In-service boiler life expectancy is provided in EN
12952 Part 4 in which the measured (actual) wall thick-
nesses of the components are used in the calculations,
taking into account any wall thickness reduction that
may have occurred due to corrosion or erosion during
service. The European standard for unfired pressure
vessels is EN 13445 (EN 13445, 2002).
The British design standard for water-tube steam gener-
ating equipment is BS 1113 (BS 1113, 1999). BS 1113
has been partially superceded by EN 12952.
The TRD standards were the German technical rules for
steam boilers, now integrated into the EN codes. TRD
301 provided for the design of cylindrical shells under
internal pressure.
Additional detail about these standards as they pertain
to fatigue and creep fatigue design can be found in
Section 5.5 of this chapter.
5.4 Tube Materials and Their Basic Function
in HRSG Units
5.4.1 Basic HRSG Tube Design
HRSG tubes have the same demands as boiler tubes in
• To transfer heat generated by the combustion process
to the water and/or steam within the tube.
• To have sufficient mechanical strength to contain the
internal pressure.
• To have adequate resistance to corrosion on both
fluid surfaces.
These requirements must be continuously met over the
required life of the HRSG, usually well in excess of
100,000 operating hours. The owner should specify the
nominal design operating hours and number of cold,
warm, and hot starts projected throughout the entire life
of the unit. Economic considerations require that the
lowest cost materials be used that will achieve the required
thermal/mechanical life with adequate corrosion
resistance.
HRSG designers predominantly utilize finned tubes
to increase heat transfer. The use of finned tubes makes
the circuits more compact, but also more difficult to
access. Bare tubes are sometimes used downstream of
supplementary burners to limit their metal temperature
since they are exposed to increased radiant heat transfer
and higher gas temperatures.
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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Boiler and HRSG Tube Materials and Standards Volume 1: Fundamentals
Tube metal temperatures are an important factor in the
manner in which HTFs develop. Tube metal tempera-
tures depend on the heat flux from the gas-side, heat
transfer through the tube wall, the internal flow rate, the
condition of the working fluid, and fin geometry. As a
rough rule of thumb, bare tubes operate slightly hotter
than the steam temperature and finned tubes operate at
about the steam temperature plus 25% of the difference
between the steam and gas temperatures (TR-105013,
1996).
Heat transfer through the tube wall is mainly by conduc-
tion and involves several temperature gradients, as shown
schematically in Figure 5-3.
Figure 5-3
Schematic and plot of a typical temperature profile through a
finned tube.
Source: Lee, 2002
5-12
Turbine gas exit temperatures are typically less than
649°C (1200°F) and, with supplemental firing tempera-
tures, are less than 899°C (1650°F). However, there is a
gradient between this and the tube metal due mainly to
the cooling effect of the internal fluid, but also to the low
thermal conductivity of the gas boundary layer and any
gas-side scale. Under normal circumstances, without
heavy internal deposits, the gradient through the tube
metal is small, typically about 25°C (45°F), and a further
drop occurs through the waterside magnetite layer and
the boundary layer in the steam/water mixture. Impor-
tant consequences are (i) tube metal temperature in the
evaporator tubes is normally below 315°C (~600°F), and
(ii) excessive waterside deposit growth raises tube metal
temperature by restricting heat flow. The use of tube fins
will increase the heat adsorption rate and elevate the tube
metal temperature.
The design of SH/RH sections is more involved. There
will be a distribution of increasingly higher metal tem-
peratures through the circuits, necessitating tubes with
increasing wall thickness and/or material changes. Thus,
the primary stages may use carbon steel tubing, followed
by a progressive change to low alloy ferritic steels for
increasing creep and oxidation resistance, and finally to
the use of higher chromium ferritic or austenitic stainless
steel tubes for the highest temperature sections.
SH and RH tubes operate at steam temperatures ranging
from around 315°C (~600°F) near the steam inlet to over
565°C (~ 1050°F), depending on location and design.
Because of the higher operating temperatures, and as a
result of the progressive buildup of internal steamside
oxide which increases tube metal temperatures, they are
subject to accumulation of damage by creep, which will
ultimately cause rupture (see Chapter 44, Volume 3).
Such tubes, therefore, have a finite service life, in contrast
to lower temperature tubes that, in principle, have no
time-dependent life limit. However, all tubes are suscep-
tible to fatigue-related cyclic life limitations if they are
subjected to high thermal stress transients during starts
and/or shutdowns.
Careful consideration of tube temperatures must include
the effects during startup caused by unit design features
such as large capacity atmospheric vents on HP steam
and hot reheat pipes or HP and IP/LP turbine bypass
systems. For example, during the initial part of all start-
ups, there is no flow through the superheater or reheater.
The temperature of tubes closely follows the gas tempera-
ture, which with some current gas turbines exceeds
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Boiler and HRSG Tube Materials and Standards
538°C (1000°F) before any steam flow can be established
in the HP superheater or reheater. During this period,
the steam inlet sections of the HP superheater and
reheater may experience higher tube temperatures than
when at maximum operating duty, and these tube mate-
rials must be suitable for the higher temperatures during
startups (Makansi, 1994).
5.4.2 Fin Design and Construction
Finned tubes are predominant in HRSG units. They
have significantly larger surface areas and, thus, tube
bundles can be significantly more compact. The use of
finned tubes can increase the effective heating surface of
a tube by a factor of 10 (Bygate, 1995). Heat flux is
higher because of the large ratio of external to internal
surface area. Tube wall temperatures will be higher with
finned tubes because of the heat flux difference. Unfinned
or bare tubes are used in the highest temperature parts of
SH circuits in some units, most commonly downstream
of supplementary burners, in order to avoid excessive
peak temperatures.
Tube fins naturally operate at higher temperatures than
the tube, and thinner/taller fins operate at higher tem-
peratures than thicker/shorter fins. For every tube diam-
eter, there is an optimum fin height that results from
balancing increased heating surface, fin tip temperature,
and heat conduction through the contact surface of the
fin to the tube.
Fins may be segmented or plain. It has been estimated
that 90% of the fins in HRSGs are segmented, plain fins
being primarily used in SH tube bundles (Makansi,
1994). Advantages of segmented fins are: (i) ease of man-
ufacturing, (ii) higher heat transfer coefficients, (iii) taller
fins, and (iv) a lighter, more cost effective overall unit
(Makansi, 1994). Plain fins may have the advantages of
higher strength and better flexibility and cleanability
characteristics.
Fin type and densities will vary depending on the fuel
used. For ash-bearing fuels such as heavy oil, plain fins
and fin densities may be slightly less than for natural gas
and No. 2 diesel oil. Thicker fins, which may or may not
be spaced farther apart, are used in colder sections of the
economizer or feedwater preheater section for corrosion
protection. Downstream of SCRs, fin spacing needs to
be larger to limit the performance degradation effects of
ammonium bisulfite/sulfate deposition and to facilitate
periodic cleaning to remove the deposits.
5.4.3 Materials of Construction
For economic reasons, the majority of materials currently
used in the construction of HRSGs are carbon steels.
They are classified by their carbon content and are used
for tubing, drums, casings, and ducts. Temperature limi-
tations are influenced by the carbon content. Low and
medium carbon steels are limited to about 454°C (850°F)
due to potential oxidation and graphitization. However,
low chromium steels are usually utilized above 427°C
(800°F) for enhanced creep strength. Exceptions to this
are certain designs of smaller once-through steam gener-
ators that currently utilize Alloy 800 (a nickel-chromium
austenitic steel) in their tubular steam generating banks
(Duffy, 1996).
Components operating above 510°C (950°F) require
alloy steels that are characterized by their chromium con-
tent. At the high chromium content end of the alloy steel
range, Grade 91 (9Cr-1Mo-V) is the most popular mate-
rial and can be used to 649°C (1200°F). The practical
limit is closer to 593°C (1100°F) due to low strength
above this temperature. Somewhat higher chromium fer-
ritic steels are permitted and widely used in Europe. At
temperatures above 593°C (1100°F), austenitic stainless
steels are required.
Carbon steel is usually applied in the economizer and
evaporator sections with some operators requesting 1%
or 1¼% Cr and 2¼ Cr steels, especially for bends. These
grades, as well as carbon steel and T‑91, can be utilized in
superheaters and reheaters. Preheaters, if utilized, are
typically made of austenitic stainless steel (such as Type
304), duplex stainless steel (such as Type 2205), or
carbon steel.
An overview of the typical HRSG tube materials, their
basic composition, alloy designation for several interna-
tional standards, and general properties is provided in the
table of common boiler and HRSG tube materials, Table
5-1. Chemical compositions, minimum tensile and yield
strengths, and maximum tube metal temperatures can be
found in Tables 5-2, 5-3, and 5-4, respectively.
If several materials are used in a particular circuit (specifi-
cally in SHs and RHs), a schematic showing the loca-
tions of materials and the transitions is critical for
tracking materials, developing the appropriate weld pro-
cedures, and for use in remaining life estimations. An
example is shown in Figure 5-4 with accompanying
information in Table 5-5. Table 5-6 provides another
example of the progression of materials through a triple
pressure HRSG.
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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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Figure 5-4
HRSG materials and sizes per section.

Table 5-5
Material/Size Information for HRSG Unit Shown in Figure 5-4
Tubes Fins
Module OD, MWT, Material, Gas path Type – Solid/ Height, Thickness, Fins per Material
Section mm mm tube length, mm Serrated mm mm meter
HPSH4 38.0 3.8 SA-213 T91 20726 Solid 8 1.02 157 TP409
RHSH2 44.5 2.6 SA-213 T91 20726 Solid 8 1.02 185 TP409
HPSH3 38.0 2.9 SA-213 T91 20726 Solid 8 1.02 205 TP409
RHSH1 44.5 2.6 SA-213 T22 20726 Solid 13 1.02 287 TP409
HPSH2 38.0 3.9 SA-213 T22 20726 Solid 13 1.02 287 TP409
HPSH1 31.8 2.6 SA-213 T11 20726 Serrated 16 1.02 287 TP409

HPEVAP1 38.0 2.8 SA-210 A1 20726 Serrated 16 1.02 287 CS

IPSH 38.0 2.6 SA-192 20726 Serrated 16 1.02 287 CS

HPECO5 31.8 2.6 SA-210 A1 20726 Solid 10 1.02 210 CS

HPECO4 31.8 2.6 SA-210 A1 20726 Serrated 16 1.02 287 CS
HPECO3 31.8 2.6 SA-210 A1 20726 Serrated 16 1.02 287 CS

LPSH 44.5 2.6 SA-192 20726 Solid 10 1.02 220 CS

IPEVAP 38.0 2.6 SA-192 20726 Serrated 16 1.02 248 CS
IPECO 31.8 2.6 SA-192 20726 Serrated 13 1.02 169 CS
HPECO2 31.8 2.6 SA-210 A1 20726 Serrated 16 1.02 287 CS

HPECO1 31.8 2.6 SA-210 A1 20726 Serrated 16 1.02 287 CS

LPEVAP 38.0 2.6 SA-192 20726 Serrated 16 1.02 280 CS
PHECO3 34.5 2.6 SA-192 20726 Serrated 16 1.02 287 CS

PHECO2 34.5 2.6 SA-192 20726 Serrated 16 1.02 287 CS

PHECO1 34.5 2.6 SA-192 20726 Serrated 16 1.02 287 CS
Note: 25.4 mm = 1.0 in.

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Table 5-6 a feedwater heater tube bundle from carbon steel to aus-
Typical Materials in a Triple Pressure HRSG tenitic stainless steel will increase the dewpoint corrosion
Module Section Material resistance but may lead to failures by stress corrosion
HPSH1 SA-213 T91 cracking.
RHTR1 SA-213 T91
HPSH2 SA-213 T91 Typical upgraded material applications in HRSGs
RHTR2 SA-213 T22 include:
• The use of 1¼Cr-½Mo steel instead of carbon steel
HPSH3 SA-213 T22 in locations susceptible to flow-accelerated
HPEVAP SA-210 A1 corrosion (FAC).
• The use of modified 9%Cr or other material in place
HPECO1 SA-210 A1
of 2¼Cr-1Mo steel in superheaters and reheaters.
IPSH SA-210 A1
An example of this material use is in the headers of
HPECO2 SA-210 A1
LPSH SA-210 A1
units in cycling service to limit the header thickness.
HPECO3 SA-210 A1 • Moving superheater and reheater tube material
IPEVAP SA-210 A1 transitions further upstream.
Additional detail on HRSG tube materials can be found
HPECO3 SA-210 A1
in TR-102433, 1993; 1004509, 2005; and 1004240,
IPECO SA-210 A1
HPECO5 SA-210 A1
2003.
LPEVAP SA-210 A1
5.5 HRSG Design Codes
LPEVAP SA-210 A1 The key issue in current HRSG design is the need for the
LPECO1 SA-210 A1
addition of fatigue and creep-fatigue design calculations
LPECO2 SA-210 A1
to those contained in some of the international stan-
LPECO3 SA-210 A1
dards; otherwise design is basically the same as for con-
Notes:
HP – high pressure; IP – intermediate pressure; LP – low pressure; ventional boiler tubing. A recent rash of failures in HRSG
SH – superheater; RHTR – reheater; EVAP – evaporator; units has shown that failure to include fatigue and creep-
ECO – economizer
fatigue analyses in the design stage can have far-reaching
See Tables 5-2 and 5-3 for typical material properties.
effects. The treatment of fatigue in the various interna-
Fins are joined to the pressure tubing by high frequency tional codes has been extensively explored in (1010440,
resistance welding strip material to the outside diameter. 2006) with a brief introduction below. That reference
The process results in very little melting at the interface, reviews the ASME Code, British codes, French codes
even though a sound and continuous joint results; thus, and standards, German codes and standards, and
there is not typically a problem with dissimilar metals European Community codes and standards.
used for the pressure tubing and for the fins (Bygate,
1995). Fin materials will vary according to expected ser-
5.5.1 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
vice conditions. For example, near the gas inlet, stainless
(Section I, Section VIII, Div. 1, and Subsection NH
steel fins on carbon manganese steel pressure tubing may of Section III)
be used to resist oxidation. The ASME Section I Code does not include fatigue as a
“Upgrading” materials may be a means of dealing with failure mode and does not provide design rules for
several key HTF mechanisms. For example, extending fatigue. Additionally, Section I has no formal consider-
the use of the higher grade material can often be a cost- ation to either the determination or limitation of tran-
effective solution. If a material change is made, careful sient stresses that are developed in the HRSG pressure-part
documentation should be made of the new material and components during shutdowns and startups. Other Code
its location so that, if needed, repairs can be properly Sections (VIII-2, VIII-3, III and XI) do account for
executed. Further, some care is required to ensure that fatigue in the design stage (1004509, 2005).
the “upgraded” material has the necessary properties to
meet all the requirements of the location and is not detri-
mental to another key property. For example, upgrading

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Boiler and HRSG Tube Materials and Standards Volume 1: Fundamentals
Strict compliance with the requirements of the ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section I, Power Boil-
ers, will not be sufficient to ensure that the HRSG will
provide 20 or 30 years of reliable service regardless of the
operating regime to which the combined cycle unit is
subjected.
The ASME Code specifies allowable design stresses for a
single, notionally 100,000-hour design operating life.
The advent of deregulation in the electricity industry has
prompted an increasing demand from purchasers for
combined cycle plants to be designed for 30 years of reli-
able cycling service (i.e. for 150,000 service hours with
7,500 overnight unit shutdowns or 200,000 service
hours with 4,500 overnight shutdowns). However, the
ASME Boiler Code provides no data to enable the steam
generator parts subjected to creep conditions to be
designed for specific service hours or to determine the
further reduction in allowable stresses necessary for parts
subjected to fatigue or creep fatigue interaction during a
design service life that includes specific numbers of cold,
warm, and hot start-shutdown cycles.
For unfired pressure parts that operate below 371°C
(700°F), ASME Section VIII Division 2 provides a
method for evaluating cyclic conditions to determine
when a fatigue assessment is required. The rules set forth
the conditions under which a comprehensive fatigue
analysis isn’t needed. The method is conservative, pro-
vided there are no abnormal stress-concentrating features
and provided the internal surfaces in contact with the
fluid are not subjected to high heat transfer rates in con-
junction with rapid changes in internal fluid tempera-
ture. The methods may be non-conservative for
thick-walled HP steam drums that can develop very
high, non-linear temperature gradients at the inner sur-
faces during pressure raising and decreasing ramps. These
design rules are not appropriate (i) for fired HRSGs,
(ii) for HP superheater headers subjected to temperatures
greater than 371°C (700°F), or (iii) to components sub-
ject to condensation heating or quench cooling during
shutdowns and hot restarts.
Subsection NH of ASME Section III, Division 1 pro-
vides rules for performing creep fatigue assessments.
Although these are generally regarded as conservative,
there are concerns that, for components of low alloy fer-
ritic steels which happen to have a predicted creep life at
steady state operating conditions of less than 12%, the
interaction diagram in Appendix NH is non-conserva-
tive when the material creep strain rate at the high
5-16
temperature dwell part of the thermal cycle is high. Pend-
ing further investigation of this issue, it is recommended
that an upper limit of about 10% is specified for the
design fatigue life expenditure of parts that operate at
temperatures well into their creep range.
5.5.2 German TRD301
The German “Technical Rules for Steam Boilers,” TRD
301, does include a mandatory fatigue assessment by the
calculation method set out in its Annex 1. The method of
calculation addresses (i) cyclic loading due to internal
pressure pulsations, (ii) the combined changes of internal
pressure and temperature, and (iii) the thermal-mechani-
cal forces and moments applied cyclically at tube and
pipe connections to headers and manifolds.
For pressure part components that operate with a maxi-
mum temperature below about 400°C (750°F), TRD301
is generally considered to be a conservative method for
assessing cyclic life, provided there are no abnormal stress
concentrating features or high heat transfer rates. How-
ever, where headers and manifolds are subjected to con-
densation heating or quenching by subcooled condensate,
TRD301 may be non-conservative and finite element
analysis, validated with measured transient temperature
characteristics, is recommended.
For components such as pressure parts in contact with
water, which are manufactured from non-austenitic
steels, special design requirements are set out in TRD
Annex 1, Paragraph 5.1.4. These design rules limit the
estimated applied strain to values which, in general, will
prevent cracking of the oxide scale which forms on the
water-touched surfaces, thus preventing corrosion fatigue
damage. It is recommended that these special design
rules be required for all water-touched HRSG pressure
parts.
For components that operate significantly above 400°C
(750°F), TRD301 does not fully account for creep fatigue
interaction and is significantly less conservative than Sec-
tion NH of ASME Section III, Division 1. For HRSGs
intended for extensive cycling service, the more prudent
practice adopted by some has been to limit the design
fatigue life expenditure in those parts which experience
relatively high creep at the high temperature dwell part
of their thermal cycle to about 10% to conservatively
account for creep fatigue interaction. For headers of
moderate thickness (less than 40 mm (~1.5 in)), this can
usually be achieved without adding to the overall dura-
tion of the CT/HRSG restart from hot and warm initial
conditions.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Boiler and HRSG Tube Materials and Standards
5.5.3 European Norms EN 12952 (Water-Tube Boilers
and Auxiliary Installations), prEN 12953-3 (Shell
Boilers – Part 3: Design and Calculation), and prEN
13445 (Unfired Pressure Vessels)
EN 12592-3, Section 13, incorporates a fatigue assess-
ment and calculation method for steam and water-
touched pressure parts. The fatigue assessment is based
on that previously set out in TRD 301, including the
special corrosion fatigue requirements for non-austenitic,
water-touched components, but has incorporated some
additional guidance from other European codes. It
appears that prEN 12952-3 does not fully account for
creep fatigue interaction and is significantly less conser-
vative in this respect than Section NH of ASME Section
III, Division 1. For HRSGs intended for cycling service,
the prudent practice adopted by some has been to limit
the design fatigue life expenditure, as calculated by EN
12952-3, in those parts which experience relatively high
creep at the high temperature dwell part of their thermal
cycle to about 10% to conservatively account for creep
fatigue interaction.
5.5.4 British Standards BS1113 and BS5500
The British Boiler Code, BS1113, includes cautionary
advice that cyclic thermal-mechanical loads and stresses
should be assessed and refers to methods for assessment
of cyclic life in BS5500, the Unfired Pressure Vessel
Code. However, a fatigue assessment is not a mandatory
requirement of BS1113, which leaves it to the purchaser
to agree with the vendor whether an assessment is
required and the methodology for performing any fatigue
assessment. In consequence, it is unusual for fatigue
assessments to be performed. The British Boiler Code
does provide allowable stresses for a wide range of alter-
native design operating hours, facilitating life assessments
of all components, including those higher temperature
parts subjected to fatigue degradation.
BS1113 is being replaced by EN 12952. However, some
of the fatigue assessment methods and the data on weld
fatigue strength reduction factors incorporated in BS5500
will continue to be utilized in fatigue assessments of
weldments.
5.5.5 Further Guidelines Required for Performing
Creep-Fatigue Assessments
The absence of a generally accepted set of rules for per-
forming prudently conservative fatigue life assessments,
and the significant discrepancies in the results obtained
by the different rules that are presently available, is a
handicap to the development of reliable HRSG pressure
part designs for cycling service.
5.6 References
1004240, 2003. Delivering High Reliability HRSGs,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2003. 1004240.
1004503, 2002. Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube
Failure Manual, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002. 1004503.
1004509, 2005. Metallurgical Guidebook for Fossil Power
Plant Boilers, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005. 1004509.
1010440, 2006. Evaluation of Thermal-, Creep- and Cor-
rosion-Fatigue of Heat Recovery Steam Generator Pressure
Parts, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2006. 1010440.
ASME, 1995. “Power Boilers,” ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code, Section I, 1995.
BS 1113, 1999. “Specification for Design and Manufac-
ture of Water-Tube Steam Generating Plant (Including
Superheater, Reheaters and Steel Tube Economizers),”
British Standards Institute, BS 1113: 1999.
Bygate, 1995. Bygate, P.J. and D. Bell, “Material
Selection and Fabrication in Heat Recovery Steam
Generators,” 1995.
Duffy, 1996. Duffy, T. and P. Schneider, High Perfor-
mance Steam Development, Final Report, Phase III, 1500°F
Steam Plant for Industrial Cogeneration Prototype
Development Tests, Solar Turbines, Inc., San Diego, CA,
for U.S. Department of Energy Under Con-
tract DE‑AC02‑81CD40812, SRG4‑R‑5527, January
1996.
EN 12952, 2001. Watertube Boilers and Auxiliary
Installations.
EN 12953, 2002. Shell Boilers – Part 2: Design and
Calculation for Pressure Parts.
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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Boiler and HRSG Tube Materials and Standards Volume 1: Fundamentals

EN 13445, 2002. Unfired Pressure Vessels, CEN,
the European Committee for Standardization, Brussels,
May 2002.
French, 1983. French, D.N., Metallurgical Features in Fos-
sil-Fired Boilers, John Wiley & Sons, Wiley-Interscience
Publications, New York, 1983.
Lee, 2002. Personal communication from C. Lee (Aptech
Engineering Services) to project team of (1004503,
2002) August 2002.
Makansi, 1994. Makansi, J., “HRSGs, Steam Turbines,
and Auxiliaries for Combined Cycles,” Power, September
1994, pp. 43+.
Singer, 1991. Singer, J.G., ed., Combustion Fossil Power:
A Reference Book on Fuel Burning and Steam Generation,
4th Edition, Combustion Engineering, Inc., Windsor,
Connecticut, 1991.
Stultz, 1992. Stultz, S.C. and J.B. Kitto, Steam: Its
Generation and Use, 40th Edition, Babcock & Wilcox
Company, Barberton, Ohio, 1992.
TR-101699, 1993. Guidelines on Fossil Boiler Field Weld-
ing, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1993. TR-101699.
TR-102433, 1993. Boiler Tube Failure Metallurgical
Guide, Volume 1: Technical Report, Volume 2: Appendices,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1993. TR-102433.
TR-105013, 1996. Material Considerations for HRSGs
in Gas Turbine Combined Cycle Plants, EPRI, CA: 1996.
TR‑105013.

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Chapter 6
Waterside/Steamside Oxide
Formation and Breakdown

6.1 Introduction
The extraordinary ability of tube materials to function in the conditions on the fluid-side of
the tube is due primarily to the formation of protective oxides.
This chapter looks at the development of those protective oxides, beginning with the reac-
tion of iron-based materials with water and steam (Section 6.2). The formation and break-
down of protective oxides are central to the analysis and understanding of BTF and HTF.
Section 6.3 looks in detail at oxide formation and its breakdown for water-touched tubes of
conventional units. Sections 6.4, 6.5, and 6.6 look at the development of oxides in steam-
touched tubes in general, in ferritic materials, and in austenitic materials, respectively.
The exfoliation of steamside oxide and its effects are discussed in Section 6.7.
The final section (Section 6.8) examines the demands placed on the fluid-side of tubes look-
ing at the thermal-hydraulic regimes present in tubes. A distinction is made between “global”
thermal-hydraulic regimes and the local conditions that are set up by flow disruption.
Throughout this chapter, although obviously important to the occurrence of BTF and HTF,
the details of the specific unit designs are not discussed because of the complexity and the
number of varieties. Some introductory discussion of overall unit designs in conventional
and HRSG units is contained in Chapter 4.
Material in Chapter 7 which examines the important topic of deposition of impurities in
boiler and HRSG tubes is closely related to some of the topics in the chapter and should be
consulted by interested readers.

6.2 The Reaction of Iron and Water/Steam: Oxide Formation

There is a plethora of information discussing the most likely mechanisms, characteristics,
rates of growth, and features of the oxides that form on iron-based materials when exposed
to air, or more importantly for boiler and HRSG tube purposes, to water or steam (see, for
example, Wright, 1992; Paterson, 1992). Why should the practicing utility operator, engi-
neer, or chemist be concerned? There are at least two reasons: first, it is the formation of the
thin oxide layers that make it possible for these materials to be used in the demanding tem-
perature and pressure conditions of modern boilers and HRSG. When those oxide layers
breakdown, the result is the variety of boiler tube failures described in Volumes 2 and 3. The
second reason is that the condition (thickness, morphology, composition) of the oxide scales
formed is a valuable diagnostic tool. A brief overview of the topic is presented here with
additional detail in the appropriate discussions of individual mechanisms.

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There are three stable, solid forms of oxide that occur as and hematite (a-Fe2O3). An extensive database of
a result of the reaction of iron and water/steam under mechanical properties of oxide scales has been compiled
temperature and pressure conditions relevant to boiler (TR-113501, 1999). Table 6-1 provides an introduction
and HRSG practice: wustite (FeO), magnetite (Fe3O4), to some of the differences among the three.
Table 6-1
Overview of Oxides of Iron
Characteristic Magnetite Hematite Wustite
Composition Fe3O4 a-Fe2O3 FeO
Structure Face-centered cubic, spinel
Growth mechanisms Both cations and anions diffuse. n-type conductor. Growth p-type conductor. Growth involves
involves mainly anions. mostly cations.
Stability Above 560°C (1040°F); below it
decomposes to Fe3O4 and iron.
Position in oxide layers Predominant layer in typical If found, will be on the If found, it will be on the steamside between
oxides throughout boiler. outermost layer of the oxide the tube metal and the predominant magnetite.
nearest the water/ steam. In ferritic alloys, FeO occurs between the alloy
spinel and the Fe3O4.
Oxygen Levels at A wide range of oxygen partial Highest Lowest
Formation pressures
Hardness (HV) 450-550 > 1000 250-350
Density (g/cm3) 5 - 5.4 5.24 5.7
(Lynch, 1966) (Lynch, 1966)
Thermal conductivity 0.0423 - 1.37 x 10-5 T 0.0423 - 1.37 x 10-5 T
(W cm-1 K-1) (Molgaard, 1971) (Molgaard, 1971)
Tensile fracture strain 5 - 30 1-3
(x 104) (Field, 1963; Richardson, 1977) (Hancock, 1970; Hurst, 1975)
Young’s modulus 14 - 26 (scale) 12.2 (scale) 12.8 (bulk)
( x 10-10 Nm-2) (Field, 1963) (Metcalfe, 1977) (Vagnard, 1965)
Relevance to analysis Protective form of oxide. Is a non-protective form; if found can lead
of BTF Its breakdown by chemical and/ to rapid oxidation of SH/RH tubes.
or mechanical means is at the Indicator of overheating.
root of most BTFs.

The conditions that will tend to favor the formation of The iron-oxygen phase diagram shown in Figure 6-1
one of the three are a function of a number of variables, illustrates the temperature-oxygen regimes for each.
including oxygen concentration, temperature, and pH.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Waterside/Steamside Oxide Formation and Breakdown
Figure 6-1
Iron-oxygen phase diagram.
Since there is a gradient of available oxygen (highest in
the water/steam, lowest nearest the inside tube surface),
the conditions will often exist for more than one form of
oxide to exist. Further complicating the development of
oxide will be the formation of multiple layers and lami-
nated structures, topics that are further explored in the
following sections.
Magnetite (Fe3O4) is the predominant form of oxide. It
exists over a wide range of oxygen and temperatures.
Hematite (a-Fe2O3) will form in the outermost layer of
the oxide. Wustite (FeO), the form that is stable with the
lowest oxygen concentration, is not stable below temper-
atures that depend on the alloy content of the steel and
range from 560 to 620°C (~1040 to 1150°F) on 1Cr-½
Mo and 2¼Cr-1Mo steels, at which point it decomposes
into iron and magnetite. If it forms on the steamside of
tubes, it could be between the tube metal and the pre-
dominant magnetite layer. As noted above, the forma-
tion of wustite is of concern because of the potential for
accelerated oxidation if it forms. This has been suggested
for the growth of multilaminated oxides in steam; FeO is
not seen in the scales after shutdown because there is a
phase change at 560°C (1040°F) as previously mentioned
(Table 6-1).
6.3 Oxide Development and Breakdown in
Water-Touched Tubes
6.3.1 Growth of Protective Magnetite
The growth of protective magnetite, which occurs adja-
cent to the tube wall in water-touched tubing under typ-
ical boiler conditions, was first characterized more than
forty years ago (Field, 1963; Potter, 1961; Potter, 1963).
The protective layer of magnetite (Fe3O4) is formed by
the reaction between iron and neutral, or alkaline,
water:
(6.1)
It grows as a tenacious and coherent film which then
impedes transport and diffusion; as a result, the rate of
transport decreases with time. The rate of oxide forma-
tion is initially high but decreases as the layer thickness
increases (parabolic growth) and becomes self-limiting.
In actual practice, the outer layer is infrequently formed
because as it does it becomes entrained (dissolved) in the
boiler water flow and is redeposited with feedwater cor-
rosion products in other regions, maybe of higher heat
flux. Even after years, the oxide layer is normally only a
few micrometers thick (10µm - 15µm), yet will still pro-
vide protection to the boiler tube until mechanically
cracked, fluxed, or dissolved away.
The growth mechanism involves a flux of iron ions from
the steel to the outside interface of the oxide and an equal
flux of oxygen ions from the boiler water to the steel sur-
face, as illustrated schematically in Figure 6-2.
Figure 6-2
Schematic of counter-flux diffusion growth of protective
Fe3O4 in boiler water. Most often the outer layer is not
present.
Source: Dooley, 1983
There has been much discussion about whether these
fluxes of iron and oxygen occur by a solid state diffusion
mechanism through the oxide or whether the growth
consists of diffusion of the reactants in liquid (boiler
water) filled pores (Dooley, 1983).
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A number of explanations for how the various species are on the waterwall surfaces. The total thickness controls
transported through the oxide include (Wright, 1992): the heat transfer and is also the reason that boilers have
• Vapor phase transport of water vapor inward and to be chemically cleaned. Deposition is discussed at
"volatile" Fe(OH)2 outward through liquid-filled length in Chapter 7.
pores (Castle, 1966).
• Solid-state, countercurrent diffusion of iron and 6.3.3 Formation of Ripple Magnetite
oxygen ions through lattice defects, the two-layer In subcritical and supercritical, once-through boilers in
structure arising because the outer part of the units operating with reducing feedwater treatment AVT
magnetite behaves as a metal deficit semiconductor, (R), the corrosion products transported from the feedwa-
and the inner part as a metal excess semiconductor ter to the boiler are essentially magnetite. These oxides
(Effertz, 1971). can deposit on waterwall surfaces in a ripple formation.
Ripples can cause significant pressure drops in supercriti-
• Outward cation solid-state diffusion coupled
cal units because of the increased friction to flow. Ripples
with accelerated inward transport of water vapor
are also directly related to tube overheating. Figure 6-3
across disconnected pores via a redox-type reaction
shows the typical surface appearance; a magnification
(Fuji, 1964).
through the cross-section of the ripples is shown in
• Inner layer growth by transport of water along pores Figure 6-4.
to the scale-metal interface with rate of corrosion
limited by outward diffusion of cations along oxide
grain boundaries. Outer layer growth limited by the
amount of outward-bound iron ions, which depends
on various corrosion reactions involved (compensat-
ing current carried by electron or proton transfer
through the oxide or an external circuit through the
water) (Robertson, 1989).
The growth of Fe3O4 thus occurs at the two interfaces
and, because of the equal fluxes, the growth rates are the
same. As a result, the oxide grows in a stress-free situation
and is therefore protective. The mechanism described
varies very little in boiler water treated with caustic,
phosphate, or in boiler water treated by all-volatile or
oxygenated treatment.
Figure 6-3
The growth of waterside Fe3O4 occurs in economizer Photograph showing “ripple” deposits on the inside surface
of a supercritical waterwall tube.
tubing in a similar fashion to that in the waterwall,
although there is much less feedwater corrosion product
deposition, which is a function of a number of variables,
primarily heat flux and heat transfer (see the discussion
of deposition in Chapter 7). Further, waterside surfaces
are generally more uneven and contain more pits than
those in waterwalls.

6.3.2 Scale and Deposition in Waterwall Tubes

The total amount of scale/deposits on a boiler tube water-
wall (either subcritical or supercritical once-through
units) consists of the protective Fe3O4 described above
plus a layer/thickness of deposited material, primarily
feedwater corrosion products. This material can consist
of Fe3O4, Cu, Zn, Ni, and other metals and oxides which Figure 6-4
are transported from the feedwater system and deposit Cross sectional view through ripple magnetite.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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The formation of rippled deposits in waterwalls (and
economizers of some units) was investigated in the 1960s
and 1970s, particularly in Germany (Schoch, 1968;
Schoch, 1969; Schoch, 1970; Schuster, 1971; Schoch,
1972). Fluid vortices and turbulent bursts were found to
influence the structure of deposits (Kline, 1967; Morri-
son, 1971). The ripples appear to be formed by a contin-
uous process of deposition and release, transport, and
redeposition of corrosion products generated within and
those carried into the boiler. The formation of rippled
deposits in boiler tubes requires two conditions (Pfau,
1987):
• Physical and chemical reactions of the operating fluid
with the base metal and its oxide(s) must lead to the
formation of a layer which adheres with an adequate
strength to the metal or metal oxide surface.
• The shear stress of the flow velocity on the surface
(within the laminar sub-layer) must be within certain
limits such as not to wash away the adherent
deposition.
The structure of the deposits in an existing boiler can be
influenced only when the first condition is not fulfilled,
i.e., when the dissolution and re-deposition of metal
oxide (magnetite) is markedly reduced. This is the case
when applying oxidizing chemistry, such as OT.
The following observations have been made about the
process:
• Rippled surfaces offer greater flow resistance than
normal smooth magnetite profiles and are generally
responsible for increasing boiler pressure drop
(Richter, 1971).
• Heat flux seems to have little effect on formation.
Ripple dimensions are the same on the fireside
and non-fired side of tubes; however, ripple
spacings are related to the flow velocity in
the tube (TR-102401,1993).
• Maximum ripple height (crest to valley dimension)
after 1½ to 2 years of operation is on the order
of 8 x 10-3 cm (3 x 10-3 in.) (ASM, 1990).
• The primary criterion for ripple formation appears
to be fluid phase. Rippling in test sections in a boiler
occurred only in the water phase; no rippling
occurred in the steam phase.
• Experience around the world has proven that ripple
magnetite deposit formation and the associated
pressure drop can be avoided by the use of
oxygenated treatment (1004925, 2005).
6.3.4 Breakdown of Protective Magnetite of
Water-Touched Tubes and the Resulting BTF/HTF
While the protective magnetite remains intact, the tube
is generally protected. However, once this layer is cracked,
removed, fluxed away, dissolved, or grows at an acceler-
ated rate, then the protection can be considered to be
lost. The manner in which the magnetite scale is modi-
fied, chemically by various contaminant species or
mechanically by the application of locally excessive strain
levels, leads directly to the manifestation of various dam-
age types. Table 6-2 lists some of these breakdown pro-
cesses and the associated boiler tube and HRSG tube
damage mechanisms for water-touched tubing.
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Table 6-2
Protective Magnetite Breakdown and the Resulting BTF/HTF Mechanisms in Water-Touched Tubing
Boiler Tube Failure
Mechanism
Normal Condition
• Caustic Gouging
• Acid Phosphate Corrosion
Hydrogen Damage
Corrosion Fatigue
Pitting
Chemical Cleaning Damage
Nature of Breakdown Conditions Chapters for Additional
Information
Counter flux of O2- and Fe2+. Oxide grows stress-free by a parabolic growth law. Main text, this section
Underdeposit fluxing of magnetite followed by diffusion of locally concentrated Chapters 23 & 24, Vol. 2
corrosion species to form characteristic deposits. Chapter 7 (deposition)
Underdeposit modification of magnetite growth mechanism to linear Chapter 22, Vol. 2
accumulation with internal strains, followed by chemical attack by locally Chapter 7 (deposition)
concentrated, low pH fluid.
Mechanical strain applied to oxide causes microfissures that are susceptible to Chapter 19, Vol. 2
environmental attack from bulk conditions.
Primarily caused by stagnant, oxygenated water formed during shutdown, which Chapter 37, Vol. 2
attacks oxide as generalized corrosion.
Manifested as generalized corrosion because of direct chemical attack of oxide. Chapter 36, Vol. 2

Several of these mechanisms are associated with the

excessive buildup of internal deposits, primarily as a
result of feedwater corrosion products. The chemical
attack of magnetite under such deposits can be rapid at
temperatures consistent with those in an operating boiler.
The rate of attack under typical bulk boiler water operat-
ing conditions as well as under either high or low pH is
shown in Figures 6-5 for reducing conditions. This figure
also provides an indication of the solubility of Fe3O4
under these conditions.
It is this accelerated attack at pH levels outside of a nar-
row range and the nature of changes to the protective
magnetite (specifically mechanisms for concentration of
deposits) that underlies many of the waterside, water-
wall, and economizer boiler tube failure mechanisms.
Under locally high pH conditions, caused by a concen-
tration of sodium hydroxide (leading to caustic gouging)
or alternatively a concentration of low Na: PO4 ratio
phosphate liquids or solutions (leading to acid phosphate
corrosion), a fluxing reaction removes the magnetite.
There is a subsequent transport of corrosion species to
deposit at the outer layer. In the case of caustic gouging,
Figure 6-5
the presence of concentrated solutions of sodium hydrox- (a) Corrosion of mild steel and solubility of magnetite at
ide results in the formation of characteristic crystals of 300°C (572°F). This figure is for reducing conditions. (b)
sodium ferroate within the corrosion product. The mag- Some common contaminants and boiler water treatment
netite breakdown reaction for these two waterside under- chemicals. Note that the pH values cited here are those
measured at 300°C (572°F).
deposit-corrosion mechanisms is thus primarily chemical
in the presence of concentrated corrosive solutions. In contrast, in the presence of acidic chloride solutions,
Potter and Mann (Potter, 1963) found that the growth of
the oxide scale itself is changed. Specifically the oxidation
rate of mild steel becomes linear and the magnetite scale
formed is stratified or laminated. Further, it has been
shown that the oxide that forms is internally stressed.
Thus the oxide growth process is affected both chemically

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and mechanically for the case of acidic chloride contami-
nation (Masterson, 1969). Additional detailed discussion
is presented in Chapter 22, Volume 2, in the section on
the hydrogen damage mechanism.
Dissolved salt contaminants such as chlorides and sul-
fates are of concern as they can affect the morphology,
formation rate, thickness, and strength of the protective
layer (TR-100455V2, 1992).
In addition to modification of the way in which the scales
form (with subsequent chemical attack), the magnetite
film can be damaged directly either by chemical means
(corrosion) or by mechanical means (strain), or by the
synergistic effect of the two (Magnin, 1983). Destabiliza-
tion primarily by chemical means usually occurs at pre-
existing active sites (TR-100455V2, 1992), resembles
pitting, and has sometimes been termed stress-assisted
pitting. When the film is fractured primarily by strain of
the substrate tube, corrosion paths are produced, leading
to an array of cracks which is generally termed corrosion
fatigue in boiler tubes. Rupture of the protective oxide
film leads to more rapid damage by corrosion fatigue
because (i) additional base metal is exposed to corrosion
damage and (ii) the rupture, which is a crack or crack-
like, acts as a stress concentrator.
That there is a lower bound or critical level of strain that
is required to fracture the protective oxide film and begin
the corrosion fatigue damage process is supported by the
absence of corrosion fatigue in boilers where the design
considers the magnetite strain tolerance, and from mod-
eling studies of oxide. The critical strain to fracture mag-
netite at high temperatures was generally reported to be
between 0.01 and 0.1% (Hurst, 1975; Magnin, 1983;
Ward, 1974; TR-100455V2, 1992) and more recently to
be around 0.2% (TR-113501, 1999). The German
design standard TRD 301, for example, required that the
strain level in tube oxide be kept below a certain limit
(about 0.1% strain) during operation to avoid rupturing
the magnetite scale.
6.4 Oxide Development in Steam-Touched Tubes of
Conventional and HRSG Units - Overview
A protective oxide forms on the carbon, low-alloy, and
austenitic steels used in SH/RH tubing in conventional
units exposed to steam that is analogous to that for water-
touched tube materials. The initial formation is rapid
and in the absence of heat flux decreases with time in a
“parabolic” manner. Eventually for the ferritic materials,
the layers formed become laminated and multilaminated
and the rate changes to linear. The scales formed are then
susceptible to exfoliation. The processes of oxide forma-
tion, change to a laminated structure, and subsequent
exfoliation are all normal occurrences of SH/RH tubing
operating in these regimes.
An excess of steamside scale can lead to increased tube
temperatures, which are a contributor to damage in
superheater/reheater tubes by longterm and short-term
overheating, fireside corrosion, and graphitization mech-
anisms. Table 6-3 lists the BTF mechanisms that are
associated with an excess of steamside scale and/or the
breakdown of protective oxides from the steamside. The
processes are examined in more detail in the following
sections, beginning with oxide development in ferritic
materials.

Table 6-3
Protective Oxide Breakdown and the Resulting Tube Failure Mechanisms in Steam-Touched Tubing
Boiler Tube Failure Nature of Breakdown Conditions Chapters for Additional
Mechanism Information
Normal Condition Counter flux of O2- and Fe2+. Initial oxide grows stress-free by a parabolic growth. Later Main text, this section
multilaminated oxide structures are formed according to a linear growth law. It is normal
for these oxides to exfoliate.
Fireside Corrosion Although a fireside process, result is exacerbated in tubes by overheating caused by Chapters 45 & 46,
excessive steamside oxide growth (usually multilaminated). Vol. 3
Short-Term Overheating Primarily caused by exfoliation of large flakes of steamside oxide from austenitic tubing Chapter 48, Vol. 3
leading to tube blockage and the resultant rapid overheating.
Longterm Overheating Primary cause is overheating of tubes due to inadequate initial design. Tube Chapter 44, Vol. 3
(Creep) temperatures are elevated as the steamside oxide increases in thickness.
Pitting Caused by stagnant, oxygenated water formed during shutdown, which attacks oxide as Chapter 58, Vol. 3
generalized corrosion, or the stagnant water can be acidified by mechanical carryover
of sulfate in steam.
Chemical Cleaning Manifested as generalized corrosion because of direct chemical attack of oxide. Chapter 60, Vol. 3
Damage
Note: All mechanisms will occur in conventional boilers. The normal condition and pitting have occurred in HRSG units, and it is expected that
longterm overheating/creep will also occur as these units age.

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6.5 Growth of Steamside Oxide in Ferritic Materials
6.5.1 “Normal” Growth of Steamside Oxide in Ferritic
Material
Growth of steamside oxide in ferritic materials is illus-
trated schematically in Figure 6-6 and in a sample
removed from a SA2-213 T22 tube in Figure 6-7.
Figure 6-6
Schematic of general two layered oxide growth in steam.
Fe++ ions move outwards and O2- ions move inwards.
Sometimes the inner layer also becomes laminated with
alternating Fe3O4 and chromium-containing layers. Fe2O3 is
often seen at the oxide/steam interface.
Figure 6-7
Example of two layered oxide formed on a SA-213 T22 tube
after 112,000 hours of operation at an average temperature
of 460°C (860°F) . The scale is 109 µm (0.0043 in.) thick. It
should be noted that these two layers don’t usually exfoliate.
As for water-touched tubing, a counter diffusion mecha-
nism (oxygen ions to the tube surface and Fe ions to the
outer layer) occurs. The mobility of the alloying elements
is considerably less than that of iron in the oxide and
thus they stay in the inner layer at a level above that in
the original material.
The inner layer is an equiaxed Fe, Cr oxide spinel. It has
a very fine grain size (< 0.1 µm) and the spinel structure
contains the alloying constituents (Cr, Ni, Si, etc.) at
about 1.5 times their concentration in the metal with the
iron concentration reduced accordingly. Etching reveals
that the inner layer is composed of fine-grained equiaxial
grains. In the case of high temperature overheating, this
normally dense layer may contain porosity (TR-102433,
1993).
6-8
The outer layer of iron oxide consists of coarse columnar
grains of Fe3O4, but the grains become smaller and
equiaxed near the base of the outer layer. A layer of Fe2O3
may be present on the outer surface of the oxide and
within the outer layer, depending on the oxidizing con-
ditions and the oxidation rate at that time. The Fe2O3 has
a finer grain size than the Fe3O4 and appears as a lighter
phase in optical micrographs of polished sections.
The boundary between the two layers is at the original
tube surface. Figure 6-7 shows that the layers are of about
equal thickness and parallel sided. Unlike the case for
water-touched tubing where the outer layer is generally
missing, for steam-touched tubes it is always present.
The formation of the oxide occurs initially parabolically
but at a later stage can become linear. Any deviation from
the parabolic growth is associated with multilaminated
scale. A two duplex layer structure is shown schemati-
cally in Figure 6-8; the process simply repeats to form
multilaminated oxides. An example from a SA-213 T22
tube is shown in Figure 6-9.
Figure 6-8
Schematic of the start of multilaminated oxide growth on
ferritic steels. Layers 1 and 3 are essentially pure Fe3O4.
2 and 4 are Fe, Cr spinel. Exfoliation occurs between 2
and 3. When more laminations are present, the exfoliation
occurs at the same interface between layers. Fe2O3 is often
found at the outermost interface.
Exfoliation, discussed in more detail below, will also only
occur when a multilaminated structure forms, and it will
typically occur at the interface between the two duplex
structures. If more than two duplex layers form, which is
typical, the exfoliation will still typically occur between
layers 2 and 3 in Figure 6-8.
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Figure 6-10 shows the progression in time from Figure

6-9 with more laminations found beneath the original
duplex pair. This formation of oxides (laminated) at the
metal/oxide interface increase the stress in the oxide,
which eventually results in transverse cracks (left hand
side of the oxide structure) that are the initiation of the
exfoliation process.
In addition to the protection provided, the oxide layers
formed on the steamside of carbon and low-alloy steel
tubing are important because they provide useful infor-
mation about the service temperatures to which the tube
has been exposed. Steamside scale will increase the tube Figure 6-9
Example of multilaminated oxide growth on a SA-213 T22
temperatures by approximately 0.28°C (0.5°F) per tube beneath the original duplex pair of oxides. The scale is
0.025 mm (0.001 inch) of oxide thickness in typical 175 µm (0.0069 in.) thick.
reheater tubes and by 1.67°C (3°F) per 0.025 mm (0.001
inch) for typical superheater tubes (TR-102433, 1993).
Oxide scale analysis is a powerful tool to predict remain-
ing life of superheater/ reheater tubes. This subject, along
with a discussion about the reaction kinetics of oxide
growth in SH/RH tubes is included in Chapter 14 of this
Volume. As an example of the detrimental effects of the
scale, a 0.508 mm (0.020 inch) thick scale will increase
the typical superheater tube metal temperature by about
33°C (60°F), which will result in an increase in damage
accumulation by creep by a factor of more than five. It
will also increase the propensity for fireside corrosion.

6.5.2 Growth of Steamside Oxide in Ferritic Materials- Figure 6-10

Some Variations from the Established View Multilayer oxide structure. Layer 4 is pure magnetite, layer 3
Recent work on oxide formation and exfoliation has is the original Fe-Cr spinel, and layer 2 is the multilaminated
found that there are some significant variations from the structure. The transverse cracks at the left hand side of the
oxide show the initiation of the exfoliation process.
traditional understanding of the behavior of oxide growth
and exfoliation on low Cr ferritic steels (up to “normal”
9 Cr) (EPRI-NPL, 2003). For example, in very thick
multilaminated oxides a region of wustite is suspected,
Figure 6-11.

Figure 6-11
Closeup of thick multilaminated oxides in a SA-213 T11 tube
following 280,164 hours of service. The total scale thickness
was 380 µm (0.015 in).

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6.5.3 Growth and Exfoliation on T91 Alloy

It has been observed (Dooley, 2003) that the oxide
growth and exfoliation process on 91 alloys differs
remarkably from the low Cr ferritics (including T9) dis-
cussed in Section 6.5.1. Whereas normal early-life growth
of oxide in low Cr ferritics has a duplex structure, early-
life growth of T91 material is multilayered. An example
is shown in Figure 6-12 in which there is the base metal,
a dealloyed layer, a spinel, laminated scale, another
spinel, magnetite, and hematite.
Figures 6-13 and 6-14 show additional detail of the typi-
cal oxide structures on 91 alloy tubing where it can be Figure 6-13
seen that the normal sequence of an oxide duplex struc- Oxide growth and delamination on SA-213 T91. The tube
ture is not observed. Figure 6-13 shows the outer pure failed after 60,000 hours. The oxide was about 700 µm
(0.028 in.) thick. At failure, the temperature was estimated to
Fe3O4 separated by a lamination from a region of lamina- have been 676°C (1250°F). In the lower picture, note the
tions and voids with another oxide layer growing on the large delamination beneath the initial outer Fe3O4 layer.
tube surface. A further detail is seen in Figure 6-14 where
numerous delaminations can be observed. Fe2O3 is also
apparent in the outer Fe3O4 and is usually much more
predominant than on the “normal” low Cr ferritics, Fig-
ure 6-15, which is thought to be related to the increased
number of delaminations in the oxide structure.

Figure 6-14
Chemical analysis of the tube and oxide layers on a SA213
T91 tube.

Figure 6-12
An example of the complex and multi-layered growth of
oxide on T91 material.

Figure 6-15
Hematite morphology in T91 steamside oxide scale (lighter
phase at the outside of the Fe3O4).

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A key result of the form of oxide development in T91
material is that severe exfoliation has been observed,
especially in HRSGs that suffer large thermal transients.
Figure 6-16 shows an example of severely exfoliated
steamside oxide from a vertical gas path HRSG that
caused a malfunction of the turbine governor valves after
less than 25,000 hours of operation. The oxide had exfo-
liated from the steel/oxide interface of a HRSG super-
heater header manufactured of P91. The inner layer of
the oxide contained about 10% Cr.
Figure 6-16
Sample of exfoliated steamside oxide that caused a malfunc-
tion of the steam turbine governor valve. The chemistry and
radius of curvature of the oxide confirmed that it exfoliated
from the HRSG P91 (9Cr-1Mo-V) superheater outlet header.
Figure 6-17
Effect of laminated oxide structure on oxidation rate in T91
material (1 mm = 0.039 in.; °C = 5/9 (°F- 32).
Source: EPRI TC 06-06
A second effect of the laminated structure is that it affects
the oxidation rate at a given temperature. The magnitude
of this effect is shown in the example of Figure 6-17. In
this figure, measurements of the oxide thickness versus
temperature of exposure are shown for unfailed T91
tubes, and the failed T91 tube illustrated in Figures 6-12
and 6-13. As shown at higher exposure temperatures, the
laminated structure will lead to more rapid oxidation
and, as a result, even higher tube metal temperatures and
shorter creep lifetimes than without laminations.
6.6 Growth of Steamside Oxide in Austenitic Materials
6.6.1 “Normal” Growth of Steamside Oxide in
Austenitic Materials
Austenitic stainless steels generally oxidize more slowly
than ferritics under the same steam conditions because
of their higher chromium content. As a result, the scales
are somewhat thinner. Two-layered scales do form but
with some marked differences to the situations with fer-
ritic materials. The situation is shown schematically in
Figure 6-18.
Figure 6-18
Schematic of two layered oxide growth on austenitic
materials. Note the irregular and keyed nature of the inner
Fe, Cr spinel. Also note the voidage at the oxide/oxide
interface; exfoliation occurs at this interface.
The inner layer forms in a more irregular manner. Grain
boundaries in the steel affect the penetration of the oxide,
and consequently the metal/inner oxide interface is
uneven and “keys” the inner layer to the metal. The outer
layer is columnar as for ferritics but contains more voids;
as the oxide increases in thickness these voids accumulate
near the oxide/oxide interface. Figure 6-19 shows a
typical example in the early growth of the layers where a
few voids can be seen along the interface between the
two layers. As with ferritic materials, a small amount of
Fe2O3 is usually observed at the outer interface of the
Fe3O4 layer.
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Figure 6-19
Early appearance of steam grown oxide on an austenitic
(321H) superheater tube. Note the uneven penetration of the
inner spinel into the steel and accumulation of voids near to
the oxide/oxide interface.
With increasing time in service the density (number) of
these voids at the interface increases and eventually they
will be almost continuous as shown in Figure 6-20. As
this line of voids accumulates, it restricts the outward
diffusion of iron to form magnetite, and consequently
Fe2O3 is formed at the Fe3O4/steam interface.
Figure 6-20
Later appearance of steam grown oxide on an austenitic
(321H) superheater tube. The line of voids at the interface
has now become continuous and has actually resulted in
delamination toward the right side of the oxide. The lighter
phase at the Fe3O4/steam interface is Fe2O3.
The line of voids or delaminations acts as the exfoliation
site. During shutdown, the magnetite is put into com-
pression and exfoliates as discussed in later sections. With
austenitic materials, the exfoliate is always only a layer of
pure Fe3O4. As can easily be understood, these flakes can
be quite large (2.5 cm (1 in.) in diameter).
6-12
6.6.2 Recent Observations About the Oxide
Characteristics of Fine-Grained Austenitic Alloys
Anomalous oxide growth and exfoliation behavior has
been observed for some of the newer austenitic alloys
which is different from the established pattern for aus-
tenitics discussed in Section 6.6.1. Type 347 HFG, which
is a fine-grained version of 347 alloy that is supposed to
be more resistant, has seen increased usage in new super-
critical units around the world. A number of early exfoli-
ation events have been observed (Dooley, 2003). A
typical microstructure of oxide on a 347 HFG tube
removed early in life (about 1 year) shows an anomalous
oxide structure. There is an inner layer of iron/Cr spinel,
but there is also a laminated structure, Fe3O4 and Fe2O3
growing on top of this. Figures 48-8 and 48-9 in the
chapter on short-term overheating illustrate this
condition.
6.7 Exfoliation of Steamside Oxide Scale
and Its Effects
The growth and exfoliation of oxide in SH/RH circuits is
a normal event of operating these materials of construc-
tion at high temperatures in steam. The thickness of
steamside oxide increases with time until some critical
condition is reached at which the steamside oxide exfoli-
ates. Typically this condition is considered to be when
strains in the oxide exceed some critical value. Fracture
can be caused by tensile strain, leading to through-thick-
ness cracking, or by compressive strain. Either can subse-
quently lead to spalling and exfoliation of the oxide.
6.7.1 Cause of Oxide Strain
Causes of oxide strain can include:
• Strain that develops upon cooling because of the dif-
ferential thermal contraction of a layered structure
when cooled from one uniform temperature to a lower
uniform temperature. Cooling strains are the domi-
nant strains that cause exfoliation.
• Differential creep swelling of the tube at a rate that is
different from the oxide.
• Removal of steady heat flux. When the scale is grown
under a heat flux, then additional strains are placed on
the oxide when the heat flux is removed.
• Thermal shock or thermal quenching strain.
• Growth or scale microstructural transformation (e.g.
magnetite to hematite, magnetite to wustite, etc.).
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• Flexural and other strains imposed by the system. From this figure, magnetite growing on T22 will be put
• Natural growth stresses. An oxide layer can develop under compressive stress during heating and under ten-
internal stresses as a result of the growth process (TR- sile stress during cooling cycles (Wright, 2004). In con-
113501, 1999). New oxide forms at the metal/oxide trast, assuming that the coefficient of thermal expansion
interface, and the metal lattice needs to create space to of the Fe-Cr spinel oxide that grows on austenitic steels is
accommodate the newly formed oxide. If the volume similar to that of magnetite, in heatup cycles the scale
of the oxide is larger than the volume of metal con- will be in tension and in compression on cooldown. Esti-
sumed, the oxide would be in compression and in ten- mates of cooling strains are provided in Table 6-4. Note
sion if the reverse is true. The normal ratio of the that in Table 6-4 and in Armitt-type failure diagrams
volume of the oxide to that of the alloy consumed is on (discussed below), the convention used assigns a negative
the order of 2 (Wright, 2004). Unless some stress relief sign to tensile strains.
mechanism operates, buildup of growth stresses will
Table 6-4
eventually lead to cracking or spalling of the oxide Estimated Cooling Strains for Oxides Grown
layer. Stress relief by creep deformation of the underly- at 600°C (1112°F)
ing alloy is increasingly being recognized as the major 300 Austenitic T22
factor contributing to mechanical stability of the pro-
With 0% Fe2O3 + 1.8 x 10 (Ts-Ta)/
-3
- 1.0 x 10-3 (Ts-Ta)/
tective oxide layer (TR-113501, 1999). (600°C – Ta) (600°C – T±)
With 20% Fe2O3 + 2.0 x 10-3 (Ts-Ta)/ - 0.5 x 10-3 (Ts-Ta)/
The cooling strain, ec , for a thin oxide on a thick sub- (600°C – Ta) (600°C – Ta)
strate is:
where: Ts= service temperature, °C
(6.2) Ta= temperature to which component
is cooled, °C
where: (T1-T2) = the temperature drop
Note: Negative values are tensile in the oxide; positive values are
am and ao are the expansion coefficients of the compressive in the oxide.
metal and oxide An alternative presentation of similar information is
Figure 6-21 shows the relative coefficients of thermal provided in Figure 6-22, which shows the decrease in
expansion for a ferritic steel (T22) and a Type 300 series diameter of tubes made of T22, T91, and a 300-series
austenitic stainless steel along with the oxides likely to be austenitic stainless steel, along with magnetite and
formed. hematite.

Figure 6-21 Figure 6-22

Temperature dependence of the coefficients of thermal Decrease in tube diameter during cooling, showing effects of
expansion of alloys and oxides. variations in coefficient of thermal expansion.

Sources: Complied in Wright, 2004 from FP-686, 1978 Source: Wright, 2004
and ASME, 2001

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The figure shows that the T91 material contracts signifi-

cantly less than T22, suggesting that T91 would be more
prone to scale exfoliation than T22. Where a layer of
hematite is grown on top of the magnetite, the hematite
will experience a compressive stress compared to the
magnetite (Wright, 2004). Thus the presence or absence
of an outer hematite layer can significantly influence the
stress field in the main body of the scale, which is typi-
cally magnetite.
In summary, oxide-metal cooling strains for austenitic
steels are large and compressive and increase with Fe2O3
content; in ferritic steels they are small and tensile, and
the presence of Fe2O3 reduces them and can make them
slightly compressive (FP-686, 1978).
6.7.2 Summary of Effect on Exfoliation
of Various Factors
Susceptible materials. Carbon steel, low alloy steel, and Figure 6-23
austenitic stainless steel are all susceptible to spalling as The lower figure shows the oxide exfoliated along the
shown in Table 6-5, which presents data from a reheater transverse cracked region and along an interface between
pairs of laminations. The top picture shows the appearance
with 63,430 hours of service and 450 starts. of the tube surface after multiple exfoliation events.
Table 6-5
Oxide Thickness on Reheater Tubes and Percent Exfoliated
Sources: Dooley, 1980; Miller, 1985

Material Average thickness, Percent Exfoliated

µm (mils)
T-11 70 (3) < 10
T-22 270 (11) 80
T-9 150 (6) <5
304H 90 (4) <2
From reheater with 63,430 hours of service and 450 startups.

In ferritic materials. Spalling from ferritic steels is most

prominent as illustrated in Table 6-5. Exfoliated oxide
from ferritic materials is usually multilaminated. As
noted above, exfoliation occurs only in ferritic materials
when a multilaminated growth occurs. The original
duplex structure grows in a stress-free configuration
because of the counter current diffusion mechanism.
However, when two or more duplex layers form, the
outer layers are under increasing stress. Eventually the
stress causes a transverse crack in the oxide and exfolia-
tion results, Figures 6-23 and 6-24.
Figure 6-24
This figure shows the superficial appearance after multiple
exfoliation events. This is severe exfoliation.
Thus, exfoliated scale from ferritic material is expected to
be at least two layers of oxide and therefore contains
chromium. Oxides on ferritic steels also show degrada-
tion by “through scale” cracking and by accelerated oxi-
dation rates associated with multiple laminations in the
inner layer. Note, however, that these are all general ten-
dencies as discussed in Section 6.5.1. Recent research has
indicated that the oxide layers on 91 alloys can be thin,
fragmented and exfoliation can occur by delamination at
various sites in the oxide.

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In austenitic materials. Spalling occurs in all four 18/8 6.7.3 Failure Criterion
austenitic steels used for SH/RH tubes (Types 304, 321, Figure 6-25 illustrates a generic oxide failure criterion
316, and 347). Oxide spalling from the austenitic steels developed by Armitt, et al. (FP-686, 1978).
almost invariably occurs at the inner layer/outer layer
interface of the duplex scale. The exfoliated oxide from
austenitic materials consists only of magnetite and has
thicknesses in the range 10-200 µm with the presence of
Fe2O3 on the outside. The iron chromium spinel from
the inner layer doesn’t exfoliate. Spalling appears to be
increased when hematite (a-Fe2O3) is present toward the
outside of the Fe3O4 layer. This Fe2O3 can result from a
decreased outward flux of iron ions (due to voids at the
interface between oxides) or from the normal oxide
growth in steam.
Critical thickness. The oxide thickness at which spalling
occurs depends on temperature, tube material, and oper-
ation. The strain tolerance decreases with increasing
oxide thickness and therefore with operating time, and if
this is exceeded during the lifetime of a station for the
strain cycle involved, then oxide failure (exfoliation) will
occur.
Unit operation. Higher steam temperatures increase the Figure 6-25
rate at which oxide thickening occurs and longer periods Oxide failure modes as a function of thickness and
of full load operation increase absolute thickness of the impressed strain.
oxides that form prior to exfoliation. The rate of thicken- Failure will occur when the energy stored in a strained
ing increases exponentially with temperature (Wright, scale is greater than the energy required to generate new
2002). Since ferritic steels in many older U.S. steam boil- surfaces by delamination of the scale. The diagram allows
ers are operated under conditions near their oxidation estimates to be made of the accumulated elastic strain as
limits, increasing the main steam temperature by only 10 a function of scale thickness and to relate those values to
or 15°C (~18 or 27°F) could result in a significant observed tendencies for scale damage and exfoliation.
increase in the rate of oxide growth in these units. The The diagram illustrates conditions found in ferritic steels
requirement for HRSG units to endure very rapid rates (tensile cooling strains) and austenitic steels (compressive
of heating and cooling means that they may be particu- cooling strains). It also shows those regimes where for-
larly prone to scale exfoliation problems. mation of multi-laminate oxide layers and through-scale
cracking are expected in ferritic steels. The methodology
Effect of unit chemistry. Changing the cycle chemistry
has been useful as a tool to provide warning of exfolia-
to oxygenated treatment (OT) has no effect on either the
tion and as an aid to decisions on tube cleaning and esti-
growth of the oxide or its exfoliation. This is an impor-
mation of remaining tube life. For example, where the
tant point to note because BTFs by short-term overheat-
oxide is approaching a thickness at which under the
ing have occurred in units under OT as well as with other
anticipated operating conditions the Armitt diagram
feedwater and boiler treatments.
suggests that exfoliation is likely, chemical cleaning has
been used to remove the oxide from the components.

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Two other applications of this model were noted by
Armitt, et. al, (FP-686, 1978). First, near ferritic-austen-
itic transition welds in boiler tubes, the oxide on the low
alloy tube is subjected to compressive stresses from the
thermal mismatch between austenitic and ferritic tubes,
such that thicker laminated scales are often found there.
Second, the strains due to heat flux can be considered.
When the heat flux is removed the oxide on the bore is
put into compression and this will offset the tendency to
tensile through-scale cracking shown by 9Cr steels but
will increase the compressive strains and hence reduce
the time to spalling on austenitic steels (FP-686, 1978).
Figure 6-26 shows measurements from scales of different
thicknesses that were taken from superheater and reheater
tubes that exhibited moderate-to-severe exfoliation.
6.7.4 Effects of Exfoliated Oxide
Exfoliated oxide can collect in the lower U-bends of
superheater tubes, thus restricting steam flow and caus-
ing BTFs (see Chapter 48, Volume 3). Even more impor-
tantly, the exfoliated oxide can be carried into the turbine,
causing solid particle erosion damage to blades, nozzles,
and control valves. It is now well understood (Dooley,
2003) that the short term overheating BTF in superheat-
ers relates directly to the large flakes of pure magnetite
exfoliating from austenitic tubing. During shutdown
these flakes cannot flow around the tight tube bends and
on subsequent startup, a buildup of oxide occurs which
essentially blocks the tube. It is also established that the
solid particle erosion in steam turbines relates to the
multilaminated exfoliated oxides from the ferritic
materials.
Whether tube blocking or erosion of the turbine occurs
depends on hydrodynamic factors, particularly tube
diameter and configuration, the steam velocity, and flow
path geometry.

6.7.5 Rating System for Exfoliation

A rating system for steamside scale exfoliation has been
developed and is shown in Table 6-6.

Table 6-6
Rating System for Steamside Oxide Scale Exfoliation
Source: TR-102433, 1993
Figure 6-26 Exfoliation Rating Percent of Approximate Weight
Data for superheater and reheater tubes with moderate-to- Surface Area of Magnetite Released
severe exfoliation. Exfoliated (Exfoliated Per Unit Length
of Tube g/m (lb/100 ft)
Source: Dooley, 2003
1 (Little to None) <1 < 3 (< 0.2)
The total elastic strains calculated for the scales formed 2 (Mild) 1 - 10 3 - 30 (0.2 - 2)
on austenitic stainless steels placed them in the zone 3 (Moderate) 11 - 20 30 - 60 (2 - 4)
of expected exfoliation for scale thicknesses as low as 4 (Severe) 21 - 40 60 - 125 (4 - 8.4)
70 µm. The much thicker scales formed in ferritic steels 5 (Very Severe) > 40 > 125 ( > 8.5)
had reached the point of damage through cracking and Note: Approximate weight estimate based on an assumed density of
5.18 g/cm3 for iron oxide, a steamside scale thickness of 0.038 cm
delamination. It should be noted that the presence of (0.015 in), and a tube inside diameter of 5.08 cm (2.00 in.).
Fe2O3 in oxides on both ferritic and austenitic alloys
increases the compressive component of the stress gener- Such information can provide an estimate of the poten-
ated in the oxide. tial for downstream damage. Figure 6-27 illustrates a
progression of boiler tubes with increasingly severe levels
of exfoliation.

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Figure 6-27
Comparison of the appearance of steamside oxide scale for reheater tubes with varying degrees of exfoliation.
Source: TR-102433, 1993

flow conditions of a boiler? Many past studies of the

6.8 Overview of Thermal-Hydraulic Regimes and
Waterside Tube Failures
In previous sections it has been noted that local mechani-
cal and chemical conditions can lead to a breakdown in
the protective magnetite of tubing, but how is it possible
that such conditions can be set up within the normal
basic hydraulic and thermal conditions are the key to
understanding the mechanisms of deposition of feedwa-
ter corrosion products and of the concentration of con-
tamination that led to the breakdown of the protective
magnetite; see for example (Masterson, 1969).

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Waterside/Steamside Oxide Formation and Breakdown Volume 1: Fundamentals
6.8.1 Global Thermal-Hydraulic Regimes
Figure 6-28 illustrates the different global regimes of fluid
condition in an idealized boiler tube fed by a bottom
header. Over the major portion of the boiler tube, there
is an annular flow of water at the tube inside diameter
and a core of steam: a condition that occurs at a steam
quality of about 5% and greater. This is also called nucle-
ate boiling. Control of metal temperatures in waterwall
tubes to avoid BTF depends critically on the mainte-
nance of satisfactory boiling conditions within the tube.
Figure 6-28
Schematic representation of two-phase flow in a heated
vertical tube of a drum boiler.
Source: Masterson, 1969 after Lacey, 1965
The effect of increasing heat flux on metal temperatures
is shown schematically in Figure 6-29.
6-18
Figure 6-29
The relationship shown schematically between increasing
heat flux and metal temperature on a water-touched tube.
Source: Dooley, 1983
Up to point A in the figure, water heating without boil-
ing takes place; this is the situation for economizer sec-
tions that perform the final stages of the feedwater
preheating. Between A and B, the local heat flux is suffi-
cient to cause local or “nucleate boiling” at the solid-liq-
uid interface but the steam bubbles so formed condense
in the bulk fluid, helping to raise its temperature. This
condition is termed “sub-cooled nucleate” or local boil-
ing. Beyond B, the bubbles do not collapse and nucleate
boiling with net steam evolution occurs up to point C.
High rates of heat transfer exist during the sub-cooled
and saturated boiling stages so that the tube metal tem-
perature does not greatly exceed the saturation value.
Beyond C, bubble coalescence begins to form a super-
heated steam film over part or all of the heating surface,
the condition known as film boiling. From D to E, the
film boiling is unstable; beyond E stable film boiling
exists. When the local heat flux exceeds that at D, the
tube metal temperature may increase very rapidly to D',
which may well result in tube rupture if this overtemper-
ature condition persists. For example, the tube can reach
over 850°C (~ 1560°F), at which temperature rupture
will ensue in a matter of minutes. D is clearly a key point
and the adjacent point C is the point of departure from
nucleate boiling (DNB) or the critical heat flux.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Waterside/Steamside Oxide Formation and Breakdown
Factors promoting DNB or steam blanketing are increases
in heat flux, high steam quality (percentage of steam in
the two-phase mixture), tube geometry, and pressure.
Curves are available, giving limiting values for specific
boiler conditions.
From the tube design standpoint, the onset of DNB can
be delayed if the internal surface acts to create turbulent
conditions tending to disrupt steam film formation. This
has been successfully achieved with rifled tubes, for
example, which are more expensive than plain tubing,
but may be specified for high heat flux areas in boilers
operating above 15.2 MPa (2200 psi).
6.8.2 Local Thermal-Hydraulic Conditions
The processes described above present a global view of
the thermal hydraulic conditions. However, it is the
understanding of local boiling conditions, tube metal
temperatures, and heat flux which provides insight to
subsequent discussion of boiler tube failures that occur
in association with underdeposit corrosion.
Clearly if the normal situation, as described above and by
Figure 6-29, persists during all operating periods, then
boiler tube problems should not develop. It is when the
annular flow regime breaks down that BTFs can initiate.
The key feature is that the flow of water and the nucleate
boiling process adjacent to the tube wall is disrupted and
a local steam “blanket” (an area of high steam quality) is
formed. Steam blanketing and dryout are caused by any
of several different sets of conditions, each requiring a
different route to prevent repeat failures. These include
stratification, excessive deposits, crevices, reduced fluid
flow, excessive heat flux, and local flow pattern
obstructions.
Stratification refers to segregation of water to the bottom
and of less dense steam to the top of a sloped or horizon-
tal tube. This is the most common type of steam blanket-
ing where a blanket of steam separates an area of tube
surface from the adjacent water. Porous internal tube
deposits can obstruct free flow of water to the tube sur-
face and conduct heat inward; consequently, where there
are thick deposits, boiling occurs away from the tube sur-
face and only superheated steam (or high boiling point
concentrates) reach the tube/deposit interface.
Local flow pattern obstructions can cause low flow nodes
immediately downstream of the obstruction without
substantially altering the total flow through the tube.
Examples are weld backing rings, penetrations of weld
from poor repairs (such as pad welding, weld overlay, or
canoe pieces) or corroded tube material laps. Such areas
can be quite small, down to a size of 6 mm (0.25 in.).
Local conditions that exacerbate deposition are listed in
Table 6-7. These lead to a cascading set of problems that
ultimately result in waterside BTF or HTF.
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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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Table 6-7
Local Tube Conditions That Can Lead to Initial Deposits and Subsequently to Underdeposit Corrosion
Location/Tube Condition Applicable to Applicable
Conventional to HRSG
Units Units
Locations where the water/fluid flow adjacent to the tube wall is disrupted X X
• Welded joints and welding processes
(i) welded joints with backing rings X
(ii) poor repair welds including pad welds, “canoe” pieces, or window welds X X
(iii) poor weld overlay (penetrating to the inside surface) X
(iv) weld overlay on relatively thin wall that, because of high heat input, results in “waviness” on the tube ID X
• Locations with existing internal deposits caused by
(i) a deposition mechanism X X
(ii) deposits left from improper chemical cleaning X X
(iii) locally high heat flux/transfer X X
(iv) locally high steam quality X X
(v) poor circulation X
• Geometric features
(i) bend around burners or openings X
(ii) sharp changes of direction (such as the nose of the furnace) X
(iii) tubes bending off lower headers and drums X
Locations with a high heat flux/transfer X X
Locations where boiling first initiates X X
Locations with thermal-hydraulic flow disruptions X
• Locations with local very high steam quality X X
• Locations with horizontal or inclined tubing heated from above or below (roof tubes) X
• Locations with horizontal tubes X
• Gas inlet row tubes X
• Module end tubes next to the duct wall or adjacent module X
Localized overheating of the tubes (fireside conditions) X X
• Flame impingement X
• Excessive duct burner firing X
• Burner misalignment X
• Operating conditions such as overfiring or underfiring, gas channeling, or inadequate circulation rates X X
• Major change in fuel source, such as higher BTU value coal, dual firing with gas, changeover to oil, or gas X
firing where heat flux increases

The process of deposition is described in detail in
Chapter 7.
6.9 References
1004925, 2005. Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil
Plants: Oxygenated Treatment, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005.
1004925.
ASM, 1990. ASM International, Metals Handbook,
Volumes 1 and 2, 10th edition, Metals Park, OH, 1990.
Castle, 1966. Castle, J.E. and G.M.W. Mann, “The
Mechanism of Formation of a Porous Oxide Film on
Steel, Corrosion Science, Volume 6, 1966, pp. 253-262.
Dooley, 1980. Dooley, R.B., F.M. Somerset,
A.C. Davidson, V.R.D. Miller, and A.V. Manolescu,
“Ontario Hydro’s Experience with Solid Particle Erosion
of Steam Turbines,” in 1980 EPRI/ASME Workshop on
Solid Particle Erosion of Steam Turbine Components,
Report CS-4683, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1980, p. 3-36.

ASME, 2001. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Dooley, 1983. Dooley, R.B. and H.J. Westwood, Analy-
Section II, Part D, Table TE-1, 2001. sis and Prevention of Boiler Tube Failures, Ontario Hydro,
Report 83/237G-31, Canadian Electrical Association,
Montreal, Quebec, November 1983.

6-20
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Waterside/Steamside Oxide Formation and Breakdown
Dooley, 2003. Dooley, R.B. and S.R. Paterson, “Oxide
Growth and Exfoliation in Steam: Plant Experience,”
EPRI-NPL Workshop on Scale Growth and Exfoliation,
November, 2003.
Effertz, 1971. Effertz, P.H. and H. Meisel, Der Machi-
nenshaden, Volume 55, No. 1, 1971, p. 14.
EPRI-NPL, 2003. EPRI-NPL Workshop on Scale
Growth and Exfoliation, November 2003.
EPRI TC 06-06. EPRI Tailored Collaboration Project
for Life Assessment of T91 SH/RH Tubes Subjected to
LTO-C Damage, June 2006 Status Report.
Field, 1963. Field, E.M., R.C. Stanley, A.M Adams,
D.R. Holmes, “The Growth, Structure and Breakdown
of Magnetite Films on Mild Steel,” Proc. 2nd Int. Conf.
Metallic Corrosion, New York, 1963, p. 829.
FP-686, 1978. The Spalling of Steam-Grown Oxide from
Superheater and Reheater Tube Steels, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 1978. FP-686.
Fuji, 1964. Fuji, C.T. and R.A. Meussner, Journal of the
Electrochemical Society, Volume 111, 1964, p. 1215.
Hancock, 1970. Hancock, P., “Mechanical Consider-
ations of the Growth and Breakdown of Surface Oxide
Films,” Werk. and Korr., Volume 12, 1970, p. 1002.
Hurst, 1975. Hurst, R.C., M. Davies, and P. Hancock,
“The Determination of Fracture Strains of Growing
Surface Oxides on Mild Steel at High Temperatures,”
Oxidation of Metals, Vol. 9, No. 2, 1975, p 161.
Kline, 1967. Kline, J.S., W.C. Reynolds, F.A. Schraub,
and P.W. Rundstadler, J. Fluid Mech., 30(4), 1967,
p. 741.
Lacey, 1965. Lacey, P.M.C. and G.J. Kirby, Proc. I. Mech.
Eng., 1965-6, Part C, p. 180.
Lynch, 1966. Lynch, J.F., C.G. Ruderer, and
W.H. Duckworth, “Engineering Properties of Selected
Ceramic Materials,” American Ceramic Society, 1966.
Magnin, 1983. Magnin, T., “An Approach to the Mech-
anisms of Corrosion Fatigue Damage,” Memoires et
Etudes Scientifiques Revue de Metallurgie, LS7857/
7Feb90/js, November 1983.
Masterson, 1969. Masterson, H.G., J.E. Castle, and
G.M.W. Mann, “Waterside Corrosion of Power Station
Boiler Tubes,” Chemistry and Industry, September 6,
1969, pp. 1261-1266.
Metcalfe, 1977. Metcalfe, E. and M.I. Manning, “The
Spalling of Steam Grown Oxide from Austenitic and
Ferritic Steels,” CEGB Report RD/L/R1966, 1977.
Miller, 1985. Miller, V.R.D. and A.V. Manolescu,
“Maintenance Strategies and Specific Design Changes to
Ontario Hydro’s Lambton TGS Coal-Fired Generating
Units to Mitigate the Effects of Solid Particle Erosion,”
in Solid Particle Erosion of Steam Turbine Components:
1985 Workshop, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1985. CS-4683.
p. 2-21.
Molgaard, 1971. Molgaard, J. and W.W. Smeltzer,
“Thermal Conductivity of Magnetite and Haematite,”
Journal of Applied Physics, Volume 42, 1971, p. 3644.
Morrison, 1971. Morrison, W.R. B., K.J. Bullock, and
R.E. Kronauer, J. ßFluid Mech., 47(4), 1971, p. 639.
Paterson, 1992. Paterson, S.R., R. Moser, and
T.R. Rettig, “Oxidation of Boiler Tubing” in B. Dooley
and A. Bursik, eds., Interaction of Iron-Based Materials with
Water and Steam: Proceeding of an International Conference,
held in Heidelberg, Germany, June 3-5, 1992, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA: 1992. TR-102101. pp. 8-1 through 8-25.
Pfau, 1987. Pfau, B., Technik der Wärmekraftwerke,
VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Weinheim, Germany,
1987, p. 73.
Potter, 1961. Potter, E.C. and G.M.W. Mann, Proc. 1st
Int. Cong. Metall. Corrosion, London, Butterworks, 1961,
p. 417.
Potter, 1963. Potter, E.C. and G.M.W. Mann, Proc. 2nd
Int. Cong. Metall. Corrosion, 1963, p. 872.
Richardson, 1977. Richardson, S.A. and M.I. Manning,
“Strain Tolerance of Steam Grown Oxides,” CEGB
Report, 1977.
Richter, 1971. Richter, P., et al., “Magnetite Formation
and Pressure-Loss Increase in a Benson Boiler,” Paper
No. 71-WA/HT-44, presented at the ASME Winter
Annual Meeting, November 28-December 2 1971.
Robertson, 1989. Robertson, J., Corrosion Science,
Volume 29, Nos. 11/12, 1989, pp. 275-291.
Schoch, 1968. Schoch, W., VGB-Mitteilungen, 48(4),
1968, p. 239.
Schoch, 1969. Schoch, W., R. Richter, and H. Köhle,
VGB-Mitteilungen, 49(3), 1969, p. 202.
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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Waterside/Steamside Oxide Formation and Breakdown Volume 1: Fundamentals
Schoch, 1970. Schoch, W., R. Richter, and P.H. Effertz,
Der Maschinenschaden, 43(12), 1970, p. 65.
Schoch, 1972. Schoch, W., H. Wiehd, R. Richter, and
H. Schuster, VGB-Mitteilungen, 52(3), 1972, p. 228.
Schuster, 1971. Schuster, H., Allianz-Berichte, 16(4),
1971, p. 28.
TR-100455V2, 1992. Corrosion Fatigue Boiler Tube
Failures in Waterwalls and Economizers, Volume 2: Labo-
ratory Corrosion Studies, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1992
TR-100455V2.
TR-102401, 1993. Guidelines for Chemical Cleaning of
Fossil-Fueled Steam-Generating Equipment, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA: 1993. TR-102401.
TR-102433, 1993. Boiler Tube Failure Metallurgical
Guide, Volume 1: Technical Report, Volume 2: Appendices,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1993. TR-102433.
TR-113501, 1999. Interfacial Crack Propagation During
Compressive Failure of Thin Protective Oxides and the Frac-
ture of Iron Oxide Scales, Appendix: EPRI/NPL Database
on the Mechanical Properties of Oxide Scales, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA: 1999. TR-113501.
Vagnard, 1965. Vagnard, G., Thesis, Faculte des Sciences
de L’Universite de Paris, 1965.
6-22
Ward, 1974. Ward, G., B.S. Hockenhull, and
P. Hancock, “The Effect of Cyclic Stressing on the Oxi-
dation of a Low Carbon Steel,” Metallurgical Transac-
tions, Vol. 5, June 1974.
Wright, 1992. Wright, I.G. and A.K. Agrawal, “Devel-
opment of Oxides and Deposits in Waterwall Tubes,” in
B. Dooley and A. Bursik, eds., Interaction of Iron-Based
Materials with Water and Steam: Proceeding of an Interna-
tional Conference, held in Heidelberg, Germany, June 3-5,
1992, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1992. TR-102101.
Wright, 2002. Wright, I.G. and B.A. Pint, “An Assess-
ment of the High-Temperature Oxidation Behavior of
Fe-Cr Steels in Water Vapor and Steam,” NACE Paper
No. 02377, 2002.
Wright, 2004. Wright, I.G., M. Schütze, S.R. Paterson,
P.F. Tortorelli, and R.B. Dooley, “Progress in Prediction
and Control of Scale Exfoliation on Superheater and
Reheater Alloys,” in Proceedings: International Conference
on Boiler Tube and HRSG Tube Failures and Inspections,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2006. 1013629.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

Chapter 7
Deposition on the Waterside of
Boiler and HRSG Tubes

7.1 Introduction
The normal growth and spalling of oxides on boiler tube and HRSG tube surfaces was intro-
duced in Chapter 6. In units that are well maintained and operated, the metal oxide film
formed tends to protect the parent metal from most forms of damage (the exception is the
expected development of longterm overheating over the service life of superheater and
reheater tubes). However, the presence of impurities in the cycle results in various chemical
reactions and transport processes, leading eventually to deposition. In this chapter, a closer
look is taken at deposition processes and the effects of deposits on individual tubes and on
the unit.
The science governing deposition processes in all parts of the steam-water cycles in conven-
tional and HRSG units is one of the least understood aspects of operational cycle chemistry.
The emphasis in the past has been to develop working guidelines to properly select and opti-
mize cycle chemistry in order to minimize impurity ingress, corrosion, and chemical trans-
port. A better understanding of deposition processes and the factors controlling deposition
continues to be needed.

7.2 Locations of Deposition, Corrosion, and Impurity Ingress in Conventional

and HRSG Units
Figures 7-1 and 7-2 show major unit components and locations of impurity ingress, corro-
sion, and deposition in conventional drum boiler and once-through cycles, respectively.

Figure 7-1
Major unit components and locations of impurity ingress, corrosion, and deposition in drum cycles.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Deposition on the Waterside of Boiler and HRSG Tubes Volume: 1 Fundamentals

Figure 7-2
Major unit components and locations of impurity ingress, corrosion, and deposition in once-through cycles.

Examination of Figures 7-1 and 7-2 indicate that deposi-
tion can develop at nearly all locations in the steam-water
cycle, although the impacts of deposition vary signifi-
cantly by location. In conventional units, the areas of
greatest concern are the boiler tubes where failures can
have substantial negative impacts on unit availability and
reliability.
There are some general observations about the genera-
tion, transport, and deposition of corrosion products
and impurities:
• The source of deposits is generally considered to be the
condensate and feedwater systems, although genera-
tion of corrosion products and impurities can occur
throughout the cycle.
• Deposition is assumed to be predominant in the boiler
(or HRSG) and steam portions of the cycle.
• Suspended corrosion products and other particles
generally deposit in single phase water and two-phase
water/steam regions.
• Water soluble material generally deposits in two-
phase water/steam and single phase steam regions.
Local tube conditions that can lead to the formation of
initial deposits are shown in Table 7-1.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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Table 7-1
Local Tube Conditions That Can Lead to Initial Deposits
Location/Tube Condition Applicable to Applicable to
Conventional HRSG Units
Units
Locations where the water/fluid flow adjacent to the tube wall is disrupted X X
• Welded joints and welding processes
(i) welded joints with backing rings X
(ii) poor repair welds including pad welds, “canoe” pieces, or window welds X X
(iii) poor weld overlay (penetrating to the inside surface) X
(iv) weld overlay on relatively thin wall that, because of high heat input, results in “waviness” on the tube ID X
• Locations with existing internal deposits caused by
(i) a deposition mechanism X X
(ii) deposits left from improper chemical cleaning X X
(iii) locally high heat flux/transfer X X
(iv) locally high steam quality X X
(v) poor circulation X
• Geometric features
(i) bend around burners or openings X
(ii) sharp changes of direction (such as the nose of the furnace) X
(iii) tubes bending off lower headers and drums X
Locations with a high heat flux/transfer X X
Locations where boiling first initiates X X
Locations with thermal-hydraulic flow disruptions X
• Locations with local very high steam quality X X
• Locations with horizontal or inclined tubing heated from above or below (roof tubes) X
• Locations with horizontal tubes X
• Gas inlet row tubes X
• Module end tubes next to the duct wall or adjacent module X
Localized overheating of the tubes (fireside conditions) X X
• Flame impingement X
• Excessive duct burner firing X
• Burner misalignment X
• Operating conditions such as overfiring or underfiring, gas channeling, or inadequate circulation rates X X
• Major change in fuel source, such as higher BTU value coal, dual firing with gas, changeover to oil, or X
gas firing where heat flux increases

7.3 Effects of Deposition on the Thermal Response Table 7-2

Thermal Conductivity of Various Materials1
of the Tube
Source: Compiled in 1004194, 2002
7.3.1 How Deposits Increase Tube Temperatures Material Thermal Conductivity
(Btu-in/hr-ft2-°F)
Certain calcium and magnesium compounds and some
Analcite 8.8
silicates of iron, calcium, aluminum, and sodium form
Calcium phosphate 25
boiler scales, which are thin, hard, dense, and tightly
Calcium sulfate 16
adherent to metal surfaces. They all exhibit poor thermal
Magnesium phosphate 15
conductivities, act as insulators, and may cause overheat- Magnetic iron oxide 20
ing of the underlying metal. “Silicate scale” (porous) 0.6
Table 7-2 provides thermal conductivities of various Boiler steel 310
deposit constituents, boiler steel, and some refractory Firebrick 7
Insulating brick 0.7
materials.
[BTU-in/hr-ft2-°F] x 1.44 x 10-1 = W/m-°K
1
Thermal conductivity values for some materials such as magnetite
may vary considerably from the above values, depending on the
density and porosity of the deposit formed.

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Even the protective magnetite (Fe3O4) layer formed dur- 7.3.3 Heat Flux Effects
ing normal service increases resistance to heat transfer Heat flux is established by the furnace flame temperature
relative to the base metal. Excessive growth of magnetite and the bulk fluid temperature in the tube, which is fixed
is largely responsible for longterm overheating failures of by boiler pressure. The temperature profile is established
superheater and reheater tubes (see Chapter 44, by the total DT required to drive the radiant heat from
Volume 3). Spalling of magnetite scale can lead to tube the furnace through each segment of thermal resistance
blockage and the possibility of short term overheating. into the bulk fluid in the tube. With nucleate boiling, in
Chapter 6 describes the development and subsequent a clean tube, the temperature drop across the fluid film is
spalling of magnetite; Chapter 48, Volume 3 contains usually small and the overall temperature differential pri-
additional information on short term overheating. marily results from the thermal resistance of the tube
metal. With an internal deposit on the tube, an addi-
7.3.2 Increases in Tube Temperatures Caused tional temperature differential is required to drive the
by Deposits heat flux through the deposit so that both inside and out-
The impedance of heat transfer in boiler tubes is a func- side tube metal temperatures rise accordingly.
tion of scale density (or thickness) and composition. Fig-
ure 7-3 shows temperatures which would be present in
an operating boiler at scale thicknesses of 250, 500, and
700 mm (~10, 20, and 30 mils).
Calculations were based on a 38.1 mm (1.5 in) diameter
tube of 2.54 mm (0.1 in) wall thickness with furnace gas
and bulk coolant temperatures of 1371°C (2500°F)
and 285°C (545°F), respectively. A heat flux of
100,000 BTU/hr/ft2 (316 W/m2) was assumed. As shown
in the figure, an increase in scale thickness from 250 to
750 mm (10 to 30 mils) elevates the tube metal tempera-
ture from 410°C (770°F) to 546°C (1015°F). Overheat-
ing effects would be expected under these heavily scaled
conditions.
Figure 7-4
The temperature profiles in a tube will vary around the Temperature distribution in a clean supercritical boiler
circumference. This is shown in Figures 7-4 and 7-5 for waterwall tube [°F = (°C x 1.8) +32].
a supercritical waterwall tube in a clean tube and with Source: TR-102401, 1993; adapted from CRIEPI, 1981
deposit conditions.

Figure 7-3 Figure 7-5

Effect of internal deposit thickness on tube metal Temperature distribution in a supercritical boiler waterwall
temperatures. tube with deposits [°F = (°C x 1.8) +32].
Sources: CS-3945, 1985; ASM, 1976 Source: TR-102401, 1993; adapted from CRIEPI, 1981

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Heat flux rates vary widely in the furnace with the high-
est heat absorption zone in the furnace occurring near
the burners.
Local heat flux increases abruptly if the burner flame
impinges directly on waterwall tube surfaces, regardless
of load demands.
Whereas a clean tube surface manifests only a slight rise
in tube temperature for an increase in heat flux, once a
deposit forms on the surface (such as excess oxide or
deposition of feedwater corrosion products), there may
be a marked rise in the tube temperature. This is illus-
trated schematically in Figure 7-6.
Figure 7-6
Effect of tube deposits on the heat transfer surface as a
function of heat flux. Curve (a) shows a clean heat transfer
surface; curve (b) a surface carrying a thick deposit. The salt
concentration factor in the deposit is also shown.
Source: Masterson, 1969
7.3.4 Methods for Measuring Tube Temperatures
Methods for monitoring tube temperatures are contained
in Chapter 16.
7.3.5 Distribution of Tube Temperature
Circumferentially
Deposits on tubes outside the combustion chamber (e.g.,
economizer tubes in conventional units), are uniformly
distributed around the tube circumference. In waterwall
tubes of conventional units, however, the thickest depos-
its are at the hot side crown area of the tube, Figure 7-7.
Figure 7-7
Distribution of internal deposits around the hot side
circumference.
Source: Gwynne, 2000
7.4 Effects of Waterside Deposition in Boiler and HRSG
Tubes on the Unit
The effects of impurity ingress, deposition, and corrosion
on conventional and HRSG units are well known. These
include:
• Deposits and scales formed on heat transfer surfaces
can reduce unit efficiency and increase heat rate.
• Ripple deposits formed in economizers or waterwalls
of once-through steam generators operating on AVT
(R) cause a pressure drop increase. This increase deteri-
orates cycle efficiency, requiring additional feed pump
work, and full-load operation may no longer be possi-
ble. The waterwall temperature increases in unison
with the pressure drop.
• In boiler waterwall and HRSG HP evaporator tubes,
thick porous deposits are a primary cause of underde-
posit corrosion mechanisms (hydrogen damage, caus-
tic gouging, and acid phosphate corrosion). Within
these deposits, many individual microsystems may
develop that generate steam (“wick boiling”). Within
the deposits, circulation and evaporation lead to addi-
tional concentration of the boiler water. The chemistry
condition established within or underneath the depos-
its is totally different from that in the bulk boiler or
HRSG water. Additional detail about these processes
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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Deposition on the Waterside of Boiler and HRSG Tubes Volume: 1 Fundamentals
can be found in the underdeposit corrosion mecha-
nism Chapters 22, 23, and 24 of Volume 2.
• Solids accumulation can lead to overheating damage.
• Buildup of excessive deposits in the waterwalls of
supercritical once-through units may cause or be one
of the major root causes of waterwall thermal fatigue
cracking.
• Carryover of sodium sulfate in steam during operation
leading to the buildup of sodium sulfate deposits in
superheaters and reheaters may lead to or intensify pit-
ting corrosion potential during shutdown if inadequate
layup methods are applied. Carryover can be mechani-
cal or vaporous, and the sulfate may come from con-
densate polisher leakage.
• Deposition in steam turbines can lead to performance
penalties or corrosion damage, depending on the char-
acteristics of the depositing material.
7.5 Basic Mechanisms of Deposition
Three basic mechanisms of deposition have been identi-
fied. These are (1004930, 2003):
• Physical attachment of suspended and colloidal sol-
ids to surfaces. This includes deposition of metal
oxides formed during corrosion of cycle materials along
with any colloidal solids that may be present as a result
of cycle contamination. For example, colloidal iron,
aluminum, and silica are sometimes present as a result
of events such as condenser leaks and improper opera-
tion of makeup water treatments.
• Formation of solids from low solubility impurities
present in the water or steam on component surfaces,
including reversible deposition phenomena, collec-
tively referred to as “hideout” and “hideout return”
activity. The low solubility solids are typically formed
either from impurities introduced into the plant cycle
via cooling water or makeup water or because of reac-
tions between the impurities and the boiler or HRSG
water treatment chemicals. Included here are many of
the salts normally present in plant water supplies and
cooling waters. Hideout and return of phosphate in
the boiler water of drum units is the most common
example; however, it is clear that other species exhibit
similar tendencies, both within the boiler and at other
locations within the cycle.
• Deposition processes that are related to surface phe-
nomena including adsorption, absorption, and ion
exchange on surfaces.
7-6
7.6 Factors Influencing Deposition
A plethora of factors have been identified as having an
influence on deposition (1004930, 2003; 1004194,
2002; 1004193, 2003; 1008083, 2004; 1004931, 2004).
Some recent reports put the number of factors at 40
(1004194, 2002); others have identified more than 70
(1004931, 2004). The most important parameters are
considered to be (1004930, 2003; 1004194, 2002).
7.6.1 Transient Conditions (Including Startup,
Shutdown, Load Changes, and Cycling)
Transient operations contribute to the generation of sol-
uble and insoluble corrosion products and deposition,
release, and re-deposition of suspended particles and
water soluble material. Startup, shutdown, and cycling
are particularly troublesome. Existing deposits may be
released and redeposited at other locations. The impact is
generally proportional to the size of the transient. How-
ever, modeling from nuclear power plants has confirmed
field data that show significant transportation and rede-
position of soluble chemical impurities from steam gen-
erators during relatively small load changes. Transients
can alter the rate of deposition and deposit location
throughout the cycle.
Oxidation of cycle materials may also occur during idle
periods when the unit is taken out of service. Layup prac-
tices during outages are also a factor in formation and
release of deposits. Effective layup of cycle components is
essential to prevent extensive corrosion and subsequent
transport of corrosion products on returning to service.
Guidelines have been prepared for the cycle chemistry
during layup, startup, and shutdown of conventional
(TR-107754, 1998) and HRSG units (1010437, 2006).
7.6.2 Concentrations of Impurities
This includes concentration of metal ions, of non-metal
ions and impurities, and of particles. The concentration
of metal ions in the bulk liquid depends on the corrosion
rate of the materials exposed, chemical treatment, pH,
concentration of oxidizing/reducing agents, electro-
chemical potential (ECP) and/or oxidization reduction
potential (ORP), and the solubility in water/steam.
Metallic ions can be converted to suspended oxide parti-
cles as a result of corrosion. Transport within the boiler
(e.g. transition zone within once-through boilers) may
occur as a result of solubility in the steam and/or trans-
port of moisture droplets.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Deposition on the Waterside of Boiler and HRSG Tubes
Concentration of non-metal ions and impurities includes
chloride, fluoride, sulfate, carbonate, and organics. These
impurities contribute to corrosion and the generation of
soluble and insoluble corrosion products. They can also
change the solution pH and participate in the corrosion
indirectly. These impurities can dissolve in boiler recircu-
lation water and precipitate in the superheated area.
The concentration of particles is a measure of the insolu-
ble corrosion products generated, which can deposit on
heat transfer surfaces of the boiler. The concentration of
particulate corrosion products is a key factor influencing
deposition rates.
Deposit concentration generally occurs by some form of
“wick boiling” whereby the contaminants within the
bulk boiler water are able to penetrate the porous tube
deposits and the moisture is then driven off by heating of
the tube surface locally, leaving behind the concentrated
contaminants or chemicals. Figure 7-8 illustrates one
variety of this process.
Figure 7-8
Schematic representation of boiler salt concentration in a
thick, porous deposit.
Source: Masterson, 1969
7.6.3 Oxidizing Agents (Oxygen) and Particles
The concentration of oxygen and oxidizing agents indi-
rectly contributes to deposition by contributing to the
generation of soluble and insoluble corrosion products.
This can occur by changing the oxidation state and solu-
bility of corrosion products. Oxidizing agents increase
the electrochemical potential and oxidation reduction
potential (ECP/ORP). Optimization of the concentra-
tion of dissolved oxygen in conjunction with pH at oper-
ating temperature are major factors in establishing the
general corrosion rate of materials of construction and
the form of corrosion products, as shown on potential-
pH (Pourbaix) diagrams.
7.6.4 pH at Operating Temperatures
The pH at operating temperature affects the generation
of soluble and insoluble corrosion products, the volatility
of contaminants in steam carryover, and the deposition
of suspended particles in superheaters. The neutral point
of water changes with temperature. The pH of the chem-
ical solution must be evaluated relative to the neutral pH
of water.
7.6.5 Mass Transport
The transport of soluble material and impurities on or
within suspended particles contributes to the deposition
of water soluble contaminants and possibly to underde-
posit corrosion. Adsorption and ion exchange may be
involved. Other factors include condensate purification,
chemical treatment, the concentration and composition
of impurities, corrosion rate, oxidizing agents, ECP/
ORP, particle size, pH, porosity, and solubility in steam.
7.6.6 Condensate Polishing and Filtration
Condensate polishing reduces corrosion in the boiler by
removing soluble ionic impurities by ion exchange. It
also removes suspended material by filtration.
7.6.7 Chemical Treatment
Chemical treatment can reduce the generation of soluble
and insoluble corrosion products in the boiler or HRSG.
Chemical treatment includes the addition of pH control
agents, reducing agents, and oxidizing agents. Chemical
additives may alter the nature and extent of deposits in
boilers and HRSGs.
For example, recent laboratory tests to simulate actual
boiler waterwall conditions have found that the deposi-
tion of iron corrosion products on carbon steel surfaces
depends on the type of chemistry (1008083, 2004).
Under AVT, the amount of iron corrosion deposits was
much higher than with OT as illustrated in Figure 7-9.
Deposition rate onto heat transfer surfaces depends on
the form of the iron corrosion products (Chudnovskaya,
1979; Vasilenko, 1978). Under AVT, iron corrosion
products are predominantly magnetite (Fe3O4) with
traces of lepidocrocite (g FeOOH); but with OT the
bulk of the corrosion products are in the form of lepido-
crocite, with minor amounts of magnetite.
7-7
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Deposition on the Waterside of Boiler and HRSG Tubes Volume: 1 Fundamentals
Figure 7-9
Effect of chemistry on the deposition rate (total) of iron
corrosion products.
Source: 1008083, 2004
The chemistry effect is more pronounced at the elevated
iron levels.
7.6.8 Temperature
Temperature is a contributor to the generation of soluble
and insoluble corrosion products and deposition of water
soluble material from steam. The solubility of water sol-
uble material in steam is a function of steam density,
which is itself a function of temperature and pressure.
Increasing temperature through the feedwater system
can enhance the generation of corrosion products. Some
of the material deposited in the boiler can be transported
to the superheater as a result of solubility in steam and/or
transport with moisture droplets.
7.6.9 Agglomeration of Particles
Agglomeration of particles contributes to the deposition
of suspended particles and may indirectly contribute to
the deposition of soluble material either by (i) shift in
chemical equilibrium between soluble and insoluble
material or (ii) coating of particles by soluble material.
Particle agglomeration may result from hydraulic factors
and hardware configurations that physically force parti-
cles into a compact agglomeration. Chemical and elec-
trostatic forces (zeta potential) may also contribute to
particle agglomeration.
7.6.10 Steam Quality (Moisture)
Steam quality is a measure of the quantity of moisture in
steam on a mass basis. The absence of moisture is described
as having a steam quality of 100%. Since many water sol-
uble chemicals are much more soluble in moisture than in
steam, moisture carryover can significantly enhance the
transport of water soluble chemicals with steam.
7-8
7.6.11 Pressure
Pressure is a contributor to deposition of water soluble
material from steam. Solubility of that material is a func-
tion of steam density and steam density is a function of
pressure and temperature. The contribution of pressure
to fluid density, and other steam/water properties also
results in a contribution of pressure to deposition of sus-
pended material and surface phenomena (absorption,
adsorption, and ion exchange on surfaces).
7.6.12 Tube/Surface and Oxide/Hydroxide
Compositions and Interactions
Ion exchange properties of metals, metal oxides, sus-
pended solids, and deposits can contribute to deposition
of water soluble material. Charges and absorbed or
adsorbed ions on these materials can result in the
exchange of these ions in the water.
7.6.13 Time
Time is a factor in (i) the generation of soluble and insol-
uble corrosion products, (ii) the deposition of suspended
particles, and (iii) deposition of water soluble material. A
decreased rate of generation and deposition is expected
over time. The formation of protective oxide films can
diminish the rate of generation of soluble and insoluble
corrosion products.
7.6.14 Heat Flux
Heat flux can affect the nature of the deposition and con-
centration of impurities and ionic contaminants (Cl,
SO4 , and others) in the deposit as well as the concentra-
tion of metal ions in the deposit. Higher heat fluxes result
in higher deposition and corrosion rates in steam genera-
tors. Heat flux also affects the location and extent of
departure from nucleate boiling (DNB).
Some recent test data will illustrate the effect of heat flux.
Figure 7-10 shows the results from laboratory tests to
simulate boiler conditions. The figure indicates that an
increase in heat flux results in an increase in the total
amount of deposits. An increase in the concentration of
corrosion products (here, iron corrosion products) also
resulted in an increase in the amount of deposits.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Deposition on the Waterside of Boiler and HRSG Tubes

Hardware configuration can alter deposition of sus-

pended particles by changes in direction and velocity of
the fluid.

7.6.19 Zeta Potential

Figure 7-10
Effect of heat flux on deposition (total) of iron corrosion
products with AVT. Iron was injected as Fe3O4.
Source: 1008083, 2004
7.6.15 Steam/Water Properties
Density, viscosity, entropy, and enthalpy contribute to
the deposition of soluble and insoluble material from
water and steam. Steam and water properties are a func-
tion of temperature and pressure.
7.6.16 Size and Shape of Particles
The size and shape of particles can contribute to the
(i) deposition of suspended particles and (ii) the trans-
port and deposition of water soluble material on parti-
cles. Particle size is a factor in the dynamics of deposition
and release. The shape of particles can influence the depo-
sition in flowing tubes and pipes. Irregular shaped parti-
cles can be approximated by a trapezoid, which tends to
tumble along the internal curved surface of a tube until
the shorter edge of the particle is adjacent to the tube and
thereafter is held in place by the flow until additional
particles accumulate at that location (FP-686, 1978).
The zeta potential (electrokinetic potential) contributes
to the deposition of suspended particles from liquid solu-
tions. Zeta potential is a measure of the electrostatic
charge on suspended particles and on the tube wall or
other surface. Particles with a zeta potential that is oppo-
site in sign to that of the tube surface will be attracted to
the surface and are expected to deposit in the absence of
other factors. Particles and tube surfaces with a zeta
potential with like signs (+/+ or -/-) will be repelled. The
greater the difference in zeta potential between the mov-
ing particles and the stationary metal surfaces, the greater
the attraction of the particles and surfaces. Zeta potential
is a function of pH, temperature, fluid velocity, ECP,
the composition of the metal and metal oxide, and any
coating on the metal or metal oxide.
7.7 Sources of Contaminants
Potential sources of contaminant ingress are listed in
Table 7-3. The overall significance cited in column 2
indicates the relative importance of each source in deposit
formation and preservation of boiler cleanliness
(1003994, 2001).
Table 7-3
Sources of Contaminant Ingress to Fossil and Combined
Cycle Plant Cycles
Source: 1003994, 2001
Contaminant Source Overall Significance in Deposit
Formation
Air inleakage Often major

7.6.17 Corrosion Rate Condenser leaks Potentially major

Control of cycle chemistry Normally minimal to minor
The rate of general corrosion and flow-accelerated corro- (potentially major)
sion (FAC) affects the generation of soluble and insoluble Impurities in treated cycle Nominally minimal
corrosion products and suspended solids and is a func- makeup
tion of the materials of construction and their Condensate polishers Nominally minimal
geometries. Impurities in water treatment Nominally minimal
chemicals
Combustion products Nominally minimal
7.6.18 Configuration and Hardware Paints, preservatives, Nominally minimal
The configuration of the water/steam circuit hardware solvents, etc.
Ineffective chemical cleanings Minimal to potentially major
can contribute to the deposition of suspended particles,
including corrosion products. Water and steam flow can Corrosion products from the pre-boiler areas are the
generate soluble and insoluble corrosion products by source of most suspended solids that are transported
erosion and/or (FAC). Other factors, depending on from the boiler. For all-ferrous feedwater systems (no
hardware, include high or low velocity, susceptible copper alloys in the feedwater and possibly copper-based
materials, pH, chemical treatment, ECP, and ORP. condenser tubing), the generation of corrosion products

7-9
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Deposition on the Waterside of Boiler and HRSG Tubes Volume: 1 Fundamentals

(magnetite, hematite, and ferric oxide hydrate) occurs 7.8.3 Copper Deposition and Behavior in Drum Boilers
mainly due to corrosion and flow-accelerated corrosion (1000457, 2000)
(FAC) of low pressure and high pressure feedwater heat- In mixed-metallurgy feedwater systems of drum units,
ers, deaerators, economizer inlet tubing and piping, feed- the copper corrosion products of cuprous oxide (Cu2O)
water piping, and drain lines (1004930, 2003). For and cupric oxide (CuO) are transported to the econo-
mixed-metallurgy systems, the generation and transport mizer and waterwalls. Figure 7-11 illustrates key aspects
of corrosion products (cupric and cuprous oxide) is pri- of copper transport and deposition processes.
marily a result of corrosion of copper-bearing tubes in
the low pressure and/or high pressure feedwater heaters
(1004187, 2002).
Optimization of feedwater chemistry is important in
order to reduce corrosion product transport. Guidance
for optimizing the feedwater treatments can be found in
the appropriate guidelines documents (1004187, 2002;
1004925, 2005; 1000457, 2000) and are summarized in
Chapter 8.
Table 7-4 provides a list of substances identified in depos-
its within boiler tubes and boiler drums of utility and
industrial boilers. Many of these will also be applied to
HRSG units. Many of these contaminants enter the cycle Figure 7-11
with the makeup water or as a result of the ingress of Copper corrosion, transport, and deposition.
cooling water.
Copper deposition is also a significant problem in boiler
Many important changes and developments in makeup waterwalls, HP heaters, the primary superheater, and on
water treatment and condensate polishing techniques HP turbine blading. It is rare to find significant amounts
have been developed since the initial list of water-formed of copper in economizer tube deposits because of the
deposits was assembled, particularly with respect to the lower heat transfer compared to waterwalls.
application of new ion exchange technologies (1010181, In waterwalls, extensive amounts of copper can be found
2006; TR-113692, 1999; 1004187, 2002). interspersed in the magnetite layers, Figure 7-12.

7.8 Deposits in Waterwalls of Conventional Units

The three most significant types of deposition in water-
walls are the formation of rippled deposits, the formation
of porous deposits that are precursors to underdeposit
corrosion, and copper deposition.

7.8.1 Formation of Ripple Deposits in Once-Through

Steam Generators
The formation of ripple deposits is discussed in
Chapter 6.

7.8.2 Possible Effects of Porous Deposits in Drum

Boilers in Connection with the Most Frequent
Underdeposit Corrosion Mechanisms
Details of the underdeposit corrosion mechanisms
of hydrogen damage, caustic gouging and acid phosphate Figure 7-12
Multilayer deposit with metallic copper in magnetite layers.
corrosion can be found in Chapters 22, 23, and 24,
Volume 2, respectively. Source: Shields, 2001

7-10
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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Table 7-4
Crystalline Compounds Found in Water-Formed Deposits
Sources: Kirsch, 1968; ASTM, 1989

Mineral Name Formula Mineral Name Formula

Fluorite CaF2 Pectolite NaCa2Si3O8OH
Sepiolite 2MgO･3SiO2･2H2O Foshagite Ca4Si3O9(OH)2
Hopeite Zn3(PO4)2･4H2O Acmite NaFeSi2O6
Gypsum CaSO4･2H2O Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
Kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Whitlockite b Ca3(PO4)2 (beta)
Viviante Fe3(PO4)2･8H2O Natrolite Na2Al2Si3O10･2H2O
Ferrous Hydrogen Carbonate Fe(HCO3)2 Malachite CuCO3･Cu(OH)2
Iron Oxide Hydrate FeOOH Gehlenite Ca2AlsSiO7
Boehmite a Al2(OOH)2 Olivine 2(Fe0.94Mg0.06)O･SiO2
Mackinawite FeS Meta Thenardite Na2SO4
Gibbsite a Al2(OH)3 Halite NaCl
Iron (II) Sulfate Hydrate FeSO4･4H2O Hydroxyapatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH)
Monohydrocalcite CaCO3･H2O Covellite CuS
Goethite FeO(OH) Siderite FeCO3
Cristobalite (Low) SiO2 Thenardite Na2SO4
Witherite BaCO3 Burkeite Na6CO3(SO4)2
Nosean Na8Al6SO4(SiO4)6 Sodium Calcium Orthophosphate a CaNaPO4
Noselite Na8Al6(SiO4)6SO4 Thermonatrite Na2CO3･H2O
Vaterite CaCO3 Hematite Fe2O3
Anhydrite CaSO4 Portlandite Ca(H)2
Barite BaSO4 Magnetite Fe3O4
Analcime (Analcite) NaAl(SiO3)2･H2O Maghemite g Fe2O3
Aragonite CaCO3 Tenorite CuO
Quartz (alpha) SiO2 Serpentine Mg3Si2O5(OH)4
Cancrinite 3NaAlSiO4･CaCO3 Zincite ZnO
Xonotlite Ca6Si6O17(OH)2 Cuprite Cu2O
Gyrolite Ca4(Si6O15)(OH)2･3H2O Forsterite Mg2SiO4
Sphalerite ZnS Willemite Zn2SiO4
Hemimorphite Zn4(OH)2Si2O7¶･H2O Chalcocite Cu2S
Sodium Silicate Na2SiO3 Brucite Mg(OH)2
Calcite CaCO3 Wustite FeO
Calcium Sulfate Hydrate 2CaSO4･H2O Periclase MgO
Calcium Pyrophosphate Ca2P2O7 Bunsenite NiO
Wollastonite CaSiO3 Troilite FeS
Celestite SrSO4 Corundum a Al2O3
Calcium Hydrogen Orthophosphate CaHPO4 Copper Cu

7-11
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Deposition on the Waterside of Boiler and HRSG Tubes Volume: 1 Fundamentals
In other cases, the copper appears to be in the shape of
small beads interspersed throughout the matrix. Metallic
copper appears under a microscope as a highly reflective
material of polished or burnished gold color in a black
magnetite matrix.
Accumulation of copper tends to be higher in high heat
flux areas and in sloped, horizontal, or other nonvertical
tubes. In high heat flux locations, the portion of copper
may range from 20 to 50% or more.
Copper always deposits as copper rather than copper
oxides in boiler waterwall deposits. During operation,
most of the copper remains on the walls. During shut-
down, if correct layup is used (nitrogen blanketing and/
or a reducing agent added to the boiler water), the disso-
lution of copper is minimized and oxidation of metallic
copper to cupric and cuprous oxides and hydroxides is
avoided. However, in practice, the proper procedures are
often not used. A 2000 survey indicated that 66% of the
units did not use deaerated water on startup; > 70% put
makeup into vented storage tanks, 25% did not use a
reducing agent during layup, only 13% used a nitrogen
blanket in heaters, and only 38% used a nitrogen blanket
in boilers.
Without a nitrogen blanket and/or reducing agent, the
boiler water may become air saturated. Under this condi-
tion, the concentration of soluble copper oxide and
hydroxide species increases. An increase in pH leads to
increased copper oxides and hydroxides concentration in
the boiler water as well. During startup following unpro-
tected shutdown, the concentration of copper species in
the saturated steam is relatively high because the parti-
tion of copper hydroxides into steam is high right across
the temperature range from startup to full load. Thus
there is no benefit to including a pressure hold to mini-
mize the transport of copper into steam.
The potential for copper deposition problems is wide-
spread; in the U.S. alone, 750-1000 units have copper
alloys in feedwater trains.
7.9 Deposits in Superheaters and Reheaters
of Conventional Units
Deposits in steam-cooled tubing of conventional units
are caused by mechanical carryover, chemical (volatile)
carryover, and water used for attemperation. Attempera-
tion water can be a source of deposition in both super-
heaters and reheaters. Although normally a minimum
source of deposition, it can become important if
the source (usually feedwater) is contaminated or if an
7-12
excessive quantity of attemperation water is required.
Two types of deposits in steam tubing that are particu-
larly noteworthy are copper deposition in primary super-
heaters of units with mixed metallurgy and deposition of
sodium sulfate in reheaters.
7.9.1 Copper Deposits (Copper Compounds and
Metallic Copper)
Copper compounds are introduced into the steam mainly
by vaporous carryover. Particulate copper can enter steam
with attemperation water. Copper deposits in primary
superheaters are usually present as copper hydroxides,
indicating that (i) much of the copper is transported in
the vaporous rather than particulate form and (ii) depo-
sition in superheaters occurs as a result of exceeding the
superheated steam solubility limit (1000457, 2000;
Howell, 1999). Steam solubility considerations indicate
that copper species deposited in the superheater at low
pressure can reenter the steam at higher pressures above
17 MPa (2400 psi) when the solubility of the hydroxides
increases. Thus, the primary superheater appears to rep-
resent an important deposition/release point along the
path by which copper compounds are transported to the
high pressure turbine (1004930, 2003).
EPRI-supported work, performed at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, has markedly helped to improve the knowl-
edge about solubility and partitioning of copper species
in the plant cycle (1000455, 2000; 1003993, 2001). The
solubility of both cuprous and cupric oxide in steam was
found to be independent of temperature and pH in the
range of 100 to 350°C (212 to 662°F) and to be several
ppb. Only the neutral hydroxide forms, CuOH and
Cu(OH)2, exist in steam, and their concentrations are
independent of the pH in the water phase. However, par-
titioning constants for both species show strong pH
dependences because the solubility of both oxides in
water is strongly pH dependent.
7.9.2 Sodium Sulfate Deposits
Sodium sulfate deposition is predominantly caused by
mechanical carryover into the superheater and by vapor-
ous carryover into the reheater (Ball, 1988; Daucik,
2001; Daucik, 1995; Jensen, 2000). Attemperation water
containing sodium sulfate may also be a cause of sodium
sulfate deposition. Deposition of sodium sulfate in the
reheater is very often underestimated (1004930, 2003).
Almost microscopic deposits formed during operation
can hardly be recognized since they do not cause any
pressure drop. Sodium sulfate solubility at pressure and
temperature conditions typical for reheaters is less than
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Deposition on the Waterside of Boiler and HRSG Tubes

0.1 ppb as Na. Thus, deposition of sodium sulfate may

occur at sodium concentrations of greater than 0.1 ppb
and coincident trace concentrations of sulfur (> 0.2 ppb).
This deposition is harmless during operation. However,
during periods when the steam condensate forms within
the reheater, concentrated sodium sulfate solutions may
be formed. If incorrect layup procedures (or no layup)
are applied during the unit shutdown, oxygen saturation
of sodium sulfate is possible and conditions for pitting
damage are created. This mechanism is discussed in
Chapter 58, Volume 3.

7.10 Deposits in HRSG Units

There has been relatively little work done with a specific
focus on the science of deposition in HRSG units. Addi-
tional work is needed to better understand the deposition
characteristics in HRSGs and the impacts of these depos-
its on combined cycle unit availability, reliability, and Figure 7-13
Calcium rich nodules that were found in an HP evaporator
performance. A few general comments are provided inlet header. These nodules disrupted the fluid flow into the
here. evaporator.

Deposition rates in the HP evaporator circuits tend to be

higher than in other water-touched components (econo-
mizer, LP and IP evaporators, and feedwater heater) due
to the concentration of solids in the evaporator water as a
result of steam generation. However, steaming may occur
in high temperature sections of economizer circuits, and
samples collected from economizers have supported high
deposit loadings in some instances (1004499, 2003).
Typically the high pressure evaporator circuit will have
the heaviest accumulation of waterside deposits. Although
HRSG gas-side designs attempt to distribute heat evenly
across each tube bundle and the design of fins and fin
spacing influences heat absorption, the tubes in the gas
inlet row in the path of the hot gas, and in particular, the
end tubes adjacent to the duct sidewall or between adja-
cent modules (which pick up more heat from hot gas
laning), are likely to exhibit a relatively high level of
waterside deposition, especially at surfaces where steam
generation occurs.
It is common for deposits to build up on the inside sur-
faces of HRSG tubing; however, in unusual cases con-
taminants may grow as nodules rather than creating
waterside deposits, eventually leading to flow disruption
and short term overheating. Figure 7-13 shows an exam-
ple of calcium-rich nodules found in an HP evaporator
inlet header. These nodules could seriously disrupt flow
into the evaporator tubes.
7.11 Modeling the Deposition Processes
Numerous models have been proposed for relating the
deposition process to heat transfer, mass transfer, solubil-
ity, and other relevant mechanisms and integrating the
effect of factors described previously. Overviews of the
various models are provided in (1004931, 2004;
Warwood, 1998). A review of a number of these models
was provided in (1004931, 2004), which was performed
to determine the feasibility of a deterministic unified
model of deposition. Interested utilities should follow
the developments in this deterministic modeling effort as
they unfold.
7.12 Actions for Dealing with Deposits
Corrective actions for units suffering from deposition on
boiler or HRSG tubes include:
• Selection of optimum feedwater treatment in once-
through and drum cycles and optimum water treat-
ments in units with drums. Existing cycle chemistry
guidelines are effective in minimizing deposition, but
do so indirectly by controlling the chemistry to reduce
corrosion product transport to acceptable levels. Long-
term operation (more than 10 or 15 years) of boiler
and evaporator operation without operational chemi-
cal cleaning is possible based on experience with units
that consistently meet EPRI feedwater and boiler/
HRSG water guidelines. This is particularly true for
once-through units operated with OT. In HRSGs it is

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Deposition on the Waterside of Boiler and HRSG Tubes Volume: 1 Fundamentals
of paramount importance to control FAC in the feed-
water and LP and IP evaporator circuits. Suggested
levels of iron are < 2 ppb in the feedwater and < 5 ppb
in each drum, respectively. Cycle chemistry and options
for treatment are discussed in Chapter 8.
• Establishing programs for cycle chemistry control,
monitoring, tube inspections, sampling, and chemi-
cal cleaning.
• Establishing or optimizing existing layup proce-
dures. Corrosion during idle periods can result in pit-
ting. Pits and other surface discontinuities enhance
deposition activity during unit service. Also, metal
oxides formed during unprotected layup can subse-
quently be transported to heat transfer surfaces in
boiler and evaporator tubes.
• Avoiding operation with elevated tube metal tem-
peratures. The most effective course of action will be
largely dependent on the boiler or HRSG design and
operating requirements.
• Minimization of sources of flow disruption which
may lead to heavily localized deposits.
• Estimation of the amount, composition, and poros-
ity of boiler/HRSG tube deposits. Knowledge of
these factors helps determine the need to chemically
clean a boiler.
• Chemical cleaning if the amount of deposits exceeds a
tolerable deposit weight limit. Chemical cleaning is
discussed in Chapter 9, and detailed information about
chemical cleaning is provided in EPRI guidelines
(1003994, 2001; 1004499, 2003).
• Corrections in feedwater treatment or boiler/HRSG
water treatment based on analysis of boiler tube
deposit compositions.
• Maintenance of designed boiler scrubber efficiency
(drum units) for controlling SH/RH deposition.
• Elimination of high boiler water levels and foaming
(drum units) for controlling SH/RH deposition.
• Retrofitting condensate polishers.
• Minimizing mechanical carryover.
• Minimizing air inleakage.
• Minimizing oxygen in cycle makeup.
• Minimizing the extent of overpressure operation.
7-14
7.13 References
1000455, 2000. Behavior of Aqueous Electrolytes in Steam
Cycles: The Solubility and Volatility of Cupric Oxide, EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: 2000. 1000455.
1000457, 2000. Guidelines for Copper in Fossil Plants,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2000. 1000457.
1003993, 2001. Behavior of Aqueous Electrolytes in Steam
Cycles: The Solubility and Volatility of Copper (I) and Cop-
per (II) Oxides, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2001. 1003993.
1003994, 2001. Guidelines for Chemical Cleaning of
Conventional Fossil Plant Equipment, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 2001. 1003994.
1004187, 2002. Cycle Chemistry for Fossil Plants:
All-Volatile Treatment, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002.
1004187.
1004193, 2003. Deposition in Boilers: Review of Soviet
and Russian Literature, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2003.
1004193.
1004194, 2002. State of Knowledge on Deposition:
Part 1: Parameters Influencing Deposition in Fossil Units,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002. 1004194.
1004499, 2003. Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG)
Chemical Cleaning Guidelines, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2003. 1004499.
1004925, 2005. Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil
Plants: Oxygenated Treatment, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2005. 1004925.
1004930, 2003. State-of-Knowledge on Deposition,
Part 2: Assessment of Deposition, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2003. 1004930.
1004931, 2004. Boiler Water Deposition Model, Part 1:
Feasibility Study, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004. 1004931.
1008083, 2004. Deposition on Drum Boiler Tube
Surfaces, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004. 1008083.
1010181, 2006. Condensate Polishing Guidelines, Revi-
sion 1, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2006. 1010181.
1010437, 2006. Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Shutdown,
Layup and Startup of Combined Cycle Units with Heat
Recovery Steam Generators, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2006.
1010437.
ASM, 1976. American Society for Metals, Metals Hand-
book, Volume 10: Failure Analysis and Prevention, 8th edi-
tion, Metals Park, OH, 1976.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Deposition on the Waterside of Boiler and HRSG Tubes

ASTM, 1989. American Society for Testing and Materi- Masterson, 1969. Masterson, H.G., J.E. Castle, and
als, Annual Book of ASTM Standards: Water and Environ- G.M.W. Mann, “Waterside Corrosion of Power Station
mental Technology, Volume 11.02, Water (11), ASTM, Boiler Tubes,” Chemistry and Industry, September 6, 1969,
Philadelphia, PA, 1989. pp. 1261-1266.
Ball, 1988. Ball, M. and M.A. Jenkins, Proceedings of the Shields, 2001. Shields, K.J. and R.B. Dooley, Proceed-
Second Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Conference, EPRI, ings of Conference on Boiler Tube Failures, HRSG Tube
Palo Alto, CA: 1988-89. GS-6166. Failures, and Inspections, Phoenix, AZ, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 2001.
Chudnovskaya, 1979. Chudnovskaya, I.I., “The Struc-
ture and Phase Composition of Inner Deposits in Lower TR-102401, 1993. Guidelines for Chemical Cleaning of
Radiant Section Tubes,” Teploenergetika, No. 11, 1979, Fossil-Fueled Steam-Generating Equipment, EPRI, Palo
pp. 68-70. Alto, CA: 1993. TR-102401.
CRIEPI, 1981. Optimization of Chemical Cleaning Inter- TR-107754, 1998. Cycling, Startup, Shutdown, and
val for Supercritical Boilers, Energy & Environmental Layup Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Opera-
Laboratory, Central Research Institute of Electric Power tors and Chemists, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1998.
Industry (Japan), CRIEPI Report E280003, January, TR-107754.
1981.
TR-113692, 1999. Revised Guidelines for Makeup Water
CS-3945, 1985. Manual for Investigation and Correction Treatment, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1999. TR-113692.
of Boiler Tube Failures, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1985.
Vasilenko, 1978. Vasilenko, G.V., “Regularities of
CS-3945.
Deposition of Iron Compounds in Supercritical Steam
Daucik, 1995. Daucik, K., Proceedings of the Fourth Generators with Different Water Chemistries,” Teploen-
International Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Conference, ergetika, No. 3, 1978, pp. 43-47.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1995. TR-104502.
Warwood, 1998. Warwood, B.K., F. Roe, and J.T. Sears,
Daucik, 2001. Daucik, K., Power Plant Chemistry, Deposition in Power Plants: Mechanisms and Impacts,
Volume 3, No. 5, 2001, p. 280. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1998. EPRI Project No. WO
FP-686, 1978. The Spalling of Steam-Grown Oxide From 9002-04 (unpublished).
Superheater and Reheater Tube Steels, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 1978. FP-686.
Gwynne, 2000. Gwynne, G. and S. Shipperley, “Should
I Chemically Clean My Boiler? – An Australian Case
Study,” Power Plant Chemistry, Volume 2, No. 7, August
2000.
Howell, 1999. Howell, A.G., “Mitigation of Copper
Deposition in High Pressure Turbines of Utility Drum
Boilers,” Power Plant Chemistry, 1(4), October 1999.
Jensen, 2000. Jensen, J.P. and A. Bursik, Proceedings of
Steam Chemistry: Interaction of Chemical Species with
Water, Steam, and Materials During Evaporation, Super-
heating and Condensation, B. Dooley and A. Bursik, eds.,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2000. TR-114837.
Kirsch, 1968. Kirsch, H. and S. Pollmann, Chem-Ing.
Technik, 24 (18), 1968, pp. 897-903.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

Chapter 8
Cycle Chemistry and Boiler/
HRSG Tube Failures

8.1 Introduction and Significance of the Challenge

The purity of boiler/HRSG water, feedwater, and steam is one of the most important criteria
for ensuring the availability and reliability of components in power plants. The prevention
of cycle chemistry influenced boiler and HRSG tube failures (BTF/HTF) requires a cycle
chemistry that is specifically designed and adopted for the particular unit. The purpose of
this chapter is to provide an overview of the key issues surrounding cycle chemistry and to
provide direction in optimization with particular emphasis on BTFs/HTFs.
A brief look at some of the statistics surrounding cycle chemistry-related problems gives an
indication of the importance of this issue:
• Around the world, cycle chemistry accounts for 50% of all unit/component forced outages
and about 50% of availability loss in fossil fuel power plants. In combined cycle units, this
figure rises to around 70%.
• The cost of cycle chemistry problems has been estimated to be in excess of $3 billion annu-
ally in additional operation and maintenance. Ten percent of the cost of every MWhr pro-
duced is estimated to be related to cycle chemistry – the highest corrosion impact on product
cost in the U.S. It should be noted that cycle chemistry problems are typically longterm and
hidden within (i) forced outage rates of various pieces of equipment, (ii) efficiency losses of
various pieces of equipment, and (iii) premature end of component life (replacing a compo-
nent before the end of its design life).
• More than 70% of utilities around the world have no idea what the total of their direct
and indirect cycle chemistry costs are.
• Recent survey results indicated that 75% of respondees had chemically influenced BTFs as
shown in Table 8-1, which indicates the percentage of organizations experiencing cycle
chemistry influenced boiler tube failures from three recent surveys of international
experience.
Table 8-1
Percentage of Organizations Experiencing Chemically Influenced Boiler Tube Failures
Source: 1013629, 2006
Damage Type 2004 Survey 2001 Survey 1997 Survey
Results Results Results
Organizations having chemically influenced BTF 75% 81% 61%
Hydrogen damage 50% 57% 37%
Acid phosphate corrosion 14% 25% 17%
Corrosion fatigue 26% 45% 43%
Pitting 16% 40% 7%
Stress corrosion cracking 28% 18%
Caustic gouging 11% 11%

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Table 8-2 lists the tube failure mechanisms that are
directly caused by, or significantly influenced by, cycle
chemistry; among them are some of the leading causes of
availability loss in the industry today.
Even a cursory glance at the descriptions for individual
mechanisms in Volumes 2 and 3 will reveal that for many
tube failures, the simplest and most cost-effective means
of prevention lies in one of the cycle chemistry control
options.
The challenge is not trivial. BTFs/HTFs are related not
only to the choice of boiler chemistry, but also to other
features in the cycle. The pervasiveness of the problem is
illustrated in Figures 4-1 and 4-2, which showed typical
locations for impurity ingress, corrosion, and deposition
in drum and once-through boilers of conventional units.
Contaminants such as chlorides, sulfates, organics, air,
and CO2 enter the condensate part of the cycle, but do
their damage in the boiler/HRSG (tube failures) or in
the turbine (blade failures). Sources for such impurity
ingress into the steam and/or water process cycle include
(i) condenser cooling water inleakage, (ii) air inleakage,
or (iii) make-up demineralizer, evaporator, or condensate
polisher effluent contamination. Corrosion products are
generated in feedwater heaters and condensers and flow
into the boiler/HRSG where they deposit in high heat
flux locations and provide the initiating event for under-
deposit corrosion BTFs/HTFs.
Operation at the lowest achievable impurity levels, with
the shortest and least frequent excursions, is the most
desirable mode of operation. The probability of corro-
sion damage and deposit formation grows significantly
with increasing impurity concentration, and the damage
is proportional to the exposure time. When corrosive
impurities concentrate on metal surfaces, the breakdown
of passivity (damage to the protective oxide layer) occurs
within a few minutes to several hours. Reheater, super-
heater, and waterwall boiler tubes have been destroyed
within days when the impurity concentrations have been
high, in some cases as a result of improper chemical
cleaning operations or seawater ingress.
It is important to verify the suitability of a particular
chemistry choice for use in a specific unit prior to initial
operation and whenever significant changes in unit
design and operation occur.
Assessment of the importance of cycle chemistry on fos-
sil plant performance has indicated that the most reliable
and best performing units in the world operate on OT or
AVT(O), have condensate polishing, all-ferrous feedwa-
ter systems, do not use reducing agents, and have tight
condensers and excellent air inleakage control (Dooley,

Table 8-2
Boiler and HRSG Tube Failure Mechanisms That Are Influenced by Cycle Chemistry
Mechanism
Water-Touched Tubes
Hydrogen damage
Caustic gouging
Acid phosphate corrosion
Chemical cleaning damage
Corrosion fatigue
Thermal fatigue of waterwalls
Fireside corrosion
Short-term overheating
Flow-accelerated corrosion of
economizer inlet headers
Pitting (economizer)
Steam-Touched Tubes
Longterm overheating (creep)
Short-term overheating
Stress corrosion cracking
Pitting (RH loops)
Chemical cleaning damage
Nature of Chemistry Influence
Excessive feedwater corrosion products form excessive deposits and combine with a source of acidic
contamination.
Excessive feedwater corrosion products form deposits and combine with a source of caustic.
Excessive feedwater corrosion products form deposits and combine with a source of acidic phosphate
(addition of mono- or di-sodium phosphate).
Excessive deposits in waterwalls lead to chemical cleaning; process errors lead to tube damage.
Poor water chemistry (depressed pH on startup), shutdown, or layup practices and improper chemical
cleaning worsen contribution of the environment to causing damage.
Excessive internal deposits lead to increased tube metal temperatures; exacerbates mechanism.
Excessive internal deposits lead to increased tube metal temperatures; exacerbates mechanism.
Plugging of waterwall orifices by feedwater corrosion products.
Dissolution of magnetite by reducing feedwater conditions (AVT(R)).
Stagnant, oxygenated water formed or left in tubing during shutdown.
If caused by restricted steam flow as a result of contaminant deposits, debris, etc.
Blockage from improper chemical cleaning (of SH/RH or waterwalls)
Variety of bad environment influences, most directly related to chemistry control and practices.
Stagnant, oxygenated water formed or left in tubing during shutdown, or carryover of Na2SO4 or poor
(non-existent) shutdown practices allowing for oxygenated, stagnant condensate.
Poor chemical cleaning practice

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Cycle Chemistry and Boiler/HRSG Tube Failures
2002). These organizations also take time to ensure that
the boiler and feedwater treatments match the equip-
ment and equipment capability. It is appreciated that
while all units to be built in the future should adhere to
these guiding principles, that not all currently operating
units can instantly change to these conditions. This
emphasizes the need for continuing and continual assess-
ment of the unit’s cycle chemistry.
Cycle chemistry advances continue apace worldwide.
Three very important concepts that have been recently
introduced into the world of fossil plant cycle chemistry
are mentioned here to set the stage for later discussions:
• Decoupling of the steam and boiler limits, while pro-
viding unique protection for the steam turbine and the
boiler.
• Clear distinction between AVT(O) and AVT(R) for
oxidizing and reducing conditions for all-ferrous and
mixed-metallurgy feedwater systems, respectively.
• Use of ORP as a core parameter for controlling feed-
water chemistry with mixed-metallurgy feedwater sys-
tems operating on AVT(R).
8.2 Goals of a Cycle Chemistry Program
Each utility should have a set of cycle chemistry goals for
every conventional or HRSG unit. Table 8-3 provides a
list of objectives that have driven the EPRI cycle chemis-
try program; they form the basis for many utility goal
statements. By implementing improved water chemistry,
these goals, set for the EPRI Cycle Chemistry Program,
are attainable for virtually all fossil and HRSG units.
A primary goal is to eliminate all BTFs and HTFs that
are related to cycle chemistry; this is currently achievable
by optimizing boiler, HRSG evaporator, and feedwater
chemistry. Such optimization includes requirements for
the highest quality condensate and feedwater, an empha-
sis on cleaning up the overall cycle, and eliminating
excessive deposition. For most conventional drum and
cycling units, condensate polishers will be a key means
by which to achieve this aim.
The need for frequent chemical cleaning is a major indi-
cator of non-optimized feedwater chemistry. It also
implies a dirty boiler or HRSG that is more susceptible
to contaminant excursions and BTFs/HTFs by mecha-
nisms such as underdeposit corrosion (hydrogen damage,
caustic gouging, or acid phosphate corrosion). Another
target therefore is to clean up the cycle so as to eliminate
chemical cleaning in once-through units and put it on at
least a 10-year cycle for drum and HRSG units.
Table 8-3
Cycle Chemistry-Related Goals for Reducing BTF and HTF
• No tube failures influenced by cycle chemistry.
• No steam turbine problems involving cycle chemistry,
specifically:
- no corrosion fatigue in low pressure turbine components
- no stress corrosion cracking in disks
- minimum deposits (no availability losses or
performance concerns)
• Optimized feedwater and HRSG evaporator treatment to:
- eliminate serious flow-accelerated corrosion failures
- minimize iron and copper transport (each to less than 2 ppb
in the feedwater)
• Operational guidelines for all unit designs and operating
conditions:
- selected to protect boiler, HRSG, and turbine
- customized for each unit
• Simple and reliable chemistry instrumentation and control
- minimum (“core”) levels of instrumentation for all units and
treatments
- continual chemistry surveillance, control, and alarms for all
units
• Optimized procedures for unit shutdown and layup
• Eliminate unneeded chemical cleanings
- appraise need to clean
- establish effective approaches and procedures
• Optimum managerial approach and support for cycle chemistry
- training of staff
- benchmarking assessments of plant chemistry programs
- value and risk-based management tools for assessment
of cycle chemistry improvements
• Cost effective cycle chemistry programs
8.3 Available Cycle Chemistry Tools
Various projects including state-of-knowledge assess-
ments, technology appraisals, research and development
programs, and relevant non-technical investigations have
been performed as part of the EPRI Cycle Chemistry
Improvement Programs for fossil and HRSG units to
improve the overall understanding of the science of water
treatment technology and how to apply it optimally to
working fossil plant and HRSG units.
There are essential EPRI cycle chemistry guideline docu-
ments that should be available for use by all utility per-
sonnel responsible for fossil plant and HRSG cycle
chemistry. These are shown in Table 8-4, which indicates
the subject matter of the guideline, the year of publica-
tion, and the report number.
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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Cycle Chemistry and Boiler/HRSG Tube Failures Volume 1: Fundamentals

Table 8-4
Key Cycle Chemistry Guidelines
Guideline Type/Subject EPRI Report No. Year Published
Operating Guidelines
• All-Volatile Treatment (AVT) (Revision 1) 1004187 2002
• Oxygenated Treatment (OT) 1004925 2005
• Phosphate Continuum (PC) and Caustic Treatment 1004188 2004
• Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Combined Cycle Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSGs) 1010438 2006
Selection, Process and Transient Guidelines
• Flow-Accelerated Corrosion 1008082 2005
• Cycling/Startup/Shutdown/Layup for Conventional Units TR-107754 1998
• Shutdown, Layup and Startup of Combined Cycle Units with HRSGs 1010437 2006
• Control of Copper in Fossil Plants 1000457 2000
Cycle Support Guidelines
• Makeup (Revision 1) TR-113692 1999
• Chemical Cleaning (Revision 2) 1003994 2001
• Chemical Cleaning Guidelines for HRSGs 1004499 2003
• Condensate Polishing 1010181 2006

Roadmaps for selecting and optimizing treatments plus
detailed information can be found in the applicable
operating guidelines.
Utilities that desire optimum benefits from these and
future guidelines will derive the best results by:
• Performing an initial benchmarking assessment of
existing cycle chemistry and boiler/HRSG tube failure
reduction programs to establish rankings for each unit
and identify areas of deficiency. Benchmarking of cycle
chemistry in conventional units is discussed in this
chapter; that for HRSGs is described in Chapter 11,
along with benchmarking of BTF/HTF reduction
programs.
• Establishing a Boiler Tube Failure Reduction/Cycle
Chemistry Improvement Program (BTFR/CCIP) or a
Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failure
Reduction/Cycle Chemistry Improvement Program
(HTFR/CCIP). See Chapter 11 for details of such
programs.
• Using EPRI ChemExpert or CC ChemExpert to pro-
vide minute-by-minute surveillance of the chemistry,
early warning of chemistry excursions, and direction to
response actions which will minimize or prevent dam-
age to equipment. This program will also eventually
allow assessments of the risks of continued operation
with out-of-specification chemistry until normal
chemistry can be restored, as well as the value of pro-
gram improvements.
• Performing follow-up benchmarking assessments to
track progress in improving the plant chemistry
program.
8.4 Customization and Optimization of the Cycle
Chemistry Program
Selection, customization, and optimization of the cycle
water and steam chemistry includes the following steps:
• Selection of unit-specific boiler water, HRSG
evaporator water, and feedwater treatments.
• Determining optimum unit-specific control limits
and alarm settings.
• Selection of unit-specific cycle chemistry process/
control equipment.
• Development of operating guidelines. Episodes of
contamination ingress must be dealt with quickly.
The source of contamination should be eliminated
and any repairs made as soon as possible. Procedures
should detail what is to be done in a clear and concise
way. General guidance is available in the various fossil
and HRSG cycle chemistry guidelines delineated in
Table 8-4.
• Determining sampling and instrumentation
requirements.
• Commissioning.
• Specification of layup practices.
• Determining optimum chemical cleaning criteria.
Ideally cycle chemistry control customization and opti-
mization should start in the design phase of the unit. The
fossil and HRSG plant should be designed around the
optimum cycle chemistry. The actual cycle characteristics
should be determined during commissioning, which
would then lead to customized guidelines for the unit.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Cycle Chemistry and Boiler/HRSG Tube Failures
Organizations that periodically and properly assess their
units to determine the most suitable chemistries will gen-
erally be more successful at meeting target values and
minimizing the risk of chemistry-related damage and
performance problems.
The chosen treatments need to match the unit, unit
materials (particularly in the feedwater system), and
cooling water and take into account possible contami-
nant ingress. Figure 8-1 provides an overview that can
help as a “first cut” for treatment choices.
Figure 8-1
Summary of possible boiler water, HRSG evaporator water,
and feedwater treatments for fossil and HRSG plants as a
function of equipment and equipment capability.
Source: Dooley, 2002
As shown, the choice of treatment will depend on the
level of contamination and the ability of the treatment
choice to neutralize or buffer any contaminants. At the
point of the funnel (left side of the diagram), the level of
possible contaminants becomes less, and it is more likely
that the plant will have very good feedwater control.
Such a plant will have a condensate polisher and/or very
tight condenser. At the open end of the funnel (right side
of the diagram), plants might have no condensate polish-
ers, seawater, or high total dissolved solids water from a
cooling lake or cooling tower. The vertical dotted line
represents an arbitrary delineation between units with
all-ferrous and mixed-metallurgy feedwater systems.
Most triple-pressure HRSGs do not contain any copper
alloys; AVT(O) (or OT) should be used in the feedwater
with PC or CT being available for the LP evaporators.
8.5 Key Cycle Chemistry Parameters, Target Values,
Monitoring, and Action Levels
Organizations need to change allowable contaminant
levels when boiler water chemistry is changed. The classic
example in the mid to late 1990s was the change from
congruent phosphate treatment (CPT) to equilibrium
phosphate treatment (EPT). This change was needed to
prevent phosphate hideout, hideout return, and acid
phosphate corrosion. However, on changing from CPT
to EPT, there also needed to be a change in boiler water
control limits, especially for chloride. Thus, it was not
surprising that there was a drastic increase around the
world in hydrogen damage tube failures in EPT units in
the cases where the boiler water limits were not chosen
correctly.
8.5.1 Key Cycle Chemistry Parameters
Key cycle chemistry parameters are:
• Sodium. Sodium is a core monitoring parameter in
steam, boiler water (blowdown or condensate), and
feedwater. Monitoring of sodium is necessary because
sodium compounds such as sodium hydroxide and
sodium chloride are two major corrodents of concern
within the turbine and boiler tubes.
• Phosphate. Monitoring of phosphate is necessary
because: (i) the sodium-to-phosphate molar ratio deter-
mines the control point in phosphate treatment, and
(ii) acid phosphate corrosion is a concern if boiler water
is operated with low sodium-to-phosphate ratios.
• Chloride. Monitoring of chloride is necessary, espe-
cially for troubleshooting because chloride contributes
to: (i) corrosion fatigue, stress corrosion cracking, and
pitting in LP turbines, (ii) corrosion, hydrogen dam-
age, and pitting in boilers/HRSGs, and (iii) synergistic
effect on drum boiler waterwall corrosion in the
presence of oxygen and copper oxide.
• Sulfate. Monitoring of sulfate is necessary for trouble-
shooting purposes because: (i) sodium sulfate, in con-
junction with chloride, contributes to turbine
corrosion, (ii) sulfate causes off-load corrosion of
steam-side components, (iii) acid sulfate can cause
boiler and turbine corrosion, and (iv) sulfate can
deposit in reheaters and subsequently lead to pitting
during non-protected shutdown periods.
• Silica. Monitoring of silica is necessary because:
(i) precipitation of silica forms silicate deposits on the
turbine that are not soluble in water and are very diffi-
cult to remove, (ii) silicate deposits cause losses in
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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Cycle Chemistry and Boiler/HRSG Tube Failures Volume 1: Fundamentals
turbine capacity and efficiency, and (iii) cause boiler
water and steam target values to be exceeded in spite of
apparently good-quality makeup as silica enters the
condensate/feedwater through the makeup undetected
in the non-reactive colloidal form.
• Dissolved oxygen. Dissolved oxygen is a core monitor-
ing parameter, necessary because:
– Copper alloy corrosion in condensate and feedwa-
ter systems is controlled by ORP. The value of ORP
is influenced by the levels of oxygen and reducing
agent in the feedwater and by pH.
– In all-ferrous feedwater systems, very low levels of
oxygen (< 1 ppb) in conjunction with high levels of
reducing agent (hydrazine or alternative) result in
very strong reducing conditions (Dooley, 1994).
Under such conditions, the feedwater dissolves the
magnetite on the surface of the ferrous alloys in the
feedwater system to generate corrosion products.
– Single-phase flow-accelerated corrosion of carbon
steel components is accelerated by overfeeding
reducing agents and stopped by eliminating them
and/or adding oxygen at concentrations of 20 ppb
in high purity feedwater.
– Many plants with all-ferrous feedwater systems
operate without the use of reducing agents and have
significantly reduced iron transport.
• Oxidizing-reducing potential (ORP). ORP is a core
parameter for systems having mixed-metallurgy feed-
water systems. Monitoring ORP can help ensure that a
reducing condition, needed to minimize copper trans-
port, has been achieved.
• Reducing agents (hydrazine or alternative). Moni-
toring reducing agents and ORP can provide feedback
control of the feed rate. Reducing agents should not be
used in combined cycle/HRSG units because of the
direct relationship with the occurrence of FAC in the
LP evaporator.
• pH. Boiler/HRSG water pH is a core monitoring
parameter. Monitoring pH is necessary because (i) cor-
rosion of cycle materials in contact with feedwater and
boiler/HRSG water is a function of pH and (ii) alka-
line pH values increase the stability of the magnetite
film and reduce magnetite solubility in water.
• Ammonia. Monitoring ammonia can be used to sup-
plement the direct measurement of feedwater pH and/
or specific conductivity for control of the ammonia
feed rate. It also influences the pH of samples from
units operating on PC and CT. For plants containing
8-6
copper alloys in the condensate/feedwater systems,
monitoring of ammonia is also important to minimize
ammonia attack on copper alloys, particularly in the
air removal section of the condenser.
• Specific conductivity. Specific conductivity is an inex-
pensive, reliable, on-line method for monitoring the
overall level of contaminants, treatment chemicals, and
their trends. It is a core parameter for treated makeup
and boiler water (blowdown).
• Cation conductivity. Cation conductivity is a core
monitoring parameter in steam, boiler water (blow-
down or downcomer) condensate, and feedwater, and
can be used to indirectly assess levels of chloride and
sulfate for corrosion avoidance purposes.
• Total organic carbon (TOC). Organics may cause
foaming in the boiler/HRSG evaporator and high
mechanical carryover and may also affect the boiler
and turbine corrosion, depending on the specific spe-
cies or its thermal decomposition products that are
present.
• Iron and copper. Corrosion products form deposits
on waterwall tubes under high heat flux conditions,
which can trap and concentrate impurities, contribut-
ing to tube failures by caustic gouging, acid phosphate
corrosion, hydrogen damage, and other forms of local-
ized corrosion.
• Air inleakage. Air inleakage is the primary source of
oxygen and carbon dioxide in the condensate and feed-
water system. It is now designated as a core monitoring
parameter. Carbon dioxide can degrade condensate
polisher performance and elevate cation conductivity.
High air inleakage rates can also cause corrosion dam-
age to the condenser shell and can result in reduced
condenser vacuum, thereby reducing the efficiency of
the cycle.
8.5.2 Target Values
Target values have been designated for each chemistry
parameter at specified sample points around the cycle.
These are described in detail in the operating guidelines
listed in Table 8-4. An example, for drum fossil plants,
for phosphate continuum (PC) with AVT(O) feedwater,
all-ferrous metallurgy in the feedwater system, operating
with an oxidizing environment, is shown in Figure 8-2.
The key points here are that (i) there are numerous sam-
pling points around the cycle, (ii) the parameters to be
measured and allowable levels vary by location, and
(iii) all key parameters have been delineated.
 Volume 1: Fundamentals
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

Figure 8-2
Example of a cycle chemistry guideline showing measurement points, chemistry parameters and their target values, and sample frequency. This particular figure is for
PC(H) with AVT(O) feedwater treatment.
Source: 1004188, 2004

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Cycle Chemistry and Boiler/HRSG Tube Failures
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Cycle Chemistry and Boiler/HRSG Tube Failures Volume 1: Fundamentals

8.5.3 Monitoring approach, and establish water and steam chemistry

Monitoring of cycle chemistry will be a critical step in
preventing many BTFs/HTFs. Parameters to be moni-
tored should be (i) the parameters all plants should have
for optimal chemistry control (core parameters) and (ii)
the parameters regarded as diagnostic for troubleshoot-
ing or commissioning. Each of the operating guidelines
will have cycle chemistry diagrams showing the appro-
priate parameters. As an example, Table 8-5 provides
a listing of core monitoring requirements for units
operating on alkali solid treatments.
The core level of instruments for HRSGs/combined
cycles is shown in Table 11-9.
It is suggested that plant staff develop a specific cycle
chemistry diagram for their unit, based on the appropri-
ate operating guideline. The diagram should contain the
EPRI core parameters, plus any others that are of impor-
tance to the specific unit.
A complete monitoring campaign should be conducted
when a major chemistry change is planned for the feed-
water or boiler water. The main objectives of a complete
monitoring program are:
• To prevent equipment damage due to malfunction of
water chemistry equipment.
• To determine the chemical transport characteristics of
the cycle, make final selection of water treatment
Table 8-5
EPRI’s Core Monitoring Parameters and/or Minimum Level of Continuous Instruments for All Conventional Fossil Units
Operating on Phosphate Continuum and Caustic Treatments
Source: 1004188, 2004
limits.
• To assess major sources of impurities and corrosion.
• To quantify total carryover. Note that this a core
parameter for fossil and HRSG drums, which should
be determined at regular intervals (every six months).
However, it should be determined as soon as possible
if there is a sudden change in steam purity. It should
also be measured following each major outage where
inspection and repair of the drum has been con-
ducted. Carryover should be measured under a range
of operating conditions.
The water chemistry-related systems and functions that
should be tested during such monitoring include:
• Boiler carryover
• Chemical addition equipment
• Sampling and analytical equipment
• Deaeration (condenser, deaerator)
• Effects of reducing agents (particularly for mixed-
metallurgy fossil units)
• Iron and copper oxide generation and transport
(determination of the points where the corrosion
occurs)
• Phosphate levels and hideout return characteristics
• Blowdown and cycles of concentration

Parameter Location
Oxidizing AVT (AVT(O)) Feedwater and PC or Reducing AVT (AVT(R)) Feedwater and PC or CT
CT in the Boiler Water1 in the Boiler Water2
Cation conductivity CPD, CPO or EI, RH (or MS), Blowdown CPD, CPO or EI, RH (or MS), Blowdown
Specific conductivity Makeup, Blowdown Makeup, Blowdown
pH Blowdown Blowdown
Dissolved oxygen CPD, EI CPD, EI
Sodium CPD, CPO or EI, Blowdown, RH (or MS) CPD, CPO or EI, Blowdown, RH (or MS)
Phosphate Blowdown (PC only) Blowdown (PC only)
ORP Not applicable DAI
Air inleakage
Total Carryover
Notes:
1
Drum units without a reducing agent and with an all-ferrous feedwater system.
2
Drum units with a reducing agent and with a mixed-metallurgy or all-ferrous feedwater system.
CPD – condensate pump discharge CPO – condensate polisher outlet EI – economizer inlet
RH – reheat MS – main steam PC – Phosphate Continuum DAI – deaerator inlet
Steam sampling requires special techniques (TR-100196, 1991).

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• Makeup system and associated regeneration
equipment
• Pretreatment system
• Condensate polishers and associated regeneration
equipment
• Condensate and feedwater storage systems
• Cleanliness and passivation effectiveness after
preoperational chemical cleaning of cycle components
• Purity of returned condensate in cogeneration units
The importance of monitoring, for routine control pur-
poses and more extensively when major cycle chemistry
changes are noted or anticipated, cannot be overempha-
sized. The development of optimum treatment of boiler
water, HRSG evaporator water, and associated feedwater
treatments depends critically on the continual assessment
and unit performance.
8.5.4 Action Levels
Action levels for control parameters at critical sample
points have been developed to provide guidance on the
relative need for corrective action in the event of cycle
chemistry excursions. Four action levels have been
established:
• Normal. Values are consistent with longterm system
reliability. A safety margin has been provided to avoid
concentration of contaminants at surfaces and under
deposits.
• Action Level 1. There is a potential for the
accumulation of contaminants and corrosion.
Return values to normal levels within 1 week.
• Action Level 2. The accumulation of impurities and
corrosion will occur. Return values to normal levels
within 24 hours.
• Action Level 3. Experience indicates that rapid
corrosion could occur, which can be avoided by
shutdown of the unit within 4 hours.
• Immediate Shutdown. There is clear evidence of
rapid boiler or HRSG tube damage by low boiler or
HP evaporator water pH. Immediate shutdown of the
unit is required to avoid such damage.
If the problem is not corrected within the time allotted
to each action level, the next higher action level takes
effect. In drum units having the capability of sliding
pressure operation, one way to respond to an action level
is to reduce boiler or HRSG evaporator pressure.
The target values for Action Levels 1, 2, and 3 were estab-
lished to allow and provide guidance during transient or
abnormal operating conditions. The following criteria
were used for most of the parameters:
• Action Level 1 Value: 2 x [Normal Target Value]
• Action Level 2 Value: 2 x [Action Level 1 Value]
• Action Level 3 Value: > [Action Level 2 Value]
• Immediate Shutdown: Boiler water pH (drum units)
indicates a serious acidic contamination, and the unit
should be shutdown in an orderly fashion.
Specific action levels are detailed in each of the chemistry
operating guidelines, Table 8-4.
8.6 Recent Advances in the Derivation of Boiler
Water/Steam Purity Requirements
The limits on boiler and HRSG water purity are derived
by values tolerable in the steam turbine. A plethora of
recent research has added considerably to the knowledge
base of (i) what levels of steam purity are required to
minimize deposition in the steam turbine, (ii) how the
various solutes partition between water and steam under
phase change conditions (boiling and condensation),
(iii) composition of boiler or HRSG evaporator water,
steam and early condensate in the turbine, and thus (iv)
how to more appropriately set allowable boiler or HRSG
evaporator water purity levels.
Deposition in the steam turbine. EPRI has conducted
much research over the past 15 years to understand
nucleation, early condensate, and liquid films in the
phase transition zone of the low pressure turbine (TR-
108184, 1999; 1006283, 2001; TR-111340, 1998;
1003997, 2001). The results of the work clearly indi-
cated that to minimize deposition, the steam limits for
sodium, chloride, and sulfate needed to be reduced from
the levels indicated in earlier guidelines.
Partitioning. Visits to hundreds of plants and bench-
marking of chemistry programs have indicated that very
few utilities around the world measure and/or know the
percentage of mechanical carryover in their drum units.
This observation, combined with the inaccuracies of ear-
lier partitioning diagrams (notably the “ray” diagram), led
to detailed study by EPRI of the partitioning of impuri-
ties, salts, and oxides into steam. Partitioning constants
(i.e., the concentration in the steam over the activities of
the constituent ions in the water) have now been derived
for numerous compounds and related organic species,
including NH4Cl, NH3, HCl, NH4HSO4, Na2SO4,
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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Cycle Chemistry and Boiler/HRSG Tube Failures Volume 1: Fundamentals

NaHSO4, NaOH, åO4, organic acids, Cu(OH)2, H3PO4, chemistry and the opportunity for preventing boiler tube
NaH2PO4, and Na2HPO4 (TR-102377, 1993; TR- failures is the focus of this section. However, the benefits
105801, 1999; TR-112359, 1999; TR-113089, 2000; that will accrue throughout the unit should not be over-
1000455, 2000; 1007291, 2003; 1001042, 2001). looked, including benefits to the turbine, feedwater heat-
ers, condensers, and throughout the boiler.
Composition of boiler water, HRSG evaporator water,
steam, and early condensate in the turbine. The parti- 8.7.1 Background on Oxygenated Treatment
tioning coefficients obtained have been compiled Based on the early work of Resch and Odenthal (Resch,
(1001042, 2001), which allows predictions of the com- 1962), Resch (Resch, 1969), Brush and Pearl (Brush,
position of the boiler water, HRSG evaporator water, 1969; Brush, 1970), Freier (Freier, 1969), and others, a
steam, and early condensate. The model can predict new feedwater treatment, oxygenated treatment (OT)
vaporous carryover alone and with various degrees of was developed. The first large-scale application of OT
mechanical carryover. was reported in Germany by Freier in 1969 and 1970
Setting boiler water and HRSG evaporator water (Freier, 1969; Freier, 1970) on units with once-through
limits. Given steam limits as determined from the stud- subcritical boilers. The first United States once-through
ies of deposition in the turbine (for example, 2 ppb of utility applications date from 1991 (Pate, 1992; Allmon,
sodium, chloride, and sulfate for phosphate continuum 1992). Since 1969, OT has been used worldwide in over
– low, PC(L) and caustic treatment, CT; 3 ppb for phos- 400 units with once-through boilers (1004925, 2005).
phate continuum – high, PC(H); and 10 ppb for silica), While elevated pH is the basis for AVT, OT uses oxygen-
the model has been used to calculate the corresponding ated high purity water to minimize corrosion and single-
boiler/HRSG water values across a range of pH and phase FAC in the feedwater train. Oxygen, hydrogen
mechanical carryover under various regimes. Note that peroxide, and air have been used as oxidants. In contrast
these limits were not intended as control limits in fossil with AVT, OT can be applied only in plants with all-
plant units. In some cases, such as for chloride and sul- ferrous metallurgy downstream of the condenser. The
fate, the limits in boiler water are defined by the need to key parameters for OT are summarized in Table 8-6;
prevent initiation of corrosion in the boiler, rather than detailed guidelines for OT are provided in (1004925,
the need for limiting the concentration in steam. 2005).
8.7 Feedwater Treatment – Conventional Units Table 8-6
Economizer Inlet Chemistry Guideline Values for OT
Feedwater chemistry is critical to the overall reliability of Chemistry
fossil plants. Corrosion products are generated here, flow Source: 1004925, 2005
around the cycle, deposit in various areas acting as initi-
Parameter Target Value
ating centers for most of the major failure mechanisms,
Normal 1 2 3
and often need removing by chemical cleaning. There are
pH (25°C) 8.0 – 8.5* _ _ _
three distinctly different feedwater treatments:
9.0 – 9.4**
• Reducing all-volatile, AVT(R), which uses ammonia Ammonia, ppm 0.02 – 0.07* _ _ _
and a reducing agent. Here the oxidation-reduction 0.28 – 1.1**
potential, ORP, should be reducing (and may be in Specific 0.25 – 1.0*
the range -300 to -350 mV [Ag/AgCl, sat. KCl]), conductivity, 2.7 – 6.7**
mS/cm (25°C)
which is necessary to protect mixed-metallurgy
Cation < 0.15 < 0.3 < 0.60 > 0.60
feedwater systems. conductivity,
• Oxidizing all-volatile, AVT(O), where the reducing mS/cm (25°C)
agent has been eliminated. Here the ORP will be Iron, ppb <2 >2 _ _
around 0 mV, but could be slightly positive or Oxygen, ppb 30 – 150* _ _ _

negative. 30 – 50**
* - once-through units
• Oxygenated treatment (OT), where oxygen and
** - drum units
ammonia are used. Here the ORP will be around
+100 to +150 mV.
The relationship between improvements in feedwater

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8.7.2 Major Differences Between OT and AVT
The major differences between AVT and OT chemistries
are shown in Figure 8-3.
Figure 8-3
Major differences between AVT (R) and OT.
Source: 1004925, 2005
For the application of AVT, the condensate can be deaer-
ated at two locations of the plant cycle. The first is the
condenser and the second is the deaerator. Some units
may not have a deaerator. Ammonia and hydrazine are
used in AVT (R) as the feedwater conditioning chemi-
cals. The selected pH level with AVT is dependent on the
feedwater heater and condenser tubing materials. Thus,
in AVT application, there are plant-specific variations in
actual pH range between 9.2 and 9.6 (1004187, 2002).
Although AVT may be applied properly, the corrosion
product transport into the boiler can be substantial. At
full continuous operating load, the feedwater corrosion
product level at the best plants running on AVT (R) is
less than 5 ppb. However, during cycling operations, par-
ticularly during transients and startups, values are sub-
stantially higher.
With OT for once-through units, an oxygen level of 30-
150 ppb is maintained across the whole plant cycle. For
drum units, the oxygen levels are 30-50 ppb at the econ-
omizer inlet. The use of oxygen as a corrosion inhibitor
allows satisfactory operation over a wide pH range; thus,
a marked reduction in plant cycle pH is possible. Even if
this reduction is not always practiced, the application of
a pH range from 8.0 to 8.5 for once-through units still
has many advantages. One such advantage is the reduc-
tion of condensate polisher regeneration frequency. Table
8-7 shows key chemistry parameters for three different
variations of OT that have been used around the world.
Table 8-7
Feedwater Conditioning Variations of OT
Parameter Neutral Combined Alkaline
Treatment
Cation conductivity, < 0.15 < 0.15 < 0.2
mS/cm (25°C, 77°F)
pH (25°C, 77°F) 7–8 8–9 9 – 10
Oxygen, ppb 50 – 250 30 – 150 < 100
The comparison of operating experience from plants
applying AVT and those using OT demonstrates clearly
the superiority of OT over AVT (1004925, 2005). The
superiority is more evident in plants which have con-
verted from AVT to OT.
Detailed discussion of the differences in oxide formation
between OT and AVT can be found in Chapter 31, Vol-
ume 2 on flow-accelerated corrosion.
8.7.3 Optimizing Feedwater Treatment in All-Ferrous
Systems of Conventional Units
All three feedwater treatments are possible for use in all-
ferrous feedwater systems. The basis of either of the AVT
treatments is an elevated pH in all cycle streams. The
common alkalizing agent is ammonia. Originally, and up
to the late 1980s, the ammonia dosing was always com-
bined with a reducing agent feed, such as hydrazine. As
noted above, this treatment is now termed AVT(R),
which indicates that the oxygen level at the condensate
pump discharge (CPD) is low enough (< 10 ppb) (mini-
mum air inleakage) that a reducing agent can be added
to the cycle to produce a reducing environment with
ORP < 0 mV. The more reducing the feedwater is, the
greater the dissolution of magnetite into the flow and the
higher the amount of iron corrosion products. Under
reducing conditions that produce flow-accelerated corro-
sion or normal corrosion, organizations are not able to
meet the guideline requirements of less than 2 ppb iron
in the final feedwater at the economizer inlet.
Investigations performed since the late 1980s and hun-
dreds of unit operating experiences have indicated that
eliminating the reducing agent feed minimizes the corro-
sion product generation (Dooley, 1994). This treatment
is now termed AVT(O). It also requires that air inleakage
be minimized to produce oxygen levels at the CPD of
less than 10 ppb. This oxygen limit is to ensure that air
inleakage is controlled and so that carbon dioxide is not
elevated, which makes the control of cation conductivity
more difficult.
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While an elevated pH is the basis of the two AVT treat- deposition on the boiler waterwalls. The methodology
ments, oxygenated treatment (OT) uses oxygenated high described is equally applicable for both drum and once-
purity feedwater to minimize the corrosion and flow- through units with all-ferrous feedwater systems.
accelerated corrosion in feedwater systems. Elevated pH
is not necessary with OT. For the application of oxygen-
ated treatment to units with once-through and drum
boilers with all-ferrous feedwater systems, there is one
indispensable prerequisite that the cation conductivity
must be less than 0.15 mS/cm (at 25°C (77°F)). The basis
for the success of OT depends on the formation of a layer
of ferric oxide hydrate (FeOOH/ferric oxide (Fe2O3) on
the surface of the magnetite oxide layer and within the
pores. In this case, the FeOOH has a much lower solubil-
ity than Fe3O4 in feedwater, so dissolution of surface
oxide layers and iron corrosion products will be
minimal.
The feedwater key parameters for AVT(R), AVT(O), and
OT are summarized in Table 8-8. Here again, it should
be noted that oxygen should be controlled to less than
10 ppb to ensure that air inleakage is controlled.

Table 8-8
Feedwater Limits for All-Ferrous Systems
Parameter AVT(O) AVT(R) OT
pH 9.2 – 9.6 9.2 – 9.6 D 9 – 9.6
O 8 – 8.5
Cation < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.15 Figure 8-4
conductivity, Roadmap for optimizing feedwater treatment for all-ferrous
mS/cm feedwater systems.
Fe, ppb at EI < 2 (< 1) <2 < 2 (< 0.5) Source: 1004925, 2005
Cu, ppb at EI <2 <2
Oxygen, ppb at EI < 10 < 5 (< 2) D 30-50
8.7.4 Optimizing Feedwater Treatment in Mixed-
O 30 – 150
Metallurgy Systems of Conventional Units
Oxygen, < 10 < 10 < 10
ppb at CPD AVT(R) feedwater treatment is regarded as the only suit-
Reducing agent No Yes No able treatment for mixed-metallurgy feedwater systems.
ORP, mV at DAI Not needed -300 to Not needed The basis of AVT(R) is an elevated pH (9.0-9.3), mini-
-350* mum air inleakage to ensure that dissolved oxygen at the
Notes: CPD is less than 10 ppb, and the addition of a reducing
Values in parentheses are easily achieved by the best units. agent to the feedwater to ensure a reducing ORP
EI – economizer inlet CPD – condensate pump discharge (1000456, 2000; 1004586, 2001; 1000457, 2000).
DAI – deaerator inlet D – drum unit
O – once-through unit
Maximum effort must be given to ensure the reducing
*Very often ORP readings will be more positive and could be in the
environment during operation and shutdown.
range of 0 to -200 mV.
Under reducing conditions (ORP < 0 mV), the surface
Figure 8-4 shows the roadmap for optimizing the feed- oxide formed on copper and copper alloys is cuprous
water treatment in all-ferrous systems. The primary pur- oxide (Cu2O) which is the more protective of the copper
poses of this important activity are to minimize corrosion oxides and the oxide of choice for feedwater surfaces.
product transport, eliminate any possibility for FAC, and In contrast, under oxidizing conditions (ORP > 0 mV),
thus to reduce the accumulation of corrosion product the surface oxide contains increasing amounts of cupric
oxide (CuO). The copper release rate under oxidizing

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conditions can be up to 30 times higher than under the In summary, for plants with mixed-metallurgy feedwater
reducing conditions. The importance of maintaining a systems, the approach should involve:
reducing environment during operation cannot be over-
• First, getting the ORP in the optimum reducing
emphasized. The cuprous oxide surface starts to change
range (< 0 mV) at the deaerator inlet (DAI) by
to cupric oxide within ten hours once the environment
addressing air inleakage and reducing agent addition
becomes oxidizing.
and oxygen levels.
Controlling air inleakage is of paramount importance in • Second, optimizing the feedwater pH.
reaching the optimum ORP value. Experience has indi- • Third, tracking the feedwater copper (and iron) levels.
cated for over 15 years that if the air inleakage is kept
• Fourth, optimizing the complete feedwater treatment
below 1 scfm/100 MW, the level of oxygen within the
to minimize copper (< 2 ppb) and iron (< 2 ppb).
condensate (at the condensate pump discharge, CPD)
can be kept below 10 ppb. The preferred approach is to 8.8 Boiler Water Treatment Options
focus effort on air inleakage to reduce oxygen in the con- It is assumed that the boiler will be supplied with feed-
densate and to add only sufficient reducing agent so as to water which has already been optimized.
reach and maintain optimum ORP at the deaerator
inlet. There are four possible choices for drum boiler water
treatment: phosphate continuum (PC), all-volatile treat-
The most common alkalizing agent is ammonia. The ment (AVT), caustic treatment (CT), and oxygenated
most common and satisfactory reducing agent is hydra- treatment (OT). As discussed previously, the ability of
zine. Any alternatives (amines and new organic treatment the unit to produce feedwater of a certain purity has a
chemicals) must be evaluated in a monitoring campaign. direct influence on the choice of boiler water treatment;
They are not preferred for mixed-metallurgy systems the choice largely reflects the tolerance to ingress of
because they break down in the cycle and their use has impurities, cooling media, out-of-specification opera-
been found to directly increase the transport of copper tion, type of boiler, maximum heat flux, and the amount
corrosion products. of blowdown required. The initial choice of boiler water
The feedwater key parameters for AVT(R) for mixed- treatment and its continual assessment has a direct influ-
metallurgy systems are summarized in Table 8-9. ence on the performance, availability, and reliability of
the unit.
Table 8-9
Feedwater Limits for Mixed-Metallurgy Systems Figure 8-5 provides a roadmap for selecting or optimiz-
ing boiler water treatment for drum boilers to eliminate
Parameter AVT(R)
pH (25°C (77°F)) at EI 9.0 – 9.3
the possibility of cycle chemistry influenced BTFs. Addi-
Cation conductivity, mS/cm, (25°C (77°F)) < 0.2
tional detail about this very important process can be
Fe, ppb at EI <2 found in the cycle chemistry operating guidelines listed
Cu, ppb at EI <2 in Table 8-4.
Oxygen, ppb at EI < 5 (< 2)
Oxygen, ppb at CPD < 10
Reducing agent Consistent with
reducing ORP
ORP, mV at DAI (25°C (77°F)) -300 to -350*
Notes:
Value in parentheses is easily achieved by the best units.
EI – economizer inlet CPD – condensate pump discharge
DAI – deaerator inlet
*Very often ORP readings will be more positive and could be in the
range of 0 to -200 mV.

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Figure 8-5
Roadmap for selecting or optimizing boiler water treatment
for drum boilers.
8.8.1 Phosphate Continuum (PC)
The use of phosphate chemicals for internal boiler water
treatment is more than 70 years old and is currently used
in about 65% of drum units worldwide (1004188, 2004).
Coordinated pH-phosphate control was introduced in
1942 to protect boiler tubes from “caustic embrittle-
ment” as well as the effects of condenser inleakage and
water hardness contaminants. The treatment was designed
to preserve magnetite and provide protection against
“caustic under-deposit” corrosion attack and hydrogen
damage from “under-deposit acidic chloride” attack.
The use of coordinated treatment led to a number of fail-
ures believed, at the time, to be caustic gouging, and, as a
result, to the use of congruent phosphate treatment (CPT)
with an operating range below the sodium-to-phosphate
molar curve ratio of 2.6, as shown in Figure 8-6.
However, the move to CPT was not without challenges.
Many utilities experienced phosphate hideout with
increasing load and pressure (a decrease in phosphate
and an increase in pH) and hideout return when the unit
load decreased (an increase in phosphate occurring with
a pH depression). The depression of pH on startup below
7 or 8 is now known to exacerbate boiler tube failures,
particularly those occurring by corrosion fatigue (Chap-
8-14
Figure 8-6
Schematic of the operating ranges of boiler water on
equilibrium phosphate treatment (EPT), congruent phosphate
treatment (CPT), and phosphate treatment (PT). It should be
noted that these are the old phosphate operating ranges
and are shown here for reference only. They should not be
applied to fossil plants.
ters 19 and 20). More often problems, notably acid
phosphate corrosion, arose as a result of the use of mono-
and di-sodium phosphate in a vain effort to “chase” hide-
out so as to maintain the control point within the CPT
range. Subsequent concentration of excess acid phos-
phate compounds in the deposits of waterwall tubes led
to the eventual attack via this mechanism. An interna-
tional survey conducted in 1994 showed that over 90%
of drum units in the U.S. operating with congruent
phosphate treatment experienced hideout, and more
than 60% had corrosion consequences.
In the early 1990s, EPRI introduced a new guideline for
phosphate treatment. These 1994 guidelines introduced
equilibrium phosphate treatment (EPT) and phosphate
treatment (PT) after much EPRI and independent
research into corrosion mechanisms (acid phosphate cor-
rosion) and after good operating experiences in Russia,
Germany, and on Great Lakes cooling waters. The ranges
are shown in Figure 8-6, and although the guidelines
suggested that only trisodium phosphate and NaOH
should be used, Figure 8-6 shows the lower bound of the
EPT/PT regions at Na:PO4 molar ratio of 2.8. This was
based on research conducted by Tremaine, which showed
that maricite (the corrosion product of acid phosphate
corrosion) would not form above higher molar ratios
than 2.8 at boiler operating temperatures of 360°C
(680°F) (Tremaine, 1993).
This guideline brought enormous success to the world of
phosphate treatments in conventional fossil plants. It is
not possible to form maricite (NaFePO4) with only triso-
dium phosphate additions. A more recent international
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Cycle Chemistry and Boiler/HRSG Tube Failures
survey in 2003 found that as an increasing number of
operators had moved to EPT and PT, only about 40% of
boilers were then experiencing hideout and less than
20% had evidence of acid phosphate corrosion.
The phosphate treatments, EPT and PT, were very suc-
cessful in addressing the main corrosion concern of acid
phosphate corrosion, but the application of the guideline
was often unsuccessful in addressing control and overall
boiler corrosion protection (hydrogen damage).
These concerns led to the need for a new control technol-
ogy and operating philosophy for phosphate treatments.
The result was Phosphate Continuum (PC) (1004188,
2004). The operating ranges are shown in normal and
log plots in Figure 8-7.
Figure 8-7
Schematic of operating range for phosphate continuum; (a) is
normal scale, (b) is log scale.
Source: 1004188, 2004
Although a continuum, there are extremes at the low and
high end of the phosphate range, termed PC(L) and
PC(H). To select and optimize the phosphate treatment
for each boiler requires, as a minimum, knowledge of the
possible contaminants in the boiler, the carryover into
the steam, and the level of sodium in the steam. Road-
maps and extensive references to develop the appropriate
levels for control parameters have been developed
(1004188, 2004).
Phosphate continuum is a much better terminology as
phosphate treatments are indeed a continuum. PC has
the following characteristics:
• Provides boiler protection from very low pressures,
e.g., LP HRSG evaporator circuits at 410 kPa to
480 kPa (60 to 70 psi) to very high conventional
plants operating at drum pressures above 17 MPa
(2400 psi) and to HP HRSG evaporator circuits.
• Is a continuum of phosphate treatments from
0.2 ppm to 10 ppm, with the minimum being to
prevent excessively low phosphates being used, which
provide little resistance to contaminant ingress.
• Extends from the low phosphate levels (< 3 ppm)
where the pH is moderated by ammonia, to the high
phosphate levels, where ammonia has a smaller effect.
• The higher phosphate levels have a much greater
ability to counteract contaminant ingress.
• The opposite ends of the PC have much different
abilities to partition sodium into steam.
Key aspects of PC are (1004188, 2004):
• PC should be regarded as having two extremes of
PC(L) and PC(H), which behave and react in very dif-
ferent ways. A loose transition between these two
extremes has been suggested at about 3 ppm PO4. The
maximum allowable phosphate concentration for
PC(H) is 10 ppm as PO4. However, not all boilers will
be able to operate over the entire range for PC(H) due
to steam purity constraints (sodium) or excessive hide-
out and return of phosphate.
• High pressure boilers (> 17 MPa, 2400 psi) will gener-
ally need to be operated at the lower end of the PC,
normally in the region designated PC(L). While this
treatment offers a limited boiler protection capability,
it must also ensure that steam of satisfactory purity is
generated for expansion in the turbine.
• Low pressure boilers can usually be operated at the
higher end of the PC, in the region designated PC(H);
this treatment offers additional neutralization and
buffering capability to protect the boiler and also has
less stringent steam purity criteria that are considered
sufficient to protect the turbine.
• Trisodium phosphate is the only phosphate-based
chemical used with PC; sodium hydroxide may be
added as needed to control the pH while maintaining
a free sodium hydroxide residual of up to 1 ppm as
NaOH. While phosphate hideout is possible with
either PC(L) or PC(H), it will not result in corrosion if
only trisodium phosphate is added as the phosphate
8-15
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Cycle Chemistry and Boiler/HRSG Tube Failures Volume 1: Fundamentals
addition. However, chasing of hideout with repetitious
additions is not required and should be discouraged.
• A minimum allowable boiler water phosphate concen-
tration of 0.2 ppm as PO4 has been established in rec-
ognition of the need for a minimum limit on boiler
protection in the event of contaminant ingress. Main-
taining some free sodium hydroxide is especially desir-
able when phosphate concentrations are < 1 ppm as
PO4. The minimum boiler water pH is 9.0.
• Results for pH and phosphate provide an indication of
the treatment control. Sodium is useful in steam purity
control and as a general indicator of contamination.
Conductivity readings are used to identify and track
changes in contamination levels and must be con-
trolled to protect the boiler.
• At low phosphate levels associated with PC(L), the pH
is strongly influenced by ammonia entering the boiler
with the feedwater. The influence of ammonia on pH
is less significant when the boiler water phosphate con-
centration is above about 3 ppm as PO4; thus the effect
of ammonia on boiler water pH is generally not of as
great a concern when employing PC(H).
8.8.2 All-Volatile Treatment (AVT)
Under AVT, there are generally no solid additions to
boiler/HRSG water, although the addition of NaOH or
Na3PO4 is allowed to correct for pH on startup or as a
response to contamination. The chemistry is set by the
feedwater chemistry as discussed in Section 8.7. Opera-
tion with a condensate polisher is generally required,
although some units using AVT do so without one. New
AVT guidelines are available (1004187, 2002). They
retain the concept of smooth continuous relationships of
drum boiler water contaminant values. This allows units
to have the capability, during changing load (reducing
pressure), of benefiting from relaxed boiler water limits.
This is a very powerful feature for cycling units.
Deposition studies as discussed above have clearly indi-
cated that to minimize deposition, the steam limits for
sodium, chloride, and sulfate should be reduced from the
3 ppb level, used in previous guidelines, to 2 ppb. The
level of sodium is very important as some organizations
operating with AVT actually use a hybrid form of caustic
treatment, with some sodium being from makeup, and
not necessarily from serious cycle contaminations.
8-16
8.8.3 Caustic Treatment (CT)
Caustic treatment has been used successfully for many
years in coal and oil fired drum units as an alternative to
phosphate treatment, particularly where difficulties with
phosphate hideout and monitoring and control have
been experienced. In a survey conducted in the early
1990s (TR-104007, 1995) at least 50,000 MWe of plant
was being successfully operated with caustic treatment,
mostly in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Hong Kong,
and South Africa. Guidance on conditioning using
sodium hydroxide was developed into an EPRI interim
guideline (TR-104007, 1995). The EPRI Interim Cycle
Chemistry Guidelines for Combined Cycle Heat Recovery
Steam Generators (TR-110051, 1998)s published in 1998
included caustic treatment as a method of conditioning
the boiler water for drum-type units. More recently,
caustic treatment has started to be used on “conven-
tional” fossil fired drum units in the U.S. (1004188,
2004) and in drum HRSG units (1010438, 2006).
High concentrations of sodium hydroxide and sodium
phosphate were used in many countries in the 1950s for
conditioning in the boilers of low pressure plants. How-
ever, when these methods of conditioning were applied
to new high pressure plants in the 1960s, there were fre-
quent failures due to on-load corrosion in the form of
caustic gouging or hydrogen damage due to acid attack.
There was a great deal of confusion at the time, which led
to the use of sodium hydroxide being abandoned in the
U.S. in favor of AVT and various forms of phosphate
treatment. While the use of high or “uncontrolled” con-
centrations of sodium hydroxide can certainly cause
caustic gouging, it is now known that many examples of
what was thought to be caustic gouging were, in fact,
acid phosphate corrosion due to phosphate hideout and
dosing acidic forms of sodium phosphate. In other coun-
tries, particularly the UK, the use of sodium hydroxide
was pursued and refined, so that the problems experi-
enced with phosphate treatment, particularly those asso-
ciated with hideout, were avoided.
The addition of low concentrations of sodium hydroxide
to the boiler water used in caustic treatment significantly
increases the amount of chloride that can be tolerated
without corrosion compared to AVT. This is important
when dealing with condenser leaks, particularly when
cooling is with brackish or sea water. It is still important
to limit chloride ingress with CT and ensure that there is
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Cycle Chemistry and Boiler/HRSG Tube Failures
sufficient sodium hydroxide present to prevent poten-
tially acidic conditions, while at the same time limiting
the amount present to prevent caustic gouging in the
boiler and excessive carryover into the steam, resulting in
damage to the turbine.
As a result, caustic treatment for drum boilers might be
considered when AVT has been found to be inadequate
for controlling corrosion or when a phosphate treatment
has been prone to hideout or been difficult to monitor
and control (1004188, 2004).
8.8.4 Oxygenated Treatment (OT)
The fundamentals of OT are described in Section 8.7.
8.9 HRSG Evaporator Water and Feedwater
Treatment Options
Much of the information pertinent to conventional units
is applicable to HRSG cycle chemistry as well. This sec-
tion provides an overview of available treatment options
for HRSG cycle chemistry and a summary of important
treatment philosophies (1010438, 2006).
8.9.1 Phosphate Continuum (PC)
Phosphate treatments of various types are the most com-
mon form of corrosion protection for drum HRSGs in
use with combined cycles in operation today. However,
there appears to be a lack of uniformity or agreement on
the control limits for key parameters (pH, phosphate
concentration, sodium-to-phosphate ratio) in those units
operating with this treatment philosophy. There also
seems to be a mistaken belief that, because many of the
HRSGs operate at low pressure, proper HRSG water
chemistry control is unimportant.
Guidance is available on how to establish an optimum
phosphate treatment program and recommended limits
for water chemistry parameters (1010438, 2006). Two
phosphate treatments are included, PC (L) and PC (H),
where the L and H are arbitrary designations for low and
high levels of phosphate.
Congruent phosphate treatment (CPT) is not included
because of the possibility of acid phosphate corrosion
failures. Equilibrium phosphate treatment (EPT) is also
not included in the recommended guidelines because of
the possibility of hideout and hydrogen damage. Neither
CPT nor EPT should be used in a combined cycle
HRSG. It should also be noted that a phosphate treat-
ment cannot be applied to those low pressure drum
evaporators which furnish water for steam attemperation
or that feed the IP and/or the HP circuits.
8.9.2 All-Volatile Treatment (AVT)
As noted above for conventional units, AVT now exists
in two variants, AVT (O) and AVT (R), where the “O”
and “R” define whether the treatment is oxidizing (no
reducing agent) or reducing (with a reducing agent added
to the feedwater). In the vast majority of cases, cycles
with HRSGs do not have feedwater heaters with copper
or copper-based tubing. Also, single-phase FAC is directly
related to the use of a reducing agent (1008082, 2005).
For these reasons, only the use of AVT (O) is advocated.
The volatile alkali used is ammonia.
8.9.3 Caustic Treatment (CT)
Caustic treatment is most applicable in instances where
phosphate continuum has been evaluated and found to
be unsatisfactory or where severe FAC has been found in
the low pressure evaporator. CT should be considered for
HP evaporators in applications where there is a signifi-
cant risk of cycle contamination (condenser leaks, con-
densate returns) such that all-volatile and oxygenated
treatments cannot be used.
As with phosphate chemistry, CT cannot be used in
once-through units and care must be taken to avoid dry-
out in drum units. Carryover from all drums must be
monitored carefully; this is to avoid introduction of
sodium hydroxide to the turbine. Thus, it is of para-
mount importance that the core level of instruments is
applied to units using CT.
8.9.4 Oxygenated Treatment (OT)
As noted in the discussion for conventional boilers, OT
was originally developed as a feedwater treatment with
the primary focus being to reduce single-phase FAC and
to minimize the transport of iron from the feedwater. For
this reason, OT will be beneficial in the feedwater of com-
bined cycle plants and may be advantageous in LP drum
HRSG cycles to control single-phase FAC. However, it
will not address any two-phase FAC. OT can be used in
once-through and drum HRSGs where the purity require-
ments are met (cation conductivity < 0.15 mS/cm).
8-17
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Cycle Chemistry and Boiler/HRSG Tube Failures Volume 1: Fundamentals
8.9.5 Important Philosophies for HRSG Cycle
Chemistry Treatment
The following key points summarize the approaches to
optimum cycle chemistry in HRSGs (1010438, 2006):
• There is a strong emphasis on the use of AVT (O) in
the feedwater to eliminate the possibility of single
phase FAC in feedwater and the LP evaporator. OT
can also be used in feedwater if the cation conductivity
criterion of < 0.15 mS/cm is met. For HRSG drum
units, the use of OT would have to meet the recircula-
tion ratio criteria for drum units. OT does not provide
any benefit for two-phase FAC in LP evaporators.
• There is no need to use AVT (R) in the feedwater of a
combined cycle plant unless there is copper-based tub-
ing in any feedwater heaters. Copper alloys in the con-
denser do not mandate the use of AVT (R).
• Strong emphasis on the non-use of reducing agents as
this controls the levels of iron in the feedwater.
• Strong emphasis on the non-use of organic condition-
ing agents and amines. These tend to concentrate in
the LP evaporator circuits and have a major effect on
cation conductivity values around the cycle. This
results in chemistry control problems.
• Strong emphasis on controlling air inleakage to the
cycle so that the oxygen levels at the condensate pump
discharge are less than 10 ppb. Most modern triple-
pressure HRSGs are very tight and have tight condens-
ers, so they can easily meet this oxygen limit. They also
have good cation conductivity levels (can easily meet
< 0.2 mS/cm) unless they use organics or amines.
• Strong emphasis that iron levels with AVT (O) (or
OT) should be less than 2 ppb in the feedwater. Units
with air-cooled condensers will generally find this limit
very difficult to meet, unless they operate with elevated
pH (9.6 – 9.8). Cartridge filters for mechanical con-
densate polishing are often employed.
• Strong emphasis that iron level of less than 5 ppb
in each drum provide an indication of optimized
chemistry treatments (minimum two-phase FAC).
• There is a need to consider and optimize the treatment
in each evaporator/drum circuit. This is now recog-
nized as being important to control possible FAC in
the LP evaporator and the underdeposit corrosion
mechanisms in the HP evaporator. This means a strong
emphasis on adding a solid alkali (PC or CT) to the LP
circuit in units where the LP does not provide feed for
the higher pressure circuits or any attemperation.
8-18
• Strong emphasis on using cation conductivity control
around the cycle and in each pressure drum. Cation
conductivity control curves have been developed for
each chemistry treatment (1010438, 2006).
• Strong emphasis on providing shutdown protection to
the HRSG tubing and to the LP turbine (1010437,
2006).
8.10 Startup, Shutdown, and Layup Requirements
for Boilers and HRSGs
8.10.1 Introduction
Startup, shutdown, cycling, and other unit transients
place great demands throughout a unit; boiler and HRSG
tubing is no exception. These unit transients allow for
(i) mechanical attack caused by increased or cyclic
stresses/thermal cycles and (ii) chemical attack of boiler
tubes as control of cycle chemistry is markedly more
difficult.
Perhaps more insidious is that during both cycling and
peaking operation, a substantial amount of time is spent
at low load, or during startup and shutdown, when cycle
chemistry and corrosion are difficult to control. Feedwa-
ter and boiler/HRSG water chemistry during startup
depends on type of startup (cold, warm, or hot); cleanli-
ness of the unit and hideout; and effectiveness of blow-
down, oxygen removal, and unit design (condensate
polishing, bypass system, etc.).
Recently developed “philosophies” to protecting compo-
nents during layup include:
• Don’t allow the shutdown fluids to become
oxygenated.
• Keep the potential of the liquid the same during
shutdown as during operation.
• Alternatively, keep surfaces dry and clean.
For short-term layups, keeping high quality water with
the same potential as during operation and without oxy-
gen, along with a protective blanketing with nitrogen,
including a 34 kPa (5 psig) overpressure, is indicated. For
longer term (a few weeks) layups, either (i) raising the
pH of the water with ammonia and adding significant
hydrazine with a nitrogen cap or (ii) a dry layup with
nitrogen overpressure is the optimum choice. Of course,
reducing agents (hydrazine or substitutes) should not be
used during shutdown in plants that operate with oxidiz-
ing cycles. It is particularly important to note that simply
modifying the liquid with additional chemicals (alkaliz-
ers or reducers) will not be sufficient. An inert cap (nitro-
gen) is also required.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Cycle Chemistry and Boiler/HRSG Tube Failures
Layup with clean, dry, dehumidified air is increasingly
utilized as the optimum process for long periods of shut-
down. It can offer significant benefit, particularly where
pitting or generalized corrosion during layups has been a
problem. Even if reasonable draining and venting proce-
dures for unit shutdown are used to reduce the amount
of moisture that condenses in susceptible tubes, the pres-
ence of high humidity (greater than 60%) can signifi-
cantly increase the potential for corrosion of unprotected
tubes.
All layup conditions should be monitored to ensure that
layup water or air quality is being maintained. Details of
appropriate shutdown and layup procedures have been
developed for conventional boilers (TR-107754, 1998)
and for HRSGs (1010437, 2006).
8.11 Benchmarking Cycle Chemistry –
Conventional Units
8.11.1 Introduction
Insufficient quantitative data exist to rank utilities in
terms of chemically influenced availability loss, reliabil-
ity, and performance degradation. This is unfortunate as
such information could help (i) measure a utility’s
improving cycle chemistry and (ii) justify new cycle
chemistry equipment or improvements to its current
ability. In light of the demand for a means to benchmark
a utility’s chemistry organization, a methodology has
been developed that can provide an initial assessment.
The form is a self-assessment. It involves a series of “results
oriented” cycle chemistry influenced factors. Each of the
five factors is capable of being assessed quantitatively,
and as a whole, they represent the key performance and
availability indicators (results) by which the chemistry
organization should be judged. Each factor relates to the
goals of the EPRI Cycle Chemistry Program. It is sug-
gested that a utility make the initial assessment with data
from the last five years. Improvements or changes could
then be assessed on an annual basis. The methodology
will work best when applied to a single unit or plant but
can also be applied to a utility system.
8.11.2 Five Assessment Factors
The five assessment factors are (1004188, 2004):
• Factor A – Chemically Influenced Boiler Tube Fail-
ures. This factor assesses the percentage of the total
number of BTF over the last five years that have
resulted in forced outage or unit unavailability that
have been influenced by the cycle chemistry. Table 8-2
provides a listing of BTF influenced by chemistry.
• Factor B – Chemically Influenced Turbine Problems.
This factor is in two parts. The first questions whether
any LP blade/disk cracking has occurred in the last five
years. This would include either failure or identifica-
tion by NDE during overhaul that cracking has
occurred in the common corrosion fatigue or stress
corrosion cracking areas. Has pitting been observed on
LP blades? The second part involves whether copper
deposition has been experienced in the HP turbine or
whether excessive corrosive deposits in the LP turbine
have been observed which have required shot blasting
or rinsing. Further information on chemically influ-
enced turbine mechanisms is available (TR-108943,
1999).
• Factor C – Cycle Chemistry Instrumentation Con-
trol. This has two parts. The first involves a compari-
son of plan instrumentation with EPRI’s core level of
instruments which should be installed in every plant,
Table 8-10. This table indicates 10 key instruments/
parameters (or 11 if a polisher is installed) for drum
boilers, and 9 for once-through units.
Table 8-10
“Core” Monitoring Parameters
(Minimum Level of Instrument for All Plants/Units)
Parameters Measurement Locations
Cation Conductivity CP Discharge
Cation Conductivity Polisher Outlet and Economizer Inlet
Cation Conductivity1 Blowdown or Downcomer (on OT drum)
Cation Conductivity Hot Reheat Steam or Main Steam
Dissolved Oxygen CP Discharge
Economizer Inlet
pH (Drum Boilers) Blowdown or Downcomer (on OT drum)
Sodium CP Discharge
Sodium Polisher Outlet or Economizer Inlet
Sodium Hot Reheat Steam or Main Steam
Note 1: Drum boilers on AVT and OT.
All instruments should be on-line and continuously monitored.
8-19
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Cycle Chemistry and Boiler/HRSG Tube Failures Volume 1: Fundamentals

The second part involves whether these key control 8.11.3 Assessment Form
parameters are alarmed in the control room. A supple- The following form, Table 8-11, can be used to provide
mentary question might be whether the operators the assessment of cycle chemistry organization in a
know how to react to an alarm, but this is not included utility.
as the answer would be subjective and difficult to
quantify.
• Factor D – Chemical Cleaning. This is in two parts
relating to the two types of feedwater metallurgy sys-
tem possible. The need to chemically clean boilers and
the frequency are key indicators of whether the feed-
water and boiler water treatments are optimized.
• Factor E - High Purity Water Preparation and Use.
This factor deals with the production of makeup water
and its use. Because the cost of makeup production
varies with supply (the range of cost is not known) and
geography, an indicator based on the actual cost could
not be used, although the question is asked. The addi-
tion of makeup to the cycle is dependent on the type of
boiler (once-through or drum). The makeup rate is a
good indicator of whether chemical control is opti-
mized, particularly for drum boilers.

8-20
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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Table 8-11
Assessment of Cycle Chemistry Organization in a Utility
Weighting Factor Points Total
3 A. Chemically influenced BTF (What is the percentage of the total number of BTF that are cycle
chemistry influenced. See Table 8-2 for list of mechanisms)
0% 0
< 5% 1
5 – 15% 2
15 – 30% 3
> 30% 4
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____

B. Chemically influenced turbine problems

3 LP blade/disk cracking or pitting 2
No LP blade/disk cracking or pitting 0
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____

2 Copper deposition in HP reducing capacity of efficiency or excessive deposits in LP turbine 2

Neither HP nor LP deposition 0
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____

C. Cycle Chemistry Instrumentation and Control

2 (What percentage of EPRI core level instrumentation is in place and used? See Table 8-10.)
100% 0
90-99% 1
70-89% 2
< 70% 3
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____

2 Do you have these key control parameters alarmed?

Yes, all alarmed 0
Yes, some alarmed 1
No, none alarmed 2
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____

D. Chemical cleaning
1 Frequency of cleaning boilers with mixed-metallurgy feedwater heaters
< 5 years 3
5 – 10 years 2
> 10 years 1
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____

1 Frequency of cleaning boilers with all-ferrous feedwater heaters

< 5 years 3
5 – 10 years 2
> 10 years 1
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____

E. High Purity Water Preparation and Use

1 Do you know the cost of makeup water ($ / 1,000 gals) for each plant/unit?
Yes (what is it? ______ $ /1,000 gals) 0
No 1
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____

Addition of makeup to the cycle:

1 For drum units, is addition generally
< 0.3% 0
0.3 – 0.5% 1
> 0.5% 2
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____
1 For once-through units, is addition generally
< 0.2% 0
> 0.5% 1
Rating System Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____
Excellent/World Class <5
TOTAL _____
Very Good 6-10
Good 11-15
Average 16-30
Below Average > 30
8-21
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Cycle Chemistry and Boiler/HRSG Tube Failures Volume 1: Fundamentals
8.12 Benchmarking HTF/Cycle Chemistry –
HRSG Units
A process for combined HTF/Cycle Chemistry for
benchmarking is described in Chapter 11 on formalized
corporate programs. A separate benchmarking process
solely for cycle chemistry, parallel to that described for
conventional boilers, does not presently exist.
8.13 References
1000455, 2000. Behavior of Aqueous Electrolytes in Steam
Cycles: The Solubility and Volatility of Cupric Oxide, EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: 2000. 1000455.
1000456, 2000. Copper Alloy Corrosion in High Purity
Feedwater, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2000. 1000456.
1000457, 2000. Guidelines for Copper in Fossil Plants,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2000. 1000457.
1001042, 2001. The Volatility of Impurities in Water/
Steam Cycles, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2001. 1001042.
1003994, 2001. Guidelines for Chemical Cleaning of
Conventional Fossil Plant Equipment, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 2001. 1003994.
1003997, 2001. Steam Turbine Efficiency and Corrosion:
Effects of Surface Finish, Deposits, and Moisture, EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: 2001. 1003997.
1004187, 2002. Cycle Chemistry for Fossil Plants: All-
Volatile Treatment, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002. 1004187.
1004188, 2004. Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil
Plants: PC & CT, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004. 1004188.
1004499, 2003. Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG)
Chemical Cleaning Guidelines, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2003. 1004499.
1004586, 2001. Influence of Water Chemistry on Copper
Alloy Corrosion in High Purity Feedwater, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA: 2001. 1004586.
1004925, 2005. Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Fossil
Plants: Oxygenated Treatment, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2005. 1004925.
1006283, 2001. Turbine Steam Chemistry and Corrosion:
Electrochemistry in LP Turbines, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2001. 1006283.
1007291, 2003. Vapor-Liquid Partitioning of Phosphoric
Acid and Sodium Phosphates, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2003.
1007291.
8-22
1008082, 2005. Guidelines for Controlling Flow-
Accelerated Corrosion in Fossil and Combined Cycle Plants,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005. 1008082.
1010181, 2006. Condensate Polishing Guidelines,
Revision 1, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2006. 1010181.
1010437, 2006. Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Shutdown,
Layup and Startup of Combined Cycle Units with Heat
Recovery Steam Generators, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2006.
1010438, 2006. Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Com-
bined Cycle/Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSGs),
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2006. 1010438.
1013629, 2006. “BTF and HTF Survey Results Con-
ducted at the EPRI BTF/HTF International Confer-
ence,” Proceedings: International Conference on Boiler Tube
and HRSG Tube Failures and Inspections, held in San
Diego, CA, November 2-4, 2004, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2006. 1013629.
Allmon, 1992. Allmon, W.E., J.E. Neidhardt,
G.J. Verib, D.P. Workman, and R.B. Dooley, “Introduc-
tion and Use of Oxygenated Treatment at the W.H. Sam-
mis Plant,” IWC-92-17, International Water Conference
53, Pittsburgh, PA, 1992.
Brush, 1969. Brush, E.G. and W.L. Pearl, “Corrosion
and Corrosion Products Release Behavior of Carbon
Steel in Neutral Feedwater,” Proceedings of the American
Power Conference 31, Chicago, IL, 1969, pp. 699-705.
Brush, 1970. Brush, E.G. and W.L. Pearl, “Corrosion
and Corrosion Products Release Behavior of Carbon Steel
in Neutral Feedwater, Part 2,” Proceedings of the American
Power Conference 32, Chicago, IL, 1970, pp. 751-756.
Dooley, 1994. Dooley, R.B., J. Mathews, R. Pate, and J.
Taylor, “Optimum Chemistry for ‘All-Ferrous’ Feedwa-
ter Systems: Why Use An Oxygen Scavenger?,” Proc. 55th
International Water Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, Oct. 31-
Nov. 2, 1994.
Dooley, 2002. Dooley, R.B., “The Relationship Between
Cycle Chemistry and Performance of Fossil Plants,” Power
Plant Chemistry, Vol. 4, No. 6, 2002, pp. 320-327.
Freier, 1969. Freier, R.-K., “Protecting Cover Layer For-
mation in Oxygen in Neutral Salt-Free Water,” VGB –
Speisewassertagung 1969, pp. 11-17. (In German).
Freier, 1970. Freier, R.-K., “New Neutral Treatment
Experience,” VGB – Speisewassertagung 1970, pp. 8-17.
(In German).
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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Pate, 1992. Pate, S.R., C.E. Taylor, R.C. Turner, and TR-113089, 2000. Volatility of Aqueous Acetic Acid, For-
T.S. Lovvorn, “EPRI Oxygenated Feedwater Treatment mic Acid and Sodium Acetate, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2000.
Demonstration Report,” IWC-92-19, International TR-113089.
Water Conference 53, Pittsburgh, PA, 1992.
TR-113692, 1999. Revised Guidelines for Makeup Water
Resch, 1962. Resch, G. and H. Odenthal, “Corrosion of Treatment, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1999. TR-113692.
Iron in Oxygenated Condensate,” Mitteilungen der VGB
Tremaine, 1993. Tremaine, P.R., L.G.S. Gray, B.
1962, (76), pp. 4-11. (In German).
Wiwchar, P. Taylor, and J. Stodola, “Phosphate Interac-
Resch, 1969. Resch, G., “Oxygen Content Influence on tions with Metal Oxides Under High Performance Boiler
Corrosion Resistance of Steel in Aqueous Solutions,” VGB Hide-Out Conditions,” 54th International Water Confer-
– Speisewassertagung 1969, pp. 17-22. (In German). ence, IWC-93-35, Pittsburgh, PA, 1993.
TR-100196, 1991. Development of a Steam Sampling
System, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1991. TR-100196.
TR-102377, 1993. Behavior of Ammonium Salts in
Steam Cycles, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1993. TR-102377.
TR-104007, 1995. Sodium Hydroxide for Conditioning
the Boiler Water of Drum-Type Boilers, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 1995. TR-104007. See also M. Ball, “Caustic Treat-
ment for Drum Boilers,” Fourth International Conference
on Cycle Chemistry in Fossil Boilers, held in Atlanta,
Georgia, September 7-9, 1994.
TR-105801, 1999. Volatility of Aqueous Sodium Hydrox-
ide, Bisulfate and Sulfate, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1999.
TR-105801.
TR-107754, 1998. Cycling, Startup, Shutdown, and
Layup Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Guidelines for Opera-
tors and Chemists, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1998.
TR-107754.
TR-108184, 1999. Steam, Chemistry and Corrosion in
the Phase Transition Zone of Steam Turbines, Volumes 1
and 2, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1999. TR-108194.
TR-108943, 1999. Steam Turbine Damage: Theory and
Practice, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1999. TR-108943.
TR-110051, 1998. Interim Cycle Chemistry Guidelines
for Combined Cycle Heat Recovery Steam Generators
(HRSGs), EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1998. TR-110051.
TR-111340, 1998. Proceedings: Workshop on Corrosion of
Steam Turbine Blading and Disks in the Phase Transition
Zone, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1998. TR-111340.
TR-112359, 1999. Vapor-Liquid Partitioning of Sulfuric
Acid and Ammonium Sulfate, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1999.
TR-112359.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

Chapter 9
Chemical Cleaning of
Conventional and HRSG Units

9.1 Introduction to Chemical Cleaning

Timely and effective chemical cleans are a very important part of Boiler Tube and HRSG
Tube failure reduction programs for maximizing unit availability, reliability, and perfor-
mance. Conventional unit chemical cleaning is well established, while considerations for
preoperational and operational cleaning of HRSG units is becoming more widely acknowl-
edged. Extensive documents have been produced by EPRI addressing chemical cleaning of
conventional boilers (1003994, 2001; Shields, 2002) and HRSG units (1004499, 2003). It
is highly recommended that utilities considering or embarking on chemical cleaning refer to
these documents.
The following sections discuss chemical cleaning, with coverage as follows:
• Waterwall and Economizer Tubing of Conventional Units – Sections 9.2 through 9.5
• Superheater/Reheater Tubing of Conventional Units – Section 9.6
• HRSG Units – Sections 9.7 through 9.10
• FBC Units – a brief note in Section 9.11
Minimization and treatment of wastes is a vital topic of importance to the chemical cleaning
process. It is not addressed explicitly here but is extensively covered in a number of references
including EPRI guidelines (1003994, 2001; TR-101095, 1992; CS-5281, 1987; and
TR-106564, 1996).

9.2 Assessing the Cleanliness of Waterwall and Economizer Tubes in Conventional Units

9.2.1 Tube Sampling Locations

The most reliable way to evaluate the need to chemically clean waterside deposits is to take
tube samples from locations most likely to contain the heaviest deposits. Generally, the
heaviest corrosion deposits are expected in locations with the highest heat fluxes and heat
transfer. In boilers with good chemistry and no design or operational problems, these areas
are usually:
• Near the center of the division wall at the top burner elevation.
• In sidewalls near the elevation of the top row of burners.
• In the center of burner walls.
• In the first pass of once-through boilers with multi-pass circuitry.
• The first reentrant throat tube in a cyclone fired boiler and in the sidewall near the
elevation of the upper row of cyclones.
• Any location where flame impingement (visually evident from the external slag pattern)
has occurred.

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If the boiler has been operated in low load cycling mode,
the heaviest deposits may occur in lower heat flux loca-
tions as well.
Other logical sample locations might include (i) those
with a past history of BTF, (ii) those with suspect fireside
appearance, (iii) those with welded supports that might
cause hot spots, or (iv) portions of tubes used as a previ-
ous replacement; these can provide information about
deposition rate.
It is often required that more than one tube section and
one or more from each wall of the furnace be removed.
9.2.2 Tube Removal
It is important that the removal method preserve the
physical and metallurgical characteristics of the sample,
prevent debris from getting in the open tube, and pro-
vide a surface for a quality repair. Note that any debris
that gets into the tube can lead subsequently to restricted
fluid flow and overheating tube failures.
Areas adjacent to the cut location should be cleaned of
asbestos, insulation, slag, and other material before cut-
ting. A typical cutting procedure uses saws or grinders
with thin cutoff discs. The use of tools that do not require
lubricants is preferred. The first cut should be made at
the bottom of the sample location, following by covering
the hole and then making the top cut. Templates should
be used, to guide the cutting tool. The use of saws or
grinding wheels is preferred over torches. If a torch is
used the sample should be about 0.6 m (~ 2 ft) longer
than needed.
Commonly performed analyses require tube sections of
different lengths:
• Deposit weight determination – 0.15 m (6 in.).
• Static solvent testing – 0.05 to 0.1 m (2 – 4 in.)
per test.
• Dynamic solvent testing – 0.46 m (18 in.) per test.
To perform all testing that might be needed, tube sam-
ples at least 0.6 m (24 in.) are recommended.
Once removed, the tube sections should be handled care-
fully. Each end should be sealed and the tube fully identi-
fied. An attached tag should describe the date of removal,
tube number, location in the furnace waterwall including
elevation, type of steel, direction of fluid flow, hot and
cold side, and other pertinent information. A sketch or
drawing showing the sample location in the furnace is
also desirable.
9-2
9.2.3 Waterside Deposit Assessment Activities
The steps in a deposit evaluation will include (1003994,
2001):
1. Carefully remove any excess, loosely bonded deposit
from the external tube surface.
2. Unseal ends of sample and dry-cut the tube sample
with a band saw to separate hot and cold sides.
3. Photograph both watersides of the tube sample for a
record of the “as-received” condition of the waterside
deposit.
4. Examine deposit surface visually and, if warranted,
at both low and high magnification. Photograph and
record observations.
5. Remove waterside deposit from both hot and cold
sides separately. Screen loose deposit material through
a 325-mesh sieve to remove metal particles. Deter-
mine specific deposit weight in mg/cm2 (g/ft2) for
each side.
6. Analyze the composition of deposits removed from
both hot and cold sides.
7. Remove specimens from both the hot and cold side
for metallurgical examination.
8. Make photomicrographs of transverse views of hot
and cold sides showing microstructure of both the
deposit and tube metal, including the deposit-to-
tube metal interface and deposit thickness.
9. Perform an examination of the in-place deposit
metallographically and/or by scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) and observe the deposit struc-
ture, porosity, and morphology.
Three levels of waterside cleanliness appraisals and activi-
ties for each level have been established (1003994, 2001),
Table 9-1.
Table 9-1
Waterside Cleanliness Appraisals
Source: 1003994, 2001
Assessment Activity Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Deposit weight/thickness X X1
Deposit composition X
Metallographic examination X
Laboratory cleaning X
1
Evaluate deposit weight and/or thickness in hot side crown region.
Steps 1-6 in the above list pertain to Level 1; Items 7-9
address the requirements for a Level 2 waterside cleanli-
ness assessment.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units

A Level 1 appraisal will consist of evaluating the hot and
cold side deposit loadings and a compositional analysis
of the waterside deposits. Hot and cold side deposit
weights should be determined using solvent, glass bead
blasting, or mechanical methods:
• Solvent method. The solvent method uses inhibited
hydrochloric acid to remove waterside deposits after
fireside deposits have been machined from the tube.
Deposit weight per area will be the total of loosely
adherent material (removed prior to solvent removal)
plus dissolved deposit material (weight of the tube
with deposits minus the weight of tube after treatment)
divided by the surface area of the tube.
• Glass bead blasting. The tube sample is weighed, then
bead blasted to gray material and then reweighed.
• Mechanical method. Deposits are removed mechani-
cally, typically with a vibrating tool.
The method selected and analytical technique can have a
substantial impact on deposit weight results and subse-
quent actions. For example, the solvent method has gen-
erally been found to yield larger values for deposit weight
than the mechanical method (ASTM D3483, 2000).
The glass bead blasting technique and results obtained by
the mechanical method have been found to be compara-
ble (Esmacher, 1997). Personnel responsible for assessing
the need to clean must be sure that an acceptable method
is being used and that results are comparable to criteria
developed for the method selected.
Compositional analysis and evaluation of deposit mor-
phology is performed at Level 1 primarily as a means of
evaluating chemistry control and to provide a general
idea of applicable solvents once cleaning is needed.
Chemical composition of the deposit can be determined
by wet chemical or spectrographic analyses. X-ray dif-
fraction and other techniques can be used not only to
identify individual elements, but also specific compounds
and the chemical structure of the deposit, often vital
information.
Deposits removed from the hot and cold sides should be
analyzed separately. Where the analysis of deposit mor-
phology indicates two or more constituent layers, chemi-
cal analysis should be performed on each layer of the
deposit. This is especially important in mixed metallurgy
units where copper often represents a significant portion
of the deposit on a weight basis.
Level 2 appraisals include metallographic analysis along
with refined evaluation of the deposits and tube metal on
the hot side crown of the tube. The hot side crown is the
approximate 60° circumferential arc closest to the fire
when the tube is in service. This area has been shown to
have the highest deposition rates and most likely location
to manifest underdeposit corrosion, Figure 9-1.
Figure 9-1
Distribution of internal deposits around the hot side
circumference of a tube.
Source: Gwynne, 2000
Three specific objectives of the metallography of samples
from the hot side crown are:
• To check the microstructure of the tube metal for signs
of overheating.
• To check deposits for signs of corrosion. The presence
or absence of an intact magnetite layer between
the tube metal and waterside deposits may serve to
distinguish active corrosion (no magnetite) from prior
damage (intact magnetite).
• To evaluate deposit thickness, composition, and mor-
phology; specifically there is a need to determine the
distribution of compounds such as copper through the
deposit.
9.3 Determining the Need to Clean Waterwall
and Economizer Tubes in Conventional Units
In conventional units with proper control of water chem-
istry during all operating conditions, the EPRI target is
to extend normal cleaning intervals to over 10 years, with
even longer intervals for units on oxygenated treatment.
9.3.1 Factors Influencing Boiler Tube Cleanliness
and the Need to Clean
When and how to remove deposits chemically is not an
exact science and will be determined on a case-by-case
basis. Factors influencing boiler tube cleanliness and the
need to clean are illustrated schematically in Figure 9-2.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units Volume 1: Fundamentals
Figure 9-2
Factors influencing boiler waterside cleanliness.
Source: 1003994, 2001
• Cycle chemistry. Improvements in cycle chemistry can
decrease the rate of deposit growth and increase the
time between cleanings. Aspects of cycle chemistry,
discussed in Chapter 8, that ultimately influence the
need to clean include (i) proper choice of boiler and
feedwater treatments, (ii) optimization of chemistry
target values and action levels, (iii) chemistry control
during unit shutdown, layup, startup, and cycling,
(iv) cycle makeup purity, and (v) control of copper
transport.
• Tube metal temperature and heat flux. Cleaning of
deposits needs to occur before damage can accumu-
late. The effect of deposits on increasing tube tempera-
tures is discussed in Chapter 7. Heat flux, or the heat
absorption rate (energy/time-area), is the most impor-
tant heat transmission factor in determining the inter-
vals between chemical cleanings since it relates directly
to the temperature of the outer tube wall facing the
furnace or highest tube metal temperature. The rate of
waterside deposition is also believed to be directly
related to the heat flux level.
• Condition of replacement tubes prior to
installation.
• Time.
• Boiler design. Boiler design will influence the decision
about the need to clean. For example, fluid flow and
heat transfer characteristics of controlled circulation
boilers allow the use of smaller diameter tubes, on the
9-4
order of 25.4–31.8 mm (1.0 – 1.25 in.), compared
to diameters of 50.8 – 101.6 mm (2–4 in.) for natural
circulation boilers (1003994, 2001). Higher fluid
velocities through thinner tubes in controlled circula-
tion boilers result in lower temperature gradients across
the wall for a given heat absorption rate. Once a deposit
or film forms, the temperature gradient can rise dra-
matically, and in larger tubes heat absorption rates
must be limited to lower values than those in smaller
diameter tubes to keep the hot side tube metal temper-
atures low enough to minimize tube overheating.
9.3.2 Overview of Methods for Determining
the Need to Clean
Historically a number of methods have been used to
determine the appropriate time to clean the boiler. These
have included (i) tube temperature, (ii) heat flux changes,
(iii) deposit weight, (iv) fixed interval, (v) appearance of
corrosion or failures, (vi) deposit thickness, (vii) low pH
excursions, (viii) pressure drops, (ix) condenser leaks,
and (x) number of startups.
Perhaps the most accurate means of determining when
increasing deposits are likely to lead to boiler tube dam-
age are by monitoring boiler tube temperatures or heat
flux changes. There has been a great deal of effort inter-
nationally to collect data on heat flux and correlate the
information with waterside deposit loadings and operat-
ing experience. The disadvantages of these methods are
(i) substantially more data are required to establish con-
servative guidelines for use by the industry and (ii) such
a methodology would require that temperature and heat
flux data be collected for each boiler, involving consider-
able cost for the installation and maintenance of the
equipment. As a result, these methods do not currently
see widespread use and are probably not likely to see
widespread use in the future.
The first criterion used to determine the need to clean
was simply based on time since the last cleaning. This is
totally inadequate and most often is not cost-effective.
Unfortunately, it remains the most popular decision fac-
tor used today in the industry (1003994, 2001).
Deposit weight and/or deposit thickness have been
widely used and remains a primary means to determine
the need to clean as described in the following
roadmap.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units

9.3.3 Methodology for Determining the Need to Clean

Figure 9-3 provides a roadmap for determining the need
to chemically clean conventional boilers.
Step 1 – Evaluate situations requiring immediate
chemical cleaning. Such situations include:
• Following any BTFs that initiate only when significant
waterside deposits are present, including hydrogen
damage, acid phosphate corrosion, and caustic
gouging.
• Following serious water chemistry excursions that
could ultimately result in waterside initiated boiler
tube failures. This includes major condenser leaks and
ingress of regenerant chemicals to the cycle.
• Prior to, or shortly after, planned changes in cycle
chemistry treatment (feedwater and/or boiler water
treatment included).
• Prior to planned changes in boiler fuel or burner design
if the changes are likely to result in increased furnace Figure 9-3
heat fluxes. Roadmap for methodology used to determine the need to
chemically clean fossil plant boilers.
• Prior to placing a unit in or returning a unit to service
Source: 1003994, 2001
following extended, inadequate layup.
• Following an ineffective chemical cleaning.
• To reduce furnace pressure drop in once-through
boilers.
• To ensure that waterside surfaces are in satisfactory
condition for service in new boilers (preoperational
cleaning) or following substantial tube replacement
projects (more than 10% of the surface area).
Typically these are situations where immediate or near-
term cleaning is needed to avoid or minimize future
boiler tube damage and failures.
Step 2 – Perform a Level 1 waterside cleanliness
appraisal. The requirements for a Level I waterside clean-
liness appraisal are described above.
Step 3 – Evaluate the results of Level 1 waterside clean-
liness appraisal. The deposit loadings measured in Step 2
should be compared to permissible levels, see Figure 9-4.
Also indicated in that figure are the next steps in the road-
map for each of the deposit regimes.

Figure 9-4
Permissible hot side deposit weight limit as a function of
boiler pressure.
Source: 1003994, 2001

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units Volume 1: Fundamentals

Findings from the analysis of deposit composition should on AVT. In units on AVT, deposits accumulate, often
be evaluated. Unusual findings warrant immediate per- linearly with time, Figure 9-5a. In contrast, in units on
formance of a Level 2 appraisal. Such findings would OT, the rates of deposit accumulation typically decrease
include: and overall deposit weight levels out or may actually
• Copper accounting for 30 percent or more of the hot decrease over time, Figure 9-5b.
side deposit weight.
• Calcium and magnesium hardness accounting for
15 percent or more of the total deposit weight.
• Silica and aluminum accounting for 10 percent or
more of the total deposit weight.
• The deposits contain more than five percent carbon (or
the boiler experienced oil contamination since the last
Level 1 appraisal).
Each of these conditions indicates an atypical water
chemistry condition and a resulting deposit that increases
the risk of damage by overheating or underdeposit corro-
sion. Additionally, unusual deposit composition often
results in the need to use more than one solvent in the
chemical cleaning process.
Step 4 – Continue tube sampling. When Level 1
appraisal indicates no current need to clean or perform a
Level 2 appraisal, tube specimens should continue to be
collected during selected outages. The deposit weight as
a function of time should be plotted to track the changes
in deposition rates.
Step 5 – Perform Level 2 waterside cleanliness Figure 9-5
Waterwall deposit weight expressed as a function of service
appraisal. This step is taken when the deposit weight hours for several water treatment methods.
indicates that cleaning may be needed or unusual deposit
Source: I.I. Chudnovskaya, Central Boiler and Turbine
compositions are found in Step 3. Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia
Step 6 – Evaluate the results of Level 2 waterside clean- Table 9-2 indicates the maximum suggested time inter-
liness appraisal. Cleaning of the boiler will be required vals that a boiler on AVT feedwater treatment (with
if Level 2 appraisal reveals that: reducing agent) should be operated in the “Cleaning
• Indications of active corrosion under waterside depos- May Be Required” regime, regardless of the Level 2
its are observed. appraisal findings (indicating no tube damage and
• Indications of overheating are observed. acceptable deposit composition and morphology) with-
out considering other factors.
• The deposit thickness in the hot side crown region
exceeds 100 mm (~ 4 mils), or the hot side crown Table 9-2
deposit loading exceeds 1.5 times the allowable hot Maximum Suggested Time Intervals for Operating Boilers
side loading (upper boundary of the “Cleaning May on AVT That May Require Cleaning1
Source: 1003994, 2001
Be Required” region of Figure 9-4).
In the absence of these conditions, cleaning may not be Pressure, Maximum Interval2,
MPa (psi) Operating Hours / Calendar Years
required, but the additional actions indicated in Step 7
< 12.4 (< 1800) 60,000 / 10
are indicated. 12.4 – 16.5 (1800 – 2400) 45,000 / 7.5
Step 7 – Evaluate operating hours since last boiler > 16.5 (> 2400) 30,000 / 5

cleaning. This step of the roadmap includes some con- 1

See Figure 9-4 and Step 5 of methodology.
sideration of operating time, specifically for those units 2
Indicated time intervals may be increased by 50% if unit has either
all-ferrous metallurgy or a full-flow condensate polisher system.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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The following factors should be carefully considered
when either the operating hours or calendar years listed
in Table 9-2 are exceeded:
• Chemistry surveillance and control capabilities.
• Unit design, with emphasis on heat flux and pressure.
• Unit operating requirements, including type of service,
number of startups, availability, and reliability
expectations.
• Unit outage schedule, since an elective operational
cleaning naturally would be done during a planned
shutdown.
Considering time is also important since sampling may
miss the locations with maximum deposits.
Step 8 – Evaluate and modify tube sampling practices.
The tube sampling practices should be periodically evalu-
ated to ensure that every reasonable effort is made to
obtain boiler samples that reflect conditions of the heavi-
est waterside deposits. This should also be done when the
time limits described in Step 7 are exceeded or when
there are any changes in the boiler design or operation
that could potentially require immediate or near-term
chemical cleaning.
Actions will include:
• Determine the furnace location subject to the highest
heat flux, which will likely have the worst deposition
and likelihood of underdeposit corrosion.
• Identify other locations to be sampled based on boiler
failure history or unit operational factors such as flame
impingement.
• Remove tube samples as determined from the two
items above, and evaluate the waterside conditions
above and below the cut line.
• Use laboratory tests to determine cleanliness condition
and establish a baseline for future outages.
Step 9 – Perform Level 3 waterside cleanliness
appraisal and plan for chemical cleaning. A Level 3
waterside cleanliness appraisal should be conducted to
determine the appropriate solvents and to define the
important process cleaning conditions. Once the solvent
and associated cleaning process conditions are estab-
lished, the detailed cleaning procedure, schedule, and
budget should be worked out.
9.4 Solvent Selection for Waterwalls and Economizers
of Conventional Units
Selection of appropriate solvents and their use is gener-
ally based on the characteristics of the deposits to be
removed and on the materials of construction of the
equipment to be cleaned. The primary objective is to
completely remove the deposits without damaging the
boiler metal. Partially removed deposits can often be
more harmful than the original deposit. If there is more
than one solvent choice, then other factors such as cost,
safety, and the site-specific environmental regulations
governing treatment, transport, and discharge of wastes
produced during chemical cleaning will be used in the
decision process.
Copper deposition has a significant effect on chemical
cleaning of the boiler. When heavy deposition with high
copper content is present, multistage solvent exposures
are often required to clean the tube surfaces (1003994,
2001). Typically at least one stage includes a solvent
specifically designed for copper removal.
Solvents first considered are usually those with a past suc-
cessful track record at the unit. If either the nature of the
deposits or the governing environmental regulations have
changed, then changes to the solvents used may be
needed.
The most common solvents used in North America are
hydrochloric acid (HCl), ammoniated EDTA, ammoni-
ated citric acid, hydroxyacetic-formic acid, and ammo-
nium bromate. Other solvents that are proprietary or not
normally used in North America are hydrofluoric acid
(HF), other ammonium solutions for copper removal,
alkaline detergents, and ferric ion corrosion inhibitors.
The initial screening of solvents should be based on
deposit weight and composition. Table 9-3 provides a
guide for five commonly considered solvents. Flowcharts
and extensive detail on the various solvents and choice
according to the type of unit, cycle chemistry, and
materials can be found (1003994, 2001).
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Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units Volume 1: Fundamentals

Table 9-3
Solvent Selection for Waterwall and Economizer Cleaning Based on Deposit Composition
Capacity for Constituents in Question
Hydrochloric Hydroxy-acetic Ammoniated EDTA Ammoniated Citric Ammonium Hydrofluoric
Acid Formic Acid Acid Bromate Acid
Typical Use Concentration, 5-6 3-6 4-6 2-6 0.1-0.5 1-2
%
Typical Use Temperature, 66 -71 93 Iron: 82-93 Iron: 82-93 60-71 66 (150)
(150-160) (200) (180-200) or (180-200) or
°C (°F) (140-160)
129-149 (265-300) 116-125 (240-275)
Passivation: Passivation:
< 66 (< 150) < 66 (< 150)
Contact Time – Poor 4-6 hrs. 12-24 hrs. 12-48 hrs. 12-48 hrs.
Circulation
Contact Time – Good N.R. 6-12 hrs. 6-24 hrs. 6-24 hrs.
Circulation
Constituents in Deposit
Iron Oxides High High High High N/A
Copper
- Metallic Lowa Traceb Medium Medium High Traceb
- Oxide Medium a
Trace b
Medium Medium High Traceb
Nickel Oxides High High High Trace
Zinc Oxide High High High Trace
Aluminum Oxide Low Trace High
Chromium Oxide
Calcium Salts Highc Lowc Mediumc, d Mediumc
Magnesium Salts High Low Medium
Silica Lowe Lowe Lowe High
Carbonates High High
Phosphates High Mediumd
Calcium Sulfate Low Trace
Organics Tracef
a
With sufficient copper complexor present, such as thiourea.
b
Dissolved copper will redeposit as metallic copper on bare steel surfaces.
c
Except for calcium sulfate, which is difficult to dissolve.
d
Removal may require long contact time.
e
Provided ammonium bifluoride is added.
Trace materials may slough off during cleaning. Organic matter, when present, often carbonizes next to the metal surface and requires
f

removal with an alkaline permanganate solution. Massive, short-term oil intrusion into the feedwater can result in oily deposits covering a
mixture of carbonized oil and existing metal oxide deposits. Use of a strong alkaline detergent for removal of uncarbonized oil and prolonged
exposure to strong alkaline permanganate solutions for removal of carbonized oil deposits may be necessary.

Once the preliminary solvent choice is made, tube clean-
ing tests should be performed to confirm the choice. If
the deposit proves to be difficult to remove, experiments
can be conducted to fine tune solvent choice, concentra-
tion, and procedures. Such tests are described in
(1003994, 2001). Boiler manufacturers, chemical clean-
ing contractors, and consultants can be used to conduct
such tests if the utility does not have the appropriate
facilities, but it is highly recommended that they be done
rather than relying on past performance alone.
9.5 Planning and Typical Operations for Chemical
Cleaning of Waterwalls and Economizers
in Conventional Units
Planning for chemical cleaning will include organization
of the cleaning project, cleaning schedule, cleaning pro-
cedure, and preparation of the equipment for cleaning.
Adequate planning (described in detail in 1003994,
2001) should be with the following objectives in mind:
• To ensure the absolute protection of personnel; safety
must have priority throughout the job.
• To ensure that the equipment is thoroughly cleaned.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units
• To ensure that no damage is incurred by the
component being cleaned or any other apparatus
in the plant.
• To perform the cleaning in the most cost-effective
manner within the other objectives.
From a BTF reduction viewpoint, the BTF team should
ensure that the following generic steps are executed dur-
ing the chemical cleaning process (1003994, 2001):
• Isolation of system to be cleaned
• Removal of debris prior to cleaning
• Hydrostatic testing and preliminary leak detection
• Backflushing superheater and forward flushing
economizer
• Preheating of system and temperature control
• Solvent injection
• Leak detection and response
• Solvent circulation
• Monitoring of cleaning process
• Completion of cleaning
• Removing solvent
• Rinsing and flushing
• Neutralization of residual solvent
• Passivation or re-oxidation
• Inspection of cleaned system
• Layup of unit
• Safety procedures during process
Monitoring of the cleaning process, in particular, to
determine whether the level of Fe in solution continues
to increase or levels out, indicating that the clean has
finished, is vital.
Details of operational and preoperational cleaning for
various unit designs are provided in (1003994, 2001).
Once the chemical cleaning process is completed, flush-
ing techniques should be applied to remove sludge and
debris. The equipment should be inspected to confirm
the effectiveness of the cleaning, permit evacuation of
any residual solids, and determine the need for mechani-
cal repairs. The unit should be hydrostatically tested
before startup. Layup of equipment is often necessary
between hydrostatic test and startup. Proper layup proce-
dures, discussed in Chapter 8, should be implemented.
Unit startup must be conducted in accordance with
established procedures, including careful evaluation and
control of cycle chemistry.
Replacement tubing will also require cleaning. When a
large amount of tubing (e.g., 10-20% or more) is to be
replaced, it is often desirable to chemically clean the
boiler. If the boiler is not to be chemically cleaned, then
individual tube replacements should be cleaned prior to
installation. Procedures for cleaning replacement tubes
can be found in (100394, 2001).
9.6 Chemical Cleaning of Superheaters and Reheaters
in Conventional Units
9.6.1 Introduction
The chemical cleaning of superheaters and reheaters is
not nearly as common as for water-touched portions of
the boiler. There are distinct advantages to doing so, but
the process is significantly more difficult, in part because
of the variety of materials used in SH/RH tubing and
because of the difficulty in ensuring complete rinsing,
particularly of the platens.
For three reasons, the chemical cleaning of SH/RH sec-
tions has historically been primarily directed to the
removal of steamside oxide scale. First, this has been done
to minimize exfoliation that carries over into the turbine,
causing solid particle erosion (SPE) of nozzles and blades.
SPE of turbines is a significant industry problem that has
been estimated to cost the industry in excess of $150 mil-
lion per year and can be as high as $3 million for some
units (McCloskey, 1989; Shalvoy, 1989).
A second objective of SH/RH cleaning of oxide is to pre-
vent exfoliation in order to prevent tube blockage and
subsequent failure by short-term overheating. This fail-
ure mechanism is the subject of a separate write-up in
Chapter 48, Volume 3.
Finally, a proper chemical cleaning can remove excessive
steamside oxide that acts to insulate the tube from the
cooling effects of steam. This can prevent longterm over-
heating/creep failures and provide increased life for the
SH or RH circuit. Figures 9-6a and 9-6b illustrate the
process. Figure 9-6a illustrates the continuously increas-
ing tube metal temperature expected as a result of the
growth of internal oxide. With a chemical clean at
120,000 hours, Figure 9-6b, the operating temperature
is significantly decreased with a corresponding increase
in remaining tube life.
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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units Volume 1: Fundamentals
Figure 9-6
Estimated tube metal temperature at 120,000 cycles for a
superheater tube (T22) operating at 16.5 MPa (2400 psi)
when the steamside oxide thickness was 280 mm (11 mils).
[°C = (°F – 32)/1.8]
Chemical cleaning to remove copper from a primary
superheater of high pressure drum boiler units with
mixed metallurgy and susceptibility to copper fouling of
the high pressure turbine is a relatively new development
(1000457, 2000). Experience with the procedure used is
limited, but it may reduce the rate of turbine copper
fouling and the time intervals between turbine
cleanings.
Chemical cleaning of SH/RH sections can be performed
preoperationally to remove the mill scale and protective
coatings on new tube surfaces; however, the brief sum-
mary of SH/RH considerations that follows concentrates
on post-operation cleaning. Additional detail on all
aspects of chemical cleaning of SH/RH tubes in conven-
tional units can be found (1003994, 2001).
9.6.2 When to Clean Steam-Touched Tubes
Figure 9-7 shows the typical thickness of steamside oxide
scale on 2¼Cr - 1Mo as a function of tube temperatures.
As an example, a scale of approximately 200 mm
(~8 mils) would be expected in 50,000 hours of opera-
tion at 538°C (1000°F) steam temperature.
9-10
Figure 9-7
Steamside oxide growth curves for 2¼ Cr – 1 Mo steel
predicted by TUBELIFE III. Oxide growth in 14.8 MPa
(2150 psi) steam at listed temperatures (°F).
[°C = (°F – 32)/1.8; 1 mil = 0.0254 mm]
Source: TR-102433, 1993
Unlike the specific guidance that is available for water-
touched tubes, there is no clearly established guidance
regarding when to clean SH/RH tubes, although some
rules of thumb have been proposed. One of the triggers
for cleaning SH/RH tubing will be when it is necessary
to prevent turbine damage caused by solid particle ero-
sion (SPE). Another reason for limiting internal oxide
buildup is to limit tube temperatures and thus minimize
the accumulation of creep damage. In a typical SH/RH
tube, each 25.4 mm (1 mil) of oxide buildup increases the
tube metal temperature by approximately 1.7°C (3°F)
(TR-102433, 1993). For a 510 mm (0.020 inch) thick
scale, tube metal temperatures increase by about 33°C
(~ 60°F), which corresponds to a five-fold increase in the
accumulation of damage by creep. Experience indicates
that oxide weight averaging 19-28 mg/cm2 (20-30 g/ft2)
can form in T22 tubing in about five to six years and can
be as high as 66-75 mg/cm2 (70-80 g/ft2) in the same
period of time where steam temperatures are the highest
(Powell, nd.). Chemical cleanings usually reduce these
buildups of scale to less than 1 mg/cm2 (0.93 g/ft2); spe-
cific deposit weights of less than 0.1 mg/cm2 (0.09 g/ft2)
after chemical cleaning are not uncommon (1003994,
2001).
Ultrasonic testing (UT) and selective sampling to con-
firm the UT results can identify when excessive oxide
growth begins to occur. Using the remaining life meth-
ods described in Chapter 14 of this volume, along with a
knowledge of the rate of oxide growth taking place in the
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units
SH/RH, such as by periodic ultrasonic measurements, a
statement of desired tube life can be used to set allowable
limits on oxide thickness and to develop optimum chem-
ical cleaning intervals.
Characterization of the oxide scale should include den-
sity and a complete analysis of the scale. Photomicro-
graphs of transverse views of the oxide-to-metal interface
should also be made to show how well the scale is bonded
to the metal. Before and after cleaning photomicrographs
should be compared. The tube metal should be evaluated
for indications of overheating and/or creep damage (see
Chapter 44, Volume 3).
9.6.3 Locations to Be Cleaned
Locations to be cleaned in the SH/RH will depend on a
variety of factors, including type and nature of exfoliat-
ing oxides, the erosion mechanism, steam velocities,
materials, particle size and density, and temperature lev-
els across the various circuits (Harth, 1985).
9.6.4 Importance of Sampling and Process
Optimization
For SH/RH chemical cleans, it is even more important
than for waterwalls to carefully select the solvent to be
used. This consists of extracting a tube or tubes from the
locations to be cleaned, characterizing the scale, and sub-
jecting them to candidate chemical cleaning environ-
ments in the laboratory. The evaluation should include as
a minimum: the evaluation of the optimal solvents, char-
acterizing the length of exposure, and the velocity of the
solvent to be used (1003994, 2001). It should be noted
that small-scale sample testing will not completely pre-
dict the eventual cleaning process in the boiler itself;
however, such testing is recommended as an aid to help
optimize the choice of process variables.
It is particularly important that samples taken reflect the
specific materials that will be cleaned, including austen-
itic stainless steels if they are to be cleaned, and represen-
tative scales that are targeted for removal. This will allow
a judgment to be made about the probable efficacy of the
process and whether damage of tube materials may
be possible.
Sample sizes typically should not be less than 46 cm
(18 in) long; a 1.8 m (6 ft) sample is preferred (1003994,
2001).
Typical solvent choices for SH/RH tubing are listed in
Table 9-4.
Table 9-4
Chemical Cleaning Solvents for SH/RH Circuits
Source: 1003994, 2001
Solvent Typical Typical
Concentration, % Temperature
Ammoniated EDTA
- High-temperature 4.0 - 6.0a 135°C (275°F)
- Low-temperature 4.0 - 6.0a
93°C (200°F)
Hydroxyacetic-Formic 6.0 93°C (200°F)
Ammoniated Citric Acidb
- Low-temperature 3.0 - 6.0 93°C (200°F)
a
10-15% as a 40% solution of EDTA.
b
Confined mostly to preoperational cleanings.
These solvents have been used for their relatively slow
oxide dissolution rate, which is important in minimizing
undercutting and loosening with attendant sloughing off
of the oxide. They will also form non-corrosive products
of decomposition if not completely removed during the
cleaning.
In the case of SH/RH chemical cleans, agents are often
added to remove other than oxide material, such as SiO2.
It is important that the process development include tests
with and without these agents, such as ammonium bi-
fluoride, especially as they could cause damage to the
austenitic materials. It may be possible that these agents
are not required; for example, ammonium bi-fluoride is
often found to not be required.
Simulating the velocity of the solvent expected in the
boiler is an important part of solvent selection. Solvents
used for SH/RH cleaning must be circulated. Circula-
tion velocities of 0.3 – 1.5 m/sec (1-5 ft/sec) are used.
Velocities of 0.45-0.6 m/sec (1.5-2.0 ft/sec) are normal
with intermittent increases to about 0.9-1.2 m/sec (3.0-
4.0 ft/sec) for 30 minutes during solvent circulation
(1003994, 2001). The purpose of intermittent increases
in flow velocity is to re-suspend accumulated oxide and
dislodge accumulation of gas, which can interfere with
uniform flow through all tubes during the cleaning.
Chemical cleaning contractors can provide closed-loop
test systems for testing the samples in flow rates, temper-
atures, and solvent concentrations similar to those to be
used in the actual cleaning. Differences in solvent vol-
ume to metal surface area and variables encountered dur-
ing the cleaning often cannot be simulated in the test
apparatus, complicating the development of procedures
from the laboratory results.
9-11
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units Volume 1: Fundamentals
9.6.5 Planning the Cleaning Process for
Steam-Touched Tubes
Extensive planning, typically a minimum of 18 months
(with two to three years not being uncommon) for the
first SH/RH clean in a utility, is required prior to a super-
heater/reheater cleaning. The process itself requires 75-
100 hours to complete and therefore is usually scheduled
at the end of a major turbine outage (1003994, 2001).
The initial cleaning can be expected to cost about four
times more than future SH/RH/steam line cleanings.
The following steps are a guide to planning for a SH/RH
chemical cleaning operation (1003994, 2001):
1. Evaluate system design.
- Review boiler and steam cycle design.
- Prepare detailed flow diagrams for the specific
stages of the cleaning.
- Determine chemical solvent for optimum scale
removal using a dynamic test loop.
- Prepare bill of materials to be used for cleaning
project.
- Prepare critical path schedule for engineering,
material, equipment, delivery, construction, and
cleaning operation.
- Prepare cost estimates of chemical cleaning,
including waste disposal.
- Develop detailed procedure for the chemical
cleaning.
- Interface with boiler and turbine vendors regard-
ing precautions or concerns with the solvent of
choice.
2. Planning and scheduling of cleaning activities.
- Prepare specification for bid purposes, if required.
- Select chemical cleaning contractor, consultants,
and/or others associated with the cleaning.
- Schedule periodic meetings to assess the status of
projects.
- Develop safety procedures.
- Select necessary staff and assign responsibilities.
3. Chemical cleaning procedure development.
- The detailed procedure should address all
specific stages of the cleaning operation.
9-12
9.6.6 Overview of the SH/RH Cleaning Procedure
Details of the specific procedure can vary significantly,
depending on the type of solvent selected. A detailed
procedure should be prepared and include sections on
the following steps (1003994, 2001):
• Steam purge. Purge air from the superheater, reheater
steam leads (if included) and chemical cleaning piping
with steam at 1030 – 1380 kPa (150-200 psig).
• Water backfill and venting. Decay pressure. Fill and
pack system – boiler, superheater, reheater, and main
steam lines. Vent all high points in the system to
remove gases that could interfere with circulation.
• Circulation and cooldown. Circulate system using
chemical cleaning pumps and establish flows.
• Orifice installation. Where necessary, drain steam
drum, open manholes, and install orifices on
downcomers.
• Circulation and system heat-up. Refill drum and cir-
culate system using chemical cleaning pumps. Start
heating the system using contractor’s heaters to prede-
termined temperatures, depending upon the solvent
being used. Check all vents.
• Flow verification. This is a very important step and
should be done for all circuits. Check all accessible
superheater/reheater pendant lops and waterwall tubes
for proper flow by either “hand checking” the individ-
ual tube sections to see if they are warm to the touch or
by using an infrared temperature scanner, if available.
• Chemical solvent injection. Reduce flow rate and start
injecting solvent. Maintain constant pressure; bleed off
excess pressure through the venting system.
• Chemical solvent circulation. Continue circulation at
prescribed flow rates and temperature. Periodic vent-
ing of the system is usually required to maintain circu-
lation. Monitor pH, iron (Fe), copper (Cu),
temperature, and flow rate. Periodically increase flow
rates to maximum for short periods (30 minutes) to
blend chemicals. Verify that the test loop is valved in.
• Endpoint determination. Circulation is continued
until iron and acid concentrations stabilize. Obtaining
at least three consecutive iron readings (with at least
one displacement between readings) that are no longer
increasing is usually required. The test loop should be
valved out and inspected to verify that the cleaning is
complete before proceeding to the next step. If the test
specimen is not clean, it should be valved back into the
cleaning loop and the iron oxide removal stage
extended.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units
• Cooldown. At conclusion of the iron removal step
(iron oxide scale removal procedures do not require a
copper removal step), open furnace and penthouse
doors, start fans, and cool the system to 54°C (130°F)
or lower. The closer the fluid temperature is to that of
the flushing water, the lower the probability of any
thermal shock problems or of ammonia flashing off.
• Chemical solution displacement. Displace the system
to the waste collection tank(s) using the condensate
booster and chemical cleaning pumps in series. Take
suction from condensate storage tanks. Use maximum
flow rates. Vary speed of chemical cleaning pumps to
match condensate pump flow. It may take two or three
flushing displacement cycles to remove all traces of sol-
vent. Monitor specific conductivity. When conductiv-
ity of the effluent water is within 50 mS/cm of the
influent water, displacement flushing is complete.
• Removal of solvent from inactive lines. After comple-
tion of flush, increase flow to maximum and re-estab-
lish circulation. Maintain continuous circulation.
Flush out all vents, drains, deadlegs, and instrument
lines. Flush all sample lines.
• Passivation. Add passivation chemicals. Heat to
required temperature, usually 93-204°C (200-400°F),
and then circulate for required time (normally four to
six hours with hydrazine and ammonia).
• Displacement flush. Flush system to waste using water
from condensate storage tanks at maximum flow rate.
• Inspection. Open all areas. Cut tube samples from the
waterwall, superheater, and reheater sections for post-
cleaning evaluation. For SH/RH tubing, oxide thick-
ness should be measured by ultrasonic testing after the
clean. At least one sample of each material type in the
circuits cleaned should be examined. A suitable target
might be less than 5 mm of remaining scale.
After tube samples have been taken and repairs made to
the sampled areas, the system needs to be hydrostatically
tested. Following the hydrostatic test, the system is pre-
pared for either steam or air blows to remove particles of
loosened or dislodged scale that remain behind. The final
system purge is perhaps the most important phase of the
cleaning operation. Tubes that are blocked and not
exposed to solvent flow will still contain exfoliated iron
oxide particles. Oxide scale remaining on the tube sur-
face following cleaning or deposits loosened during the
cleaning and lying in the bottoms of pendant loops may
or may not be removed by steam or air blows. If this
material is not removed, it will be entrained in the steam
and will cause eventual SPE damage to turbine parts.
Each loop should be checked and this material
removed.
9.7 Chemical Cleaning of HRSG Units - Introduction
A survey conducted in 2001 of 19 organizations indi-
cated that 74% had preoperationally cleaned their HRSG
while only 21% had operationally cleaned their HRSG
(Survey, 2002). As is evident from these statistics, the
experience base for chemical cleaning of HRSG units is
more limited than for conventional units and there is still
substantial variation in the recommended procedures.
The first step toward consolidation of information has
been taken with the release of EPRI interim guidelines,
Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) Chemical Clean-
ing Guidelines (1004499, 2003), which can guide opera-
tors through the appropriate actions to take in establishing
and executing a cleaning program. Parts of the extensive
knowledge base for chemical cleaning of conventional
units will be applicable to HRSG units; however, differ-
ences in the design of conventional and HRSG units will
limit the applicability of the currently known science of
deposition to HRSG units.
There is a unique opportunity as HRSG units come on-
line to perform preoperational cleaning as a means of
preventing some of the common damage mechanisms
from initiating. As noted above, a fairly large percentage
of HRSG units are currently preoperationally cleaned.
As in conventional units, operational cleaning of HRSG
circuits (particularly evaporators and possibly economiz-
ers) will be performed because:
• Deposits are a prerequisite for underdeposit corrosion
caused by hydrogen damage, acid phosphate corro-
sion, or caustic gouging.
• Deposits increase tube metal temperatures and can
lead to either longterm or short term overheating
(although the risk of overheating damage and tube fail-
ures in gas-fired combined cycle units without auxil-
iary/duct burner appears, at this time, to be minimal).
• Increases in tube metal temperature caused by deposits
can also accelerate the rate of external corrosion (gen-
eral or pitting).
• Internal deposits can induce efficiency losses and
changes in evaporator circulation; however, at this
time, these losses are considered to be secondary
effects.
9-13
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units Volume 1: Fundamentals

Properly conducted chemical cleaning can be very effec-
tive in preventing the onset of damage by these mecha-
nisms or preventing further damage where units have
allowed the deposition to proceed to the point of tube
failures.
The costs of chemical cleaning are substantial, and for
this reason it is key that future research focus on under-
standing the deposit conditions likely to lead to HTFs.
9.8 Preoperational Cleaning of HRSG Units
9.8.1 Introduction
There has been little information available about when
HRSG units require cleaning and the extent of cleaning
needed. All HRSG tubes should be preoperationally
cleaned. Unfortunately, in the past, a wide range of pre-
operational cleaning practices have been employed from
virtually none to some very sophisticated procedures;
varying degrees of success have been obtained within the
full spectrum of designs and suppliers.
Table 9-5 lists some possible consequences of deficient
cleanliness on new combined cycle units.
9.8.2 Steps to Minimize the Need for Preoperational
Chemical Cleaning
Under carefully controlled conditions, conventional fos-
sil fuel units with once-through boilers have been suc-
cessfully specified, fabricated, erected, and commissioned
without preoperational cleaning (Bursik, 2003). It has
been suggested by experienced organizations in the
industry that such an approach is also feasible for HRSG
units (Gwynne, 2000). However, to have a chance of
avoiding the need for specific preoperational cleaning,
there must be a concerted effort to emphasize cleanliness
during all stages of the project prior to commissioning.
An overview of some of the actions to be taken during
(i) specification, (ii) engineering/design and procure-
ment, (iii) transportation and storage, and (iv) construc-
tion to improve initial and longterm cleanliness of the
HRSG include:
Specification
• The specification should contain specific language of
the intent and actions to be taken to ensure high levels
of cleanliness during all phases of the project.
• An action plan should be included to identify all
methods and procedures to be followed.

Table 9-5
Possible Consequences of Deficient Cleanliness on New Combined Cycle Units
Source: 1004499, 2003

Cleanliness Issues and Impacts Nature of Impacts

Issue
Corrosion before commissioning.
Plugged drains and tubes.
Plugging of strainers.
Solids impingement.
Iron transport.
Silica transport.
Steam blows.
Commissioning.
Performance testing.
Equipment warranties.
HRSG deposition and corrosion.
Impacts Timing Comments
Metals transport and further corrosion Short term.
during commissioning.
Forced shutdown to clear drains; tube Short term. Also possible after major
damage. maintenance outages.
Forced shutdown to remove and clean Short term. Feed pump strainers of
strainers. greatest concern.
Damage to valves and rotating Short term or long range. Also possible after major
components. maintenance outages.
Longer startups; deposition in evaporators. Short term or long range. Also possible after major
maintenance outages.
Longer startups; silica deposition in Short term or long range. Also possible after major
evaporators and steam turbines. maintenance outages.
Duration and cost frequently relate to cycle Short term. Alternative steam path
cleanliness. cleaning options exist.
Duration and cost frequently relate to cycle Short term.
cleanliness.
Duration and cost frequently relate to cycle Short term and long range.
cleanliness; results and their interpretation
may be influenced by cleanliness of system.
For some components, compliance may Short term and long range.
depend on cleaning activity prior to
operation.
Longterm reliability (failures). Long range. May require operational
cleaning.

9-14
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units
• Responsibilities for quality assurance need to be clearly
defined.
• Requirements for cleanliness, particularly for accep-
tance with less than complete preoperational cleaning,
need to be defined.
Engineering/Design and Procurement
• All-ferrous construction is preferred; copper alloys
should not be used except perhaps in water cooled
condensers.
• Use of milling as a carbon steel fabrication method
should be prohibited or discouraged as this will result
in mill scale formation.
• Hot working of carbon steel during fabrication should
be minimized to the extent possible as hot working
produces a non-protective iron oxide layer on
surfaces.
• Use of lubricants during fabrication should be mini-
mized; where necessary, use of water-soluble lubricants
is preferred.
• Use of greases as a preservative should be avoided in
favor of either vapor phase inhibitors or desiccants.
• Tube ends should be securely capped prior to ship-
ment; other openings, such as those in drums and
headers, should also be sealed.
• An inspection of all fabricated, preserved, and sealed
assemblies should be made prior to packing and
shipment.
• If procurement does not result in shipping assemblies
that are essentially free of mill scale and non-protective
iron oxides associated with hot working, it is likely that
preoperational cleaning including an iron oxide
removal stage will be required, regardless of quality
measures taken subsequent to receipt of the assemblies
at the construction site.
Transportation and Storage
• Appropriate handling and protection during transpor-
tation to the site and storage at the site will be required
to maintain cleanliness imposed during fabrication.
Construction
• Verify that assembly unpacking procedures are under-
stood and carefully followed throughout the process.
• Ensure that welding and other hot work procedures
specified for construction are adequate and properly
followed; this will minimize formation of non-protec-
tive iron oxides.
• Field welding and related activities should strive to
avoid creation of flow disruption sites, which are likely
to be subject to deposition activity during service; these
locations can serve as initiation sites for underdeposit
corrosion.
• Use of organics such as lubricants and cutting oils dur-
ing construction should be reviewed to ensure that
contact with waterside and steamside surfaces is mini-
mized; use of water soluble oils should be encouraged.
• Generally accepted “clean work” policies and proce-
dures should be stressed and emphasized by including
cleanliness inspections as part of the work acceptance
process.
• A review of the permanent thermocouples installed on
the HRSG should be made to determine their suitabil-
ity to support temperature surveillance needs during
chemical cleanings; if desired for preoperational clean-
ing, it should be possible to arrange for installation of
some temporary thermocouples near the end of the
construction period.
• Water to be used for hydrostatic testing should be of
high purity and treated to minimize corrosion of metal
surfaces; circuits should be drained completely upon
completion of the test unless the unit can be placed in
a proper wet layup condition.
• Prior to acceptance of the HRSG, a final inspection of
the drums and headers should be made to ensure that
the preoperational cleaning activities planned will be
sufficient and will proceed in a timely manner.
Contaminants to be prevented from entering or remain-
ing in the HRSG include (1004499, 2003):
• Construction materials, including blasting media,
other abrasive media residues, weld slag, and welding
consumables.
• General debris such as construction materials not listed
above (such as flashlights, batteries, hard hats, gloves,
cups, paper, plastic, tape, etc.), dust, and dirt.
• Preservatives and lubricants, including those applied
for corrosion protection and to facilitate construction
efforts.
• Non-protective metal oxides, including mill scale,
oxides formed during field welding, and oxides formed
during corrosion of unprotected metal surfaces.
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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units Volume 1: Fundamentals
9.8.3 Steps in Preoperational Cleaning
Steps in a preoperational cleaning will include (i) flush-
ing of all surfaces except those within the steam turbine,
(ii) additional chemical cleaning as required to remove
iron oxides, any organics, oils, and greases, and (iii)
cleaning of steam piping, typically by steam blowing.
Additional information about these procedures is con-
tained in (1004499, 2003).
9.9 Operational Cleaning of HRSG Units
9.9.1 Methodology for HRSG Tube Cleanliness
Surveillance and Determining the Need
to Operationally Clean
Methods of determining when to clean an HRSG are not
nearly as well established as for conventional units. An
interim methodology has been established and is shown
in the roadmap of Figure 9-8. It consists of the following
eight steps.
Figure 9-8
Roadmap for methodology used to assess the need to
operationally chemically clean Heat Recovery Steam
Generators.
Source: 1004499, 2003
9-16
Step 1 – Evaluate situations requiring immediate
operational chemical cleaning. There are circumstances
for which immediate or near-term cleaning is needed to
avoid or minimize HTF problems. These include:
• Following any HRSG evaporator tube failures that
initiate only when significant waterside deposits are
present; this includes hydrogen damage, acid phos-
phate corrosion, and caustic gouging.
• Following serious water chemistry excursions that
could ultimately result in waterside initiated HTF; this
includes major condenser leaks and ingress of regener-
ant chemical to the cycle.
• Prior to or shortly after planned changes in cycle chem-
istry treatment (feedwater and/or evaporator water
treatment included). This applies particularly to
changes required to correct deficient approaches used
earlier, which often leads to periods of increased corro-
sion product transport and accumulation of deposits
on heat transfer surfaces.
• Prior to returning a combined cycle unit to service fol-
lowing extended, inadequate layup. The most promi-
nent damage during improper layup is pitting on the
waterside of tubes, which can provide sites susceptible
to future underdeposit corrosion. Layup procedures
are discussed in Chapter 8.
• Following an ineffective chemical clean.
• To ensure waterside surfaces are in satisfactory condi-
tion for service in new units (preoperational cleaning)
or following substantial tube replacement projects
(typically more than 10% of the surface area).
Step 2 – Perform periodic waterside cleanliness inspec-
tions. In view of the uncertainties associated with the
operation and cleanliness of HRSGs, a formal inspection
program is highly recommended. Inspections can occur
during scheduled outages unless HTFs have occurred, in
which case inspection should occur before returning the
unit to service.
In some cases, internal deposit levels can be assessed by
visual inspection or fiber-optic inspection of waterside/
steamside surfaces. The following features will be of
concern:
• Apparent uneven distribution of internal solids over
surfaces, especially in water-touched tubes.
• Signs of solids spalling or exfoliation, particularly in
steam-touched tubes.
• Variations in color and/or texture of internal solids
relative to surfaces that appear to support nominal
accumulations and be properly passivated.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units

Where the inventory of solids accumulations increases
uniformly over time, the change in deposit thickness
may not be readily identified with visual or fiber-optic
examination.
Although the use of NDE methods is not required at this
step, they could be applied. Unfortunately, although
ultrasonic testing (UT) has been used for deposit mea-
surements in conventional units, it is infrequently applied
in HRSG units since it requires local removal of fins or
access to the non-finned sections of tubing near the out-
let headers.
Step 3 – Evaluate unit operations since last chemical
cleaning. The primary purpose of this step is to apply
limits to the time that HRSG units should be operated
before tube samples are collected for laboratory analysis.
Although final decisions will be made locally, some gen-
eral guidance has been prepared (1004499, 2003). Table
9-6 provides some time-based sampling criteria. The
maximum suggested operating time between cleanings is
provided in Table 9-7. The values in Tables 9-6 and 9-7
assume that the feedwater treatment has been properly
selected and optimized for the unit.
Table 9-6
Time Criteria for HRSG Tube Sampling
Source: 1004499, 2003
Step 4 – Continue inspection and tube sampling prac-
tices. Inspection and tube sampling discussed in Steps 2
and 3 are an on-going process.
Step 5 – Collect tube specimens for laboratory evalua-
tion. When sampling is required, as a minimum at least
one sample (two or more are preferred) should be taken
from the high temperature evaporator until deposit rates
are fully established. In addition at least one sample
should be taken from the high pressure economizer cir-
cuits, particularly in peaking units known or suspected
to be subject to steaming during startups. Locations with
the highest expected deposition rates should be sampled
preferentially, see Chapter 7. Sampling procedures and
methods for determining deposit weights are the same as
for conventional units (discussed in Sections 9.2.2 and
9.2.3 above).
Deposit loading rates on the hot side of the tube samples
should be compared to the appropriate curves of
Figure 9-9.

Maximum Operating Time Before Tube Sampling,

Operating Hours/Calendar Years
HRSG Cleaning Status Feedwater Chemistry
AVT (R) AVT (O) OT
Never Cleaned 12,000/2 12,000/2 12,000/2
Only Preoperationally Cleaned 18,000/3 24,000/4 30,000/5
Operationally Cleaned 24,000/4 30,000/5 60,000/10
Table 9-7
Maximum Suggested Operating Time Intervals Between Chemical Cleanings for HRSGs as a Function of Feedwater
Treatment and Maximum Evaporator Pressure
Source: 1004499, 2003

Maximum Operating Time Before Chemical Cleaning,

Operating Hours/Calendar Years
Maximum Evaporator Circuit Feedwater Chemistry
Pressure, MPa (psi)
AVT (R) AVT (O) OT
< 12.4 (< 1800) 120,000/20 150,000/25 180,000/30
12.4–16.5 (1800–2400) 90,000/15 120,000/20 150,000/25
> 16.5 (> 2400) 60,000/10 90,000/15 120,000/20

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units Volume 1: Fundamentals
Figure 9-9
HRSG cleanliness: deposit weight limit as a function of
evaporator pressure.
Source: 1004499, 2003
The region of the curves in which cleaning is advised rep-
resents levels of deposition at which underdeposit corro-
sion mechanisms are likely to become active. In the
absence of any factors (tube failures, chronic feedwater
contamination, etc.) which would require short term
cleaning, it should generally be satisfactory to clean the
HRSG during the next scheduled outage.
Step 6 – Evaluate and modify tube sampling practices.
Periodic re-evaluation of the tube sampling practices
should occur to ensure that the highest deposition loca-
tions are being sampled (this is particularly true if past
samples have not shown deposition).
9-18
Step 7 – Determine if other HRSG circuits need to be
chemically cleaned. If comparison of deposition mea-
surements indicated the need to chemically clean, the
balance of the HRSG, along with the high pressure evap-
orator, should be considered for cleaning as well. From a
technical standpoint, cleaning of other circuits might be
approached on the following basis (1004499, 2003):
• High pressure evaporator. Need for cleaning should
consider the condition of tube specimens from the
high temperature region, especially if the design is
prone to steaming during normal operation or
startups.
• Other evaporator and economizer circuits. For evap-
orator circuits operating at sufficient saturation temper-
ature and pressure, Figure 9-9 can be used for guidance.
For lower pressure evaporator or economizers, cleaning
should be considered once waterside surface deposit
loadings reach or exceed 108 mg/cm2 (100 g/ft2).
• Steam-touched circuits. Operational cleaning of these
circuits might be considered to extend the useful ser-
vice life (by increasing the time to creep failure) or to
mitigate solid particle erosion damage.
• Restoration of HRSG efficiency. More extensive
cleaning may offer value through increased efficiency;
however, additional evaluation of operating experience
is needed to substantiate this potential benefit.
Step 8 – Perform laboratory cleaning evaluations to
verify cleaning solvents and process conditions. Once
solvent(s) and the associated cleaning process conditions
have been established in laboratory testing by analytical
personnel experienced in simulating chemical cleaning,
it becomes possible to work out the detailed cleaning
procedure.
9.10 Solvent Selection in HRSG Units
The solvent selection process for HRSG units is summa-
rized in Table 9-8. Details of solvent choice for HRSG
units are provided in (1004499, 2003).
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units

Table 9-8
Solvent Selection for HRSG Cleaning Based on Deposit Composition
Capacity for Constituents in Question
Hydro-chloric Hydro-fluoric Hydroxy-acetic Ammoniated EDTA Citrate Ammoniated Citrate Sodium
Acid Acid Formic Acid
Typical Use 5–6 1-2 3–6 4–6 2–6 2-6
Concentration, %
Typical Use 66-71 66 93 Iron: 82-93 Iron: 82-93 Iron: 82-93
Temperature, °C (°F) (150-160) (150) (200) (180-200) or (180-200) or (180-200)
129-149 (265-300) 116-125 (240-275) Passivation:
Passivation: Passivation: < 66 (< 150)
< 66 (< 150) < 66 (< 150)
Contact Time – Poor 4-6 hrs. 12-24 hrs. 12-48 hrs. 12-48 hrs. 12-48 hrs.
Circulation
Contact Time – Good N.R. 6-12 hrs. 6-24 hrs. 6-24 hrs. 6-24 hrs.
Circulation
Constituents in Deposit
Iron Oxides High High High High High High
Copper
- Metallic Lowa Traceb Traceb Medium Medium Traceb
- Oxide Medium a
Trace b
Trace b
Medium Medium Traceb
Nickel Oxides High High High High
Zinc Oxide High High High High
Aluminum Oxide Low High Trace
Chromium Oxide
Calcium Salts Highc Mediumc Lowc Mediumc, d
Magnesium Salts High Low Medium
Silica Lowe High Lowe Lowe
Carbonates High High
Phosphates High Mediumd
Calcium Sulfate Low Trace
Organics Tracef
a
With sufficient copper complexor present, such as thiourea.
b
Dissolved copper will redeposit as metallic copper on bare steel surfaces.
c
Except for calcium sulfate, which is difficult to dissolve.
d
Removal may require long contact time.
e
Provided ammonium bifluoride is added.
Trace materials may slough off during cleaning. Organic matter, when present, often carbonizes next to the metal surface and requires
f

removal with an alkaline permanganate solution. Massive, short-term oil intrusion into the feedwater can result in oily deposits covering a
mixture of carbonized oil and existing metal oxide deposits. Use of a strong alkaline detergent for removal of uncarbonized oil and prolonged
exposure to strong alkaline permanganate solutions for removal of carbonized oil deposits may be necessary.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units Volume 1: Fundamentals
9.11 Planning and Typical Operations for Chemical
Cleaning of HRSGs
Planning for chemical cleaning will include organization
of the cleaning project, cleaning schedule, cleaning pro-
cedure, and preparation of the equipment for cleaning.
Adequate planning (described in detail in 1004499,
2003) should be with the following objectives in mind:
• To ensure the absolute protection of personnel; safety
must have priority throughout the job.
• To ensure that the equipment is thoroughly cleaned.
• To ensure that no damage be incurred by the compo-
nent being cleaned or any other apparatus in the
plant.
• To perform the cleaning in the most cost-effective
manner within the other objectives.
Common cleaning process operations include (1004499,
2003):
• Safety procedures during process
• Isolation of system to be cleaned
• Removal of debris prior to cleaning
• Hydrostatic testing and preliminary leak detection
• Superheater and economizer flushing
• Preheating and temperature control
• Solvent injection
• Leak detection and response
• Solvent movement
• Monitoring of cleaning process
• Removing solvent
• Rinsing and flushing
• Neutralization of residual solvent
• Passivation
• Inspection of cleaned system
• Layup of unit
Details of (i) operational and preoperational cleaning,
(ii) cleaning of replacement tubing, (iii) post-cleaning
inspection, startup and operation, and (iv) minimiza-
tion, treatment and disposal of chemical cleaning wastes
for HRSG units are provided in (1004499, 2003).
9-20
9.12 Chemical Cleaning in FBC Units
Chemical cleaning guidance for FBC units is not as well
established as for conventional units, and there is a degree
of concern that somewhat stricter requirements may be
needed because of the higher heat transfer rates and hori-
zontal tubing (TR-102976, 1993). As a result, it has
been recommended that the guidance summarized for
conventional units be used for decisions about chemical
cleaning of FBC units until such time as a data base of
experience with FBC units can be compiled and
evaluated.
9.13 References
1000457, 2000. Guidelines for Copper in Fossil Plants,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2000. 1000457.
1003994, 2001. Guidelines for Chemical Cleaning of
Conventional Fossil Plant Equipment, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 2001. 1003994.
1004499, 2003. Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG)
Chemical Cleaning Guidelines, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2003. 1004499.
ASTM D3483, 2000. “Standard Test Method for Accu-
mulated Deposition in a Steam Generator Tube,” Annual
Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 11.02, ASTM,
Philadelphia, PA, 2000.
Bursik, 2003. Personal communication from A. Bursik,
EPRI Consultant to Project Team of (1004499, 2003),
February 2003.
CS-5281, 1987. Manual for Management of Low Volume
Wastes From Fossil Fired Power Plants, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 1987. CS-5281.
Esmacher, 1997. Esmacher, M.J., J.M. Jevec,
T.M. Laronge, K.A. Selby, and D.A. Shifler, “Evaluation
of Boiler Tube Deposit Weight Density Methodology,”
CORROSION 97, Paper No. 454, NACE, 1997.
Gwynne, 2000. Gwynne, G. and S. Shipperley, “Should
I Chemically Clean My Boiler? – An Australian Case
Study,” Power Plant Chemistry, Volume 2, No. 7, August
2000.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Chemical Cleaning of Conventional and HRSG Units

Harth, 1985. Harth, G.H. and M.R. Richner, “Assess

the Remaining Life of High Temperature Boiler Parts,”
Power, Vol. 129, August 1985, p. 70.
McCloskey, 1989. McCloskey, T.H. and C. Bellanca,
“Minimizing the Effects of Solid Particle Erosion in Util-
ity Steam Turbines,” in S.R. Murphy, ed., Solid Particle
Erosion of Steam Turbine Components: 1989 Workshop,
held in New Orleans, LA, March 7-9, 1989, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA: 1989. GS-6535, pp. 1-2 through 1-12.
Powell, nd. Sheppard T. Powell Associates, LLC – unpub-
lished data.
Shalvoy, 1989. Shalvoy, R.S., W.J. Sumner,
T. McCloskey, and C. Bellanca, “Measurements of Solid
Particles in an Operating Steam Turbine,” in S.R. Mur-
phy, ed., Solid Particle Erosion of Steam Turbine Compo-
nents: 1989 Workshop, held in New Orleans, LA, March
7-9, 1989, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1989. GS-6535,
pp. 2-1 through 2-20.
Shields, 2002. Shields, K.J. and R.B. Dooley, “Chemical
Cleaning’s Role in Tube Failure Prevention and Correc-
tion,” in Proceedings: International Conference on Boiler
Tube Failures and HRSG Tube Failures and Inspections,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002. 1007347, pp. 10-30 through
10-63.
Survey, 2002. “Survey Results,” Proceedings: Interna-
tional Conference on Boiler Tube Failures and HRSG Tube
Failures, and Inspections, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002.
1007347.
TR-101095, 1992. Boiler Chemical Cleaning Waste
Management Manual, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1992.
TR-101095.
TR-102433, 1993. Boiler Tube Failure Metallurgical
Guide, Volume 1: Technical Report, Volume 2: Appendices,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1993. TR-102433.
TR-102976, 1993. Guidelines on Cycle Chemistry for
Fluidized-Bed Combustion Plants, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
1993. TR-102976.
TR-106564, 1996. Waste Accounting, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 1996. TR-106564.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

Chapter 10
Fireside/Gas-Side Challenges
and Control in Conventional
and HRSG Units

This chapter begins with an overview of the combustion process and the resulting fireside
environment in conventional units (Section 10.1). Of particular interest for the analysis of
fireside tube failures in conventional units are the chemical and the mechanical aspects of ash
formation by the combustion process. Ash deposition is discussed in Sections 10.2 and
10.3. Control options for ash deposition are discussed generically in Section 10.4 with spe-
cific information about cleaning options (Section 10.5), sootblowing (Section 10.6), and
intelligent sootblowing (Section 10.7).
The gas-side environment in HRSG units is relatively benign but can have some effects on
the likelihood of HTF. The final sections discuss the effects of fuel characteristics (Section
10.8), firing systems (Section 10.9), flow levels and distributions (Section 10.10), and gas-
side condensate management (Section 10.11).
10.1 Overview of the Fireside Environment in Conventional Units
A number of important BTFs can result because of fireside conditions. Table 10-1 lists the
fireside boiler tube failure mechanisms that occur in both water-touched and steam-touched
tubes.

Table 10-1
BTF Mechanisms Strongly Influenced by Fireside Conditions
Mechanism Nature of Fireside Conditions Chapter
Normal Condition Formation of a protective oxide layer on tube outside surface.
Fireside Corrosion Increased corrosion in substoichiometric environment. Formation Chapter 25
(Waterwall Tubes) of non-protective scales containing sulfur and oxygen.
Fireside Corrosion Disruption of protective external oxide by attack of low-melting Chapter 45
(SH/RH tubes; Coal-Fired point ash constituents; the result is accelerated oxidation
Units) because of: (i) removal of the protective oxide by mechanical
loss, (ii) oxidation-sulfidation attack by sulfur in the slag, and
(iii) via fluxing of the oxide.
Fireside Corrosion Fluxing of protective oxide by molten vanadates (high Chapter 46
(SH/RH Tubes; Oil-Fired vanadium oils) or sulfatic compounds (low vanadium oils)
Units) leading to accelerated corrosion.
Longterm Overheating Tube temperatures increase with time due to increased oxide Chapter 44
(Creep) in SH/RH Tubes thickness, operational changes, and poor initial choice of
material. The fireside environment then provides the potential
for increase in corrosion rates.
Flyash Erosion Accelerated tube wastage caused by direct material removal Chapter 21
and increased oxidation of exposed metal surface; strongly
dependent on local velocity and ash content (particularly
quartz). Deposits can alter the flow distribution of gases,
increasing local velocities and thus erosion rates.
Sootblower Erosion Excessively slagging or fouling coals will necessitate excessive Chapter 33
sootblower operation and potential for blow problems, leading Chapter 50
directly to tube failures by an underlying erosion mechanism.

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Table 10-1 (continued)

BTF Mechanisms Strongly Influenced by Fireside Conditions
Mechanism Nature of Fireside Conditions Chapter
Water Blower Thermal Excessively slagging or fouling coals will necessitate excessive Chapter 29
Fatigue water blower operation and potential for thermal fatigue.

Tube Damage from Presence of deposits leads to the need for cleaning and Chapter 51
Explosive Cleaning potential for damage.
Coal Particle Erosion Erosion by coal particles impinging at an angle. Chapter 38
Falling Slag Damage Damage from fused coal ash deposits or resolidified Chapter 40
molten material (slag) that detaches from furnace walls and
superheater pendants.
Waterwall Thermal Fatigue Thermal fatigue by slagging/deslagging thermal cycles Chapter 26
(Circumferential Cracking) underlies the problem.

Coal content and moisture are related to age of the coal
deposit; contained mineral matter depends on plant
types from which the coal was formed. Some of the more
dense mineral constituents separate out in the pulveriz-
ers. Once coal particles are introduced into the flame, the
moisture and the volatile species are driven off, the fixed
carbon in the individual particles begins to burn, and
contained mineral matter may be melted or vaporized
and is largely oxidized (CS-5071, 1987; CS-4283,
1986).
Gaseous species (CO2, CO, H2O, N2, etc.) are released
by the combustion of coal and also contain a number of
potential corrodents. The most important are sulfur
(present as sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, or as hydrogen
sulfide), vapors of alkali-metal salts (oxide, hydroxides, or
sulfates), and chlorine compounds (mostly HCl). These
vapor species will deposit and react on tube surfaces when
the metal temperature is below the species condensation
temperature. The result will be deposition of flyash and
the entrainment of alkali and sulfur species, which can,
for certain corrosive coals and boiler operating condi-
tions, lead to fireside corrosion in waterwalls as described
in Chapter 25, Volume 2 and in SH/RH tubing,
Chapter 45, Volume 3.
Various coal quality models have been developed to help
a utility to evaluate how coal and coal changes will affect
unit operation, such as slagging, fouling, and erosion
propensities as well as the economic impact of fuel choice.
See, for example, the Vista model (Vista, 2006), based
on EPRI’s Coal Quality Impact Model (CQIM)
(GS-6393, 1990; Pavlish, 1992).
deposition, slagging (which occurs in radiant sections),
and fouling (which occurs in the convective passes) occur
when intermediate ash species accumulate on heat trans-
fer surfaces. The amount and rate of fouling and slagging
deposit accumulation and the tenacity of the deposits to
remain stuck to the heat transfer surfaces are dependent
on the chemistry and temperature of the entrained ash
material and the properties of the deposition surface. The
strength of the resulting deposit is a function of physical
and chemical characteristics of the steel, metal tempera-
ture, melting behavior of ash particles, and thermal/
chemical compatibility of the deposit and metal surface
(Benson, 1993).
Although general formulae are available for ash analysis,
the specific prediction of the exact final products of com-
bustion, particularly at the individual ash particle level,
are not yet possible. This is not surprising given the range
of coal compositions, temperatures, and the variety of
chemical reactions that occur during the combustion
process, resulting in a plethora of gases, liquids, and sol-
ids that react in various ways with boiler tube materials.
Factors contributing to slagging include (i) gas flow pat-
terns leading to impacting and sticking particles,
(ii) locally substoichiometric conditions which increase
the amount of low melting-point phases, (iii) formation
of a molten surface deposit that functions as an efficient
collector of impacting particles, and (iv) increasing gas
temperatures caused by less efficient heat transfer (Ben-
son, 1993). The effect of slagging is to change the heat
transfer properties of the surface both by radiation and
by conductivity.

10.2 Ash Deposition – Its Effects
During combustion, the inorganic material in coal reacts,
melts, vaporizes, and eventually separates from burning
coal particles to be entrained fly ash, which can deposit
on heat-transfer surfaces (1004891, 2003). Fireside
For over a century, boiler operators in coal-fired units
have had to contend with slagging and fouling ash depos-
its in utility boilers. In the past two decades, new devel-
opments in analytical, modeling, and combustion testing
methods have made it possible to identify the root causes
of ash deposition (1004891, 2003).

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Fireside/Gas-Side Challenges and Control in Conventional and HRSG Units

The buildup of ash on boiler surfaces has a number of root cause, prescribing mitigation measures to alleviate
negative effects on the boiler. These include (1000410, or solve any problem, and implementing a longterm
2000; 1004891, 2003): monitoring plan to ensure that the problems are being
• Insulating the boiler tubes and thus inhibiting heat solved (1004891, 2003). There are numerous instances
transfer. This can lower steam temperatures and change where utilities have immediately jumped to the applica-
heat adsorption patterns. tion of remedial measures without clearly determining
• Increasing stack temperature. the underlying cause of the ash deposition problem.
Using a step-by-step approach such as laid out in
• Bridging across pendant tube banks, thus altering the
Figure 10-1 can save considerable time and money in
flow distribution of combustion gases. In some cases,
dealing with a specific problem.
this can lead to fly ash erosion on subsequent boiler
circuits.
• Large slag deposits can detach and fall to the bottom of
the furnace, causing damage to tubes and tube failures
in the ash-handling section.
• Added boiler cleaning and maintenance costs.
The costs associated with ash deposition can be subtle,
characterized by effects such as (1004891, 2003):
• Ash deposition problems typically do not cause forced
outages.
• Ash deposition problems, in many cases, lead to pro-
gressive, rather than catastrophic, loss of unit
performance.
• An ash deposition problem often leads to multiple
detrimental effects that are hard to assign individual
costs to (i.e., tube leaks) and for which accounting
systems may be ill prepared to handle.
• Ash deposition problems are often mitigated during
outages caused by other problems – thus their effects
are masked by the primary unit problem.
• Ash deposition problems are often handled during
routine outages and thus lumped into normal mainte-
nance activities.
Figure 10-1
Since the costs of ash deposition are “hidden” in many Overall roadmap for diagnosing ash deposition problems
units, this can lead to suboptimal business and engineer- starting with observation of an ash deposit (Path A) or a
ing decisions. boiler-specific condition (Path B).
Source: 1004891, 2003

10.3 Roadmap for Analysis of Ash Deposition
Problems
A potential ash deposition problem is typically noted
either by visual observation of deposition or by boiler
monitoring. Once an ash deposition problem is detected
or suspected, a series of logical steps must be taken to
alleviate or solve the problem. The general steps are
shown in the roadmap of Figure 10-1. They consist of
identification of the ash deposition problem, characteriz-
ing the boiler or ash deposit symptom, diagnosing the
A comprehensive guidelines document (1004891, 2003)
has been prepared that provides details of 23 ash deposi-
tion types and 17 boiler-specific conditions related
to specific deposition problems. For each ash deposition
type and boiler conditions detailed information is
provided about (i) the boiler type in which this type of
problem occurs, (ii) location, (iii) a description of the
damage, (iv) step-by-step diagnosis of the problem, and
(v) remedial measures.

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10.4 Generic Options for Control of Ash Deposition
Problems
The next several sections of this chapter discuss sootblow-
ing in some detail. This emphasis is natural given the typi-
cally extensive use of sootblowing to control ash deposition
and the potential for significant boiler tube damage when
such use is not optimized. However, it is worth listing
some of the many options available to deal with ash depo-
sition problems as a reminder that sootblowing is only
one tool in the control toolbox. Table 10-2 provides a list
of potential remedial measures.
10.5 Cleaning Options
Cleaning options include:
• Wall blowers
• Water cannons
• Long (retractable) sootblowers
• Pulse detonation
• Explosive cleaning
10.5.1 Wall Blowers (Short Retractable Lances)
Wall blowers can use steam, air or water as the cleaning
medium. Wall blowers are inserted into the furnace
through and perpendicular to the furnace walls. The
lance is rotated as it is extended into the boiler and sprays
a concentrated stream of ambient temperature water at a
fixed angle on the walls. As the lance is inserted, it sprays
water in an expanding spiral pattern; as the lance is with-
drawn it traces a contracting spiral. They clean an oval
area roughly 3.5 m (~12 ft) high by 3 m (10 ft) wide
around the insertion point.
A number of wall blowers are required to cover an entire
waterwall. An example of the effectiveness of water lanc-
ing in the furnace is shown in Figure 10-2. The unit was
fired with high slagging brown coal. Use of water lances
increased the availability of the unit by extending the
time between off-line cleanings from approximately 1500
to 3000 hours (JEP, 1974).

Table 10-2
List of Generic Remedial Measures for Ash Deposition Problems
Adapted from 1004891, 2003

Boiler operating adjustments

• Tuning of air distribution.
• Pulverizer performance checks, mill test, and coal size screening tests with subsequent servicing and improvements.
• Systematic ash deposition monitoring and comparison with boiler operation.

Coal blending and switching

• Need good analysis of incoming coals and possibly compare with boiler deposition levels over time.
• Predictive modeling.
• Strategic coal purchasing/blending.
• Coal yard planning and infrastructure.
• Comprehensive boiler testing with deposition probe.

Sootblowing
• Intelligent sootblowing, including establishing sootblowing cycles to coincide with deposition (derived from monitoring).
• Additional sootblowing or strategic coverage.
• Systematic ash deposition monitoring.
• Rigorous and periodic inspection to ensure proper operation.
• Improved media, retrofitted tips, new types, and other modifications.

Additives (particularly relevant for oil-fired boilers)

Boiler modifications
• Replace heat exchangers due to need for increased tube spacing, ash-resistant materials, corroded tube replacements,
finned-tube replacement, and heater repositioning.
• New pulverizers.
• New burners.
• Optimized placement of flow control screens and other devices (see Chapter 21 on flyash erosion).

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Figure 10-2
Local furnace incident heat flux for water-lanced and
unlanced areas.
Source: JEP, 1974
In another example, a plant started burning a coal that
produced severe fireside slagging to an extent that weekly
outages were required to clean the heat absorption sur-
faces (Bieber, 1970). Between the weekly outages, the
temperature of gases exiting the combustion region
increased by 93°C - 149°C (200°F – 300°F). Conven-
tional sootblowers were unable to remove the 51 mm –
101 mm (2 to 4 in.) thick slag accumulation. Water
lances were installed and very effectively cleaned the heat
transfer surfaces. After 10,000 hours of operation, the
waterwalls were still effectively maintained with the water
lances. The lower temperature of the gases entering the
superheater also prevented slagging and reduced the
cleaning requirement there.
10.5.2 Water Cannons
An alternative to water lances is the “water cannon” tech-
nology, first installed in Europe in 1988 and in the U.S.
more recently. The term water cannon is a trade name for
a waterwall cleaning system utilizing movable nozzles
mounted on the waterwall and high pressure water to
clean the opposing walls.
The water cannon is mounted at an opening in the boiler
and typically can travel 90° horizontally and 60-90° ver-
tically. A controlled water jet is transmitted across the
firebox to the opposite or adjacent walls. Four units can
clean up to 90% of the furnace walls. Water lances clean
full or partial arcs; water cannons may be tilted such that
arbitrary shaped areas may be cleaned. Due to the articu-
lation of the water cannon and the clean surface being on
the opposed wall, the area cleaned by one water cannon
is much greater than that by a water lance.
Water cannons are usually computer controlled and used
with an “intelligent” sootblowing system.
Work comparing water cannons and water lances found
that the tube damage (thermal fatigue caused by quench-
ing – see Chapter 29, Volume 2) produced by an indi-
vidual water cannon cleaning cycle was not materially
different than that observed with a water lance, all other
parameters being equal, especially if the unit was
equipped with a feedback system to trigger sootblowing
events, such as with heat flux sensors (1011120, 2004).
However, field experiments found that only approxi-
mately half the number of cycles was needed using water
cannons to achieve unit objectives, thus likely leading to
less tube damage over time. Further, since water cannons
use strained water rather than condensate water as the
cleaning medium, makeup water requirements were
reduced by approximately 10% or nearly 10 million gal-
lons/yr. (1011120, 2004). Other factors such as heat
transfer distribution, boiler efficiency, NOX emissions
levels, and unit controllability were all found to be essen-
tially the same with water cannons as with water lances
(1011120, 2004).
10.5.3 Long (Retractable) Sootblowers
Used for cleaning tubes in the convective pass. They
clean an area with a radius of 1.2 to 2.7 m (4 to 9 ft).
Long sootblowers can use steam, air, or, rarely, water as
the cleaning medium.
10.5.4 Pulse Detonation
The pulse detonation combustor develops a blast wave in
order to break up and remove deposits (P&W, 2006).
Pulse detonation can remove harder deposits.
10.5.5 Explosive Cleaning
Explosive charges can be set to remove troublesome
deposits. Possible problems with such methods are
detailed in Chapter 51.
10.6 Introduction to Sootblowing
Sootblowing removes ash and fouling deposits using high
velocity air, steam, or water jet. Table 10-3 provides an
overview of the number of sootblowers, steam require-
ments, and operating and impact pressures in a typical
500 MW pulverized coal fired boiler (Raask, 1988)
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Table 10-3
Sootblowers in a Typical 500 MW Boiler
Source: Raask, 1988

Location No. of Blowers Operation (min.) Steam Consumption, Steam Pressure Impact Pressurea
kg/min (lbm/min) at Nozzle, kPa (psi)
MPa (psi)
Furnace 46 0.25 68 (149.9) 1.0 (145) 22 (3.19)
Platen superheater 6 17 132 (291) 0.7 (101.5) 16 (2.32)
Secondary 8 17 85 (187.4) 0.8 (116) 18 (2.61)
superheater
Primary 8 11 73 (160.9) 0.8 (116) 18 (2.61)
superheater
Secondary 8 17 85 (187.4) 0.8 (116) 18 (2.61)
reheater
Primary reheater 8 11 73 (160.9) 0.8 (116) 18 (2.61)
Economizer 4 6 73 (160.9) 0.8 (116) 18 (2.61)
Air heater 8 20 53 (116.8) 0.7 (101.5) 16 (2.32)
a
For a 25 mm (0.984 in.) nozzle at 2 m (6.56 ft) distance

Sootblower types vary with application and locations;
however, all sootblowers basically consist of:
• A tube element or lance used to insert into the boiler
and carry the cleaning media.
• Nozzles in the tip of the lance to accelerate the clean-
ing media.
• Mechanical system for mobility.
• Control system for feedback.
Cleaning media commonly used include superheated or
saturated steam, compressed air, water, or combinations
of these. Superheated steam has become preferable to sat-
urated steam because of its elimination of moisture
(Raask, 1988). Superheated steam also works better on a
pound per pound basis since higher sonic velocities can
be obtained than with saturated steam. The cleaning
medium selection is based, among other factors, on appli-
cation, deposit characteristics, and desired operating
pressures (1008037, 2004). The reliability, investment
costs, and expected annual operating costs are affected by
(Steam, 1992):
• Steam sootblowers must be designed to permit warm-
up of system piping, drainage of condensate in the pip-
ing, and protection against freezing, corrosion, and
erosion. Damage from sootblowers can often be traced
back to poor maintenance of the blowing system,
including the steam trap system that allows condensate
to be blown on the tube surface. The availability of
makeup water must also be considered because the
condensate from steam blowers is unrecoverable.
• Steam sootblowers typically require more maintenance
than air sootblowers, but this cost may be offset by the
maintenance cost of air compressors.
• Increasing the capacity of a steam system is typically
easy to accomplish because the steam supply from the
boiler is normally limited only by pressure-reducing
valves. The steam extraction from the boiler represents
an available energy loss, but the use of sootblowers
outweighs this loss and creates a net energy gain due to
an increase in thermal efficiency of the boiler unit.
• Air systems require a higher flow rate than steam sys-
tems to cool long retractable blowers due to the lower
heat transfer characteristics of air than steam.
• For certain high temperature ranges in which the
deposit strongly adheres to the tube, water may be
required as the cleaning medium since neither steam
nor air is effective.
Traditional sootblowing methods are increasingly inade-
quate to deal with variable ash formation conditions such
as introduced by the use of low-NOX burners and burn-
ing of coals with differing ash deposition and slagging
characteristics.
Sootblowing operations have a number of effects on the
boiler. Under-blowing will result in reduced boiler effi-
ciency as a result of the insulating effects of ash. Over-
blowing can cause erosion of tubes (Chapters 33 and
50), increase flyash erosion (Chapter 21), cause thermal
fatigue by water blower quenching (Chapters 29) and
result in excess cost by (i) loss of process fluids – steam,
compressed air, or water, (ii) excessive wear on sootblow-
ing equipment, and (iii) increased sootblower equipment
maintenance cost.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Fireside/Gas-Side Challenges and Control in Conventional and HRSG Units
10.7 Intelligent Sootblowing
Intelligent sootblowing uses a combination of modeling,
neural networks, expert systems, and measurement of
furnace conditions so that sootblowing can be performed
based on actual fouling conditions rather than on a fixed
schedule (1000410, 2000). Intelligent sootblowing can
be thought of as optimum heat transfer management in
the boiler balancing efficiency, NOX levels, operating
flexibility, and other key parameters (1000410, 2000).
The primary objective of an intelligent sootblowing sys-
tem is to perform sootblowing only when it is needed
and only where it is needed. Additional objectives are
(1000410, 2000; 1011330, 2004):
• To assist in maintaining main and reheat steam
temperature control.
• To reduce side-to-side temperature imbalances.
• To help control the economizer outlet gas
temperature.
• To stabilize gas temperature control entry conditions
for selective catalytic reduction systems.
• To minimize steam temperature swings during the
sootblowing process.
• To improve boiler tube life and reduce forced outages
by reducing incidences of excessive or overly aggres-
sive sootblowing.
• To reduce the amount of media (for example, makeup
water) needed for sootblowing.
• To reduce the amount of maintenance of sootblowers
and water lances through reduced blower usage.
• To stabilize emissions, particularly of NOX and
opacity.
• To support reconfiguration and/or elimination of
wallblowers.
• To reduce clinker buildup.
Fouling conditions in the lower furnace are typically
determined by direct measurement using such technolo-
gies as (i) heat flux sensors, (ii) acoustic techniques (mea-
suring furnace exit gas temperature, which indicates the
extent of fouling), (iii) optical techniques (viewing tubes
with digital video, infrared imaging, or laser monitor-
ing), and (iv) chordal thermocouples (1000410, 2000;
TE-112012, 2000; 1000409, 2000). Neural networks
may also be used to determine fouling conditions in the
lower furnace by blowing an area, determining the effect
of blowing, then reblowing until the objectives are met.
In some cases, an entirely clean furnace is not necessarily
desirable. It may be preferable to allow a section of the
furnace to foul somewhat to compensate for operational
needs elsewhere, such as combining NOX control and
steam temperature control in conjunction with burner
tilts (1011330, 2004).
Fouling conditions in the upper boiler are typically deter-
mined by modeling and monitoring key unit parameters
as the use of instrumentation is impractical due to the
operating temperatures and number of devices that
would be required. A new technology for direct measure-
ment of fouling in the convection pass is to use strain
gauges, mounted on hanger rods used to suspend heat-
transfer surfaces (Power Engineering, 2004; Wicker,
2003; Wicker, 2005). The strain gauges can detect the
increase in weight caused by the ash deposits.
There is at present no single approach that can be used to
select the most appropriate sootblowing system for every
facility. However, EPRI has developed a detailed ISB
Assessment Spreadsheet that indicates the type of infor-
mation that should be compiled and evaluated for the
decision (1000410, 2000).
Case Study – I:
Application and Benefits Analysis of ISB
Introduction. The utility was experiencing costly water-
wall damage in a fleet of pulverized-coal generating units.
Damage in the form of erosion, fatigue cracking, and
thermal fatigue was being caused by excessive sootblow-
ing. A review was conducted to see if intelligent soot-
blower technology could help mitigate the problems.
After an initial assessment, an ISB system was installed
on one unit; subsequently the program was expanded to
include four units.
Each ISB system included a personal computer and pro-
grammable logic controllers (for sootblowers, sonic
horns, and water cannons) that use process data from a
distributed control system. ISB software includes:
• Furnace cleanliness module that used heat flux sensor
data and optimization software to determine the clean-
liness of the furnace.
• Sootblowing cleaning expert that used gas-side and
fluid side measurements to determine real-time clean-
liness factors for the convection pass elements.
• Sootblower controls that controlled all furnace wall
blowers, water cannons, water lances, long retracts,
and air heater blowers.
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Fireside/Gas-Side Challenges and Control in Conventional and HRSG Units Volume 1: Fundamentals
Results of performance testing. A series of tests was
designed to evaluate the effect of ISB on unit perfor-
mance. Tests showed that automatic sootblowing opera-
tion reduced the number of sootblower operations by
more than 50% while maintaining constant boiler opera-
tion. Unnecessary sootblowing operations were mini-
mized with the ISB system.
Analysis of benefits. A framework for assessing the eco-
nomic benefits of ISB technology has been developed
that includes (1011330, 2004):
• Extended boiler tube life (reducing the incidents of
quench cracking) and reduction of unplanned outages
due to tube leaks.
• Improved boiler efficiency and heat rate, including
reduction of losses due to reduced latent heat loss from
water media cleaning.
• Reduced equipment maintenance and operating
costs.
• Improved operation, including (i) extended ductwork
life from lowering economizer gas outlet temperatures,
(ii) unit uprating, and (iii) emissions stability.
10.8 Gas Side Environments in HRSG Units -
Fuel Characteristics
This section highlights fuel characteristics that pose a
potential risk to the integrity and longterm reliability of
the tubes making up the varied sections of today’s com-
plicated, multi-pressure HRSG designs.
HRSGs receive exhaust gas from firing by a variety of
fuels. The flue gas is the product of combustion of fuels
whose properties are dictated by the design limitations of
the CT components, which are intolerant of the operat-
ing conditions and constituents normally found in con-
ventional boiler fuels. Therefore, factors such as high heat
flux, fly ash erosion, and high temperature ash corrosion
are usually non-issues in the design of HRSGs, and the
boiler design standards applied to HRSGs are considered
comparatively benign in terms of fouling criteria and
pressure part material selection.
Currently, the majority of HRSGs installed internation-
ally use flue gas generated from the combustion of natu-
ral gas, either in unfired or fired mode. Natural gas
provides a relatively benign environment in both the hot
end and cold end of the HRSG. The advantage of this
fuel for use in HRSGs is that it contains little or no sul-
fur or other constituents that prove problematical opera-
tionally or damaging to components, resulting in
10-8
corrosion or erosion. Light or distillate oil is also used,
but usually only where natural gas is not available or as a
backup or supplementary fuel. Depending on the com-
bustion turbine (CT) rating, its operating temperature
varies, with the smaller units operating at lower tempera-
tures. The lower the temperature level, the more forgiv-
ing the CT design to accommodate lower rank fuels.
These fuels, such as crude oil, waste stream gases, and
coal gas, generally contain sufficient impurities so as to
potentially affect HRSG operation and create scenarios
that can impact longterm reliability if the design/opera-
tion is not ideally suited for the application. The most
problematic constituent is the fuel sulfur content.
Firing fuels that contain sulfur will affect the morphol-
ogy, formation rate, thickness and strength of the
protective oxide layer on the outside of HRSG tubes.
Potential design features to deal with sulfur containing
fuels will be needed if it is anticipated that the unit will
fire or normally co-fire with sulfur containing oil. Dam-
age mechanisms of concern include gas-side corrosion,
acid dewpoint corrosion, or stress corrosion cracking.
Oil firing can also cause fouling, particularly of finned
tubes, and loss of heat transfer capability. Cleaning tech-
niques can be difficult to implement and may be costly.
For use of any grade of oil or naptha on a continuous
basis, the HRSG must have provisions for cleaning heat-
ing surfaces on a periodic basis to preserve performance
and prevent an irreversible fouling condition that would
eventually result in problems with poor distribution, cir-
culation, steaming in economizers, overheating, and
stress conditions leading to tube damage. This is usually
accomplished by applying:
• In-line tubing configurations.
• Tube finning density not exceeding 5 fins per inch
(approximately 2 fins per cm).
• Use of solid fins as opposed to segmented fins, which
are less prone to fouling.
• Use of thicker fins for corrosion protection and
mechanical strength to withstand the forces incurred
during sootblowing.
• Control of the maximum depth of tube banks to
8 tubes.
• Installing sootblowers using air or steam for cleaning
medium.
• Periodic cleaning of the HRSG utilizing either treated
water to neutralize the acidic waterwash products or
CO2 in the form of dry ice pellets.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Fireside/Gas-Side Challenges and Control in Conventional and HRSG Units
Firing these fuels on an intermittent basis in a unit
designed for using natural gas, depending on the dura-
tion and frequency, can usually be done for a period not
exceeding 200 hrs/yr without applying design or operat-
ing features normally used for a continuous use of that
fuel.
There are no hard and fast rules for using the same fuels
in both the CT and the supplementary firing, although
there are logistic and economic advantages to using like
fuels for both the CT and the HRSG burner unless suit-
able opportunity fuels are available for incineration or
cost saving purposes. The important criterion is that the
fuels must be completely compatible with the HRSG
design features to prevent fouling and corrosion to pre-
serve the thermal performance and reliability.
10.9 Gas Side Environments in HRSG Units -
Firing Systems
HRSG temperature profiles vary with three major param-
eters: (i) the number of HRSG pressure levels, (ii) the
pinch and approach temperature differential designed in,
and (iii) the level of supplementary firing that is done.
Currently, approximately 75 percent of new combined
cycle plants have the means to accommodate supplemen-
tary firing (Batshon, 2001). Supplementary firing is used
in the HRSG to increase the Rankine cycle (steam tur-
bine) generation contribution and thus to increase total
plant electric generation output. This is accomplished
with burners installed at a location near the inlet of the
HRSG or directly after one or more of the high tempera-
ture superheater or reheater heat exchanger sections.
Supplementary firing affects the HRSG thermal perfor-
mance significantly, as illustrated in Figure 10-3.
Figure 10‑3
HRSG temperature profiles for unfired and fired HRSGs.
Source: Nootereriksen.com, 2002
The major changes in performance include the steam
flow, which can be over twice the unfired rate, the pinch
and approach temperatures (see Figures 4-4 and 4-5,
along with text in Section 4.2.2, Chapter 4) tend to rise
when the unit is fired, the stack temperature is lowered
due to the rise in water flow through the economizer, and
the effect of a higher LMTD (log mean temperature
difference) and increased heat transfer.
Duct burners affect the heat exchanger size and thus tube
and finning design and material selection.
Duct burner suppliers continue to attempt to quantify
temperature and flow stratification through testing and
modeling techniques. One “rule of thumb” used to esti-
mate the peak-to-peak temperature gradient entering the
burner downstream HRSG section is ±50% of the burner
temperature rise in the burner. The reasons for the high
temperature and flow variation include:
• The CT type and size.
• The HRSG type.
• The aspect ratio and expansion characteristics of the
inlet duct. Tall slender configurations tend to have
high flow through the lower section, low flow in the
middle section as the flow tends to ride up the front
of the section, and mid-flow in the upper heat
exchanger region. Rectangular sections tend to
expand horizontally.
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Fireside/Gas-Side Challenges and Control in Conventional and HRSG Units Volume 1: Fundamentals
• The operating point, maximum rating, and fuel distri-
bution within the respective burner branches.
• The absorbing/emitting effects of CO2 and H2O in the
flue gas have proven to be significant, especially in
computing temperature variation downstream of the
burner location in the near burner region.
Supplemental firing systems can also pose risks to HRSG
tubes. Because of elevated temperature levels, supple-
mentary firing exacerbates the importance of maintain-
ing adequate flue gas flow and temperature variation to
prevent HRSG damage. Temperatures in excess of nomi-
nal expected design can be a major contributor to a num-
ber of HRSG tube failure mechanisms, including short
term and longterm overheating, increased evaporator
tube deposition, increased potential for underdeposit
corrosion mechanisms, economizer steaming (leading to
thermal fatigue), and increased flow-accelerated corro-
sion due to increased flows.
During the design of the supplemental firing system and
export/extraction steam flows measures should be
included to avoid locally high temperatures in the
HRSG.
10.10 Gas Side Environments in HRSG Units -
Effect of Flow Levels and Distributions on HTFs
CT turbine power output has increased substantially.
Commercial G class machines generate well over 250
MW. The CT exhaust conditions under these conditions
are approximately 2.0 million kg/h (4.5 million lb/h) of
flow at 593°C (1100°F). Directed to the HRSG, this
quantity of flow must be managed correctly to ensure
that correct HRSG performance, operation, and reliabil-
ity are attained.
With HRSGs, the flow and temperature profiles entering
the heat exchangers and/or downstream of the duct
burner are a function of the CT installed, the load, the
off-design cases, the HRSG type, the duct design fea-
tures, and the quantity of supplementary firing being
done. It follows that quantifying exactly the conditions
accommodating all the possible combinations is not
likely. As a result, the HRSG and the burner OEMs esti-
mate the “worst case” conditions by CFD modeling to
form a design basis.
With SCRs, which are normally located in the HRSG
regions operating between 315 and 427°C (600 to 800°F)
the uniformity of the flow field is crucial to ensure emis-
sion level limits are met without excessive ammonia slip.
The gradation of flow also has a significant impact on the
HRSG heat exchangers. With a flow stratification, the
10-10
external heat transfer coefficient on the tubing varies as
the 0.61 power of gas flow (Steam, 1992); a relatively
small change in flow over finned tubing can dramatically
alter the finned tube temperature profiles and thus change
the performance of the unit. Further, this variation alters
the tube expansion characteristics. Since all the tubes are
rigidly attached to a given inlet and outlet header, a tem-
perature difference in some of these tubes translates into
a thermal expansion difference. The more stratified the
flow, the greater the difference in the amount of tube
expansion and the greater the differential stress levels.
Raising the flue gas velocity in the respective heat
exchange sections will have the following impacts:
• It raises the fin tip temperature.
• It raises the heat flux into the working fluid.
• It raises the potential for vibration to occur.
• Because it raises the pressure drop, there is a flow equal-
ization effect into the respective section.
The maximum average exhaust gas velocity in the HRSG
directly upstream of the lead HRSG section will typically
not exceed 22.86 m/s (75 feet/sec). As the flue gas travels
through the HRSG, its velocity will drop as the tempera-
ture is reduced.
As part of the specification and HRSG design processes,
it is important that flue gas temperature and flow vari-
ances and their potential impact on pressure part selec-
tion be considered. Each heat exchanger section (from
HP superheater to economizer sections and feedwater
heaters, if provided) should be designed with test con-
nections on the gas-side inlet and outlet to measure gas-
side temperatures and pressures.
Instrumentation for measuring flow characteristics
should be included during the design process and used
during commissioning to confirm expected values.
Excessive variation in these parameters can lead to
(i) short term overheating, (ii) longterm overheating,
(iii) departure from nucleate boiling (and short term
overheating in HP evaporator section), (iv) underdeposit
corrosion in HP evaporator sections, (v) economizer
steaming, and (vi) overstress and fatigue of selected
tubing.
Techniques to measure the flue gas distribution should be
specified, along with their estimated accuracy. To assess
the existence of potential problems with temperature and
flow distribution, especially on units that are supplemen-
tary fired, modeling and temperature monitoring are
recommended (1004240, 2003).
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Fireside/Gas-Side Challenges and Control in Conventional and HRSG Units
10.11 Gas Side Environments in HRSG Units -
Gas Side Condensate Management
Condensing of constituents contained in the flue gas of
an HRSG is always a cause for concern. In addition to
contributing to fouling, which increases back pressure on
the CT thus affecting the cycle efficiency and output, the
heat transfer and pressure part temperature profiles can
change appreciably. Further, the depositing substances
may be corrosive. There are several gas-side condensation
issues of concern in regard to HRSG damage. These
include the potential for (i) cold end or dewpoint corro-
sion, (ii) stress corrosion, (iii) fouling, and (iv) corrosion
caused by ammonia slip of SCR systems and the subse-
quent formation of ammonium bisulfate.
10.11.1 Cold End Corrosion
According to a survey performed by Bourgeois (EPRI
TR-105013, 1996), the exhaust stack gas temperatures
in HRSGs have been steadily decreasing, and most man-
ufacturers anticipate a continued decrease for future
designs. The high, average, and low exhaust stack gas
temperatures on natural gas fired units are expected to be
93°C (200°F), 76°C (169°F), and 45°C (113°F). For oil
or naptha firing, the stack temperature is customarily
121-149°C (250-300°F). This downward trend in
exhaust gas temperatures is expected to result in an
increase in the potential for dewpoint corrosion. Unless
corrosion resistant materials are used or special design
alterations are made, the acid and water vapors of either
natural gas or oil fuels will condense on and corrode
these back end components. Acid dewpoint corrosion
can be a problem in the final tube rows, exhaust ducts,
and stacks.
During combustion, sulfur in the fuel is released and oxi-
dized to sulfur dioxide (SO2). A small amount (in the
range of 1 to 5%) of the sulfur dioxide is further oxidized
to sulfur trioxide (SO3) (Ganapathy, 1991). The oxida-
tion of SO2 to SO3 in combination with water vapor
forms sulfuric acid. When temperatures are lowered to
the dewpoint, the sulfuric acid condenses and forms a
low pH electrolyte that is capable of generating rapid
corrosion rates in excess of 12.5 mm/yr (0.5 inch/yr) and
exacerbating the fouling of the affected surface. This
mechanism is discussed in Chapter 41, Volume 2.
Gas firing, because there is little or no sulfur and ash in
the fuel, generally has a low dewpoint, low concentra-
tions of acid vapors, and a low potential for corrosion.
Oil firing produces a greater potential for corrosion and
at a higher temperature (Macduff, 1976).
Design steps to prevent this problem will involve provid-
ing the means to raise the gas and metal temperatures
above the acid dewpoint or lowering the acid dewpoint;
the latter has far more options available, Chapter 41,
Volume 2.
10.11.2 Stress Corrosion
Since feedwater preheaters are normally fabricated with
high alloy steel to protect against pitting corrosion by
oxygenated water, the materials of construction may be
susceptible to other corrosion processes. Series 300 stain-
less steel, for example, is prone to attack from stress cor-
rosion cracking when it is exposed to certain constituents
and under certain circumstances. The common corrod-
ing agents are usually sodium compounds and chlorine.
The conditions required are a member under tensile stress
that is operating at a temperature of ~200°F (94°C)
exposed to a liquid phase solution.
If any components located downstream of the SCR are
fabricated with austenitic stainless steel, then the use of
aqueous ammonia should be evaluated carefully to ensure
that no chlorine exists in the solution. If there is chlorine
present, an alternative material selection that is much
more resistant to this failure mechanism is Series 400 fer-
ritic or duplex stainless steels.
10.11.3 Fouling
As noted above, fouling can occur in either finned or
unfinned tubes, particularly in units burning oil or nap-
tha on a regular basis. Note that water injection to the
CT for NOX control can carry contaminants into the
HRSG. These contaminants include solids, which over
time can deposit and can also foul finned tubes. Alkalis
such as potassium and sodium also produce compounds
that foul and corrode tubes and are deleterious to
performance.
10.11.4 Potential for Ammonium Sulfate Corrosion
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems are used to
reduce the levels of NOX produced by firing fossil fuels.
Most of the U.S. experience with SCR systems has been
in units firing natural gas and where sulfur is limited, and
this has led to few gas-side problems in HRSG units.
However, HRSG units firing sulfur-bearing fuel oils,
even for short periods of time, have had problems with
fouling caused by deposition of ammonium salts, partic-
ularly ammonium bisulfate and ammonium sulfate.
Ammonium bisulfate is produced when unreacted
ammonia used in SCR (so called “ammonia slip”) com-
bines in a flue gas environment with SO3 and water vapor
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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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to form NH4HSO4. Ammonium sulfates can cause sig-
nificant fouling of heat transfer surfaces and have the
potential for corrosion of HRSG tubes.
Operating within NOX, CO, and ammonia slip require-
ments requires individual equipment component opera-
tion, performance balancing and control logic tuning to
meet the permitted levels. For example, reducing com-
bustion turbine NOX can increase CO. An increase in
NOX emissions increases the need for selective catalytic
reduction (SCR) performance and can result in increased
ammonia slip.
SCR reactor systems using ammonia as the reagent are
designed for optimum NOX reaction in the 288 - 427°C
(550 - 800°F) range. They can produce an excessive
quantity of ammonium bisulfate that deposits on metal
surfaces at temperatures in the range of 149 - 190°C (300
- 375°F). SCR reactors are normally located downstream
of the HP evaporator section in large triple pressure
units. Therefore, there is a significant quantity of finned
surfaces located downstream that is susceptible to
fouling.
The effect of excessive ammonia slip and/or the use of
sulfur bearing fuels exacerbate the problem. This, com-
bined with today’s HRSG designers pushing the enve-
lope with regard to fin spacing – now up to 3 fins per cm
(7.5 fins per in.) in certain sections – increases the risk of
pressure drop increase, irreversible fouling, maldistribu-
tion of flue gas, and is a contributing factor to a host of
tube failure mechanisms. Figure 10-4 depicts the com-
parison of a clean tube with one fouled with ammonium
bisulfate deposits.
Figure 10‑4
Comparison of clean HRSG tube with one fouled with
ammonium bisulfate.
Source: McArthur, 2001
10-12
10.12 References
1000409, 2000. Sensors for Furnace Ash Deposition Mea-
surement on Boiler Tubes: Technology Review, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA: 2000. 1000409.
1000410, 2000. Guidelines for Intelligent Sootblowing
Control, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2000. 1000410.
1004240, 2003. Delivering High Reliability HRSGs,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2003. 1004240.
1004891, 2003. Guidelines for Solving Ash Deposition in
Utility Boilers, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2003. 1004891.
1008037, 2004. Tube Repair and Protection for Damage
Caused by Sootblower Erosion, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004.
1008037.
1011120, 2004. Demonstration of Clyde Bergman Water
Cannons at Alabama Power Company’s Plant Miller Unit
1, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004. 1011120.
1011330, 2004. Intelligent Sootblowing Demonstration at
Texas Genco’s W.A. Parish Plant, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2004. 1011330.
Batshon, 2001. Batshon, A.E., et al., “Alternate Fuels
for Supplementary Firing Add Value to Combined Cycle
and Cogeneration Plants,” Coen Company, Presented at
the Powergen 2001, Las Vegas, NV.
Benson, 1993. Benson, S.A., M.L. Jones, and J.N. Harb,
“Ash Formation and Deposition,” in L.D. Smoot, ed.,
Coal Science and Technology 20: Fundamentals of Coal
Combustion for Clean and Efficient Use, Elsevier, Amster-
dam, 1993, pp. 299-373.
Bieber, 1970. Bieber, K.H., “Successful Operation of
Water Soot Blowers,” translation from Mitterlungen Der
VGB50, Heft 2, April 1970.
CS-4283, 1986. Effects of Coal Quality on Power Plant
Performance and Costs, Volume 4: Review of Coal Science
Fundamentals, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1986. CS-4283.
CS-5071, 1987. Fireside Corrosion and Fly Ash Erosion in
Boilers, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1987. CS-5071.
Ganapathy, 1991. Ganapathy, V., Waste Heat Boiler
Deskbook, Appendix B – “Low Temperature Corrosion,”
Fairmont Press, Inc., 1991
GS-6393, 1990. Development and Application of the Coal
Quality Impact Model: CQIMTM, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
1990. GS-6393.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Fireside/Gas-Side Challenges and Control in Conventional and HRSG Units

JEP, 1974. “Investigation Into the Likelihood of Ther-
mal Fatigue Damage to Furnace and Superheater Tubes
Caused by On-Load Water Deslagging,” Transactions of
ASME, Journal of Engineering for Power, April 1974,
pp. 138-144.
Macduff, 1976. Macduff, E.J. and N.D. Clark, “Ljung-
stron Air PRH Design and Operation - Part II: Corro-
sion and Fouling,” Combustion, March 1976.
McArthur, 2001. McArthur, J. and R. Nakagawa,
“Vertical Gas Flow Applications of SCRs with Once
Through HRSGs,” PowerGen International, Las Vegas,
12/2001, p. 21.
Nootereriksen.com, 2002. Figures from www.nootere-
riksen.com.
Pavlish, 1992. Pavlish, J.H., P.R. Miller, N.C. Craig,
and A.K. Mehta, “CQIM - An Analytical Tool Used to
Evaluate Performance and Economic Issues,” Proceedings:
Ninth Annual International Pittsburgh Coal Conference,
October 1992.
Power Engineering, 2004. Anon, “Intelligent Boiler
Cleaning Can Improve the Bottom Line,” Power Engi-
neering, June 2004. Also see http://pepei.pennnet.com/
Articles/Article_Display.cfm?Section=CURRI&ARTIC
LE_ID=206555& VERSION_NUM=2&p=6.
P&W, 2006. Pratt & Whitney, “ShockSystem – Indus-
try Overview,” http://www.pw.utc.com/shock-system/
industryoverview.html, 2006.
Raask, 1988. Raask, E., Erosion Wear in Coal Utiliza-
tion, Hemisphere Publishing Company, Washington,
D.C., 1988.
Steam, 1992. Steam: Its Generation and Use, 40th edition,
S. Stultz and J. Kitt, eds., Babcock & Wilcox Company,
Barberton, OH, 1992.
TR-105013, 1996. Material Considerations for HRSGs
in Gas Turbine Combined Cycle Plants, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 1996. TR-105013.
TE-112012, 2000. Heat Flux Monitoring, EPRI,
Harriman, TN: 2000. TE-112012.
Vista, 2006. http://www.myvistasource.com/
Wicker, 2003. Wicker, K., “A Smarter Way to Remove
Slag,” Power, October 2003, pp. 42-43. See also: http://
www.prbcoals.com/pdf/PRBCoalInformation/Power-
Oct03-Smartslag.pdf.
Wicker, 2005. Wicker, K., “Get Smart About Removing
Slag,” Power, October 2005, pp. 57-58.

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Chapter 11
Company-Wide Programs

11.1 Introduction
Formalized programs can significantly reduce availability losses due to boiler tube failures
(BTFs) in conventional units (1013098, 2006; Dimmer, 2004) and help anticipate and pre-
vent the occurrence of HRSG tube failures (HTF) in combined cycle units. A formalized
program can be defined as one that is visibly directed and supported officially by senior man-
agement through a Corporate Mandate (commitment). For units in which tubes have already
failed, a formalized program will address the challenges of identifying the failure mechanism
and possible root causes, determining the actual root cause, and picking appropriate perma-
nent solutions. For units without tube failures, a formalized program will establish the means
to prevent failures from occurring. Such programs promote a team approach to problem
solving and focus attention on management, operating, maintenance, chemistry, and engi-
neering “controllable” activities that influence activation of BTF/HTF mechanisms and/or
the high probability of repeat failures.
Over the past 20 years, EPRI has established the methodologies for a combined integrated
Boiler Tube Failure Reduction/Cycle Chemistry Improvement (BTFR/CCI) program and,
more recently, a similar program for HRSG units – the EPRI Heat Recovery Steam Genera-
tor (HRSG) Tube Failure Reduction/Cycle Chemistry Improvement (HTFR/CCI)
Program.
From the beginning (GS-7454, 1991), the philosophy of formalized BTFR programs was
effective, typically resulting in equivalent availability loss (EAL) improvements ranging from
1.5 to 4.5%. In the case of utilities with initially low EAL, a formalized program was effective
in maintaining that low level of EAL.
The techniques and processes which have been developed are applicable to all types of fossil-
fueled power plants. Superb results have been produced which are independent of plant age,
operation (such as cycling or base load), fuel type, boiler pressure, and geographic location.

11.2 Determining the Need for a Formalized Program

The EPRI BTFR/CCI and HTFRP/CCI Programs have been designed to reduce availability
losses caused by tube failures and costs associated with cycle chemistry influenced corrosion
and deposition. They can also be used to maintain excellence in these areas.
Utilities can evaluate their need for a BTFR/CCI program by examining their current and
projected future EAL and by using the EPRI Boiler Tube Failure Reduction and Cycle Chem-
istry Benchmarking Processes. The average EAL in the United States due to BTFs in the early
2000s was between 2.5 and 3%. The Cycle Chemistry Benchmarking Process is discussed in
Chapter 8, and the BTFR Benchmarking is included later in this chapter in Section 11.4.

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11.3 Steps in Implementing a BTFR/CCI Program
The strategy for implementing a successful integrated
BTFR/CCI consists of nine steps (1013098, 2006).
Step 1 – Develop and Implement a Corporate BTFR/
CCI Program Directive
It is highly recommended that a corporate directive (or
plant directive if only a single plant is participating) be
developed. This important document communicates
(i) senior management’s support for the program, (ii) the
program’s commitment to mechanism identification,
root cause analysis, and permanent solutions for all BTF
and CC-influenced corrosion and deposition problems,
(iii) the need for action plans to correct and prevent
repeat BTF and CC problems, (iv) the need for more
formalized corporate/plant management, engineering,
operations, and maintenance directives and/or proce-
dures for conduct of critical day-to-day activities affect-
ing BTFR and CC problems, and (v) short term and
longterm goals for the program.
Table 11-1 provides some example goals for a BTFR pro-
gram; example goals for a CCI program are provided in
Table 11-2. Each organization should customize these to
their particular case, but note the goal for world class
performance. Example program directives are contained
in Table 11-3. Extensive details about developing corpo-
rate directives and mandates has been published
(1013098, 2006; Dimmer, 2004).

Table 11-1
Example Goals for a Corporate Boiler Tube Failure Reduction (BTFR) Program
• Keep equivalent availability loss (EAL) from BTF to 1% or less; eventually achieve “world class status”
by reducing EAL to less than 0.5%.
• Establish corporate and plant BTF/CCI program teams.
• Obtain strong, visible support from senior management.
• Develop and implement management, engineering, operation, chemistry, and maintenance directives
and/or procedures that address all BTF and cycle chemistry “controllable” parameters.
• Implement a company-wide, computer-based BTF monitoring and reporting system.
• Develop an NDE capability and procedures for plants.
• Establish a plant-ready remaining life assessment capability for damaged tubing.
• Establish QA/QC for welders (both in-house and contractor supplied).
• Improve benchmark scores using EPRI process.

Table 11-2
Example Goals for a Corporate Cycle Chemistry Improvement Program (CCIP)
• Have no cycle chemistry related tube failures.
• Have no turbine chemical problems (blade or disk cracking, deposits).
• Minimize chemical cleanings. They should be eliminated for all-ferrous feedwater systems and
extended to 10-year intervals for mixed-metallurgy systems.
• Optimize startup procedures.
• Optimize shutdown and layup for all equipment.
• Establish optimum cycle chemistry for all units and install “core” cycle chemistry instrumentation and
alarms on all units.
• Develop cycle chemistry limits, action levels, and action-oriented operating procedures for all modes of
operation for all units.
• Develop cycle chemistry technical and cost performance indices for each plant and the system.
• Improve benchmark scores using EPRI process.

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Table 11-3
Sample Corporate Directives for a BTFR/CCI Program
Statements in the directive should give clear direction to plant personnel such as:

Emphasis on BTFR
• Every BTF will be reported, documented, and quantified in a comprehensive format describing (i) specific boiler and tube
locations, (ii) failure mechanism, (iii) root cause and verification, (iv) type of repair, and (v) future preventive and control
action taken or recommended.
• Every BTF will be quantified in terms of failure mechanism, number of failures, availability loss, cost (in $ and MWhr loss),
and historical trend. A priority will then be established for immediate or planned corrective action.
• Every BTF will require a pre-repair inspection to determine (i) failure mechanism, (ii) root cause, (iii) the extent of damage
to the failed tube, (iv) extent of damage of tubing close proximity of the failed tube, (v) extent of damage of tubing in
other boiler locations subject to the same failure mechanism and root cause, and (vi) whether to obtain sample specimens
appropriate for failure and root cause analysis.
• Every repeat BTF will require an Action Plan for preventing and/or eliminating any future BTF due to this mechanism and
root cause.
• Permanent solutions are to be emphasized.
• Every BTF repair will be inspected and/or tested to verify tube pressure integrity before repair is considered complete.
• Every BTF repair will include quality assurance provisions for welder and inspector certification, welding materials, and
selection of tube material.
• Pad welds, window welds, and weld overlays are to be discouraged.
• All scheduled major boiler overhauls will include NDE in all areas experiencing erosion, corrosion, or creep damage.
• All modes of boiler operation will have tube metal temperature limits, action levels, and action-oriented operating
procedures such that time under boiler tube damaging process conditions is minimized.
• Continued boiler operation with known tube leaks is to be discouraged. It should only be considered when consequential
damages are expected to be minimal and/or only when a serious system condition exists (such as exceptionally high
system generation cost or opportunity for highly profitable MWhr sales, or some other very serious system stability or
operating condition).

Emphasis on CCI
• Every cycle chemistry (CC) problem will be reported, documented, and quantified.
• Optimum CC will be implemented on all units.
• All “core” parameters will have established limits and be continuously monitored and alarmed in the control room.
• Operators will have the equivalent of 24-hour chemical technical expertise on site (such as ChemExpert).
• All modes of boiler operation will have CC limits, action levels, and action-oriented operating procedures such that boiler
or turbine damaging process conditions are minimized.
• CC costs and technical performance indices will be developed for each plant. The technical indices will track the % of time
that “core” parameters for each unit are within limits for all modes of operation. The cost performance indices will track
the plant’s direct and indirect cycle chemistry costs to the extent practicable.
• High priority will be given to elimination of contaminant ingress and CC instrument maintenance.

Step 2 – Establish Corporate and Plant Program
Teams
The corporate team should consist of a program coordi-
nator and experienced personnel representing engineer-
ing, metallurgy, chemistry, plant operations, and
maintenance. A dual coordinator approach, one being
responsible for the BTFR and the other for the CCI
aspects of the program, is acceptable. The purposes of the
corporate team are to establish program guidelines, to
provide support to plant teams and, when requested, to
implement them. The plant teams should consist of a
plant program coordinator and seasoned representatives
from engineering, chemistry, operations, and mainte-
nance. The primary purpose of the plant team is to define
and solve current BTF/CC problems and prevent future
problems.
Step 3 – Training of Operations, Maintenance, Engi-
neering, Chemistry, and Management Personnel in All
Controllable Aspects of BTFR/CCI
This training will consist of two integral parts. The first
covers all of the technical aspects of BTF such as mecha-
nism identification, root cause analysis, and corrective
actions. The second part is primarily programmatic
in content and describes the essential role that each
discipline must play to correct and prevent BTF.

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Step 4 – Define BTF and CC Problems and Assign ble to the same root cause. An analysis is required to
Priorities determine resource requirements, costs, and implementa-
tion schedule. The second part must be a written plan to
After training, the plant teams should begin defining and
correct the root cause of the active mechanism, i.e., to
quantifying serious BTF and CC deposition and/or cor-
“kill” the mechanism so that it never becomes active
rosion problems for analysis and solution. In the case of
again.
units without failures, the plant teams should evaluate
needed preventive actions. Step 7 – Develop and Implement Control Actions and/
or Procedures for All Operator-, Maintenance-, Engi-
Step 5 – Determine Mechanism, Root Cause, and Cor-
neering-, and Management-Controllable Aspects of
rective Actions for All Repeat BTF and CC-Influenced
BTF and CC Corrosion and/or Deposition Problems
Corrosion and Deposition Problems
Step 8 – Development and/or Use of a Company-Wide
The technical guidance in Volumes 2 and 3 of this book
BTF//CC Monitoring Reporting System
provides details about how to execute these actions.
The need for, and value of, a comprehensive and accurate
Step 6 – Develop Action Plans for Addressing All
BTF and CC corrosion and deposition problem database
Repeat or Serious Single Event BTF/CC Problems
cannot be overemphasized. Poor input data means poor
These written action plans must address two parts of the analysis and developed solutions. An example report for
BTF/CC problem. One part must address the other tub- Boiler Tube failures is provided in Figure 11-1.
ing damaged by the primary failure mechanism that still
remains in the boiler. This can be either in close proximity
to the failure or in other locations that might be suscepti-

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Figure 11-1
Sample BTF report form.

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Figure 11-1 (continued)

Sample BTF report form.

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Step 9 – Conduct Unbiased Semi-Annual Program improvements can be assessed on an annual basis once
Progress Reviews the BTFR/CCI program has started. The methodology
will work for a single unit/plant but will provide the best
11.4 Factors to Benchmark a Utility’s Boiler Tube indicator when applied across a utility system.
Failure Reduction Program
The parallel cycle chemistry benchmarking process is
There is insufficient quantitative data to benchmark/rank described in Chapter 8. These two benchmarking pro-
utility BTF reduction programs simply in terms of inter- cesses have become the de facto world standards for BTFR
nally collected data or national statistics such as the and CCI Programs.
NERC/GADS database. To fill this need, a self-assess-
ment methodology consisting of nine results and process The methodology is presented in Table 11-4.
oriented BTF reduction factors was developed by EPRI.
Each is capable of being addressed definitively, and, as a
whole, they represent the key performance and availabil-
ity indicators which should rank and judge the organiza-
tion. It is suggested that a utility use data from the last
two years to make an initial assessment. Thereafter,

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Table 11-4
Benchmarking a BTF Reduction Program
Weighting Factor Points Total
3 A. Do you know the Equivalent Availability Loss (EAL) % due to BTF?
< 0.5% 0
0.5 - 1% 1
1-2% 2
2 - 3% 3
> 3% 4
No 4
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____
2 B. Do you have a ranking (priority) for BTF mechanisms in plant/system
(could be in terms of MWhr, EAL%, or on a cost basis)?
Yes 0
No 1
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____
2 C. Do you have any cycle chemistry related BTF mechanisms?
Yes 1
No 0
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____
2 D. What percentage of superheater and reheater circuits in your
system/plant do you know the remaining life (using oxide scale technique)?
All 0
> 50% 1
< 50% 2
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____
2 E. Do you have a BTF forced outage plan (other than “fix it quick”)? Must be in writing.
Yes 0
No 1
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____
2 F. Do you have Actions Plans (in writing) for repeat BTF that address:
a) Damaged tubing?
Yes 0
No 1
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____
b) Root cause (to “kill” the mechanism)?
Yes 0
No 1
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____
2 G. Do you normally continue running with known tube leaks (except in a system emergency)?
Yes 1
No 0
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____
1 H. Do you normally use pad welding (except in a system emergency)?
Yes 1
No 0
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____
1 I. Do you have a set of BTF goals/objectives?
Yes 0
No 1
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____
TOTAL _____

Rating System Notes to Table 11-4:

World Class Program 5 or less A. % EAL. This item is expected to include all outage
Very Good BTFR Program 6-10 time attributed to BTF except for major planned boiler
Good Program 11-15 overhauls. It should be separated from total boiler ran-
Average Program 16-20 dom outage rate (ROR) or unit EFOR. EAL is a combi-
Below Average Program > 20 nation of forced outage time (EFOR) plus time spent in
addressing tube failures during maintenance outages.

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This is a short-term performance indicator. For a rela-
tively new plant, 10 years old or less, it may easily be zero
or a few BTFs/year. Less than 0.5% is considered “world
class” and is an excellent longterm goal. To achieve this
low EAL consistently year after year, the utility/plant will
have very few, if any, repeat BTF problems.
B. Ranking by BTF mechanisms in terms of MWhr,
EAL, or cost. The total number of BTF, or potential BTF,
due to each mechanism should be included. This should
include BTFs that resulted in a forced outage as well as
those leaking or damaged tubes by the same mechanism
that were found by an inspection or hydrotest that didn’t
result in any lost MWhr but were potential future forced
outages. This is a longterm performance indicator for the
system as well as for the plants.
C. Cycle chemistry influenced BTF. The question relates
to whether there have been any cycle chemistry influ-
enced BTF. These BTF should be tracked at least over a
rolling 2-year period. Since cycle chemistry influenced
BTFs can be difficult to stop once started, it requires 24
months without one and that the root cause has been
addressed to receive a zero score for this factor. This fac-
tor is considered a good longterm indicator of system/
plant cycle chemistry control. It has been demonstrated
around the world that there is a direct correlation between
cycle chemistry control and cycle chemistry influenced
BTF. Table 11-5 lists BTF mechanisms that are directly
caused by, or significantly influenced by, cycle
chemistry.

Table 11-5
BTF Caused By or Influenced By Cycle Chemistry
BTF Mechanisms in Water-Touched Tubes Influenced by CC
Mechanism Nature of Chemistry Influence
Hydrogen damage Excessive feedwater corrosion products form excessive deposits and combine with a source of
acidic contamination.
Caustic gouging Excessive feedwater corrosion products form deposits and combine with a source of caustic.
Acid phosphate corrosion Excessive feedwater corrosion products form deposits and combine with a source of acidic
phosphate (addition of mono- and/or di-sodium phosphate).
Chemical cleaning damage Excessive deposits in waterwalls lead to chemical cleaning; process errors lead to tube
damage.
Corrosion fatigue Poor water chemistry (depressed pH on startup), shutdown or layup practices, and improper
chemical cleaning worsen contribution of the environment to causing damage.
Supercritical waterwall cracking and Excessive internal deposits lead to increased tube metal temperatures; exacerbates
overheating mechanism.
Fireside corrosion Excessive internal deposits lead to increased tube metal temperatures; exacerbates
mechanism.
Short-term overheating Plugging of waterwall orifices by feedwater corrosion products.
Flow-accelerated corrosion of economizer Attack by reducing feedwater conditions (AVT(R)).
inlet headers
Pitting (economizer) Stagnant, oxygenated water formed during shutdown.
BTF Mechanisms in Steam-Touched Tubes Influenced by CC
Mechanism Nature of Chemistry Influence
Longterm overheating (creep) If caused by restricted steam flow as a result of contaminant deposits, debris, etc.
Short-term overheating Blockage from improper chemical cleaning (of SH/RH or waterwalls).
Stress corrosion cracking Variety of bad environment influences, most directly related to chemistry control and practices.
Pitting (RH loops) Carryover of Na2SO4 or poor (non-existent) shutdown practices allowing for oxygenated,
stagnant condensate.

Chemical cleaning damage Poor chemical cleaning practice.

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D. What % SH and RH have condition assessments.
This is a longterm performance indicator for the plant. It
is a clear indication of being proactive to prevent forced
outages caused by longterm overheating/creep. If the
plant is over ten years old, action plans should at least be
in place to perform condition assessments of all SH and
RH at some point in the near future. If the boiler SH or
RH is over 15 years old, they are highly recommended to
be done as soon as possible to prevent early BTFs.
E. Do you have a forced outage plan other than “fix it
quick”? To get a zero, this must be a plant-specific out-
age plan documented on paper and must include all crit-
ical “pre-repair inspection” activities for minimizing the
probability of a repeat BTF. It is a plus if system status is
also considered in what activities will actually be per-
formed. This is a longterm performance indicator for the
plant.
F. Action plans for “damaged tubing” and for address-
ing the root cause to “kill” the mechanism. These are
longterm performance indicators for the plant. They
must be documented action plans to eliminate specific
repeat BTF problems. Part (a) indicates when the EAL
contribution due to a specific BTF problem will go to
zero, because all remaining damaged tubing in the boiler
from that mechanism is near end of life has also been
replaced. Part (b) indicates what change(s) will be made
to correct the root cause and when they will take place.
G. Running with known tube leaks. To get a zero, a
written plant-specific operating procedure must exist
that clearly indicates that for the majority of all boiler
tube leaks, when a “serious system condition” does not
exist, the standard is to remove the unit from service in a
controlled manner. The operating procedure will clearly
describe under what system and/or boiler leaking condi-
tions boiler operation may continue for a defined finite
period of time.
H. Normally use pad welds. To get a zero, a written
plant-specific maintenance procedure must exist that
clearly indicates that for the majority of all boiler tube
repairs, when a “serious system condition” does not exist,
a new piece of tubing rather than a pad or window weld
is the standard method of repair.
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I. Setting of plant- and/or unit-specific BTF goals.
These should be both short- and longterm performance
indicators for the plant. They are usually described in a
written document with dates for accomplishing the
objectives. The overall objective for the program should
be to reduce the benchmark score toward “world class”
by a specific time and to maintain that level of perfor-
mance for the long term.
Most utilities and/or plants that have achieved “world
class” ranking score zero on most of the Factors C through
I with Factor A, EAL < 1%. This benchmarking process,
for both CCI and BTFR, has also now been linked with
a new approach to determine the value or cost of “mov-
ing toward world class performance” in these areas
(1004641, 2002).
11.5 Estimating the Value or Cost of BTFR/CCI
Program Improvements
An estimate of the value of moving toward “world class”
status in BTFR and CCI programs has been determined
(1013098, 2006). This shown in Figure 11-2.
Figure 11-2
Value lost/MW/year versus BTFR/CCI benchmark scores.
Source: 1013098, 2006
For example, for a 10,000 MW system with a system-
wide chemistry rating in the average category (score =
22), an improvement to “good” (score = 13) would save
on average about $1,500 per MW per year in lost genera-
tion and replacement power costs alone (not even con-
sidering repair costs) or $15,000,000 annually. These
relationships were developed initially from a relatively
small database (of 20 utilities), but the process has subse-
quently been applied to over 100 organizations/plants/
units, so the curves are very indicative of the broad
trends.
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11.6 Moving Toward and Maintaining “World Class”
Programs for BTFR/CCI
Achieving “world class” status does not occur overnight.
It usually takes several years or longer. Typically a utility
starts with a discovery phase to answer three questions:
• “Why does our performance differ significantly from
that of industry leaders?”
• “What do we wish our performance to be in the
future?”
• “What do we have to do to get there?”
The utility can then begin to move toward world class sta-
tus and subsequently to maintaining that performance
level.
11.6.1 Moving Toward “World Class” Status for BTFR
The following have been found to be critical success fac-
tors for moving toward world class status in BTFR
(1013098, 2006):
• Clear direction to corporate/plant management,
engineering, operations, and maintenance personnel
on the conduct of day-to-day activities that influence
BTFs.
• Training of corporate/plant management, engineer-
ing, operations, maintenance, and chemistry person-
nel in all “controllable” aspect of BTFR.
• Knowledge of the EAL and costs due to BTFs.
• BTF problems are ranked in terms of EAL, lost
MWhrs, and generation costs.
• Senior corporate and plant management are commit-
ted to mechanism identification, root cause analysis,
and permanent corrective action for all BTF.
• Solving BTF problems is best performed by a “plant
team,” not by a boiler engineer or metallurgist.
• Action plans are prepared for every “repeat” BTFs
problem or serious single BTF event.
• Correcting the root cause (“killing” the mechanism),
rather than “managing damage” from overhaul to
overhaul.
• BTFR Program goals are multidimensional such that
short-term and longterm goals are not in conflict but
in concert with the overall corporate goal of consis-
tently maximizing shareholder return.
• A complete “paper trail” exists for every “repeat” or
serious single event BTF problem that defines and
verifies the BTF mechanism and root cause(s) and
includes separate and distinct action plans to (a)
eliminate future or mitigate the rate of current BTF
by replacement of damaged tubing, and (b) to correct
the root cause(s) such that BTF won’t reoccur in the
future.
11.6.2 Maintaining “World Class” Status in BTFR
These characteristics are more focused on preventing
future BTFs than reacting to current BTFs. They have
become an integral part of the utility’s culture in how the
team responds to a current BTF, or the short- and long-
term actions needed to prevent future failures. Repeat
BTFs become typically a thing of the past in that they are
now rare rather than frequent. Operating and mainte-
nance procedures (in concert with system conditions)
that can influence future BTFs are strongly adhered to.
They are geared to finding damaged tubing early, and
when damage is found, determining the mechanism and
correcting the root cause.
Critical success factors for maintaining a world class
approach to preventing BTF include:
• Performing condition assessment of superheaters
(SH) and reheaters (RH) using the oxide scale
technique within the last 10 years.
• Only considers deviating from maintenance or
operating standards during periods of very serious
system conditions.
• Using BTF forced outages as “investigation opportu-
nities,” system conditions permitting, to optimize
scheduled outages.
11.6.3 Moving Toward “World Class” Status in CCI
The following have been found to be critical success fac-
tors for moving toward world class status in CCI pro-
grams (1013098, 2006):
• Knowledge of lost MWhrs, BTU/KWhr, BTU/hr, and
costs due to equipment cycle chemistry and/or deposi-
tion problems.
• Cycle chemistry corrosion or deposition problems are
ranked in terms of EAL, MWhr losses, or performance
losses (BTU/KWhr, BTU/hr) and their associated
indirect costs.
• Cycle is designed for “world class” performance utiliz-
ing, for example, titanium or very tight condensers,
all-ferrous feedwater heaters, deaerating heaters, and
condensate polishers. Air inleakage is maintained at
very low levels so that oxygen at the condensate pump
discharge is always less than 10 ppb.
• Every unit has the EPRI recommended “core” level of
cycle chemistry instrumentation for unique cycle
diagnosis.
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• Has cycle chemistry process limits, action levels, and
operating procedures for all modes of operation.
• Optimized the feedwater and boiler water chemistry of
all units over the life of the plant.
• Has a comprehensive cycle chemistry layup strategy
for short- and longterm shutdowns of the units.
11.6.4 Maintaining “World Class” Status in CCI
Maintaining a world class CCI program focuses more on
preventing future plant corrosion and deposition prob-
lems than reacting to them. Characteristics of such pro-
grams include extended times for chemical cleaning and
zero cycle chemistry influenced equipment corrosion or
deposition problems.
11.7 HRSG Tube Failure Reduction/Cycle Chemistry
Improvement (HTFR/CCI) Program
Tube failures can be reduced and cycle chemistry related
corrosion and deposition minimized by adopting a for-
mal program for HRSG units similar to that for conven-
tional plants. Many of the aspects of such HTFR/CCI
programs are similar to those outlined for conventional
units in the preceding sections. These include the impor-
tance of the corporate directive (mandate), the formation
and activities of multi-functional teams, and the impor-
tance of the sequence of Mechanism > Root Cause >
Solution.
11-12
The primary difference philosophically is that most com-
bined cycle HRSG units are significantly earlier in their
lives than conventional plants and the opportunity exists
to take many more steps to prevent the occurrence of any
tube failures rather than responding after-the-fact when
failures have occurred. Technically, the steps that should
be taken also differ (such as a larger emphasis on under-
standing thermal transients in HRSG units).
The steps in developing and implementing a HTFR/CCI
program, parallel to those for conventional units
include:
Step 1 – Develop and Implement a Corporate HTFR/
CCI Program Directive
The development and implementation of a corporate
directive (or plant directive) is critical for all the reasons
discussed above for conventional units. It should include
goals such as those outlined in Table 11-6 and example
program directions as shown in Table 11-7.
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Table 11-6
Achievable Goals for a Corporate HRSG Tube Failure Reduction (HTFR) Program
• Limit HRSG tube failures to less than one per unit per year.
• There should be no steam turbine chemical problems.
- No corrosion fatigue in low pressure turbine components.
- No stress corrosion cracking in disks.
- Minimum deposits (no availability losses or performance concerns).
• Effective guidelines for design, procurement, construction, and commissioning should be developed.
• Operational guidelines for all operational conditions and inspections should be developed.
• Optimized chemical treatment should be used for feedwater and all evaporator circuits.
• Eliminate the need for chemical cleaning.
• Simple reliable chemistry instrumentation and control should be implemented.
- Minimum (“core”) level of instrumentation for all units and treatments.
- Continual chemistry surveillance, control, and alarms for all units.
• Optimized procedures for combined cycle unit shutdown and layup should be developed and applied.
• Effective guidelines for HRSG condition assessment and repair should be developed and implemented.

Table 11-7
Sample Corporate Directives for a HTFR/CCI Program
Statements in the directive should give clear direction to plant personnel such as:
Emphasis on HTFR
• There will be a focus on prediction of possible damage early in the life of the unit, such as during commissioning and
early operation, to avoid HTF from the very beginning of unit life.
• Thermal transient analysis will be conducted to avoid known thermally-induced HTF.
• If they occur, every HTF will be reported, documented, and quantified in a comprehensive format describing (i) specific
HRSG and tube locations, (ii) failure mechanism, (iii) root cause and verification, (iv) type of repair, and (v) future
preventive and control action taken or recommended.
• Every HTF will be quantified in terms of failure mechanism, number of failures, availability loss, cost (in $ and MWhr
loss), and historical trend. A priority will then be established for immediate or planned corrective action.
• Every HTF will require a pre-repair inspection to determine (i) failure mechanism, (ii) root cause, (iii) the extent of damage
to the failed tube, (iv) extent of damage of tubing in close proximity of the failed tube, (v) extent of damage of tubing in
other boiler locations subject to the same failure mechanism and root cause, and (vi) whether to obtain sample specimens
appropriate for failure and root cause analysis.
• If repeat HTF occur, this should trigger the need for an Action Plan to prevent and/or eliminate any future HTFs due to this
mechanism and root cause.
• Permanent solutions are to be emphasized.
• Every HTF repair will be inspected and/or tested to verify tube pressure integrity before repair is considered complete.
• Every HTF repair will include quality assurance provisions for welder and inspector certification, welding materials, and
selection of tube material.
• All scheduled major and minor overhauls will include NDE in all areas adjacent to those experiencing damage.
• All modes of HRSG operation will have tube metal temperature limits, actions levels, and action-oriented operating
procedures such that time under HRSG tube damaging process conditions is minimized.

Emphasis on CCI
• Every cycle chemistry (CC) problem will be reported, documented, and quantified.
• Optimum CC will be implemented on all units.
• All “core” parameters will have established limits and be continuously monitored and alarmed in the control room.
• Operators will have the equivalent of 24-hour chemical technical expertise on site (such as ChemExpert).
• All modes of operation will have CC limits, action levels, and action-oriented operating procedures such that HRSG or
turbine damaging process conditions are minimized.
• High priority will be given to elimination of contaminant ingress and air inleakage.

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Step 2 – Establish Corporate and Plant Program Step 7 – Develop and Implement Control Actions and/
Teams or Procedures for All Operator-, Maintenance-, Engi-
neering-, and Management-Controllable Aspects of
As for conventional units, the corporate team should
HTF and CC Corrosion and/or Deposition Problems
consist of a program coordinator and experienced per-
sonnel representing engineering, metallurgy, chemistry, Step 8 – Development and/or Use of a Company-Wide
plant operations, and maintenance. The purposes of the HTF/CC Monitoring Reporting System
corporate team are to establish program guidelines, to
The need for, and value of, a comprehensive and accurate
provide support to plant teams and, when requested, to
database for tracking HRSG conditions (such as thermal
implement them. The plant teams should consist of a
transients), as well as any HTF and CC corrosion and
plant program coordinator, and seasoned representatives
deposition problems cannot be overemphasized. Poor
from engineering, chemistry, operations, and mainte-
input data means poor analysis and developed solutions.
nance. The primary purpose of the plant team is to define
current conditions in the HRSG (for example, thermal Step 9 – Conduct Unbiased Semi-Annual Program
conditions to be established by monitoring; cycle chem- Progress Reviews
istry optimization), solve current HTF/CC problems,
and take those actions needed to prevent future problems 11.8 Benchmarking the HTFR/CCI Program
from occurring. A benchmarking process, similar to that for conventional
units, has been developed for HRSG combined cycle
Step 3 – Training of Operations, Maintenance, Engi-
units. It provides an assessment for an organization of
neering, Chemistry, and Management Personnel in All
its overall approach to HRSG reliability. It is shown in
Controllable Aspects of HTFR/CCI
Table 11-8.
Step 4 – Define HTF and CC Current Conditions and
Problems and Assign Priorities
After training, the plant teams should begin defining and
quantifying conditions that could lead to future HTFs or
CC deposition and/or corrosion problems.
Step 5 – Determine Mechanism, Root Cause, and Cor-
rective Actions for All HTFs and CC-Influenced Corro-
sion and Deposition Problems
The technical guidance provided in Volumes 2 and 3 of
this book provide details about how to execute these
actions.
Step 6 – Develop Action Plans for Addressing All
Repeat or Serious Single Event HTF/CC Problems
These action plans must address two parts of the HTF/
CC problem. One part must address the other tubing
damaged by the primary failure mechanism that still
remains in the HRSG. This can be either in close prox-
imity to the failure or in other locations that might be
susceptible to the same root cause. An analysis is required
to determine resource requirements, costs and imple-
mentation schedule. The second part must be a plan to
correct the root cause of the active mechanism, i.e., to
“kill” the mechanism so that it never becomes active
again.

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Table 11-8
Benchmarking a HTF Reduction Program
Weighting Factor Points Total
3 A. Total number of HTFs in the last three years?
0 0
1-2 1
3-5 2
5-10 3
> 10 4
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____

3 B. Number of chemically influenced HTFs over the last three years (flow-accelerated corrosion,
corrosion fatigue, hydrogen damage, acid phosphate corrosion, caustic gouging, pitting)?
0 0
1-2 1
3-5 2
5-10 3
> 10 4
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____

3 C. What percentage of the EPRI core level of cycle chemistry instrumentation and control to you have?
(see Table 11-9 for Core Level)
100% 0
90-99% 1
70-89% 2
< 70% 3
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____

2 D. Is reducing agent used in the feedwater during operation and/or shutdown?

Yes 1
No 0
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____

2 E. What is the level of iron in the feedwater (generally during steady operation)?
< 5 ppb 0
5-10 ppb 1
11-20 ppb 2
> 20 ppb 3
Don’t know 3
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____
2 F. What is the level of iron in the LP drum (generally during steady operation)?
< 5 ppb 0
5-10 ppb 1
11-20 ppb 2
> 20 ppb 3
Don’t know 3
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____

2 G. Has temperature monitoring been conducted on the LP economizer, superheater and reheater
during startup, shutdown, and operation to identify damaging thermal transients (using specially
installed thermocouples)?
Yes, all three 0
Yes, on two 1
Yes, on one 2
No 3
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____

1 H. Do you have written Action Plans to address root causes of HTF or potential HTF?
Yes 0
No 1
Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____

1 I. Do you have written Action Plans to address damaged tubing or potential damaged tubing?
Yes 0
No 1
Rating System Subtotal (Points x Weighting) _____
World Class Program 5 or less
TOTAL _____
Very Good Program 6-10
Above Average 11-25
Average Program 26-40
Below Average Program 41-45
Poor Program 46-55
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Table 11-9
Supplemental Information for Factor C (Core Cycle Chemistry Monitoring Parameters)
Parameters Measurement Locations
Cation conductivity • Condensate pump discharge
• Condensate polisher effluent (if installed)
• Feedwater (or economizer inlet)
• Drum blowdown (each drum)
• Main steam or reheat steam
Specific conductivity • Makeup
• Drum blowdown (each drum)
pH • Drum blowdown (each drum)
Dissolved oxygen • Condensate pump discharge
• Feedwater (or economizer inlet)
• Drum downcomer (drum unit on OT)
Sodium • Main steam or reheat steam
• Condensate pump discharge
Phosphate • Drum blowdown (each drum using a phosphate treatment)
Silica • Makeup

11.9 Moving Toward and Maintaining “World Class” Programs for HTFR/CCI
Attributes of a “world class” HTF prevention program are presented in Table 11-10.

Table 11-10
Attributes of a “World Class” HTF Prevention Program
• Less than 1 HTF within the first extended (~ 7 year) service period.
• Life cycle damage prevention actions – equipment specification, design,
procurement, fabrication/erection, commissioning, operational, and
maintenance to avoid HTF and optimize cycle chemistry.
• An active HTFRP/CCIP
- Applying multi-step, multi-discipline approach to evaluation and prevention of
repeat failures (mechanism-root cause-solution).
- All key O&M staff have been trained in the program.
• HRSG has designed in (or added) thermal damage avoidance features and:
- Thermal transient are monitored and tested.
- Strain ranges for all cycles are known.
- Fully effective vent and drain systems.
- Automated attemperator systems.
• HRSG has designed in (or added) cycle chemistry damage avoidance features
and:
- Optimized cycle chemistry based on monitoring during commissioning and
operation.
- AVT(O) feedwater (no reducing agent).
- PC or CT for LP evaporator (if possible).
- HP treatment to address contamination (PC or CT).
- Core instrumentation based on cation conductivity.
- Leaktight condensate cooling system and/or CP.
- Wet or dry layup systems/practices that avoid out-of-service corrosion in the
HRSG and turbine.

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11.10 References
1004641, 2002. Valuing Cycle Chemistry in Fossil Power
Plants, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002. 1004641.
1013098, 2006. Integrated Boiler Tube Failure Reduction/
Cycle Chemistry Improvement Program, EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: 2006. 1013098.
Dimmer, 2004. Dimmer, J.P. and R.B. Dooley, “Char-
acteristics of ‘World Class’ Boiler Tube Failure Reduction/
Cycle Chemistry Improvement Programs,” in Proceedings:
International Conference on Boiler Tube and HRSG Tube
Failures and Inspections, held in San Diego, CA, Novem-
ber 2-4, 2004, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2006. 1013629.
GS-7454, 1991. Boiler Tube Failure Reduction Program,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, 1991. GS-7454.

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Chapter 12
Metallurgical Analysis

12.1 The Role of Metallurgical Analysis for Analyzing Boiler and HRSG Tube Failures
The route to action for dealing with boiler and HRSG tube failures consists of three primary
steps: (i) identifying the active mechanism, (ii) identifying the relevant root cause, and
(iii) implementing permanent solutions. These steps are emphasized throughout the discus-
sions of individual mechanisms in Volumes 2 and 3. Metallurgical analysis, the subject of
this chapter, is a vital part of the first key step: confirming the correct mechanism. Subse-
quent root cause analysis will typically utilize the information developed during the metal-
lurgical analysis to identify areas for further examination and eventually effect a permanent
solution. In addition to metallurgical analysis, root cause investigation will typically require
input from a variety of sources, including designers (in the case of recently constructed units)
and operations and maintenance personnel. This chapter addresses the first step in a root
cause investigation: the metallurgical evaluation.
Key objectives for the metallurgical evaluation of boiler tube failures include (TR-102433,
1993):
• To identify properly the damage and underlying failure mechanism.
• To characterize the life-limiting attributes of non-failed tubes so that life prediction can be
made and predictive maintenance techniques can be implemented.
• To detect the early signs of a decreased life expectancy.
• To characterize the active degradation modes so that actions can be taken to forestall
failures.
• To use the metallurgical characteristics of in-service tubing to characterize the localized
environment, temperature, wastage rate, and other key factors so that optimized redesigns
can be developed or so that the need for replacement tubing is documented.
• To identify potential operational problems, such as using deposit analysis as an indicator
of water treatment lapses.
• To identify potential design problems, such as non-uniform flow patterns and poor
attachment design.
• To develop databases of like failures to forecast failure rates. The completed metallurgical
evaluation will confirm the failure mode.
The three key steps in the metallurgical examination process are (i) tube removal and docu-
mentation, (ii) collection and review of tube operating conditions, and (iii) laboratory metal-
lurgical examination of tube section. Each major step includes a number of detailed substeps
as shown in Table 12-1. This chapter briefly reviews each action to be taken.

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Table 12-1
Steps in a Metallurgical Analysis of Failed Boiler or HRSG Tubing
Process Steps
Tube Removal and 1.1. Identify failed or degraded tube sample.
Documentation 1.2. Enter tube location into the tube tracking report form or tracking program.
1.3. Mark and photodocument the tube prior to its removal.
1.4. Perform a visual examination of the tubing, supports, casing, etc. in the vicinity of the failed tube.
1.5. Remove the tube sample.
1.6. Package and transport the tube to the metallurgical laboratory.
Collection of Background 2.1. Prepare a background information package, including sectional drawings with tube location, tube
Information specified dimensions and material, tube design and operating pressure, and tube operating hours.
Laboratory Metallurgical 3.1. Tube receipt and log-in.
Evaluation 3.2. Prepare a metallurgical evaluation plan.
3.3. Visual and nondestructive examination and photodocumentation of as-received condition.
3.4. Ring samples removed for dimensional measurements.
3.5. Samples removed for alloy verification.
3.6. Prepare and evaluate metallographic samples.
3.7. Perform hardness measurements.
3.8. Determine the steamside oxide scale thickness and morphology (steam-touched tubing).
3.9. Determine the composition, morphology, and extent of waterside deposits/scale (water-touched tubing).
3.10. Characterize the external scale/ash deposits and morphology of external surface.
3.11. Prepare metallurgical report for use by BTF/HTF Team.

12.2 Identify Failed or Degraded Tube Sample
(Step 1.1, Table 12-1)
Figure 12-1 shows field documentation of a burst super-
heater support tube; Figure 12-2 shows an LP evaporator
outlet tube bend.
12.3 Enter Location of the Tube into the Tube Tracking
Report or Computer Program (Step 1.2)
This action is a critical part of the overall program to
address tube failures. The form is one aspect of the for-
malized program for the identification and correction of
BTFs/HTFs described in Chapter 11.

Figure 12-2
Figure 12-1 Documenting the field failure; here the mechanism was
Documenting the field failure: a burst superheater tube in a FAC in an LP evaporator outlet tube bend of an HRSG unit.
conventional unit.
Source: Burnett, 2001
Source: TR-102433, 1993

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12.4 Mark and Photodocument the Tube Prior to Its
Removal (Step 1.3)
Information to be included is the direction of gas and
fluid flows, orientation (top/bottom, upstream/down-
stream, side facing gas flows or furnace, etc.), assembly
number, tube row number, tube elevation, boiler section
or HRSG circuit, and an identification number. Figures
12-3 and 12-4 show samples of such a process.
12.5 Perform a Visual Examination of the Boiler/
HRSG in the Vicinity of the Failure (Step 1.4)
The condition of nearby tubes, supports, casing, attach-
ments, sootblowers, and other potentially relevant fac-
tors should be noted.
12.6 Remove the Tube (Step 1.5)
Tube removal and shipping requirements are summa-
rized in Table 12-2. Equipment should be used that will
provide a high quality cut and will minimize debris, such
as electric or air-powered reciprocating saws, or grinders
with thin cut-off wheels. It is important that the amount
of debris entering vertical tubes be minimized to avoid
subsequent blockage and tube failures by short-term
overheating. This objective is usually accomplished by
making the lower cut first and blocking the tube. A 90
cm (3 ft) section of tubing is usually sufficient for a full
metallurgical examination.

Figure 12-4
Figure 12-3 Identification of tube orientation and fluid flow direction for
Identification of the gas flow and steam flow directions, an HRSG tube.
which should be marked along with the tube identification
number prior to its removal from the boiler.
Source: TR-102433, 1993

Table 12-2
Tube Sample Removal and Shipping Requirement
Adapted from: TR-102433, 1993

1. All samples should be saw cut with proper removal techniques to prevent debris from entering the tubing and
avoiding additional end preparation time. Cutting oils should not be used.
2. All samples should be a minimum of 45 cm (18 in.) long. A 90 cm (3 ft) section is preferable. Cuts should be
made at least several inches from any ruptures or leaks to avoid thermally damaging the material in the vicinity of
the failure.
3. The sample should be properly marked to indicate sample identification, gas and fluid flow direction, tube
orientation, etc.
4. The tube ends should be sealed with tape to prevent contamination or loss of deposits or scale.
5. An identification tag should be completed and attached to the sample.
6. A listing of all tube information should be completed and included as a packing list with the samples.
7. A sturdy wooden crate should be used for shipment.
8. The tubes should be wrapped in a layer of polyethylene sheet with water absorbing desiccant inside.
9. Each tube sample should be wrapped in clean rags or packaging material to avoid damage during shipment.
10. The crate should be shipped by air freight or equivalent. Experience has shown that shipping by truck can
sometimes take several weeks.

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12.7 Package and Transport the Tube
to the Metallurgical Laboratory (Step 1.6)
Wrap and package the tube sample to avoid damage and
corrosion during shipping.
12.8 Prepare a Background Information Package
for the Tube (Step 2.1)
The typical information that should be included as back-
ground is listed in Table 12-3.
12.10 Prepare a Metallurgical Evaluation Plan
(Step 3.2)
After logging in the tube and associated samples from it
and providing each with a unique identification number
and/or tag, a plan should be prepared. A form, similar to
that shown in Figure 12-5 for a conventional boiler or
adapted for an HRSG unit, will aid in focusing the inves-
tigation and specifying the work to be performed.

12.9 Tube Receipt and Log-In (Step 3.1)

Log in the tube sample, including a general description
of the tube, materials received, and date received.

Table 12‑3
Typical Boiler/HRSG Tube Failure Background Information
Adapted from: TR-102433, 1993

1.* Sectional side drawing of boiler or HRSG the location of each tube sample.
2.* Tube bundle drawing showing the tube location and showing the specified tube material, dimensions, etc.
3.* Operating hours and total starts (hot, cold, and warm) on the unit since commercial operation date.
4.* Last chemical clean of tubes.
5. Commercial operation date.
6. Total steam turbine generation (MW) of unit, or in the case of an HRSG unit, operation of HRSG if different,
since commercial operation date.
7. For HRSG units, recent history of supplementary burner operation, particularly at the time of, or immediately
preceeding, the failure.
8. Past tube failure history of unit.
9.* Cycle chemistry treatment if the BTF or HTF is obviously from the inside of the tube. Detailed cycle chemistry
data will be needed later during the root cause analysis.
10. Any available tube failure reports.
11. Maintenance records for the boiler section or HRSG circuit of concern including, for example, replacements
or modifications.
12. Previous remaining life studies performed on the section/circuit.
13. Any additional pertinent information on the unit.
*This information is required. Other items are desirable, but not required.

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Figure 12-5
Example of a boiler tube metallurgical evaluation laboratory request form.
Source: TR-102433, 1993

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12.11 Visual and Other Nondestructive Examination;

Photodocumentation of the As-Received Tube
(Step 3.3)
Visual and macroscopic examination of the failed tubing
is an extremely important step. A preliminary diagnosis
of the mechanism can often be made using only macro-
scopic features. Such features can be used as an aid to
lead the investigator to a preliminary diagnosis.
Important features include (TR-102433, 1993) (i) mor-
phology of the rupture (factors such as thick- or thin-
edged fracture surface, pinhole leak, longitudinal or
circumferential orientation to cracking), (ii) thickness
and color of any deposits on both the inner and outer
surfaces, (iii) swelling, (iv) wall thinning, (v) pitting, and
(vi) the presence locally of welds, bends, and attach-
ments. Visual examination should be conducted with
direct and oblique lighting; the latter can often highlight Figure 12-6
Ring section for dimensional measurements.
surface features.
[1 in = 25.4 mm]
Further examination using a stereobinocular microscope
at magnifications up to around 70X can also be useful. 12.13 Alloy Verification (Step 3.5)
Documentation of important features should include It is important that tube material type be verified. Wet
written descriptions of the features observed, sketches, chemical analysis is often used to determine the elemen-
and photographs. Scale and magnification of the photo- tal composition. A number of spectrochemical analysis
graphs should be indicated using a ruler or other com- techniques can also be used for quantitative measure-
mon object, such as a coin. Color photography is useful ments in which the intensities of emission lines are
to show the color of waterside scale, corrosion products, proportional to the amount of each element present.
and ash deposits.
12.14 Prepare and Evaluate Metallographic Samples
12.12 Ring Samples Are Removed for Dimensional (Step 3.6)
Measurements (Step 3.4) Metallography and the evaluation of microstructural fea-
Ring specimens should be cut from the tube and mea- tures are key actions in determining each active boiler or
surements made as shown in Figure 12-6. HRSG tube failure mechanism. Often the thermal and/
This step can be critical in helping to distinguish between or mechanical history of the failed tube (and perhaps
otherwise similar mechanisms such as sootblower ero- more importantly, of those nearby tubes which have not
sion versus flyash erosion or fireside corrosion versus yet failed) can often be determined through metallo-
longterm overheating in conventional fossil units. A sin- graphic analysis.
gle ring or multiple cross-sections may be required, such Such evaluations usually document features such as (TR-
as one from each side of a material transition weld. 102433, 1993) (i) microstructure, (ii) microstructural
Wall thickness readings should be taken at six or more degradation, including degree of spheroidization or
locations around the circumference. Depth of corrosion graphitization, (iii) microstructural transformation,
pits can help judge where minimum wall requirements (iv) pit shape and depth, (v) crack morphology, (vi) char-
have been violated. Measurements of inside and outside acteristics of internal and external scales or deposits
diameters can help judge whether tube swelling has (including thickness, color, and morphology), and
occurred. (vii) the extent of cavitation (transgranular, intergranu-
lar, and any deformation involved).
Measurements can be made with any of a number of
devices, including rulers, calipers, or micrometers.

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Metallographic sections are generally taken on both the Compilations of useful etching reagents are available,
hot and cold sides, at and away from the rupture or loca- including for the following materials (TR-102433, 1993;
tion of maximum damage. ASTM standards E3 (ASTM Vander Voort, 1984): (i) macroetches for ferritic tubing,
E3, 1986), E340 (ASTM E340, 1994), and E407 (ASTM (ii) macroetches for austenitic tubing, (iii) microetches
E407, 1994) cover specimen preparation. for ferritic tubing, (iv) microetches for austenitic tubing,
(v) microetches for dissimilar metal welds (ferritic to aus-
Typical microstructures for all common tubing materials
tenitic), (vi) microetches for nickel/chromium alloys
can be found in (1004509, 2005), which also contains
(Inconel, Incoloy, etc.), and (vii) microetches for oxide
information about mechanical properties, physical prop-
scales. Sulfur print preparation used in fireside corrosion
erties, allowable stress values, creep properties, and aging
analysis and Electroless plating for the edge preservation
effects.
of metallographic mounts is also a required and useful
It is not possible to indicate in detail the approach neces- technique (ASTM E1180, 1994).
sary for any individual failure. It is, however, worth
pointing out that often in the middle of a fracture (i.e.,
the origin of cracking, usually) oxidation or other dam-
age is at its greatest and therefore the original characteris-
tics indicative of the mechanism of fracture can be
obliterated (Woolhouse, 1995). Thus, it is normally more
fruitful to take microspecimens from the ends of the
crack or fracture surface where the damage will be less. It
is, however, always necessary to keep in mind that the
mechanism may vary along the fracture surface or crack.
Fractography is essential to determine from surface
topography any variations that may exist, and often a
range of microsections should be removed to verify
mechanisms (Woolhouse, 1995).
Light microscopy is usually performed with bright-field Figure 12-7
illumination, although various filters, polarizers, and Composite photograph showing the microstructure and
interference techniques can be used, as needed, to high- results of corresponding measures of tube metal hardness
and steamside oxide thickness around the circumference of a
light particular phases and structures. tube. [1 in = 25.4 mm]
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) allows much
higher magnifications than light microscopy and pro- 12.15 Perform Hardness Measurements (Step 3.7)
vides a greater depth of field so that irregular surfaces can Microhardness or mid-wall Rockwell hardness measure-
be viewed directly without metallographic preparation. ments can be used as a further diagnostic. Standard
These features make SEM applicable to viewing fracture methods, for example ASTM E10 (ASTM E10, 1993)
surfaces and determining the mode of fracture (ductile or for Brinell hardness testing and E18 (ASTM E18, 1993)
brittle) and, in some cases, the intensity and frequency of for Rockwell hardness testing, and sample preparation
stresses driving a crack. techniques are commonly available.
Figure 12-7 shows a composite of metallography infor-
mation combined with hardness and oxide thickness 12.16 Determine the Steamside-Oxide Scale Thickness
measurements (the subjects of the next two steps) to pro- and Morphology (Steam-Touched Tubes) (Step 3.8)
vide significant detail about a particular tube sample. A tremendous amount of information is contained in the
steamside oxide of SH and RH boiler and HRSG tube
It is often necessary to etch the microstructure of a met-
Figure 12-8.
allurgical cross-section.

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Figure 12-8
The thickness of steamside oxide can be used to estimate the
longterm temperature of the tube; the morphology provides
an indication of the thermal history. In this example, the
scale is composed of a thick outer magnetite (Fe3O4) layer on
top of alternating layers of Fe3O4 and (Fe,Cr,Mo)3O4. The
oxide shown in (A) was from a 2¼ Cr-1 Mo leading row
reheater tube. The oxide shown in (B) was from a 1¼ Cr–1
Mo leading row superheater tube that had only been in
service for three months prior to failing by subcritical short-
term overheating.
Figure 12-9
The thickness of the scale can be used to estimate the Typical plot showing the relationship between wall loss and
longterm service temperature of a tube and is a critical steamside oxide scale thickness. Rules of thumb for interpret-
part of the evaluation of remaining life (see Chapter 14, ing such plots are provided.
Volume 1). The ratio of steamside scale thickness to wall 12.17 Characterize the Composition, Morphology,
loss (at one location around the tube periphery) can be and Extent of Waterside Deposits/Scale
used to determine whether fireside/gas-side wastage is (Water-Touched Tubes) (Step 3.9)
more predominant than the growth of internal steamside
The analysis of internal deposits and scale of water-
scale. This determination can be a powerful aid to sorting
touched tubing is a primary means of distinguishing
out the primary mechanism for a particular tube failure.
among failure mechanisms and is useful for determining
A plot showing typical information obtained is shown in
whether there are unit shortcomings such as excessive
Figure 12-9. This particular example is for longterm
feedwater corrosion products and/or a need to
overheating versus fireside corrosion in a conventional
chemically clean.
boiler. A similar plot can distinguish between longterm
overheating and a gas-side process in an HRSG tube. The metallographic analyses undertaken in this step are
key not only in assisting in the overall BTF/HTF analy-
The morphology of the scale may be used to answer a
sis, but also in providing “vital signs” information on the
number of questions, including the thermal cycling seen
condition of the unit overall.
by the tube.
The total internal scale on water-touched tubing, espe-
As with other evaluations, the thickness and morphology
cially in high heat flux areas, consists of two parts:
of the internal scale should be documented at multiple
(i) protective Fe3O4 (typically between 5 and 10 mm)
locations around the tube.
plus (ii) deposits (which can be over 100 mm thick).
There is an important assessment needed for each of
these parts.

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Assessing the Fe3O4 indicates the level of protection 12.18 Characterize the External Scale/Ash Deposits
afforded by the chemical boiler treatment. The layer and Morphology of the External Surface (Step 3.10)
should be uniform and continuous. What is its general
Judgment about fireside/gas-side corrosion mechanisms
condition? Is it cracked, removed, or missing in places?
can be inferred from knowledge of the fireside or gas-side
Is it laminated, composed of alternating porous and
scale/ash constituents. Typically this involves (i) examin-
dense layers? Has it been removed altogether and replaced
ing the scale and ash layers metallographically,
by a corrosion product?
(ii) determining their compositions by spectrochemical
Evaluating the deposits which have formed provides analysis or X-ray diffraction, (iii) determining the distri-
important supplemental information to the chemical bution of constituents by EDX mapping, and/or (iv)
cleaning process. Two types of information which are atomic absorption spectroscopy to determine the acid or
particularly useful are the thickness of the deposits and water soluble constituents within each distinct layer,
their composition/morphology. As a rule of thumb, especially the inner and intermediate layer(s), and (v)
dividing the total thickness of the deposit (in microns) measuring their melting temperature(s) by thermogravi-
by a factor of three gives the weight in mg/cm2. This con- metric analyses (ASTM E1131, 1992) and/or differential
version is useful because the extent of deposits is gener- thermal analysis (ASTM E794, 1992).
ally determined by the methods of ASTM Standard
For fireside corrosion in conventional fossil boilers, the
D3483, involving either mechanical or chemical solvent
identification of low-melting point compounds in the
deposit removal (ASTM D3483, 1992). The deposits so
ash is particularly illuminating. Details can be found
removed are weighed. Chemical cleaning frequency can
in Volume 2, Chapter 25, and Chapters 45 and 46 in
be triggered by the amount of deposits accumulated.
Volume 3.
The deposits usually contain Fe3O4, copper, zinc, and
A sulfur print can be used to verify the presence and loca-
nickel, as well as calcium, phosphorus, and other ele-
tions of sulfur in fireside/gas-side deposits. This is done
ments from water treatment practice. The composition
by soaking photographic paper in a weak sulfuric acid
will help determine the applicable solvent for the chemi-
solution and holding a freshly cut ring sample against the
cal clean. The distribution of elements is also important;
emulsion for several minutes. Dark areas on the print,
for example, is all of the Cu toward the outside of the
caused by precipitation of silver sulfide on the paper,
deposit or uniformly distributed throughout?
correspond to the amount and distribution of sulfur (as
Chemical analysis is generally performed by energy dis- sulfide) in the sample.
persive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy or X-ray diffraction.
The bulk deposits can be analyzed by EDX directly on a 12.19 Preparation of a Metallurgical Report
large area of the tube or, for more detailed analysis, on a (Step 3.11)
cross-section through the tube. X-ray diffraction can be
used to identify the specific compounds that are present. The findings of the metallurgical analysis will be central
The patterns of diffraction of a sample, usually at least 1 to the BTF/HTF team in confirming the mechanism of
mg, are compared to known standard patterns for precise failure, identifying specific root causes, and specifying
identification. The common corrosion products are indi- the applicable permanent solutions. For this reason, the
cated throughout the mechanism sections in Volumes 2 importance of completing the metallurgical analysis and
and 3. Further information, in the case of unidentified or transmitting the results in a comprehensive and useful
new compounds, is also extensively available (TR- form cannot be overstated.
102433, 1993).
Carefully determining the morphology of waterside
deposits is the most accurate means for distinguishing
among the underdeposit corrosion mechanisms: hydro-
gen damage, acid phosphate corrosion, and caustic
gouging.

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Metallurgical Analysis Volume 1: Fundamentals

12.20 References ASTM E1131, 1992. American Society for Testing and
Materials, Standard E1131-86, “Standard Test Method
1004509, 2005. Metallurgical Guidebook for Fossil Power for Compositional Analysis by Thermogravimetry, 1992
Plant Boilers, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005. 1004509. Annual Book of ASTM Standards: General Methods and
ASTM D3483, 1992. American Society for Testing and Instrumentation, Volume 14.02, American Society for
Materials, Standard D3483-83 (1990), “Standard Test Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1992.
Method for Accumulated Deposition in a Steam Genera- ASTM E1180, 1994. American Society for Testing and
tor Tube,” 1992 Annual Book of ASTM Standards: Water, Materials, Standard E1180-94 (1994), “Standard Prac-
Volume 11.02, American Society for Testing and Materi- tice for Preparing Sulfur Prints for Microstructural
als, Philadelphia, PA, 1992. Examination,” 1994 Annual Book of ASTM Standards,
ASTM E3, 1986. American Society for Testing and Volume 03.01, American Society for Testing and Materi-
Materials, Standard E3-80 (1986), “Standard Methods als, Philadelphia, PA, 1994.
of Preparation of Metallographic Specimens,” 1994 Burnett, 2001. Burnett, T., “Flow-accelerated Corrosion
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 03.01, Ameri- in Heat Recovery Generator Low Pressure Sections’”
can Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, PDOC Conference, July 12, 2001.
1994.
TR-102433, 1993. Boiler Tube Failure Metallurgical
ASTM E10, 1993. American Society for Testing and Guide, Volume 1: Technical Report, Volume 2: Appendices,
Materials, Standard E10-93 (1993), “Standard Testing EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1993. TR-102433.
Method for Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials,”
1994 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 03.01, Vander Voort, 1984. Vander Voort, G.F., Metallography
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadel- Principles and Practice, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY,
phia, PA, 1994. 1984.
ASTM E18, 1993. American Society for Testing and Woolhouse, 1995. Personal Communication from
Materials, Standard E18-93 (1993), “Standard Test K. Woolhouse (FCA) to R.B. Dooley, February 1995.
Methods for Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell Superfi-
cial Hardness of Metallic Materials,” 1994 Annual Book
of ASTM Standards, Volume 03.01, American Society for
Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1994.
ASTM E340, 1994. American Society for Testing and
Materials, Standard E340-87 (1987), “Standard Test
Method for Macroetching Metals and Alloys,” 1994
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 03.01, Ameri-
can Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA,
1994.
ASTM E407, 1994. American Society for Testing and
Materials, Standard E407-93 (1993), “Standard Practice
for Microetching Metals and Alloys,” 1994 Annual Book
of ASTM Standards, Volume 03.01, American Society for
Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1994.
ASTM E794, 1992. American Society for Testing and
Materials, Standard E794-85 (1989), “Standard Test
Method for Melting Temperatures and Crystallization
Temperatures by Thermal Analysis,” 1992 Annual Book
of ASTM Standards: General Methods and Instrumenta-
tion, Volume 14.02, American Society for Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1992.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

Chapter 13
Distinguishing Features
Among Mechanisms with
Similar Appearances

13.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to define clear and distinguishing features among several
groups of BTF/HTF mechanisms which may have superficial similarities. If the wrong
mechanism is identified, there is little chance that the appropriate root cause and solution
can be chosen. By bringing together the various easily misdiagnosed mechanisms, it is hoped
that this problem will be avoided.
Mechanisms discussed include:
Mechanism Section Applicable to Applicable to
Conventional HRSGs
Boilers
Waterside underdeposit corrosion mechanisms (hydrogen 13.2 X X
damage, caustic gouging, acid phosphate corrosion)
Short-term overheating (three grades) in water-touched tubing 13.3 X
Corrosion fatigue versus OD-initiated mechanical fatigue in 13.4 X X
water-touched tubing
Failure mechanisms in economizer inlet headers: thermal 13.5 Mainly
fatigue, flow-accelerated corrosion, and flexibility-induced
cracking
Longterm overheating/creep versus fireside corrosion 13.6 X
Flyash erosion versus sootblower erosion in SH/RH tubing 13.7 X
Graphitization and longterm overheating/creep in SH/RH 13.8 X
tubing
Intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC), intergranular 13.9 X X
creep, and intergranular corrosion or attack (IGA)
Low temperature creep versus fatigue or stress corrosion 13.10 X
cracking in waterwall tubes
Thermal-mechanical fatigue versus creep-fatigue, particularly 13.11 X
in SH/RH of HRSG units
Secondary steam impingement versus primary failures 13.12 X X

The information presented here complements that which can be found in the detailed
discussion of the individual mechanisms in Volumes 2 and 3.
13.2 Waterside Underdeposit Corrosion Mechanisms: Hydrogen Damage, Caustic
Gouging, and Acid Phosphate Corrosion
These three corrosion mechanisms are superficially similar in appearance; as a result, distin-
guishing among them is not simple. For example, all will have internal surface gouges, often
significant, which often will be filled with thick deposits. All three mechanisms will generally
occur in similar locations. They are all waterside mechanisms, found in waterwall tubes of
conventional boilers and HP evaporators of HRSGs, generally initiating on the fireside (hot
side) of the inside surface. They will all initiate in locations where a deposit of feedwater

13-1
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Distinguishing Features Among Mechanisms with Similar Appearances Volume 1: Fundamentals

corrosion product has occurred, generally as a result of
one or more of the flow disruptions (see Table 22-2).
These are precursors to all three waterside, underdeposit
corrosion mechanisms.
Table 13-1 lists some of the key characteristics that can
be used to distinguish among the three.
Other factors to consider include:
• All three mechanisms are superficially similar in appear-
ance. Distinguishing among them is not simple. For
example, all will have superficial tube gouging and the
formation of deposits.
• All three mechanisms will generally occur in similar
locations; location is not a way of distinguishing among
them.
• Hydrogen damage must have acidic contamination
and therefore will not occur when caustic gouging or
acid phosphate corrosion is active. However, it can
occur with caustic or phosphate treatments if acidic
contamination occurs and can occur in prior caustic
gouging or acid phosphate corrosion areas.
• Neither acidic, caustic nor phosphate concentration by
itself is sufficient to cause damage by any of these three
mechanisms. These mechanisms must also have sub-
stantial deposition and often occur where flow disrup-
tion accelerates deposition.
• Deposition alone is also not sufficient to cause hydro-
gen damage, caustic gouging, or acid phosphate corro-
sion. They must also have concentration of the requisite
aggressive chemicals.
13.2.1 Features of the Failure
Macroscopically, hydrogen damage will often be mani-
fested by a thick-edged, “window opening” failure
appearance. This is a result of weakened base material
and a resultant brittle final failure. In contrast, caustic
gouging and acid phosphate corrosion are not accompa-
nied by microstructural degradation, which means that
final failure is most often ductile and will manifest itself
as a thin-edged or pin-hole failure.

Table 13-1
Distinguishing Characteristics of Hydrogen Damage, Caustic Gouging, and Acid Phosphate Corrosion
Characteristic Hydrogen Damage
Features of failure • Gouged areas, thick deposits.
• Thick-edged, often “window opening”
failure appearance.
• Brittle failure.
Effect on oxide • Oxide growth under stress leads to
and characteristic thick, multilayer scale (alternating
deposits layers of porous and dense magnetite),
which may be missing as a result of
failure incident.
Key microstructural • Intergranular microfissures in base tube • Material removal only; no
features material linking to form cracks.
• Multi-laminated, non-protective oxide
sometimes containing chloride at
scale/metal interface.
• Decarburization gradually spreads
across tube wall from ID.
Root causes • Deposits formed by a number of root
causes plus acidic contamination
(several potential sources) beneath
deposit.
Cycle chemistry • Source for low pH contamination
implications (acidic) exists. Can be bulk or local
concentration only.
Attack rate • Very rapid: can be > 10 mm/yr
(> 0.39 in/yr). Failures can occur
within six months.
Caustic Gouging
• Gouged areas; thick, adherent
deposits.
• Ductile, thin-edged, or pinhole
failure.
• Caustic concentrates at base of • Acid phosphate chemicals
deposit and leads to dissolution
of protective oxide via
“fluxing.”
• Deposit usually contains
distinctive crystals of sodium
ferroate and/or sodium ferroite.
microstructural changes in tube
steel.
• No protective oxide layer.
• Distinctive metal removal
usually filled with adherent
deposit.
• Deposits formed (similar
formation) plus caustic
concentration beneath deposit.
• Source for high pH levels
(caustic) exists.
• Rapid: up to 2 mm/yr
(0.08 in/yr).
Acid Phosphate Corrosion
• Gouged areas; thick, loose deposits.
• Ductile, thin-edged, or pinhole failure.
concentrate at base of deposit and
lead to dissolution of protective oxide
(fluxing).
• Two or three distinct layers of
which the inner layer (white, gray,
and speckled with red) is maricite
(NaFePO4).
• Similar to caustic gouging (no
intergranular hydrogen fissures);
distinctive corrosion product
(maricite) on innermost layer.
• No protective oxide layer.
• Deposits (similar formation) plus acid
phosphate concentration beneath
deposit.
• Occurs with addition of mono- and/
or di-sodium phosphate, but not with
tri-sodium phosphate alone.
• Rapid.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Distinguishing Features Among Mechanisms with Similar Appearances
13.2.2 Effect on Oxide and Characteristic Deposits
With hydrogen damage, both the mechanism of magne-
tite growth and the rate are affected. The rate of magne-
tite growth changes from parabolic (protective) to linear,
resulting in the formation of thick multilayer scale of
porous and dense magnetite. This scale may be missing
after the failure as a result of the failure incident itself,
requiring additional means to identify hydrogen
damage.
Both caustic gouging and acid phosphate corrosion
mechanisms occur via a fluxing of the protective magne-
tite. With caustic gouging, the deposit that forms will
usually contain distinctive crystals of sodium ferroate
(NaFeO2) and/or sodium ferroite (Na2FeO2). Acid phos-
phate corrosion will generally result in a deposit that
contains two or three distinct layers of which the white/
gray inner layer is maricite (NaFePO4) speckled with red
hematite. Examples of the appearance of deposits typical
of the three mechanisms are shown in Chapters 22-24,
Volume 2.
It will likely be necessary to determine the composition
of the deposit via an analytical technique such as energy
dispersive X-ray or equivalent to confirm the presence of
key elements. Spectra of deposits for hydrogen damage
will show a typical distinctive Cl peak; those for acid
phosphate corrosion a P peak. Similarly, the Na-contain-
ing sodium ferroate and/or sodium ferroite will indicate
an underlying cause by caustic gouging.
13.2.3 Microstructural Features
Hydrogen damage causes specific deterioration to the
base material microstructure. Intergranular microfissures
will form, linking to form microcracks and leading to
eventual through-wall failure. Decarburization will occur
near the tube surface. Because the damage is caused by
hydrogen diffusing into the base metal from the inside,
the degradation will be most prominent at the inner sur-
face and will decrease with thickness toward the outside
of the tube. There is no equivalent microstructural degra-
dation accompanying caustic gouging or acid phosphate
corrosion.
Note, however, that all of these failure mechanisms
require as a precursor the presence of deposits consisting
of feedwater corrosion products. As a result, these mech-
anisms are sometimes accompanied by sufficient over-
heat to cause deterioration of the tube steel. This will
generally be manifested by distinct microstructural
changes and the presence of transformation products.
13.2.4 Sources of Contamination
Finally, the sources of chemical concentration that even-
tually lead to corrosion damage by each of the mecha-
nisms are also distinctly different.
Hydrogen damage requires a locally acidic contamina-
tion. Typical sources include (i) small condenser leaks
over many months, (ii) a large condenser leak leading to
a large ingress of contaminated water such as sea water,
(iii) breakdown of the water treatment plant, such as
improper valving or rinsing following regeneration of
ion exchange resins, leading to an ingress of sulfuric or
hydrochloric acid, or (iv) an improper chemical cleaning
process where incomplete removal of deposits occurs and
acid-filled remnants then lead to more hydrogen damage
during startup.
Caustic gouging requires a contamination of caustic,
such as (i) an elevated level of caustic in units on caustic
treatment (continued level above 2 ppm), (ii) excessive
additions of caustic in units on all-volatile treatment
(mainly during startup), (iii) too high a level of caustic as
a control chemical under phosphate treatment, or
(iv) ingress of caustic as a result of water treatment plant
or condensate polisher regeneration breakdown.
Acid phosphate corrosion generally occurs because of
improper phosphate cycle chemistry controls, particu-
larly “chasing” of phosphate hideout by adding mono-
sodium phosphate or an excess of di-sodium phosphate.
Acid phosphate attack has not occurred with the use of
only tri-sodium phosphate.
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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Distinguishing Features Among Mechanisms with Similar Appearances Volume 1: Fundamentals
13.2.5 Summarizing Comments for the Underdeposit
Corrosion Mechanisms
In order to occur, all three mechanisms must have both
excessive tube deposits and a source of contamination.
Acidic, caustic, or phosphate contamination by itself is
not sufficient to cause damage; there must also be exces-
sive deposits to allow concentration to occur. The pres-
ence of each of the contaminants can have significant
effects in other parts of the cycle in addition to underde-
posit corrosion of waterwall tubes.
Similarly, deposition alone is not sufficient to cause hydro-
gen damage, caustic gouging, or acid phosphate corro-
sion; there must also be a concentration of the applicable
contaminant. Here again, excessive deposits must be
avoided as they can lead to a range of other problems
including boiler tube failures in waterwalls by fireside
corrosion, short- and longterm overheating, and corro-
sion fatigue. Hence the criticality of chemical cleaning at
the optimum time.
13.3 Water-Touched Tubing: Short-Term Overheating
(Three Grades)
In the case of short-term overheating in waterwall tubes,
the distinction between the three levels of overheating is
more a diagnostic than a means to pinpoint the appro-
priate mechanism. Specifically, an evaluation of micro-
structural change can be used to estimate the tube
temperature reached at burst.
Three levels of “short-term”overheating are possible,
depending on whether the temperature at burst was (i)
below the lower critical temperature, A1 (“subcritical
short-term overheating”), (ii) between A1 and the upper
critical temperature, A3 (“intercritical short-term over-
heating”), or (iii) above A3 (“upper critical short-term
overheating”). Figure 34-1 shows the equilibrium dia-
gram for iron-iron carbide and the regions where these
temperature ranges are operative. Additional detail about
the defining characteristics of each of the three degrees of
overheating is shown in Table 13-2.
The base metal has a typical microstructure consisting of
ferrite and pearlite and normal limits on its operating
temperature of about 440°C (~ 825°F). The explanation
of why the microstructural differences occur for different
levels of overheating can be seen by reference to the iron-
iron carbide phase diagram pertinent to waterwall tube
materials in Figure 34-1.
13-4
If the temperature before burst exceeds the A1 tempera-
ture, the pearlite will be transformed to austenite. If the
A3 temperature is exceeded, the original material will all
be transformed to austenite, and because of the quench-
ing effects of tube rupture, upon examination will con-
sist of martensite and bainite. Thus the maximum
temperature reached can be determined by the relative
amounts of ferrite, bainite, and martensite in samples of
the failed tubing.
In the case of overheating to levels above the A3 tempera-
ture, the final fracture will generally be thick-edged as
indicated in Table 13-2. As noted, it will show micro-
structural evidence of the complete transformation of the
ferrite structure to austenite and subsequent transforma-
tion to martensite or bainite on cooling.
13.4 Water-Touched Tubing: Corrosion Fatigue Versus
OD-Initiated Mechanical Fatigue
Corrosion fatigue, particularly in the form manifested as
a pinhole leak, may be similar in visual appearance to
mechanical fatigue cracks that have initiated on the OD.
Both may seem to be associated with a weld from the
tube to an external attachment. The primary difference is
that corrosion fatigue cracks initiate from the inside sur-
face whereas mechanical fatigue will tend to initiate from
the outside surface of the tube. Additional differences,
summarized in Table 13-3, include:
• As a general rule, the OD-initiated fatigue will be at a
surface defect that causes a geometric stress riser, such
as the toe of a weld, whereas it would be rare for a cor-
rosion fatigue crack to grow to the outside surface pre-
cisely at a stress riser. The exception is where cracks
grow from both sides by the respective mechanisms,
and failure occurs through both.
• If grinding is performed before weld repair, ID-initi-
ated corrosion fatigue cracks will become more exten-
sive with deeper grinding whereas the surface initiated
fatigue crack will decrease in size.
 Table 13-2
Distinguishing Features of the Three Levels of Short-Term Overheating for Waterwall and Evaporator Materials
Type of Overheating Temperature Range Fracture Surface Extent of Tube Fracture Mechanism Microstructure (for ferritic tubing) Hardness Characteristics
Swelling
Subcritical short- > Design Thin-lipped, “fish- Considerable Transgranular void formation Ferrite and spheroidized pearlite or Near that of original
term overheating mouth” by power law creep. bainite. hardness.
< Lower critical
temperature, A1
Volume 1: Fundamentals

Intercritical short- Between the lower Thin-lipped, “fish- Considerable Transgranular or mixed Ferrite, transformational products Variable, with hardness
term overheating critical temperature, A1, mouth” inter- and transgranular void (pearlite, bainite, and/or martensite). near transformation
and the upper critical formation by power law Some spheroidized pearlite or bainite products being higher
temperature, A3 creep. may also be present. than the original.
Upper critical short- > Upper critical Thick-lipped, “fish- Little Inter- or transgranular creep Near rupture, transformational Above original.
term overheating temperature, A3 mouth” fracture. products (pearlite, bainite, and/or
martensite). Some ferrite may also be
present.

Table 13-3
Distinguishing Corrosion Fatigue from Thermal-Mechanical Fatigue of Water-Touched Tubes
Characteristic Corrosion Fatigue Mechanical Fatigue
Initiation Location • Inside surface. • Outside surface.

Proximity to stress riser at outside • Possible, especially if the weld is the attachment weld of • Typical condition exactly at the toe of the weld.
surface, such as the toe of a weld the tube to a non-pressure part. Cracking may be slightly
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

removed from the exact toe position.

Appearance when grinding out • Damage appears to increase as grinding proceeds • Damage decreases as grinding progresses from outside
defect from outside surface. Flaw increases in size toward its surface inward.
initiating site at inside surface.

13-5
Distinguishing Features Among Mechanisms with Similar Appearances
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Distinguishing Features Among Mechanisms with Similar Appearances Volume 1: Fundamentals

13.5 Failure Mechanisms in Economizer Inlet Headers:
Thermal Fatigue, Flow-Accelerated Corrosion, and
Flexibility-Induced Cracking
Three distinct failure mechanisms occur in economizer
inlet header tubes, and similarities in location may lead
to confusion. Table 13-4 summarizes key differences
between thermally induced corrosion fatigue, flexibility-
induced (thermal fatigue) cracking, and flow-accelerated
corrosion.
Table 13-5 provides a list of primary macroscopic and
microscopic features of the two mechanisms. For com-
parison, the characteristics of short-term overheating are
also included in the Table. When distinguishing between
creep and fireside corrosion, it is important to note that
many of the features are superficially similar. For both
mechanisms the final failure mechanism is creep which is
easily identified. The problem is recognizing the domi-
nant underlying root cause.

13.6 SH/RH Tubing: Longterm Overheating (Creep)

Versus Fireside Corrosion in Conventional Boilers
Two of the most often misdiagnosed BTF mechanisms
are failures of an SH/RH tube by (i) longterm overheat-
ing, with or without accelerated oxidation, leading to a
final failure by creep, and (ii) fireside corrosion by mol-
ten alkali sulfates, also resulting in subsequent creep.

Table 13-4
Distinguishing Features of the Common Damage Mechanisms in Economizer Inlet Headers
Characteristic Thermally Induced (Corrosion)
Fatigue
(Chapter 27)
Location on header • Locations of highest DT
Location in tube • Near toe of fillet weld
attachment weld area
Nature of damage • Longitudinal cracking from ID.
• Longitudinal cracking is also
present down the header bore
and the header ID, sometimes
across the ligaments.
Damage morphology • Straight, transgranular cracks, • Generally, straight,
typically filled with oxide
originating on the tube ID. May
be discontinuous and bulbous
in cross section.
Initiation site • ID-initiated.
Orientation of the • Longitudinal (parallel) to tube
damage axis on ID.
Flexibility-Induced Cracking
(Thermal Fatigue)
(Chapter 28)
• At the ends of the header
(locations of highest flex).
• At the toe of the fillet weld.
• Cracking at weld only from
the OD. Header and ID are
not cracked.
transgranular cracks
originating on tube OD,
typically with slight oxidation
depending upon service
conditions.
• OD-initiated.
• Circumferential around the
toe of the weld on the OD.
Flow-Accelerated Corrosion
(Chapter 32)
• Near to feedwater inlet.
• Anywhere along the first 10-12
cm (4-5 in.) from the header
inlet.
• Wastage with an “orange-peel”
appearance of internal tube
surface.
• Generally FAC is not visible
along the header bore or on
header ID.
• Generalized corrosion,
“orange peel” appearance
typical on tube ID.
• ID-initiated.
• In the middle of the largest
gouge on the ID.

13-6
 Table 13-5
Comparison of Characteristics of Longterm Overheating/Creep, Short-Term Overheating, and Fireside Corrosion (Coal-Fired Units)
in Superheater/Reheater Tubing
Characteristic Longterm Overheating
Fracture Surface and • Generally thick-edged, brittle final failure.
Appearance of Failure
• Generally accompanied by external tube
wastage at the 10 o’clock and 2 o’clock
positions.
Thick Internal Oxides? Yes, generally extensive, multi-laminated on
ferritic alloys and exfoliating.
External Scaling? • Yes, thick, laminated, and often
longitudinally cracked.
• Usually two layers: (i) a hard, porous outer
layer with composition typically that of flyash
and (ii) a black glossy inner layer, mostly
oxide but may contain some sulfates and
sulfides of iron.
Outside surface Characteristic longitudinal grooving and
appearance after removal pitting (“alligator hide”).
of scale/deposits
Composition of External Does not contain low melting point ash
Scales/Deposits compounds such as alkali iron sulfates.
Wall Thinning? Typically wastage flats at 10 o’clock and
2 o’clock positions caused by accelerated
oxidation. There is always a layer of oxide
adjacent to the tube.
Ratio of wall loss to Typically less than 3:1.
steamside oxide thickness?
Tube Material Degradation Yes, generally extensive signs of overheating
and/or of creep damage, particularly near to
the crack tip. Creep voids will not be found
away from crack tip, except in T91 alloys.
Change in material Localized softening near the rupture is
hardness typical.
13-7
Short-Term Overheating
• Usually thin-edged, ductile final failures.
• Swelling of tubes without ovalization.
• “Fish-mouth” appearance of tube rupture.
• Not necessarily thick. Depends on age of tube Yes, particularly if tube metal overheating was a root
at failure.
Not necessarily thick.
Swelling, stretch marks on tube metal.
Not relevant.
Only because of bulging of tube material.
Not relevant.
Depends on the material and the maximum
temperature reached.
For example, for the most rapid overheating
failures, there will be relatively little
microstructural change
Localized hardening near the rupture is likely. Hardening is not necessary; if there has been no
Fireside Corrosion
• Tube wastage, particularly at the 10 and 2 o’clock
positions.
• Longitudinal cracking, final failure can be, but not
necessarily, by overheating.
Volume 1: Fundamentals
cause. But overheating is not absolutely necessary for
fireside corrosion.
Yes, with multi-layers: (i) a hard porous layer
– composition typically of flyash, (ii) an intermediate
layer containing complex alkali sulfates, and (iii) a black,
glossy inner layer mostly of oxides, sulfates, and sulfides
of iron.
Characteristic longitudinal grooving and pitting
(“alligator hide”). Sometimes the corroded area is
smooth and featureless. Sometimes “orange peel”
appearance at extremities of severe corrosion.
Does contain low melting point compounds such as
alkali iron sulfates.
Primary feature of failure, may be worse at the 10 and 2
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
o’clock positions. Depending upon the rate of corrosion,
a protective oxide layer may remain on the tube or may
have been fluxed off.
Typically greater than 3:1; for ratios greater than 5:1,
fireside corrosion or erosion is the dominant mechanism.
If overheating has been a problem, yes; otherwise,
no. Fireside corrosion can occur in a tube at design
temperatures. Can be a carburized band adjacent to the
fireside deposits.
overheating, there will be no change in hardness. If
carburization is associated with corrosion, then an
increase in hardness may be observed.
Distinguishing Features Among Mechanisms with Similar Appearances
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Distinguishing Features Among Mechanisms with Similar Appearances Volume 1: Fundamentals

In the case of longterm overheating, the tubes operate

above the design temperature limits. This can occur
(i) from unit startup because of poor design or material
choice, (ii) as a result of the accumulation of internal
oxide scale, which results in increased tube metal tem-
peratures, (iii) restricted steam flow, (iv) various operat-
ing conditions or changes in operation, (v) blockage or
laning of gas passages, or (vi) thinned tube walls. Wast-
age can occur, generally at the 10 o’clock and 2 o’clock
positions on the tube (flue gas at the 12 o’clock position)
as a result of increased oxidation. The outside tube
surface generally has an “alligator hide” appearance.
The internal scale that develops is usually thick,
multi-laminated, and cracked.
In the case of fireside corrosion, the overriding cause is a
corrosive coal or oil ash. This causes the formation of a
liquid ash deposit, which fluxes away the protective
oxide. The tube is not necessarily overheated, although it
can be for the same reasons as listed above for longterm
overheating. The appearance of the external tube surface
can be the same as for longterm overheating (thick, dark,
“alligator hide” oxide), and there can be thick, cracked
internal oxide as well. The key feature that will identify
fireside corrosion wastage is the presence of low-melting
point ash compounds in external deposits.
A second means to distinguish between the two mecha-
nisms is the ratio of wall thickness loss to internal scale
thickness. An example is shown in Figure 13-1.
Figure 13-1
Schematic representation of steamside oxide thickness versus
tube wastage (wall loss). Such a plot can be used to distin-
guish between longterm overheating/creep and fireside
corrosion mechanisms. (1 in. = 25.4 mm)
Source: TR-102433, 1993
If the ratio of wall loss to internal scale buildup is less
than three the probable mechanism is longterm over-
heating; if greater than five, the dominant mechanism is
fireside corrosion. Where the problem is on the extrados
of a bend, these ratios may not apply because of the thin-
ning caused by the bending fabrication process.
13.7 SH/RH Tubing: Flyash Erosion Versus
Sootblower Erosion
Table 13-6 provides a comparison of the principal differ-
ences between flyash erosion and sootblower erosion.
The primary means to distinguish between the two is the
location of the damage relative to the position of the
sootblowers. This same logical correspondence between
the damage caused by an erosive process, and the source
of the impacting particles will help identify other erosion
processes in the unit, such as coal particle erosion and
falling slag damage.

Table 13-6
Distinguishing Characteristics of Sootblower and Flyash Erosion
Feature Sootblower Erosion
Correlation of damage to distance from Obvious correspondence between (i) the severity
a sootblower of the erosion and (ii) the distance to sootblower
and the track of the sootblower.
Nature of wastage flats Generally two, located at 45° around tube
circumference from direction of sootblowing.
Severity of erosive process Can be very severe with short times to tube
failure in the case of a deficiency in the
sootblowing operation.
Principal underlying cause Excessive use, malfunction, improper operation,
or poor maintenance of sootblowers.
Flyash Erosion
None.
Flats form in direction facing into gas flow.
Tends to occur over somewhat longer periods,
although it can also be rapid in the case of
extreme local velocity profiles or ash loadings.
Excessive local flue gas velocities exacerbated
by high ash loadings.

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13.8 SH/RH Tubing: Graphitization and Longterm Intergranular creep will show the presence of grain
Overheating (Creep) boundary creep cavitation under high magnification;
intergranular SCC will not. During polishing of the
Graphitization has been frequently confused with creep
material for metallurgical examination, SCC damage will
damage. Primary distinguishing features will be in the
typically have grains that fall out, whereas the cracking
appearance of the material’s microstructure. Specifically
tends to be more discontinuous for intergranular creep
the formation of graphite nodules or particles will pro-
cracking. A complication is that cracking may grow to
vide the unique appearance of graphitization; extensive
part-through the wall by IGSCC, then propagate by
signs of overheating and spheroidization will indicate
intergranular creep.
creep. Table 13-7 provides a more complete delineation
of the key features of these two mechanisms. Failures caused by intergranular SCC can also be con-
fused with intergranular corrosion or intergranular attack
Table 13-7 (IGA). Intergranular corrosion has occurred extensively
Distinguishing Characteristics of Graphitization and
Longterm Overheating in the superheater and reheater tubing of several boilers.
Generally, the attack originated on the OD of the tubes
Characteristic Graphitization Longterm Overheating
due to the effects of sulfates and chlorides in the depos-
Location in Tube Edge of HAZ or in Not necessarily at
the tube. weld or HAZ. ited fly ash during washdown of the tubing while the
Location and Usually Usually final failure is boiler was out of service. The propensity to corrosion is
Orientation of circumferential; longitudinal. enhanced when the tubing surface is exposed to the high
Failure parallel to weld
but can follow any temperature effects of the ash, which causes depassivation
line of graphite during the off-load periods when the surface is wet.
formation.
IGA also occurs on the ID surface of austenitic materials.
Fracture Surface Thick-edged, brittle. Thick-edged in middle
of wall loss with some IGSCC and intergranular corrosion have the same mor-
bulging. phology, and in austenitic stainless steels they both
Wall Thinning? No. Yes, wastage flats require sensitization. The two will be distinguished
typical at 10 and 2
o’clock positions. primarily by damage location. IGSCC is usually located
Material Only along Extensive signs of at stress concentrations and can be either ID- or OD-
Degradation? graphitization lines. overheating and initiated. Intergranular corrosion occurs in such loca-
spheroidization.
tions as (i) on the tube OD as caused by washdown or
Material(s) Carbon or carbon Any ferritic.
Involved molybdenum low (ii) on the tube ID at low spots where liquids will
alloy steel such as accumulate.
SA209-T1A.

13.9 SH/RH Tubing: Intergranular Stress Corrosion
Cracking (IGSCC), Intergranular Creep, and Inter-
Granular Corrosion or Attack (IGA)
The attack of superheater/reheater tubing by stress corro-
sion cracking (SCC) occurs as a result of the initiation
and growth of cracks in a susceptible material by simul-
taneous exposure to stress and an adverse chemical envi-
ronment. SCC of boiler tubes occurs primarily in
austenitic stainless steels but can also occur in ferritics. It
can be either transgranular or intergranular (IGSCC). In
the form of IGSCC, it may be confused with intergranu-
lar creep or intergranular corrosion. A few brief com-
ments may help distinguish among these alternative
damage types.
13.10 Low-Temperature Creep Versus Fatigue or Stress
Corrosion Cracking in Waterwall Tubes
A low temperature creep failure may appear to be super-
ficially similar to stress corrosion cracking or fatigue
cracking. Low temperature creep cracking will generally
display evidence of grain boundary creep cavitation and
the formation of creep voids as shown in Figure 35-2;
these features will not accompany stress corrosion
cracking.
Fatigue damage also will not show manifestation of
microscopic creep damage. Observing a fatigue crack
surface under scanning electron microscopy may also
indicate the presence of either beach marks or ratchet
marks typical of fatigue.

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13.11 Thermal-Mechanical Fatigue Versus The ratio of the wall loss to steamside scale thickness will
Creep-Fatigue usually exceed five as illustrated in Figure 13-3.
It is often difficult to distinguish elevated temperature
thermal-mechanical fatigue from creep-fatigue based on
metallurgical characteristics. In the case of creep-fatigue,
distinguishing features include wide, oxide-coated cracks
and the extensive intergranular creep cavities around the
edges of the cracks. At higher temperatures, creep-fatigue
cracks are often transgranular, filled with oxide and with-
out any visible intergranular creep cavities. If the oxide
isn’t extremely thick, there will typically be evidence of
discontinuous growth (such as crack arrest marks) on the
crack surfaces.
In contrast, thermal-mechanical fatigue cracks are
Figure 13-3
typically tight with no visibly apparent crack in the Plots of wall loss and steamside scale thickness around the
surface oxide. circumference of the tube failure by steam impingement
shown in Figure 13-2. [1 in. = 25.4 mm]
13.12 Secondary (Steam Impingement) Versus Source: TR-102433, 1993
Primary Failures
It is important to identify the affected area of steam
It is important when determining the root cause of field impingement damage whenever a primary tube leak or
failures not to confuse secondary failures, generally rupture has occurred. Since a number of tubes may be
caused by steam escaping from a tube leak or rupture, affected and significant wall thinning may have occurred,
with the primary failure. This final section briefly it is critical that the full extent of the damage be deter-
describes how to recognize steam impingement, which is mined and that a wall thickness acceptance criterion be
not treated as a separate damage mechanism in this defined on the basis of creep-rupture life calculations.
book. Chapter 14 looks at such remaining life evaluations.
Figure 13-2 shows the typical features of a tube that has
13.13 References
been subjected to steam impingement: one or more fire-
side wastage flats which are not located symmetrically TR-102433, 1993. Boiler Tube Failure Metallurgical
around the tube periphery and which are essentially free Guide, Volume 1: Technical Report, Volume 2: Appendices,
of fireside ash and oxide. The final failure may be either a EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1993. TR-102433.
pinhole leak or a longitudinal stress rupture.

Figure 13-2
Example of tube wastage caused by steam impingement.
Note the absence of a fireside scale and that the wall loss is
in a region encompassing approximately one-third of the
tube circumference.
Source: TR-102433, 1993

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Chapter 14
Remaining Life Assessment

14.1 Introduction
Traditionally, remaining life assessment methodologies have been applied after damage is
found in a component as a means to help determine whether to continue to run the unit or
to replace or repair the component. Remaining life assessment is still used for these purposes,
but the lessons from these methodologies are increasingly being used proactively to prevent
failures from occurring. Indeed, in the case of HRSG units, the methods are now recom-
mended early in the life of the unit to anticipate and head off damage accumulation and to
identify damage mechanisms in their early stages so that corrective actions can be taken to
prevent initial failures. This is especially important in HRSG units because (i) tube failures
may cause significant secondary damage due to the tight tube spacing and (ii) repairs often
require cutting out extensive sections of tubing and lagging to gain access to the damaged
tubing.
A simple example illustrates the potential benefits associated with identifying active boiler
tube or HRSG tube damage early in its evolution.
Assume that a condition and life assessment indicates that an SH tube bank has consumed
approximately 50% of its anticipated creep life after 10 years of service. If some minor cor-
rective actions can reduce the temperatures of the hottest tubing by 10°C (18°F) and the
corrective actions are implemented immediately, then the rate of further creep damage in
these “hot” tubes will slow down by approximately 50% of their prior rate and the remaining
life will double (i.e., the total life will be 30 years). If this modification is postponed for an
additional 5 years, then the total life will diminish to 25 years (i.e., 15 years at the time of
the modification plus 10 years of life at reduced temperatures). If the organization does
nothing, then, a total life of only 20 years will be achieved.
This chapter includes brief discussions of (i) statistical analysis, (ii) methods for wall loss in
water-touched tubes and a case study illustrating the methods for an LP evaporator,
(iii) methods for evaluation of fatigue, and (iv) methods for both ferritic and austenitic stain-
less steel components experiencing creep damage.

14.2 Statistical Analysis

One simple method for gaining insight into tube failures is based on statistical analysis of
historical failure data. The analysis of the database of past BTFs/HTFs and operating condi-
tions should not be overlooked as a supplement to the more rigorous methods used to ana-
lyze remaining life as it can help place an emphasis on unit priorities. By using the history of
past failures, along with some fundamental knowledge of the typical statistical patterns of
failure rates for common tube degradation modes, it is possible to make reasonable forecasts
of the number of similar tube failures that may be experienced in the future.

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Remaining Life Assessment Volume 1: Fundamentals
Davison has reviewed the application of historical failure
rate trending in conventional fossil plants utilizing
Weibull distribution plots constructed and interpreted
via the following steps (Davison, 1987; Davison, 1991):
• List all the failures in the area under consideration.
• Discount inappropriate mechanisms, including (i) ran-
dom causes, such as material defects, weld defects,
blockages, wrong materials, etc., and (ii) “fast” causes,
such as transient overheating.
• Note replacements of tubes with damage but that had
not failed, which would reduce the risk of subsequent
failures.
• Plot on Weibull distribution (low cumulative hazard
versus log time-to-failure) and compare database to
straight line.
• Evaluate outliers for significance.
• Modify distribution parameters to provide a best-fit
straight line plot.
The method has the advantages that it is simple, permits
identification of tubes that may be at risk of failure by
the same mechanisms as those in the data set, and by
analysis it can also identify failures not part of the series
being studied. Application has been made to such failure
mechanisms as SH creep, LP evaporator FAC, and econ-
omizer fatigue cracking.
These statistical forecasts typically assume that one is not
changing the means of preventing repeat and ongoing
failures. More complex models may combine historical
information with damage accumulation models, such as
those described in the following sections, to allow fore-
casts to simulate various candidate corrective actions.
These “combined” or “calibrated” models are the pre-
ferred approach since they lead to more proactive
planning.
Additional statistical methods such as risk-based remain-
ing life assessments are becoming more commonly
applied (Coutant, 2004; Price, 2004).
14.3 Life Assessment for Water-Cooled Tubes
Experiencing Wall Loss
Water-cooled tubes are normally carbon or low alloy steel
with service metal temperatures up to about 450°C
(~840°F) and are, therefore, outside the regime of creep
deformation. As a result, they are designed for infinite
life, assuming no corrosion occurs. Remaining life analy-
sis is required when a wall thinning mechanism such as
corrosion or erosion does occur, particularly for material
removal rates in excess of about 40 nm/hr (13.8 mils/yr).
14-2
Water-cooled tube remaining life is typically based on a
method that limits the developed hoop stress to less than
a critical value which is related to the strength of the
material. A formula for the remaining life of these tubes
is given as (1004503, 2002):
(14.1)
where: RL = remaining life, hrs
Wcrit = critical wall thickness,
mm (in) = Di (p)/[2 (Fcrit ) – p)]
p = operating pressure, N/mm2 (ksi)
Di = inside diameter, mm (in)
Fcrit = critical stress (for plastic collapse) =
½ Kt x (FUTS – FYS ), N/mm2 (ksi)
FUTS = ultimate tensile strength of the
material, N/mm2 (ksi)
FYS = yield strength of the material,
N/mm2 (ksi)
Kt = a factor to accommodate scatter in
tensile data; for mild steels it has been
found advisable to use the appropriate
properties for a temperature of 450°C
(850°F), which are: Kt = 1.25 and
Fcrit = 227 N/mm2 (33 ksi)
Wcur = current wall thickness, mm (in.)
CR = corrosion rate, mm/hr (in/hr) =
(Wcur – Wcur-1 )/(tcur – tcur-1 )
Wcur-1 = wall thickness at tcur-1, mm (in.)
tcur = present service time, hr
tcur-1 = service time when wall thickness
readings were previously, hr tcur-1 equals
zero if no earlier wall thickness
measurements were made; in this case,
Wcur-1 is the original wall thickness, W0
For example, if a carbon steel tube operating at a pressure
of 6.9 N/mm2 (~1000 psi) entered service with an inside
diameter of 50 mm (~2 inches) and a wall thickness of
3.2 mm (~0.126 inch) and now (after 80,000 hours) had
a measured wall thickness of 1.2 mm (~0.047 inch),
then:
Fcrit = 227 N/mm2
Wcrit = 50 mm (6.9 N/mm2)/[2 (227 N/mm2)
– 6.9 N/mm2) = 0.77 mm
(≈ 0.030 inch)
CR = (1.2 mm – 3.2 mm)/(80,000 hrs) =
-2.50 E-5 mm/hr (≈ 8.6 mpy)
RL = (0.77 mm –1.2 mm)/–2.50 E-5 mm/
hr = 17134 hrs
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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Equation 14.1 can be used to make deterministic esti-
mates of remaining life (as shown in the example) or, if
the independent variables (i.e., Wcur , Wcur-1 , Di , p) are
treated as random variables, then probabilistic life esti-
mates will be produced. Section 14.4 documents a case
study using this approach for FAC of the outlet bends in
an LP evaporator.
The critical wall thickness may be less than that predicted
by the relationship above if the wall loss is very localized
(e.g., pitting corrosion).
Tube wall loss that occurs during chemical cleaning can
complicate the remaining life estimations described
above. If overly aggressive cleaning is suspected, removal
of tube samples may be necessary to update the baseline
wall thickness value.
14.4 Case Study – Wall Thickness Loss Condition
and Life Assessment
This case study provides a simple example of a condition
and life assessment of an LP evaporator. It provides an
example of the challenges and benefits of NDE and life
assessment.
Figure 14-1 is a schematic illustration of a horizontal LP
evaporator.
Figure 14-1
Schematic of a single row, 26 assembly LP evaporator,
showing the NDE methods (VT = visual testing,
MT = magnetic particle testing, UT = ultrasonic testing)
and locations used during an examination motivated by
tube failures in the outlet bends that occurred after a few
years of service. [1 in = 25.4 mm].
Source: 1004503, 2002
The NDE locations and methods used for its examina-
tion are shown. The examination methods included:
• Visual examination of accessible outside surfaces of the
headers, tubing, and attachments.
• Videoprobe-assisted visual examinations of the inside
surfaces of the headers and sections of selected tubing
near each header.
• MT examination of header welds, including the tube-
to-header connections.
• UT wall thickness measurements of the tube bends at
the outlet header.
The first examination of this LP evaporator module was
performed after the unit had been in service for approxi-
mately three years. The examination was performed as a
result of a few tube failures in the tube bends near the
outlet header.
Visual examinations did not reveal any gross tube defor-
mation, damaged or malfunctioning supports, or any
obvious damage to the outside surface of the tubing. The
repaired locations associated with the recent tube failures
in the outlet bends were located and documented.
To perform videoprobe examinations required that holes
be cut in the inlet and outlet headers. These holes were
cut at locations near the middle and ends of the header at
circumferential locations that would allow the video-
probe to be inserted into a few of the evaporator tubes.
These holes were repaired by installing sockolets that
could be used during future examinations. The header
examinations did not reveal any visible damage or block-
age in the headers. The videoprobe examination did
reveal 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) thick waterside deposits located
near both ends of the inlet headers.
Videoprobe examinations of the inside diameter surface
of the tubing revealed regions in the outlet bends that
were not oxide coated and exhibited a scalloped pattern,
suggesting that flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) was
active (see Chapters 31 and 32, Volume 2). MT exami-
nations did not reveal any outside surface connected
cracking at any of the tube stub-to-header or other header
welds. Wall thickness measurements of the unfinnned
length of tubing near the inlet header indicated that all
the tubing had wall thicknesses greater than the 2.8 mm
(0.110 in.) minimum design limit. The wall thickness on
the outlet bends revealed extensive wall loss with a pat-
tern, suggesting that the tubes near the ends of the head-
ers (furthest from the inlet and outlet piping tees) were
experiencing far more severe corrosion than the tubes
near the center of the unit, Figure 14-2.
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14.5 Life Assessment for Components Experiencing

Fatigue
To assess the life of boiler and HRSG tubes subjected to
fatigue loading requires an initial judgment regarding the
specific type of fatigue (i.e., flow-induced vibration, ther-
mal fatigue, corrosion fatigue, or creep fatigue). Figure
14-4 provides a schematic illustration of the steps that
are typically performed in a fatigue analysis of tubing.

Figure 14-2
Minimum measured wall thickness in the outlet bends of the
LP evaporator. [1 in. = 25.4 mm]
Source: 1004503, 2002

The measured wall thicknesses were used to forecast the

near-term rate of additional tube failures using the model
presented in Section 14.3. These estimates indicated that
more than 15 additional tube failures would probably
occur within the next one to two years of service if no
corrective actions were undertaken, Figure 14-3. Based
on these estimates the decision was made to replace all of
the outlet bends with Inconel tubing. A second examina-
tion (performed after approximately eight additional
years of service) did not reveal any wall loss on the
Inconel bends.

Figure 14-3
Estimated cumulative failures of the outlet bends if no
corrective action was taken.
Source: 1004503, 2002

Figure 14-4
Analysis steps for the fatigue analysis of thin-walled
components (i.e., tubing and tube-to-header connections).
Typically, the fatigue analysis begins by thoroughly
reviewing the transient operational controls and limits of
the unit or making measurements of displacements,
strains, and temperatures during both the common and

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infrequent, but possibly severe, transients. This informa-
tion is then used as input into global and local finite ele-
ment models of the tube bank and location in question.
The local model can be either a linear elastic analysis or
an inelastic and (if relevant) time-dependent (creep)
analysis to determine the strains. If elastic analyses are
performed, then the inelastic strains can be approximated
by combining a material stress-strain relationship in
combination with the fatigue-modified form of Neuber’s
rule:
(14.2)
where: Kf = fatigue notch factor
Ds = maximum local principal stress
DS = nominal stress
De = maximum local principal strain
Den = nominal strain = DS/2E
E = modulus of elasticity
Once the local strain range is established for the various
anticipated strain reversals, this information can then be
used with a “rain flow” or other appropriate cycle count-
ing algorithms in combination with a fatigue life fraction
rule, such as Miner’s rule to estimate the fraction of
fatigue life consumed per transient:
14.6 Life Assessment for Components Experiencing
Creep - Overview
Boiler and HRSG SH and RH tubes are designed for a
finite life based on strength, stress rupture, and creep rate
design limits. Even in the absence of an accelerating
damage mechanism, tube failures by longterm overheat-
ing (Chapter 44) can be expected. Assessment of creep-
rupture life requires a determination of the history of
stress and temperature for a particular tube. This is then
used in a creep life fraction rule similar to the Miner’s
rule for fatigue:
(14.4)
where: Dc = creep life fraction consumed for a given
transient, or service, period
t = time spent at an approximately constant
stress and temperature
tf = rupture time for the same conditions as
for time, t
The relationships between the rupture time and stress
and temperature are well known for the commonly used
boiler tube and HRSG tube alloys. For example, the fol-
lowing relationship provides approximate time to rup-
ture predictions for T22 tubing:

(14.3) (14.5)

where: Df = fraction of fatigue life consumed where: tf = time to rupture, hr

n = number of cycles at a specific strain range, C = coefficient that is a function of the
mean strain, temperature, local chemical failure percentile = 1 for the average life
environment, strain rate, cyclic waveform, or ≈ 0.35 for the 5th percentile (lower
and hold time bound) life
Nf = cycles to failure for the same conditions as LMP = Larson Miller Parameter =
n (this can be determined from 40,975+57(UTS)–5225(log s)–
experimental curves or regression 2450(log s)
equations of experimental data) T = midwall tube metal temperature, °R
A detailed description of cycle counting algorithms and UTS = Room temperature ultimate tensile
the use of Neuber’s rule can be found in the Society of strength, ksi
Automotive Engineers Fatigue Design Handbook (SAE, s = Applied stress, ksi
1988). An approximate rupture life equation for T11 tubing
International design codes contain fatigue rules as well. uses the same time-to-rupture relationship as above, but
An extensive review of fatigue design codes and standards uses a strength independent correlation with LMP and
was performed recently (1010440, 2006). That reference has a smaller value for C:
also contains an exhaustive discussion of the analysis of LMP = –6745.4(log s) + 43677
various forms of fatigue damage.
C = 1 for the average life and 0.26 for
the 5th percentile life

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For austenitic stainless steel tubes, regression analyses
have been performed on an extensive database of long-
term stress rupture tests (1004517, 2002). Larson Miller
models seemed to provide the best extrapolations to low
stress levels. The final model had the following form:
(14.6)
If this tube were T11 material, were not subjected to wall
losses, operated at a metal temperature of 521°C (970°F)
and didn’t build up any significant steamside deposits or
oxide scale, then it would be expected to have the follow-
ing rupture life:
LMP =6745.4 (log s) + 36947
tf (5th percentile) = 0.26 x 10[36947/(970°F + 460) - 20] = 178,599 hrs (~ 22 yrs)
tf (average) = 1.0 x 10[36947/(970°F + 460) - 20] = 686,919 hrs (~ 86 yrs)

where: truphat = median time to rupture,hrs. The example above was performed for the inlet (sixth)
S = stress, MPa row of a six-row horizontal HRSG SH. The other rows of
this SH were fabricated from 2 inch OD by 0.340 inch
T = temperature (°K = °C + 273.15) wall thickness T22 tubing, which had an estimated stress
C1, C2, C3, C4 = experimental coefficients as of 3.1 ksi and a significantly longer estimated life, even
listed in Table 14-1 though its estimated metal temperatures were much
Table 14-1 higher than those of the inlet row. These calculations
Experimental Coefficients for Equation 14.6 indicate that longterm creep-rupture failures may occur
Source: 1004517, 2002 in the inlet row of the SH as the unit ages beyond 20+
years. The actual time to failure is less certain because of
Alloy C1 C2 C3 C4
uncertainties in the creep-rupture strength of the tubing
Type 304H -11.389 18,746.602 -268.416 -969.675
and missing factors in these simple life estimations.
Type 321H -10.108 16,527.621 315.797 -998.095
Type 347H -6.8261 16,973.063 -3,610.762 137.473 The simple life estimations presented above ignored the
The main challenge for creep-rupture life predictions is following factors:
obtaining realistic estimations of tube metal temperature • Temperature variations across the unit. For example,
and stress; these are difficult to obtain for boiler and in the unit described above, the measured SH gas tem-
HRSG tubes. Much of the rest of this chapter looks at peratures varied across the unit from 565°C (1050°F)
estimating metal temperatures. Methods are different for to 660°C (1220°F).
ferritic and austenitic stainless steel materials. • The time varying history of pressure and temperature
The steady state stresses are typically estimated by using a (most HRSGs are being heavily cycled rather than
mean diameter stress formula: being baseloaded).
• The effect of the tube fins on the stress (internal burst
(14.7) pressure tests on integral low finned tubes show that
where: smdf = mean diameter formula hoop stress the plain ends of a finned tube are its weakest points
because the helical fins act as reinforcement rings)
P = steam pressure, N/mm2 (psig)
(Thome, 1996).
OD = outside diameter, mm (in.)
• Any change in stress due to oxidation or wall
t = wall thickness, mm (in.) thinning.
In the case of HRSG tubes, the steady state stresses • More precise estimations of creep-rupture life for spe-
are typically estimated by ignoring the fins and using cific heats of tubing.
Equation 14.7. • The increase in tube metal temperature resulting from
For example, for an SH tube with a 2 inch OD and a buildup of steamside deposits or oxide scale. Note that
0.120 inch wall thickness operating at a pressure of this is particularly relevant to ferritic materials; it is less
1260 psig, the mean diameter stress is: a factor for austenitic stainless steels.
• Changes in tube temperatures due to fouling of the
smdf = 1260 psig x (2 – 0.120)/(2 x 0.120) = fins on finned tubes.
9,900 psi
• The decrease in tube temperature resulting from oxida-
tion and wastage of tube fins.
• Wall thickness variations in bends.

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Volume 1: Fundamentals Remaining Life Assessment

Some of these deficiencies can be overcome by the use of and underutilized method of analysis. Details about
more advanced life prediction methods and models. the method can be found in Chapter 44, Volume 3.
Table 14-2 shows the frequency of use of the various • If detailed gas flow modeling is to be performed, then
methods for remaining life assessment of creep according the tube layout/spacing must also be obtained.
to recent international surveys. • At least six months, preferably a few years or more, of
Table 14-2
hourly records of the following measured values: gen-
Techniques Used to Assess Remaining Longterm Overheat- erator load (MW), total fuel burned, furnace air flow
ing/Creep Life (Ferritic Materials) rate, SH/RH steam bulk mass or volumetric flow rate,
Source: 1013629, 2006 SH/RH inlet and outlet pressure, SH/RH inlet and
Method 2004 Survey 2001 1997
outlet bulk steam, and penthouse tube temperatures.
Results Survey Survey • All available wall and steamside oxide scale thickness
Results Results
measurements made on ferritic tube within the fur-
Oxide scale thickness 86% 72% 56%
nace and on the outlet penthouse tubes.
Measuring temperatures 24% 12% 18%
(thermocouples) • Wall thickness of the stainless tubing at locations where
Wall loss/corrosion rate 18% 19% 33% wall loss has been most severe.
Metallographic/ 18% 14% 24% • Results of all metallurgical and accelerated stress rup-
temperature
Statistical methods 16% 7% 13%
ture tests performed on selected ferritic and austenitic
Uniaxial testing 0% 5% 4% tubing.
Burst testing 0% 0% 0% • Metallurgical and root cause investigations reports of
all boiler tube failures.
The prime difficulty has been the accuracy of the tem-
perature estimates of the various methods. How this is 14.7 Remaining Life Assessment for Longterm Over-
done for ferritic and austenitic materials is discussed in heating/Creep in Ferritic Tubes
the next several sections of this chapter.
14.7.1 Oxide Scale Analysis for Ferritic Tubes
For either ferritic or austenitic tubing, the first step in The most universally applied analysis method of condi-
any investigation of longterm overheating/creep will be a tion and life assessment of SH/RH tubes constructed of
thorough review of the design and the operational, main- ferritic materials and subjected to creep and wall loss in
tenance, and capital improvements history. Information conventional units utilizes measurements of steamside
that may be useful to review includes: oxide scale thickness and tube wall thickness to predict
• Design drawings for the unit, showing the general the remaining creep life of SH/RH tubing, Table 14-2.
arrangement of the tube bundles, division walls, burn- The method has an excellent track record and has been
ers, headers, and sootblowers. refined to the point where it can now be used to estimate
• General attributes of the unit including maximum when and where failures in ferritic tubing will occur in
continuous rating, typical operating mode (load fol- all tube rows, assemblies, and gas-touched lengths.
lowing, peaking, baseloaded, etc.), service hours, num- To date, this method has been used to a very limited
ber of start/stop cycles, and fuel characteristics. extent in HRSG units because of the presence of finned
• Detailed dimensional and material drawings of the tubing and the relatively young age of the HRSG fleet.
superheater/reheater. This should include the lengths, As more HRSG units reach ages beyond 20 years, it is
outside and inside diameters and alloys of all the tub- expected that more oxide scale/wall thickness surveys
ing, and the length and diameters of all the segments may be attempted for the purpose of estimating the
of each circuit, including any orifices. It should also remaining life of SH and RH tubing. Recall that waiting
include the radii of all bends. Any field changes (such too long to perform these condition assessments may
as replaced sections of tubing with diameters that were limit the opportunities for optimizing the longterm life
different than the design dimensions) need to be thor- of the tubing.
oughly documented. Field measurements of the tube
For HRSG units, these surveys require gaining access to
dimensions, rather than design-basis dimensions, are
critical tube locations, removing short lengths of fins,
preferable. This information should be used to con-
and preparing the tube surfaces for UT wall thickness
duct an analysis of Gas-Touched Length, an important
and steamside oxide thickness measurements.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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Alternatively, in certain cases for HRSG units, the mea-
surements of steamside scale may be made on the bare
tube stubs near the outlet header and the effective tem-
peratures at the outlet used in combination with analyti-
cal models to estimate the tube metal temperatures of the
finned, heat absorbing sections of tubing.
A summary of the method, procedures, and present
understanding of the limitations of the oxide scale meth-
odology is presented here. Sources of additional informa-
tion include (Viswanathan, 1994; Viswanathan, 1991;
CS-5564, 1988; Guttner, 2004).
The overall process is shown in the flow diagram of
Figure 14-5.
Figure 14-5
Roadmap to assess the remaining life of SH/RH tubing
constructed from ferritic materials and subject to longterm
overheating and wall thinning. RL = remaining life,
DL = desired life.
Adapted from: Viswanathan, 1994
Procedures for stubs and dissimilar metal welds have also
been developed. The first step is to identify tubes or tube
assemblies at risk, that is, those with thickest steamside
oxide and thinnest walls (Steps 1, 2, and 3 of Figure 14-
5). Note that among the tubes in a boiler or HRSG there
will be a distribution of gas and metal temperatures as a
function of a particular operating condition. As a result,
there will be a distribution of creep and corrosion rates.
One of the functions of the remaining life process is to
forestall unexpected outages caused by tube failures.
Therefore, the key to a successful prevention program
will involve a search for the highest risk locations and
their conditions, not the average condition. An analysis
14-8
of gas-touched length (see Chapter 44, Volume 3 for
details) can help identify likely at-risk locations and
reduce the number of locations that need to be moni-
tored or evaluated.
The accuracy of the prediction is tied directly to knowl-
edge of the thickness of the steamside oxide. Early use of
the method required sampling and destructive examina-
tion. This resulted in a number of problems inherent
with any sampling program, such as choosing the proper
locations choosing the number of specimens to give sta-
tistically significant results. However, there is now good
correlation of nondestructive UT measures of steamside
oxide thickness using pulse-echo (time-of-flight UT)
with that measured in samples removed from service
(Step 3 in Figure 14-5). Good correlation has been
obtained between oxide thickness measured by the UT
methods and measured destructively. It has been vari-
ously estimated that the minimum oxide scale thickness
measurable by the UT method ranges from about 0.051
mm to 0.254 mm (2 mils to 10 mils). Because there can
be considerable variation along a tube length and around
its circumference, good judgment is still required in its
application.
For tube analysis, remaining life of each tube is predicted
by a computer code, such as the EPRI-developed
TUBELIFE III, TULIP (1010621, 2006), or available
commercial codes. Sacrificial tube samples are then
removed from select locations (Step 4a) and subjected to
laboratory metallurgical analysis and/or isostress rupture
testing as needed to remove uncertainty in the analysis
(such as can be caused by exfoliation).
As an example, the computer code TUBELIFE III uses
present oxide thickness and an isothermal oxide growth
rate to determine a current “equivalent” temperature of
the tube. An effective stress is calculated from the tube
dimensions. The temperature and stress values are then
extrapolated back to initial conditions, assuming linear
growth of steam scale and gas-side wastage, along with
heat transfer properties of the steel and oxide scale.
The average metal temperature and stress for every 1000
hour interval from the beginning of service is then calcu-
lated iteratively. For each interval, oxide scale thickness
and wall thinning are estimated under non-isothermal
conditions. The life fraction expended at each 1000 hour
interval is computed from the temperature increase
caused by the steamside oxide, the stress increase caused
by gas-side corrosion, and stress-rupture curve at each
calculated temperature. Life fractions are summed to
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Remaining Life Assessment
determine total life consumed. Remaining life for each
tube is then calculated. These actions correspond to
Step 5 in Figure 14-5. A typical plot of oxide thickness as
a function of temperature from field measurements and
as predicted by the EPRI TUBELIFE III code is shown
in Figure 14-6.
Figure 14-6
Oxide thickness plotted as a function of metal temperature.
The solid line is the thickness/temperature correlation
predicted by the EPRI TUBELFE III Code. [1 in. = 25.4 mm;
°C = (°F – 32)/1.8]
Source: CS-5564, 1988
Selective tube sampling is generally recommended to
confirm input information or where there is unaccept-
able uncertainty in the analysis. Metallurgical analysis of
tube samples and tests, such as accelerated burst or rup-
ture (axial, chordal, or split ring) isostress testing, can be
used (Step 6b of Figure 14-5).
The end result of the remaining life assessment process is
a decision. Is the remaining life (RL) of the tube greater
than the desired life (DL) (Step 6a of Figure 14-5)? If
not, a tube replacement is required and a replacement
date should be set. If RL > DL, then a reinspection inter-
val should be set where the process should be repeated to
ensure that conditions are proceeding as expected in the
life of the tubing.
Available codes for oxide scale analysis cover various
materials, depending upon the vendor and version avail-
able. For example, EPRI’s TULIP Code covers nine fer-
ritic materials: T1, T2, T5, T9, T11, T12, T21, T22,
T91, and two carbon steels. TULIP also includes the
ability to assess the effects of chemical cleaning, of opera-
tional changes, and the application of variations in stress
formulas, including oxide kinetics, gas-side wastage, and
alternative stress rupture algorithms. Differences among
the various codes arise because of different assumed rates
of oxide scale growth, gas-side corrosion rates, and refer-
ence stress formulae used to calculate tube stresses from
steam pressure.
14.7.2 Spheroidization
If the steamside oxide has exfoliated or been removed by
chemical cleaning then changes to the microstructure in
ferritic material can be examined to deduce service his-
tory. The typical starting structure is ferrite with either (i)
fine pearlite composed of alternating lamellae of ferrite
and iron carbide Fe3C or (ii) acicular bainitic carbides.
Over time the carbide tends to agglomerate into spheres.
The degree to which this process has proceeded was clas-
sified initially into six stages by Toft and Marsden (Toft,
1963). A seventh stage has been added; the stages are
identified by number 1-7 or by letter A-G; Table 14-3
provides a qualitative description of the stages. Figure
14-7 shows typical data of the spheroidization rating ver-
sus LMP for 2¼Cr-1Mo.
Table 14-3
Qualitative Description of Degrees of Spheroidization
Source: TR-102433, 1993, based on Toft, 1963
Stage Degree of Spheroidization
Identification
1 Typical of the structure of a new tube consisting
of ferrite and fine pearlite. May be partially
spheroidized if post-weld heat treatment was used
on a fabricated structure.
2 The first stage of carbide spheroidization usually
coinciding with the appearance of small particles
of carbides at the grain boundaries.
3 An intermediate stage of spheroidization showing
more distinct signs of carbide spheroidization in
the pearlite areas, but some carbide plates still
evident. Increased carbide precipitation within the
ferritic grains and at the grain boundaries.
4 Spheroidization of the carbides is virtually
complete, but they are still grouped in the original
pearlite pattern.
5 Spheroidization is complete and the carbides
are dispersed, leaving little trace of the original
pearlite areas.
6 There is a marked increase in the size of some of
the carbide particles, partly due to coalescence.
7 Carbides disappear.
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Figure 14-7
Spheroidization rating as a function of the Larson-Miller Figure 14-8
Time/Temperature Parameter (LMP) for T22 tube material Midwall microhardness traverse to illustrate the loss in
(2¼ Cr-1 Mo). hardness in the vicinity of a longterm overheat failure.
[1 in = 25.4 mm]
Source: TR-102433, 1993
Source: (TR-102433, 1993)
A potential drawback to such analysis is that the current
state of the microstructure will depend on the original
microstructure (prior to service), which is often not well
known. Three means of dealing with this problem are:
(i) use laboratory heat treatments to simulate the fabrica-
tion procedure if it is known and thus characterize the
starting microstructure, (ii) obtain samples from the
coldest regions of the boiler and assume that their micro-
structure is the starting microstructure, (iii) use a catalog
of the microstructures of various starting points such as
contained in (TR-102433, 1993) to obtain a scatterband
of behavior.

14.7.3 Hardness
The strength of low alloy steels changes with exposure to
temperature. Hardness is an indirect measure of strength.
Measurements of the change in hardness can, as a result,
be used to estimate average temperatures for a compo-
nent. Figure 14-8 shows the decrease in hardness in
material near a location that failed by longterm
overheating.
The approach is most suited to changes occurring as a
result of carbide precipitation and growth when strain
Figure 14-9
softening effects do not interfere (Viswanathan, 1991b). Correlations between hardness and the Larson-Miller Time/
Figure 14-9 shows the relationship between LMP and Temperature Parameter (LMP) for 1Cr-½Mo, 2¼Cr-1Mo, and
change in material hardness. 9Cr-1Mo steels.
Source: Viswanathan, 1988

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Drawbacks to using hardness for damage assessments
include (Viswanathan, 1991b) (i) uncertainty about the
initial hardness of the material, (ii) sensitivity to local
microstructural variation, (iii) strain-softening effects
that can lead to erroneous results.
In situ measurements of tube surface hardness may be
used to identify material hardness and corresponding
strength decreases. Some care is required to estimate the
original (or at least non-degraded) hardness as a baseline
for comparison.
14.7.4 Accelerated Creep Rupture Testing
One means of supplementing remaining life estimates
(in either ferritic or austenitic material) is to measure
actual material properties and remaining life by acceler-
ated testing on selective tubes removed from service.
Such tests have been used for three reasons: (i) to provide
a direct measure of remaining useful life, (ii) to estimate
stress-rupture properties of the unexposed (virgin) mate-
rial, and (iii) to derive a stress-rupture algorithm directly
from the post-exposure test to be applied to other tubes
(Viswanathan, 1994).
It is recommended that such testing be used (Step 6b,
Figure 14-5) in conjunction with oxide scale methods in
ferritic material so as to remove the excess conservatism
in remaining life estimates. However, reliance on such
testing alone is unwarranted, and there should be recog-
nition of the uncertainties of such tests, including how to
choose the appropriate stresses and temperatures for test-
ing, how to relate the results of the accelerated test to the
field condition, and knowing how to relate the sampled
locations to other locations of interest.
The most benefit from such testing will be (i) when there
is a significant difference between predicted minimum
and maximum remaining lives and (ii) when SH tubing
is experiencing little gas-side corrosion or erosion and
thus the remaining life is dominated by creep resistance
of the material.
14.8 Remaining Life Assessment for Longterm
Overheating/Creep in Austenitic Stainless
Steel Tubes – Overview
Unfortunately, the oxide scale method, developed for
and so aptly able to determine the remaining life of fer-
ritic tubing, cannot be directly applied to austenitic
stainless steel tubing. This is because the steamside oxide
thickness on these materials is thin, irregular, and doesn’t
provide for a meaningful correlation with the time/tem-
perature history.
As a result, four general types of methods have evolved to
handle remaining life assessments in austenitic super-
heater and reheater tubes. These are:
• “Backcast” for ruptured tubes using stress rupture
material properties.
• Analysis of metallurgical features, particularly equiva-
lent void parameter (EVP) and sigma phase thickness.
• Statistical methods.
• Cumulative damage modeling. This method combines
thermal hydraulic modeling with temperature and
steamside oxide measurements.
These are described in the next four subsections.
14.9 “Backcast” Method for Creep Life Assessment
in Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubes
If the tube stresses are known or can be calculated for a
burst tube, then the Larson-Miller plot can be used to
back out tube temperature as shown in Figure 14-10.
Figure 14-10
Backcast method illustrated.
14.10 Analysis of Metallurgical Features for Creep
Life Assessment in Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubes
14.10.1 Introduction
Microstructural examination can provide information
for estimating the thermal history, accumulation of creep
damage, and remaining creep life. Metallographic meth-
ods may be used to supplement creep damage calcula-
tions based on measured or estimated temperature or
stress and material properties or when adequate tempera-
ture and stress information is not available. Creep dam-
age and remaining life results obtained using these
methods should be considered as semi-quantitative
estimates. A roadmap of the steps in metallographic fea-
tures analysis for austenitic stainless steels is shown in
Figure 14-11.
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Remaining Life Assessment Volume 1: Fundamentals
Figure 14-11
Roadmap for metallurgical methods for assessment of
austenitic stainless steels subject to longterm overheating/
creep. (EVP – equivalent void parameter; RL – remaining life)
14.10.2 Methods to Distinguish Phases in Austenitic
Stainless Steels
Austenitic stainless steels are generally supplied in the
solution annealed condition with a microstructure con-
sisting of single phase equiaxed austenitic grains. During
longterm exposure at high temperatures, microstructural
changes occur. Sigma (FeaCr, a = ¼ to 4) and carbides
(M23Cr6, M=Cr, Fe) are second phase particles that pre-
cipitate during service preferentially at grain boundaries,
twin boundaries, and slip planes.
Sigma phase forms at an elevated temperature in the
range of approximately 550°C to 900°C (1020°F to
1650°F), with a maximum rate of formation between
750°C and 850°C (1382°F and 1560°F). Sigma will dis-
solve into the austenitic matrix by solution annealing. At
ambient temperature, sigma phase is a hard, brittle, non-
metallic intermetallic compound. It is generally undesir-
able because it imparts ambient temperature brittleness
and degrades creep strength.
Carbides precipitate within a temperature range of 430°C
to 900°C (800°F to 1650°F) with the fastest reaction
between 650°C to 700°C (1200°F to 1290°F). Precipita-
tion occurs at grain and twin boundaries and at inclu-
sion/matrix-phase boundaries.
14-12
A two step etching technique has been developed for
evaluating second phase formation in austenitic stainless
steels (1004517, 2002). The sample is first etched using
Vilella’s reagent to outline the second phase particles.
The sample is next electrolytically etched using concen-
trated sodium or potassium hydroxide (NaOH or KOH)
to stain the sigma phase. The sample must not be wiped
following this etch because it will remove the stain. An
example of the result is contained in Case Study II of
Chapter 44, Volume 3.
Elemental analysis can confirm the identification of
sigma and carbide phases. The sigma phase will have
higher Cr content and lower Fe content than the matrix
as shown in the typical values obtained from EDS spec-
tra, (see Table 14-4).
Table 14-4
Typical EDS-Derived Elemental Analysis Results
Source: 1004517, 2002
Element Matrix Sigma
Iron 73% 61%
Chromium 18% 32%
Nickel 8% 4%
Silicon 0.6% 0.6%
14.10.3 Etching to Reveal Creep Microvoids
If the tube has operated at sufficiently high temperature
and stress, in the creep regime, microvoids will form at
the interface to the second phase particles, primarily at
grain boundaries. As the tube accumulates additional
creep damage, these microvoids will increase in number
and size and eventually align normal to the principal
stress to form microcracks and macrocracks. The micro-
void morphology is a function of the stress level at which
the creep damage occurred, which can provide useful
information regarding the service stress.
Microstructural characterization of creep microvoids
requires a distinct preparation technique compared to
normal metallographic preparation that does not involve
microvoids (1004517, 2002). The special procedure
must be capable of removing the disturbed layer of metal
that will otherwise cover and mask microvoids. It must
also leave second phase particles intact since their disso-
lution would produce false positive indications of creep
damage.
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The steps in this procedure consist of alternate polishing 14.10.5 List of Etchants
and etching. The method has been found to give satisfac- The microstructural etchants listed previously have
tory results for service degraded Types 304H, 321H, and the composition and etching techniques shown in
347H stainless steel boiler tubes (1004517, 2002): Table 14-5.
• Rough grind on water-lubricated 80 and 120 grit abra-
Table 14-5
sive belts. Etchants for Austenitic Stainless Steels
• Hand grind on successively finer water-lubricated 240, Source: 1004517, 2002
320, 400, and 600 grit papers.
Etchant Composition Etching Technique
• Rough polish with a napless nylon cloth impregnated Vilella’s 5 ml HCl Immerse or flow onto surface
with 6 micron diamond paste. 1 g picric acid 2 to 4 minutes
• Etch with Vilella’s reagent for 4 minutes. 100 ml ethanol
• Polish with a napless nylon cloth impregnated with 1 NaOH 50 g NaOH Electrolyte
micron diamond paste. 100 ml H2O 1.5 volts, 10-20 seconds
• Etch with Vilella’s reagent for 3 to 4 minutes. KOH 56 g KOH Electrolyte
100 ml H2O 1.5 volts, 5-10 seconds
• Final polish with a low nap nylon cloth impregnated
Oxalic 10 g oxalic acid Electrolyte
with 0.05 micron alumina paste.
100 ml H2O 5 volts, 10-20 seconds
• Etch with Vilella’s reagent for 2 to 4 minutes.
Etching times are given as a range to accommodate the 14.10.6 Remaining Life Versus Metallurgical State -
different etching characteristics of the various stainless Sigma Phase Characterization
steel alloys. The minimum etching times are usually ade- There are various methods available to quantify the time-
quate for Type 304H; longer times may be required for temperature exposure history from an evaluation of
Types 321H and 347H. sigma phase precipitation. One method is to measure the
width of the sigma phase and use experimental correla-
Since etching will be accelerated by heat generated dur-
tions to the Larson-Miller parameter from which the
ing polishing that is retained in the sample, the sample
time-temperature exposure level can be determined. The
should be cooled under running water before etching. A
method is useful in the temperature range between 600°C
convenient method for applying Vilella’s reagent is to
and 750°C (1202°F and 1382°F); it does not reflect the
drip it onto the polished surface using a disposable
decreased sigma precipitation at higher temperatures.
pipette. Swabbing is not recommended because it can
cause stains. The Larson-Miller parameter (LMP) is defined as:
14.10.4 Electrolytic Oxalic Acid Etch
Oxalic acid is a common electrolytic etchant used for (14.8)
stainless steels. As electrolytic oxalic acid can dissolve sec- where: LMP = Larson-Miller Parameter
ond phase particles (both sigma and carbides depending
T = temperature (°K = °C + 273.15)
on their etching parameters), its use is not recommended
for revealing the true microstructure of service degraded C = constant
stainless steel boiler tubes. t = exposure time (hrs)
Correlations between sigma phase width and LMP have
been developed for several stainless steels (1004517,
2002). The average widths of the six largest sigma phase
particles in representative micrographs were selected for
measurement in coupons that had been exposed up to
50,000 hours at temperatures between 600°C to 750°C
(1202°F to 1382°F). The results for Type 304H, 321H,
and 347H are shown in Figures 14-12 through 14-14,
respectively.

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These trend lines provide a method of estimating the

thermal history of tubes provided that the service hours
are known. The lifetime average temperature can be cal-
culated from these curves as:

(14.9)
where: T = temperature (°K = °C + 273.15)
WS = Sigma width (microns)
Figure 14-12 t = exposure time (hrs)
Sigma phase thickness versus LMP for Type 304H stainless
steel. The formation and thickening rate of sigma phase for A1, A2, A3 = experimental coefficients as listed
Type 304H material is relatively insensitive to temperature. in Table 14-6
The use of the relationship shown is not recommended for
estimating effective temperature or stress rupture life. For Table 14-6
Type 304H material, the EVP-based life estimates described Experimental Coefficients for Equation 14.9
in Section 14.10.8 are recommended. Source: 1004517, 2002
Source: 1004517, 2002
Alloy A1 A2 A3
Type 304H 489.48 233.87 -1.4
Type 321H 1471.58 40573 13.1
Type 347H 2309.26 895.42 13.9

If the tube stress is known, the total creep life can be esti-
mated by combining the temperature inferred from
sigma phase measurements with the creep-rupture rela-
tionship given in Equation 14.6.
Creep damage calculations based on metallographic eval-
Figure 14-13 uations should be considered as approximate because of
Sigma phase thickness versus LMP for Type 321H scatter inherent in both sigma phase kinetics and creep-
stainless steel. rupture properties. The actual sigma phase reaction
Source: 1004517, 2002 kinetics and creep-rupture properties of any given heat of
material differ from the mean trend curves given above
because of the influence of minor compositional
changes.
14.10.7 Examples of Sigma Phase Based Temperature
Estimation
Conditions for two tubes removed from service were as
shown in Table 14-7.

Table 14-7
Tube Conditions
Example 1 Example 2
Figure 14-14 Alloy Type 321H Type 304H
Sigma phase thickness versus LMP for Type 347H
stainless steel. Pressure, MPa (psi) 12.8 (1860) 18.3 (2650)
OD, mm (in.) 54 (2.13) 64 (2.52)
Source: 1004517, 2002
Wall, mm (in.) 6 (0.236) 7 (0.276)
These data indicate that titanium and niobium stabilized Service time, hr 270,000 72,000
stainless steels (Types 321H and 347H) have similar
sigma responses, whereas unstabilized Type 304H stain-
less steel has significantly slower sigma precipitation
kinetics.

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Coupons from the hot sides of the tube (facing the gas
flow) were metallographically prepared to reveal the
sigma phase. This preparation included three stages of
etching with Vilella’s reagent (as described in Section
14.10.3) to outline the second phase particles and to
reveal any creep cavitation that might be present, as
shown in Figures 14-15 and 14-16.
Figure 14-15
Microstructure from the hot side of a service degraded Type
321H tube showing creep cavitation that initiated at grain
boundary sigma phase particles. (MAG: 500X, Vilella’s
reagent etch for 4+3+2 minutes)
Figure 14-16
Microstructure from the hot side of a service degraded Type
304H tube showing creep cavitation that initiated at grain
boundary sigma phase particles. (MAG: 500X, Vilella’s
reagent etch for 4+3+2 minutes)
Tube metal temperatures were calculated from the aver-
age of the six largest sigma phase precipitates and service
hours using equation 14.9 and Figures 14-13 and 14-12,
respectively, as shown in Table 14-8.
Table 14-8
Results of Calculation of Service Temperature from Sigma
Phase Width Measurements
Example 1 Example 2
Sigma width (microns) 2.3 2.1
Tube temperature, °C (°F) 636 (1176) 604 (1120)
The total tube creep lives were next calculated from tem-
peratures and stresses using Equation 14.6. The mean
diameter stress formula was used in these examples. The
result was a total creep life of 291,000 hours for example
1 and 341,000 hours for example 2.
Since tube example 1 had already accumulated 270,000
hours, the calculations indicated significant distress of
the tube and that failure might be imminent. The pres-
ence of creep cavitation confirmed this result. The tube
in example 2, however, had expended only 72,000 hours
of the total of 341,000 hours estimated by sigma phase
analysis, which would have indicated only a moderate
21% of life had been exhausted. The presence of exten-
sive creep cavitation, however, is an overriding indication
that this tube had accumulated significantly more creep
damage than indicated by sigma phase measurements.
14.10.8 Creep Microvoid Characterization
Microvoid measurements provide a recognized micro-
structural based method to characterize creep damage in
high temperature components. Methods based on micro-
void distribution, density, size, and fraction of cavitated
grain boundaries have been developed. The method
described here characterizes microvoids by their cumula-
tive length, which provides a relatively simple and repeat-
able method of analysis. Microvoid measurements are
best obtained from metallographic samples removed
from the component cross sections. Welds and heat-
affected zones should be included where applicable.
Microvoids are measured in this method as the total void
length (TVL) divided by the surface area examined.
Microvoids are measured normal to the principal stress
in microns per square millimeter (m/mm2) on a metallo-
graphically polished and etched surface. The principal
stress direction will be apparent in severely creep dam-
aged materials by the preferential orientation of the
microvoids. If the microvoids do not exhibit a preferred
orientation normal to the principal stress and are reason-
ably represented as circular shapes, the TVL may be cal-
culated as the microvoid density (number per mm2)
multiplied by their average diameter (m). An example of
severely creep damaged material, shown in Figure 14-17,
illustrates the preferential orientation and principal stress
direction.
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normal variations in grain size have only a minor effect

relative to cavitation.
In Figure 14-17, the sum of the microvoid lengths mea-
sured perpendicular to the principal stress of the 34
microvoids was 170 mm at a magnification of 500X.
Applying the appropriate factors (i.e. 1000 m/
mm/500X/0.0277 mm2) gives:

TVL = 12.3 x 103 m/mm2

The average grain size intercept distance is measured
from the figure as 29 m (i.e., 14.6 mm x 1000 m/
mm/500X). EVP is then found to be:

Figure 14-17
Preferential microvoid orientation normal to the principal EVP = 12.3 x 103 x 290.25 = 28.5 x 103
stress. (MAG: 500X, Vilella’s etch)
14.10.9 Remaining Life Versus Metallurgical State -
Microvoid measurements are best obtained at magnifica-
EVP Based Creep Damage Estimates
tions between 200X and 500X. The optimum magnifica-
Previous studies of ferritic tubular components have
tion depends on the number and size of the microvoids.
shown that EVP in a component progresses proportion-
Since microvoids typically initiate at the interface ally with creep strain. Microstructural based creep dam-
between the austenitic matrix and grain boundary sec- age estimates for austenitic stainless steel assume that this
ond phase particles, the material’s grain size influences remains a valid relationship. Since EVP is proportional
the number and distribution of microvoids. A study to creep strain, then, normalized EVP is equal to normal-
involving three grades of austenitic stainless steel tubes ized creep strain as:
that failed by creep was performed to characterize the
grain size influence. Both grain size and TVL measure- EVP / EVPf = e / ef (14.11)
ments were obtained adjacent to the rupture in each The relationship between strain and time is obtained
sample (1004517, 2002). Grain size was determined as from uniaxial creep-rupture test data. Normalized strain
the average intercept distance using ASTM Method versus time curves developed from test data, from which
E112. Because of the difficulty in discerning individual the primary stage creep strain was omitted, are shown in
grains in some service-degraded tubes, the interference Figure 14-18. EVP is plotted for information along the
contrast feature available on some metallographs may be right axis.
used to enhance contrast between grains.
Statistical analysis of the data indicated that there was lit-
tle or no material dependency and indicated a grain size
dependency in which less cavitation (low TVL) is associ-
ated with large grain material. A parameter termed the
equivalent void parameter (EVP) incorporates the grain
size influence. It is defined as:
EVP =TVL × GSn (14.10)
where: EVP = equivalent void parameter
TVL = total void length per area (m/mm2)
GS = grain size, average intercept distance (m)
Figure 14-18
n = constant (0.25) Normalized strain versus exposure time data from austenitic
stainless steel creep-rupture tests.
Analysis of TVL and EVP data indicate that the addition
of grain size provides a moderate improvement; although Source: 1004517, 2002

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Volume 1: Fundamentals Remaining Life Assessment

The relationship between normalized time and creep summarizes the reinspection and additional testing
strain is approximated from these data as: recommendations.

Table 14-9
(14.12) EVP-Based Recommended Actions and Reinspection
where: t = exposure time EVP/103 Creep Damage Recommended Recommended
(1 = Failure) Action Reinspection
tf = time at failure Interval
e = creep strain 0 to 2.5 0 to 0.50 Reinspect, same 0.33 x
method Operating time
ef = strain at failure > 2.5 to 5.0 > 0.50 to 0.75 Reinspect, higher 0.11 x
level Operating time
A = 3.2 ± 1.8
> 5.0 > 0.75 Reinspect, higher 0.02 x
Creep damage (CD) is defined here as the exposure time level and creep Operating time
divided by the time-to-failure under constant load and rupture testing

temperature conditions as: 14.10.11 Case Study – Example of Microstructural-

Based Creep Damage Estimate
(14.13)
A Type 304 stainless steel tube was removed from service
The relationship between EVP and CD is expressed as: and prepared using the Vilella’s reagent procedure.
Microvoids appeared to have a slight aspect ratio with
(14.14) the long axis in the vertical direction as shown in Figure
14-19. The TVL was therefore measured in the vertical
This relationship involves two parameters, A and EVPf . direction.
Parameter A is the shape factor, and EVPf is the EVP at
failure. Ranges for A and EVPf accommodate varying
materials and exposure conditions to provide a measure
of the calculation uncertainty. More limited ranges of A
and/or EVPf may be established for specific cases.
Calculating the remaining creep life from the estimated
CD is straightforward for components that operate at
constant stress and temperature (e.g., pipes and headers).
The following relationship is useful for these cases:

remaining life = operating hours x (1 /CD-1) (14.15)

The limited growth of steamside oxide and minor wall
thinning typically observed in stainless steel tubes gener-
ally permit successful use of this method.
14.10.10 Recommended Reinspection Interval Based
on Metallographic Methods
Tubes that are metallographically determined to have a
measurable amount of creep damage should be re-
inspected at a future date to monitor the additional accu-
mulation of damage. Reinspection of tubes by more
detailed methods and possibly accelerated creep-rupture
testing is recommended for tubes that have sustained sig-
nificant creep damage. Creep damage should be calcu-
lated by the method described above using A = 5.0 and
EVPf = 18.3 x 103 to provide conservative predictions on
the pessimistic side of the uncertainty range. Table 14-9
Figure 14-19
Microvoids of service-degraded Type 304H stainless steel
tube showing the microvoid measurement direction and a
typical grain size measurement. (MAG: 500X, Vilella’s etch).
Source: 1004517, 2002
A total of 21 microvoids in this photomicrograph had a
cumulative measured length of 58 mm at 500X magnifi-
cation. The TVL was therefore 4.2 x 103 m/mm2 (58 mm
x 1000 m/mm/500X/0.0277 m/mm2). The average
grain intercept distance was 25 m (12.4 mm at 500 X
magnification, ASTM grain size of 7.5).

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The EVP was calculated from the TVL and grain size
using equation 14.10 as:
EVP = 4.2 × 103 × 250.25 = 9.4 × 103
The average estimated creep damage (CD) was calculated
from the EVP using equation 14.14 as:
CD = (1 – exp(–3.2 × 9.4/26 ))/(1 – exp(–3.2)) = 0.71
Inserting the stated ranges for A and EVPf yields a CD
range of 0.43 to 0.93. Since failure is predicted when
CD=1, the microscope indicates this tube may be, but is
not necessarily, very near end of life. The tube is a candi-
date for higher level inspection and accelerated creep
rupture testing because the upper range of CD exceeds
0.75 (see Table 14-9). Increased inspection and tests will
more accurately identify the level of creep damage, esti-
mate its remaining life, and assist in making run/repair/
replace decisions.
14.11 Statistical Methods for Creep Life Assessment
in Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubes
Statistical methods for creep life assessment have been
divided into those used when one to three failures have
occurred and those to use when more than three failures
have occurred.
14.11.1 Statistical Analysis and Forecast for Austenitic
Tubing (When 1 to 3 Failures Have Occurred)
The steps in determining the failure rate when just a few
tubes have failed are (1004517, 2002):
• Evaluate the failed tube(s) and sample a few of the
adjacent tubes to confirm that the mechanism is long-
term overheating/creep and to verify the dimensions,
microstructural characteristics, and the tube alloy.
• Using the time to failure of the first failure and the
tube population size as input, estimate when 50% of
the population of tubes that are similar to the failed
tube would be expected to fail (using the lognormal
distribution function of time-to-rupture to median
time-to-rupture ratio for the tube alloy of concern).
Creep rupture data are available (1004517, 2002).
• Estimate when the lead-the-fleet failures in this popu-
lation are likely to occur (using the lognormal distribu-
tion function of time-to-rupture to median
time-to-rupture ratio for the tube alloy of concern).
14-18
Note that this failure rate estimation requires no estimate
of the stress or temperature of the tubes. The basic prem-
ise of this approach is that all the tubes in the population
will have similar stress and temperature histories. In real-
ity, the first tube failure probably was exposed to signifi-
cantly higher stress or temperature than its neighbors. If
this is the case and the overall operating environment
doesn’t become more severe, then the actual rate of fail-
ures will be slower than predicted by this approach. As
more failures occur, this conservatism can be removed
from the model by making small adjustments to the
standard deviation coefficient in the lognormal distribu-
tion such that the error in the predictions for all of the
LTOC failures in this group of tubes is minimized.
14.11.2 Statistical Analysis and Forecast
for Austenitic Tubing (When More Than a Few
Failures Have Occurred)
If more than a few LTOC failures have already occurred
within a group of similar tubes, then the rate of addi-
tional failures can be estimated directly using a rank
statistical model such as a lognormal distribution. The
rank statistical failure rate estimation can also be made
using commercially available computer programs
or spreadsheet add-ins such as Weibullsmith® or @Risk
(@Risk, nd).
14.12 Roadmap for Evaluating LTOC in Austenitic
Tubes Using Cumulative Damage Modeling
A final method for analysis of austenitic tubes uses ther-
mal hydraulic models in conjunction with measured
parameters (1004517, 2002). A roadmap of steps for life
assessment stainless steel tubes subject to longterm
overheat/creep using this type of cumulative damage
modeling is shown in Figure 14-20.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Remaining Life Assessment
Figure 14-20
Cumulative damage modeling steps for assessing austenitic
stainless steel tubing subject to longterm overheating/creep.
Step 1: Perform UT wall/steamside oxide thickness
surveys and selected tube sample metallurgical evalua-
tions (austenitic and ferritic tubes)
Measurements of wall and steamside oxide thickness
should be made on the ferritic (usually 2¼ Cr-1 Mo)
tubing in the outlet penthouse and located just upstream
of the austenitic tubing. The objective is to make an esti-
mate of the tube bulk steam temperature up and down-
stream of the austenitic tubing for every tube circuit.
These deduced steam temperature estimates are used to
estimate the local heat absorption rate (Step 2), steam
temperature (Step 3), and radial temperature gradient
within the austenitic sections of tubing.
A penthouse oxide scale thickness survey including many
hundreds of tubes can often be completed in one or two
days. Ideally the wall and steamside oxide thickness
on every penthouse tube should be made since this will
provide the most accurate, comprehensive estimates
of remaining life. An example of the results is shown in
Figure 14-21.
Figure 14-21
Results of a nondestructive ultrasonic steamside
oxide survey, made on 2 ¼ Cr-1 Mo outlet header stub tubes
downstream of austenitic stainless steel tubing.
[1 mil = 0.0254 mm]
Estimated bulk steam temperatures can be made using
the EPRI TUBELIFE III computer code as described for
ferritic tubes. An example of the results is shown in
Figure 14-22.
Figure 14-22
Estimates of the outlet steam temperatures based on the
steamside oxide thickness survey shown in Figure 14-21.
These temperature estimates were derived using the EPRI
TUBELIFE III computer code. The “unit variable” was adjusted
until the average of the predicted outlet temperatures was
equivalent to the bulk outlet temperature of 565°C (1050°F).
[°C = (°F – 32)/1.8]
It is important to verify the accuracy of the steamside
oxide scale readings by sampling a few tubes. For austen-
itic tubing, the most useful approach for this verification
is to sample a few sections of penthouse ferritic tubing
that are easily repaired and had “thick” UT-measured
oxide scales. In addition, a few of the austenitic tubes in
the hottest tube circuits should be sampled to verify the
dimensions, microstructural characteristics, equivalent
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Remaining Life Assessment Volume 1: Fundamentals

void parameter (EVP), material properties, and to con-

firm the mechanism. Samples taken may also be used for
accelerated creep or stress rupture testing to calibrate or
fine-tune the remaining life estimates.
Step 2: Estimate the average and peak heat absorption
rate
Once the outlet steam temperature of each tube circuit is
determined, then this information can be used to esti-
mate the effective average heat absorption rate of the
tube bundle. The effective average heat absorption rate
can be estimated by balancing the heat absorption rate
with the increase in steam energy:

(14.16)
where: = effective average heat absorption rate
DO = outside tube diameter
LGT = gas touched length of tubing
= mass flow rate
h = outlet and inlet enthalpy from steam tables an estimate of the ratio of the peak to average heat absorp-
using the measured or estimated inlet and tion rate at a given gas-touched tube location. As shown,
outlet temperatures and pressures
Since this relationship assumes that heat absorption
occurs evenly around the tube, it will need to be adjusted
to allow for determination of peak heat absorption,
which typically occurs at the 10 o‘clock and 2 o’clock
positions. This can be done by measuring the circumfer-
ential distribution of steamside oxide of a few of the fer-
ritic tubes just upstream of the stainless steel tubing and
then backing out the expected heat absorption rate dis-
tribution of the austenitic tubes. Figure 14-23 shows the
process.
Figure 14-23
Steamside oxide scale thickness measurements made around
the periphery of a selected ferritic tube can be used to derive
the peak to average heat absorption rate ratio is a function
of the steamside heat transfer coefficient. The ratio of peak
to average heat absorption rate for the case shown was
1.13, 1.24, and 1.35 for steamside heat transfer coefficients
of 1700 W/m2°C, 3400 W/m2°C, and 5100 W/m2°C,
respectively. [1 in = 25.4 mm; 1 W/m2 = 0.317 Btu/hr/ft2;
1 W/m2°C = 0.1761 Btu/hr ft2°F]
Further refinements of the heat absorption rate can be
made using steamside oxide measurements of ferritic
tubes within the heat absorbing sections of the tube cir-
cuits or by direct measurement in situ using “flux domes”
(see Chapter 16 on monitoring).
Step 3: Estimate steam temperature versus gas-touched
length
For the austenitic stainless steel tubes, there are several
ways of estimating steam temperature versus gas-touched
length. For example, a linear interpolation between the
inlet temperature (obtained from thermocouple read-
ings) and the outlet temperature (obtained from steam-
side oxide thickness measurements) can be made. Slight
engineering adjustments to those linear interpolations
can be made for each pass of tubing to reflect the varia-
tion in heat absorption throughout the tube bundle. At
the other end of the spectrum, full steam and gas-side
computational fluid dynamics models of the tube bundle
can be made.

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Volume 1: Fundamentals Remaining Life Assessment

Another approach is to use the energy balance equation drilling with strain gages, X-ray diffraction, or tube split-
presented in Step 2 along with some engineering judg- ting with incremental measurement of the width of the
ment regarding the distribution of heat absorption rate. cut as the cut progresses across the tube wall. If the mag-
For example, if the heat absorption rate near the outlet of nitude of the measured residual stress is significant, then
the tube bundle is known, then the heat balance equa- it should be added to the applied mean diameter formula
tions can be used to estimate the bulk steam temperature stress.
in regions just upstream of the header.
Step 7: Estimate remaining LTOC life at selected
Step 4: Estimate steam velocity versus gas-touched critical locations
length
The inputs from Steps 1 through 6 can be used along
Since the outlet steam temperatures are determined in a with stress rupture formulas to determine the remaining
region with no heat absorption, this is not the correct life of each segment of austenitic stainless steel of each
value to use at the steam/steamside oxide interface in the tube circuit.
heat absorbing (gas-touched) sections of austenitic stain-
less steel. In the gas-touched sections of tubing, there will 14.13 References
be a temperature gradient between the bulk steam tem-
1004503, 2002. Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube
perature and the inside surface of the steamside oxide
Failure Manual, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002. 1004503.
that is controlled by radial convective heat transfer. This
temperature gradient is a function of the local peak heat 1004517, 2002. Remaining Life of Austenitic Stainless
absorption rate, the tube inside and outside dimensions, Steel Superheater and Reheater Tubes, EPRI, Palo Alto,
the surface roughness/friction factor of the steamside CA: 2002. 1004517.
oxide, physical properties of the steam (i.e., thermal con-
1010440, 2006. Evaluation of Thermal-, Creep- and
ductivity, specific heat, viscosity), and the local steam
Corrosion-Fatigue of Heat Recovery Steam Generator Pres-
velocity. Details about these calculations are available
sure Parts, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2006. 1010440.
(1004517, 2002).
1010621, 2006. TULIP 2.0: Tube Life Probability,
Step 5: Estimate the tube temperature
Version 2.0, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2006. 1010621.
For austenitic tubing, the midwall temperature of a spe-
1013629, 2006. “BTF and HTF Survey Results
cific gas-touched section of superheater tube can be esti-
Conducted at the EPRI BTF/HTF International
mated from the local bulk steam temperature, the local
Conference,” Proceedings: International Conference on
peak heat absorption rate, and local steam properties and
Boiler Tube and HRSG Tube Failures and Inspections, held
velocity, in combination with a convection and conduc-
in San Diego, CA, November 2-4, 2004, EPRI, Palo
tive radial heat transfer model. Details of these calcula-
Alto, CA: 2006. 1013629.
tions are available (1004517, 2002).
@Risk, nd. @RISK: Risk Analysis and Simulation Add-In
Step 6: Estimate the tube stress
for Microsoft Excel or Lotus 1-2-3, Palisade Corporation,
This can be done using the mean diameter stress formula Newfield, NY.
provided in Equation 14.7. In austenitic stainless steel
Coutant, 2004. Coutant, R.A., “Application of Probabi-
tubes, residual stresses may also be present. If longterm
listic Risk Assessment to High Temperature Boiler Tube
overheating failures occur well in advance of the esti-
Remaining Life Analysis,” in Proceedings: International
mated life determined based on the assumption that only
Conference on Boiler Tube and HRSG Tube Failures and
pressure-induced stresses are active, the residual stresses
Inspections, held in San Diego, CA, November 2-5, 2004,
should be considered. These may be introduced during
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2006. 1013629. pp. 499-509.
tube manufacturing or service as a result of severe ther-
mal transients such as water spraying of hot tubes or for- CS-5564, 1988. Remaining Life Assessment of Superheater
ward flow of cold condensate into hot tubing. Due to the and Reheater Tubes, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1988.
excellent creep resistance of austenitic stainless steels, CS‑5564.
residual stresses may be unable to relax away during ser-
vice exposure. Residual stress measurements can be made
using a variety of techniques such as sectioning or hole

14-21
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Remaining Life Assessment Volume 1: Fundamentals

Davison, 1987. Davison, J.K., “The Use of BTF Statis- Toft, 1963. Toft, L.H. and R.A. Marsden, “The Struc-
tics to Estimate Future Incidence of Failures,” EPRI, Palo ture and Properties of 1%Cr-0.5%Mo Steel After Service
Alto, CA: 1988. In B. Dooley and D. Broske, eds., Boiler in CEGB Power Stations,” in Conference on Structural
Tube Failures in Fossil Power Plants, Conference Proceed- Processes in Creep, JISI/JIM, London, 1963, p. 275.
ings, Conference held in Atlanta, Georgia, November 10
TR-102433, 1993. Boiler Tube Failure Metallurgical
– 12, 1987, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1987. CS‑5500‑SR,
Guide, Volume 1: Technical Report, Volume 2: Appendices,
pp. 1‑37 through 1‑51.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1993. TR-102433.
Davison, 1991. Davison, J.K., “Experience in the Use of
Viswanathan, 1988. Viswanathan, R., J.R. Foulds, and
Boiler Tube Failure Prediction to Aid Maintenance Plan-
D.A. Roberts, “Methods for Estimating the Temperature
ning,” in B. Dooley, ed., Proceedings: International Con-
of Reheater and Superheater Tubes in Fossil Boilers,”
ference on Boiler Tube Failures in Fossil Plants, held in San
Proceedings of the International Conference on Life Exten-
Diego, CA, November 5-7, 1991, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
sion and Assessment, The Hague, June 1988.
1991. TR-100493, pp. 10‑1 through 10‑16.
Viswanathan, 1991. Viswanathan, R. and S. Gehl,
Guttner, 2004. Guttner, G., R. Work, K. Hara, C. Lee,
“Advances in Life Assessment Techniques for Fossil Power
R. Moser, S. Paterson, B. Dooley, and K. Coleman,
Plant Components Operating at Elevated Temperatures,”
“Evaluation of Long-Term Overheat Creep Failures of
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, in A. E.
SA213 T91 Superheater Tubes in Appalachian Power’s
Meligi, T. V. Narayanan, and C. B. Bond, eds., PVP‑Vol-
Glen Lyn Plant,” in Proceedings: International Conference
ume 208, Power Plant Systems/Components Aging Man-
on Boiler Tube and HRSG Tube Failures and Inspections,
agement and Life Extension, Book No. H00634 (1991).
held in San Diego, CA, November 2-5, 2004, EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: 2006. 1013629. pp. 33-56. Viswanathan, 1991b. Viswanathan, R., S.R. Paterson,
H. Grunloh, and S. Gehl, “Life Assessment of Super-
Price, 2004. Price, J.W.H., S. A. Noori, and
heater/Reheater Tubes,” in B. Dooley, ed., Proceedings:
A. Beveridge, “The Use of Risk Based Inspection (“RBI”)
International Conference on Boiler Tube Failures in
and Warning Level Approaches for Determining Inspec-
Fossil Plants, held in San Diego, California November 5-
tion Boiler Tubing,” in Proceedings: International Confer-
7, 1991, Proceedings TR-100493, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA,
ence on Boiler Tube and HRSG Tube Failures and
April 1992, pp. 7-1 through 7-49.
Inspections, held in San Diego, CA, November 2-5, 2004,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2006. 1013629. pp. 509-524. Viswanathan, 1994. Viswanathan, R., S. R. Paterson,
H. Grunloh, and S. Gehl, “Life Assessment of Super-
SAE, 1988. Fatigue Design Handbook, 2nd Edition, Soci-
heater/Reheater Tubes in Fossil Boilers,” American Soci-
ety of Automotive Engineers, Inc., 1988.
ety of Mechanical Engineers, ASME Journal of Pressure
Thome, 1996. Thome, J.R., “Heat Transfer Augmenta- Vessel Technology, Volume 116, February 1994.
tion of Shell‑and‑Tube Heat Exchangers for the Chemi-
cal Processing Industry,” Keynote Lecture at the 2nd
European Thermal Sciences and 14th UIT National Heat
Transfer Conference, Rome (May 1996).

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

Chapter 15
Nondestructive Examination,
Inspection, and Testing Methods

15.1 Introduction
There are a variety of nondestructive and destructive methods to assess boiler and HRSG
tube condition. This chapter provides a brief overview of some of those methods as they per-
tain to the assessment of boiler and HRSG tubing.
Included in this chapter are conventional NDE technologies, including:
• Visual Testing (VT) including fiber optics (Section 15.5)
• Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) (Section 15.7)
• Penetrant Testing (PT) (Section 15.8)
• Ultrasonic Testing (UT) including linear phased array and electromagnetic acoustic trans-
ducers (EMATs) (Section 15.10)
• Radiographic Testing (RT) including digital radiography (Section 15.11)
Three electromagnetic techniques that have found recent application to HRSG units, which
have considerable access difficulties, are included:
• Remote Field Eddy Current (RFEC) (Section 15.12)
• Pulsed Eddy Current (PEC) (Section 15.13)
• Low Frequency Electromagnetic Technique (LFET) (Section 15.14)
Note that the field of NDE is particularly dynamic. New technologies are continually being
developed and offered for application.
Additional topics include:
• NDE Codes and Standards (Section 15.2)
• Surface Preparation (Section 15.3)
• Access Limitations (Section 15.4)
• Dimensional Measurements (Section 15.6)
• AC Potential Drop (Section 15.9)
• Weld Probes (Section 15.15)
• Laser Profilometry (Section 15.16)
• Acoustic Monitoring (Section 15.17)
• Quantitative Alloy Identification (Section 15.18)
• Replication (Section 15.19)
• Portable Hardness Testing (Section 15.20)
• Sampling (Section 15.21)
• Hydrostatic Testing (Section 15.22)

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Nondestructive Examination, Inspection, and Testing Methods Volume 1: Fundamentals

Inspection is used for a variety of purposes, including Table 15-1

(TR-101699, 1993): General Checklist for Nondestructive Examination
Procedures
• To identify defective components, loss of wall thick- Source: TR-101699, 1993
ness, or cracks from the ID or OD.
• Written procedure
• To determine the extent of damage. This is required to
• Procedure number
help develop an action plan for each root cause and
• Procedure approved by appropriately certified senior operator
damage as well as to assess remaining life of the
• Equipment or tubing to be tested
component.
• Serialization of parts
• To identify any secondary (consequential) damage.
• Applicable code
This is an important and sometimes overlooked aspect
• Code effective date
of inspection.
• Revision history
• To assist in identifying the failure mechanism. • Operator certification requirements
• In a proactive manner as part of a component life man- • Operator qualification records
agement program to detect early signs of damage. • Operator eye examinations
• As part of the repair process to ensure that all defects/ • Calibration data
damage are removed prior to welding. • Organization
• After the repair to confirm that no rejectable defects • Responsibilities
are present. • Chemical requirements of consumables such as tapes, markers,
couplants, and penetrant materials.
• As part of a periodic reinspection program to deter- • Shooting sketch (RT)
mine the success of corrective actions and to detect • Interpretation and evaluation of indications
developing problems. • Acceptance criteria
The factors that will affect the choice of NDE method • Handling of non-conforming items
include (i) the nature of the damage that is suspected, • Mechanism of repair and rework
(ii) access, (iii) material and/or weld type, and (iv) the • Reinspection after repair and rework
detection capabilities and limitations of the NDE • Reporting forms
method. • Record retention period
• Quality assurance/quality control criteria and requirements
A number of good texts are available for reviews of the
most common techniques, see for example (1012759,
2007; TR-108450, 1997; ASM, 1989).
For any given damage type, there may be an array of
optional examination methods. Specific guidance is pro-
vided in the individual BTF and HTF mechanism write-
ups in Volumes 2 and 3.
Formal, written procedures are required independent of
the examination method chosen. A checklist for the con-
tents of those procedures is provided in Table 15-1.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Nondestructive Examination, Inspection, and Testing Methods
15.2 Codes and Standards
15.2.1 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
Section I of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel (B&PV)
Code provides the rules for design and construction of
power boilers, defined as “a boiler in which steam or other
vapor is generated at a pressure of more than 15 psi for
use external to itself.” Section I applies to the boiler itself
(superheaters, reheaters, economizers, and other pressure
parts connected directly to the boiler without intervening
valves), as well as to portions of the boiler external piping.
Section I is subdivided into 10 Parts, plus appendices, ref-
erences, and other information. The specific Parts with
the most relevance to QC/QA issues are:
• Part PG – General requirements for all methods of
construction
• Part PW – Requirements for boilers fabricated by
welding
• Appendix A – Explanation of the Code
Specific rules for inspection and tests are provided in PG-
90 through PG-100 and in PW-46 through PW-54.
Section V of the ASME B&PV Code, “Nondestructive
Examination,” contains Subsection A, methods of exam-
ination, and Subsection B, standards and specifications
for performing the various methods. The following
methods are included:
• Radiography (RT)
• Ultrasonics (UT)
• Magnetic particle (MT)
• Liquid penetrant (PT)
• Visual (VT)
• Leak testing (LT)
• Electromagnetic/Eddy current (ET)
• Acoustic emission (AE)
Section I of the ASME B&PV Code lists acceptance
standards for finished joints in PW-35. Radiography
acceptance standards are listed in PW-51 and acceptance
standards for rounded indications in welds in Appendix
A-250. Acceptance standards for ultrasonic examination
are listed in PW-52. Appendix A-260 gives acceptance
criteria for magnetic particle examination. Appendix A-
270 gives acceptance criteria for liquid penetrant exami-
nation. Additional detail on specific acceptance criteria
can be found in Section VIII Division 1, Appendices 4
(radiography), 6 (magnetic particle examination), 8 (liq-
uid penetrant examination), and 12 (ultrasonic examina-
tion), as well as Section VIII Division 2, Appendix 8
(radiography) and Appendix 9 (magnetic particle, liquid
penetrant, and ultrasonic examination).
15.2.2 ASME B31.1 Power Piping Code
Examination, inspection, and testing of piping installa-
tions are addressed in Chapter VI of B31.1. The Code
distinguishes between “examination” and “inspection.”
Examination “denotes the functions performed by the
manufacturer, fabricator, erector or a party authorized by
the Owner which include visual observations and nonde-
structive examination, such as radiography, ultrasonic,
eddy current, liquid penetrant, and magnetic particle
methods.” Inspection “is the responsibility of the Owner”
and is required prior to initial operation to “assure com-
pliance with the engineering design and with the mate-
rial, fabrication, assembly, examination, and test
requirements of this Code.” General guidelines for the
qualification and certification of personnel who perform
nondestructive examination of welds are provided (Para.
136). Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A and
American Welding Society (AWS) QC1 are also refer-
enced as alternative sources for personnel qualification
and certification.
The mandatory minimum nondestructive examinations
for pressure welds or welds to pressure retaining compo-
nents are listed in Table 136.4. Specific examination
methods for welds are discussed in 136.4.2 (visual exam-
ination), 136.4.3 (magnetic particle testing), 136.4.4
(liquid penetrant examination), 136.4.5 (radiography),
and 136.4.6 (ultrasonic examination). Pressure testing of
piping systems to ensure leak tightness is discussed in
Para. 137.
15.2.3 ASTM Standard Practices for NDE
Table 15-2 provides a list of the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard practices for
various NDE techniques. Table 15-3 gives the standards
for tubular products.
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Table 15-2 Table 15-3

ASTM and ASME Standards for Nondestructive American Society for Testing and Materials Standards
Examination Methods for Nondestructive Examination of Tubular Products
Source: TR-101699, 1993 Source: TR-101699, 1993

Liquid Penetrant Testing A450 Standard Specification for General Requirements for
Carbon, Ferritic Alloy, and Austenitic Alloy Steel Tubes
ASTM E165 Standard Practice for Liquid Penetration Inspection
Method E273 Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Examination of
Longitudinal Welded Pipe and Tubing
ASTM E270 Standard Definitions for Terms Relating to Liquid
Penetrant Inspections E213 Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Inspection of Metal Pipe
and Tubing
ASTM E433 Standard Reference Photographs for Liquid
Penetrant Inspection E309 Standard Practice for Eddy Current Examination of Steel
Tubular Products Using Magnetic Saturation
ASME Section V Article 6
E426 Standard Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy Current)
Magnetic Particle Testing Testing of Seamless and Welded Tubular Products,
Austenitic Stainless Steel, and Similar Alloys
ASTM E709 Standard Recommended Practice for Magnetic
Particle Examination E570 Standard Practice for Flux Leakage Examination of
Ferromagnetic Steel Tubular Products
ASTM E269 Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Magnetic
Particle Examination
ASME Section V Article 7 15.2.4 European Standard EN 12952
Radiographic Testing European Standard EN 12952, “Water-tube boilers and
ASTM E94 Standard Practice for Radiographic Testing auxiliary installations,” supersedes British Standard BS
ASTM E142 Standard Method for Controlling Quality of 1113. Of most relevance are Part 5: Workmanship and
Radiographic Testing construction of pressure parts of the boiler and Part 6:
ASTM E586 Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Gamma Inspection during construction; documentation and
and X Radiography
marking of pressure parts of the boiler.
ASME Section V Article 2
Section 9 of European Standard EN 12952, Part 6, speci-
Ultrasonic Testing
fies that “all welds carried out during the manufacture
ASTM E500 Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Ultrasonic
Testing and erection of a water-tube boiler shall be visually exam-
ASTM E428 Standard Recommended Practice for Fabrication ined.” Additionally, surface examination is specified using
and Control of Steel Reference Blocks Used In magnetic particle inspection or dye penetrant inspection.
Ultrasonic Inspection
Volumetric inspection is specified using ultrasonic exam-
ASTM E213 Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Inspection of Metal
Pipe and Tubing ination (preferred) or radiographic examination.
ASTM E164 Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Contact Examinations are to be carried out in accordance with
Examination of Weldments
the applicable Standard:
ASTM E797 Standard Practice for Measuring Thickness by
Manual Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Contact Method • Visual examination – EN 970
ASTM E114 Standard Recommended Practice for Ultrasonic • Magnetic particle inspection – EN 1291
Pulse-Echo Straight-Beam Testing by Contact
Method • Dye penetrant inspection – EN 571-1 and EN 1289
ASME Section V Article 4 • Ultrasonic examination – EN 1714
Testing Agency Qualification • Radiographic examination – EN 1435
ASTM E543 Standard Practice for Determining the Qualification Section 9 of European Standard EN 12952-6 gives
of Nondestructive Testing Agencies
acceptance criteria for weld surface imperfections (Table
9.3-1) found by visual, magnetic particle inspection, or
dye penetrant inspection. Acceptance criteria for internal
(volumetric) imperfections found by radiography are
given in Table 9.4-1. Acceptance criteria for indications
found by ultrasonic examination are provided separately
in EN 1712.

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15.3 Surface Preparation
Preparation of various boiler and HRSG component sur-
faces for examination is governed by many variables,
including:
• NDE techniques to be utilized.
• Type of NDE procedures to be applied.
• Sequence of NDE techniques to be utilized.
• Materials involved.
• Component size and portability.
• Costs of various surface preparation techniques.
• Time required, including scaffolding and access.
• Interference with other projects in the plant.
• In HRSGs: accessibility from ID or OD.
Planning of the overall outage and inspections, along
with coordination between the NDE personnel and con-
tractors, is critical to minimize the cost and time involved
in surface preparation as well as the impact on parallel
plant projects being performed during the outage.
15.3.1 No Surface Preparation
Often, it is recommended that a walkdown of the equip-
ment be conducted with no surface preparation of the
components as signs of unusual operation of the unit can
often provide valuable evidence of the abnormal condi-
tion and aid in subsequent inspections and overall condi-
tion assessment. Signs of steam or water leakage,
aggressive air penetration, or local overheating can be
detected quickly and visually by experienced personnel
during the walkdown, before any cleaning is conducted.
Damage to insulation and sagging can indicate hanger/
support problems in piping systems. One of the first
questions to be asked after the unit is scheduled to be
brought down is, “What information might I lose by
cleaning component surfaces?”
Most inspection techniques require that a clean surface
be obtained for inspection. However, this is not always
the case. Some exceptions may include various electro-
magnetic techniques, electromagnetic acoustic trans-
ducer (EMAT) systems, and internal eddy current
inspection of tubing, which may be performed with no
surface preparation provided that deposits and debris
accumulation are not excessive. Magnetic flux leakage
inspections and even some general ultrasonic techniques
may be performed with no surface preparation, depend-
ing upon the as-found component surface condition, the
criticality of the inspection, and other factors. Infrared
thermography and radiographic examinations can often
be done with no surface preparation. The need to per-
form any cleaning operations should be verified with the
cognizant NDE personnel before proceeding with any
cleaning operation.
15.3.2 Surface Debris/Scale Removal
One of the most popular surface preparation techniques
is grit or sand blasting. Large areas may be cleaned very
quickly and, if air pressure and media density are kept
reasonable, very little damage is done to the surface. For
smaller areas requiring examination, local cleaning with
wire brushes or light grinders may be preferred because
of their portability. There is a possibility that some small,
shallow cracks will be “peened over” using these latter
techniques, and particular care is recommended for thin
or soft materials to ensure that small cracks do not go
undetected.
The use of such surface preparation methods can lead to
severe inspection limitations when certain surface exami-
nations are to be conducted, particularly liquid penetrant
and to a lesser degree magnetic particle and eddy current.
The materials involved should also be considered when
considering appropriate cleaning methods. Some mate-
rial, for example, cannot be exposed to chemicals and
must be cleaned using purely mechanical means. Other
components must be cleaned using chemicals because of
surface finish requirements or dimensional tolerances
that cannot be disturbed. Consequently, it is important
to coordinate the type of surface preparation to be per-
formed with cognizant NDE personnel and with materi-
als specialists to make certain that the selected cleaning
means are compatible with the NDE methods and tech-
niques to be applied and with the materials involved.
HRSG tight tolerances and finned tubes limit the sur-
faces available for grit blasting to 1-3 tube rows at the
front and rear of the component. In cases where the sur-
face contamination is a by-product of the combustion
process, that is, oil-fired combustion turbines, deposits
are most prevalent on the leading edge tubes. Removing
deposits from large areas can cause further deposition by
imbedded grit or deposit/grit mixtures. This can lead to
losses in efficiency and pluggage of components. Recently,
frozen carbon dioxide has been employed as a blasting
medium to prevent adding grit contamination to the
HRSG gas path.
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Local, state, or federal regulations may dictate that clean-
ing techniques that may cause potential airborne con-
tamination in confined spaces (grit blasting of tubes
inside the HRSG is a good example) require monitoring
during and after the cleaning cycle. In these cases, the
NDE personnel may be required to wear protective
breathing apparatus, which can slow down the examina-
tion process.
For parts or components that can be moved, cleaning is
often accomplished in a confined area, such as an erected
tent. This limits the export of cleaning media or the
import of airborne contaminants into the cleaning envi-
ronment, which can be important for cleaning parts with
tight fit-ups and clearances that must be disassembled for
inspection. In addition, the use of cleaning/inspection
enclosures can often be required as a means of control-
ling ambient light, for example, for the performance of
fluorescent magnetic particle or liquid penetrant exami-
nations. For some components, temperature and humid-
ity control is very important. Often the same enclosures
utilized for cleaning provide suitable environmental pro-
tection for the inspection and for storage of the compo-
nents until ready for return to service.
15.4 Access Limitations
No examination is possible unless the examiner can gain
access to the component. This is true for both conven-
tional fossil fuel plants and for HRSG units. For example,
for visual examination, it may not be just the camera/
viewer that needs access, but a light source to illuminate
the scene and possibly also a carriage or transport vehicle
to move the examination head. This places constraints on
the diameter of the entry port: how straight it is initially
(there may be a bend to pass before entering the compo-
nent proper) and how much room exists between the
port and the adjacent component or wall.
The challenges of performing NDE in HRSG units are
particularly acute. This is due to factors such as the pres-
ence of finned tubes, tight spaces, and close tolerances.
The higher efficiency HRSGs are more densely packed
with pressure parts and assembled in such a complex
manner in order to extract the maximum amount of
energy from the exhaust gasses.
Access to tubes from both the outer surface and inner
surface within the HRSG enclosure is limited. The best
access is at the leading and trailing edge tubes. Some
access is also available at the tight spaces between mod-
ules and around the SCR. Tube ends located outside the
15-6
gas path are somewhat more accessible in some designs
due to the absence of fins near the headers. However, the
close proximity of multiple headers in a component,
enclosed header vestibules, and the short tube lengths
outside the gas path also make direct NDE examination
difficult. Inspections of transfer pipes between headers,
header vents, drains, and supports are usually available in
the upper and lower vestibule enclosures. Inspections of
risers, downcomers, piping, and drums outside the vesti-
bule must contend with insulation and lagging
coverings.
Internal inspections of HRSG components may require
considerable modifications to gain access. If the compo-
nent is to be inspected frequently, consideration should
be given to designing and implementing a convenient
means of access that can be reused, thus eliminating cut-
ting and rewelding at each outage. For example, specific
access ports can be installed in evaporator and econo-
mizer headers to facilitate the internal inspection of these
components for corrosion damage. Modifications to pro-
vide access should include consideration for both per-
sonnel and equipment and may involve larger access
doors, new or larger manways, etc.
EPRI is developing the techniques and processes to con-
duct complete NDE from the ID of the tubing via preci-
sion access through headers or tubing.
15.5 Visual Testing
15.5.1 Introduction
Visual testing (VT) is the most effective and informative
method of finding flaws and degradation among the vari-
ous boiler and HRSG components. It is widely applied.
For example, in a survey conducted in 2004, visual
examination of HRSG units was used on the OD and ID
of tubing by 65% and 45%, respectively, of operators
(1013629, 2006). VT is the principal NDE method used
to inspect tubes, headers, drums, and piping systems
throughout manufacture, assembly, and operation of the
unit. Quality visual examination is one of the least appre-
ciated and possibly the most demanding NDE activities
currently being used in power plant inspection. Whereas
VT once consisted of “looking over” a component, by
current standards, VT typically involves a great deal of
training and practical experience before an examiner is
qualified for this examination method.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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The qualified VT examiner must have a good working
knowledge of a vast array of plant components, metal-
lurgy, potential flaw types for various components, fail-
ure mechanisms, etc. He must be capable of recognizing
the presence of different damage forms and classifying
the damage in terms of severity and implications relative
to ongoing operation of the component, based solely on
what normally is very limited visual evidence.
Although not an NDE technique in itself, debris removal
is often a substantial part of a visual examiner’s job. It is
common for items such as screwdrivers, grippers, weld-
ing rods, nuts, and bolts to drop into a component dur-
ing maintenance operations. If not removed, they could
cause considerable damage when the plant is brought
back to power. Various devices and attachments have
been developed to facilitate this task.
Visual examination is a primary means to assess tubing
for conditions such as:
• Fiber optic for HRSGs can clearly identify (i) multiple
arrays of corrosion fatigue cracks, (ii) FAC and associ-
ated loss of wall thickness, (iii) regions of exfoliated
oxide to help identify where thermal transients are
maximum, and (iv) pitting.
• Fireside wastage caused by corrosion and erosion pro-
cesses (in conventional units). Visual examination can
detect significant wastage directly or indirectly, by rec-
ognizing the presence of rusted tube locations within a
few hours of a boiler wash indicating the removal of
protective surface oxides.
• Broken attachments, hangers, or supports that can
warn of high imposed stresses on affected tubing.
• Tubes misaligned out of the general platen, which can
lead to overheating or may be symptomatic of exces-
sive restraint stresses.
• Fouling or the blockage of passages (in conventional
units or oil-fired HRSG units), which might induce
(i) localized high velocity conditions (ii) fluid flow or
temperature imbalances or (iii) provide the potential
for flyash erosion (conventional units).
• Flame impingement, carbon particle impingement, or
burner misalignment can be a sign of localized over-
heating of tubes and eventually can manifest damage
via a variety of mechanisms in conventional units.
• Gas-side pitting, wastage, or cracking in HRSG units.
For localized damage, surface scales may mask under-
lying damage so that it will be missed by visual
examination.
• Water-side scaling, corrosion, deposition, and/or pit-
ting can be detected using borescopes, fiber optics,
mirrors, and miniature closed circuit television
systems.
• Measurement of tube diameters can detect tube bulg-
ing, a precursor to failure by short-term overheating
due to blockage, for example. On HRSG tubing, this
will be done on unfinned sections of tubing or selected
regions where the fins are removed.
15.5.2 Equipment
VT encompasses a vast array of tools to access specific
locations and observe surfaces for damage indicative of
certain detrimental conditions. This list can range from
the simple to the sophisticated and may include:
• Fiber-optic devices having various lengths, diameters,
and tip articulation.
• Videoimagescopes, similar to fiberscopes in appear-
ance, but that use a charged coupled device (CCD)
chip rather than optics to transmit the image.
• Miniature cameras (analog and digital).
• Inspection mirrors.
• Magnifying glasses.
• Portable microscopes.
• Rigid borescopes (also known as endoscopes), which
can view forward or sideways and be either fixed or
rotating.
To facilitate a visual examination, it is becoming more
common to display the image on a monitor. This not
only prevents the examiner from becoming tired from
peering through a fiberscope for long periods of time and
thereby increasing the risk of missing a flaw, but it also
enables colleagues and plant personnel to view the image
and offer their advice and interpretation. Recording the
image on videotape is an attractive option, as an assess-
ment can be made off-line. If examinations are performed
in later years, then flaw growth or damage can be assessed
from the multiple video recordings.
If video recording is performed, then it is essential that
the tape be annotated while the examination progresses.
Many parts of power plants look very similar from the
inside, and it is vitally important to know precisely where
the camera/viewer was looking in order to provide the
best guidance for subsequent inspections or operations.
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A video-typewriter is usually used to caption the screen
and permanently label the videotape. A microphone can
also be used to provide an audio commentary, but this is
prone to error if the examiner errs in row counting or
loses his bearings, and loud plant noises can sometimes
swamp out the commentary.
Photographs can also provide a permanent record of both
the macroscopic positions of a component system and
the surface features that may change during exposure to
stress, temperature and environment.
Additional references for visual testing include (1012759,
2007; 1008092, 2005; TR-108450, 1997; Fletcher,
1996; NP-6832, 1990).
15.6 Dimensional Measurement
Physical measurement of component position, motion,
and size are often critical to assessing failure occurrence.
Measurement methods can range from verifying eleva-
tions, clearances, etc. using tape measures to measuring
material strain using strain gauges or displacements using
scratch gauges or displacement gauges such as LVDTs.
During unit operation, boilers, piping, and turbine com-
ponents function at elevated temperatures that can lead
to relaxation, creep damage, and distortion. By routinely
measuring critical dimensions, it is possible to identify
areas of excessive damage accumulation, target examina-
tion locations, and detect the occurrence of step-changes
signaling structural failure.
Generally, acquiring the data requires that the examiners
have direct contact with the component to either take
the measurements or mount appropriate measurement
devices. If an optical level (or equivalent) is used, unob-
structed views between the level and measurement points
is typically required.
Measuring component size is typically used on high tem-
perature components to monitor the accumulation of
creep strain. Techniques can vary from taking diameter
and circumference measurements using calipers and pi-
tapes to using high temperature strain gauges and com-
puter data collection.
15-8
15.7 Magnetic Particle Testing
15.7.1 Introduction
Magnetic particle testing (MT) is a fairly simple
examination method that is useful for detecting surface
discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials such as dam-
age caused by fatigue, stress corrosion cracking, or
surface-related material defects.
In any ferromagnetic material, each molecule has mag-
netic poles that are randomly oriented in an unmagne-
tized specimen. In such cases, the magnetic fields of the
molecules cancel because of the random orientation,
resulting in no overall magnetic field. Upon magnetiza-
tion of the specimen, the poles of the individual mole-
cules become aligned, thereby creating magnetic poles in
the component that will attract iron. Magnets can be
permanent (retaining their magnetic poles permanently)
or temporary (retaining their magnetism only as long as
the magnetizing force is applied).
If a magnet (for example, a bar magnet having only north
and south poles - one at each end) is cut into two pieces
at some point along its length, each piece becomes a bar
magnet having north and south poles. When the two
pieces are rejoined, north pole on one bar to the south
pole on the second, the bar reverts back to a single bar
having two primary poles. However, at the junction
point, a concentrated leakage field will remain. The same
is true of a partial cut in the bar, that is, two opposite
poles will be created at the cut, and the leakage field will
attract iron. In this case, the magnetic lines of flux are
parallel to the length of the bar magnet, and the presence
of the transverse slit creates a leakage field of sufficient
magnitude to attract iron. In general, a greater flaw depth
produces a greater disruption in the magnetic lines of
force.
For a material that is ferromagnetic but not a permanent
magnet, the part can be magnetized in one of several
ways. The fundamental principle behind magnetic parti-
cle examination lies in the ability to attract iron at leak-
age fields, which are produced, in the same way as
described above for the bar magnet, by magnetizing the
part in a direction essentially normal to the major dimen-
sion of the discontinuity. Iron particles, either colored to
contrast with the material under visible light or contain-
ing a fluorescent compound to make them visible under
ultraviolet illumination, are then applied to the surface.
These particles are attracted to the discontinuity, yielding
a visual indication of its presence.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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Three types of magnetic particles are available for differ-
ent applications: (i) dry, visible powder, (ii) wet, visible
suspension, and (iii) wet, fluorescent suspension.
Visible particle materials are usually red (oxide) or gray
in color, and selected on the basis of the component sur-
face color and finish. Particles are also available in differ-
ent sizes to suit specific application requirements for ease
of application, ability to hold to a particular surface
under specific leakage field strengths, particle mobility,
etc. Although the sensitivity of visible MT materials is
generally considered lower than that achievable with flu-
orescent particles, it is adequate for many examination
applications.
Fluorescent MT particles fluoresce yellow or yellow/
green when subjected to ultraviolet (UV) light. Normally
accepted as the more sensitive of the MT methods, fluo-
rescent MT is reliant on the ability to form small light
sources where particles are attracted and therefore accu-
mulate at surface and somewhat subsurface discontinui-
ties when viewed under UV light illumination. Suitable
lighting in the inspection area is required for visible MT,
while suitable shielding from visible light (that is, dark-
ening) in combination with suitable UV illumination
intensity is required for the fluorescent MT methods to
perform the visual examination effectively. The UV
source (black light) must meet specific wavelength and
intensity requirements and must be used at prescribed
distances from the component surface.
In boiler and HRSG applications, examination tents are
used for fluorescent MT examination, where possible, to
provide the appropriately dark viewing conditions.
15.7.2 Applications
MT is one of the most frequently used of the NDE
methods applied in power plants for routine examina-
tions. MT can be applied to essentially any exposed sur-
face of any ferromagnetic material. Surface preparation is
not as demanding as it is for liquid penetrant examina-
tion, and reasonable sensitivity can be achieved, particu-
larly if using the wet fluorescent method. MT can even
be applied over thin surface coatings such as paint,
although surface finish can affect both mobility and
retention of the particles.
MT has been used extensively for the inspection of tube-
to-header connections to detect fatigue cracking.
Fluorescent MT may be useful when tight or small cracks
are of concern. For larger or more open discontinuities
such as corrosion pits, visible-dry MT may produce more
definitive results.
MT cannot be used to inspect non-ferromagnetic mate-
rials such as austenitic stainless steels. Joints between
steels with dissimilar magnetic characteristics may pro-
duce non-relevant MT indications, including joints
between 9 Cr and 2¼ Cr materials; penetrant testing
should be used instead.
When inspecting welds with sharp weld toe angles (as is
often the case with tube-to-header welds), non-relevant
indications may mask relevant indications. Skilled MT
technicians and very careful weld toe blend grinding can
overcome this latter problem. Due to the generally small
wall thickness of HRSG tubes, uncontrolled or aggres-
sive grinding must be avoided.
MT will be of limited use in areas of HRSG tubing where
fins are present.
Additional references for MT include (1012759, 2007;
TR-108450, 1997; NP-5951, 1988; NP-5834, 1988).
15.8 Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)
15.8.1 Introduction
When the area to be inspected is not ferromagnetic or
has insufficient access to allow the region to be effectively
magnetized with MT equipment, then PT should be
considered. PT can find cracks or pores in materials pro-
vided that the discontinuities are clean and open to the
surface.
Due to capillary action, penetrant materials are drawn
into various types of surface imperfections, making the
method well suited for detecting most imperfections in
both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, provided that the
flaws are open to the examination surface. PT can be
applied to a variety of components, including raw mate-
rials as well as finished components. The examination of
complex geometries is possible, as long as the surfaces are
accessible and the complexity of the surface geometry
does not preclude complete removal of excess penetrant.
The theoretical basis of PT examination is relatively sim-
ple. A liquid penetrant containing a visible liquid (also
called color-contrast) or fluorescent compound is applied
to the component surface. The penetrant is allowed to
remain on the surface for sufficient time to be drawn into
the openings of the surface discontinuity by capillary
action. Excess penetrant materials are then removed, and
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a developer is applied to the surface. Where the devel-
oper contacts the residual penetrant material held in the
surface discontinuities, it draws the penetrant back to the
exposed surface, providing both an indication of the
presence of a surface discontinuity and a contrasting
background, which makes the indication more apparent
under visual observation of the surface. The developer
may be a fine powder, a solution that dries to a fine pow-
der, or a suspension (for example, solvent, water, or
alcohol) that dries and leaves an absorbent film on the
surface.
Two basic penetrant materials are used: visible and fluo-
rescent. Visible penetrant materials are usually red in
color, producing a vivid contrast with the applied devel-
oper, which is typically white. Although the sensitivity of
visible penetrant materials is generally considered lower
than that achievable with fluorescent penetrants, it is
adequate for many examination applications.
Fluorescent penetrants fluoresce yellow or yellow/green
when subjected to UV light. Normally accepted as the
more sensitive of the liquid penetrant methods, fluores-
cent PT is reliant on the ability to form small light sources
where discontinuities are open to the surface and when
viewed under UV light. Suitable lighting in the examina-
tion area is required for visible PT, while suitable shield-
ing from visible light (that is, darkening) in combination
with suitable UV illumination intensity is required for
the fluorescent PT methods to perform VT effectively.
The UV source (black light) must meet specific wave-
length and intensity requirements and must be used at
prescribed distances from the component surface. In
HRSG applications, examination tents are normally used
for fluorescent PT, where possible, to provide the appro-
priately dark viewing conditions.
PT systems have been developed with differing charac-
teristics to enhance performance in specific applications.
These systems involve the various penetrant variations,
appropriate emulsifier and cleaning agents, and appro-
priate developers. The viscosity and surface tension of the
penetrant material are precisely controlled and varied
from system to system to enhance certain performance
characteristics. Normal sensitivity and high sensitivity
systems, for example, can be found within a particular
type of penetrant system.
15-10
Performing PT examinations requires no special equip-
ment, with the exception of a source of ultraviolet (black)
light for fluorescent penetrants. For most field applica-
tions, portable examination kits for either visible liquid
or fluorescent PT are available.
15.8.2 Applications
Typical boiler or HRSG tube damage detected using PT
includes dissimilar metal weld cracking, stress corrosion
cracking, fatigue, and weld defects. PT will be of limited
use on areas of HRSG tubing where fins are present.
PT seems relatively straightforward to perform; however,
a skilled PT technician will produce inspection results
that will be far more meaningful than inspections per-
formed by untrained field personnel.
Additional information about PT can be found in
(1012759, 2007; TR-108450, 1997; McMaster, 1959).
15.9 AC Potential Drop
15.9.1 Introduction
The AC potential drop technique is used to measure the
depth of surface-breaking cracks in electrically conduct-
ing materials.
Whereas magnetic particle and liquid penetrant exami-
nations can detect such cracks, they provide no quantita-
tive information on the depth of the crack. If the crack
must be removed from a component, then it is necessary
to know precisely how much metal should be removed in
order to remove the entire crack. This may mean multi-
ple applications of MT or PT to establish that the crack
has been eliminated.
UT can be used to provide crack depth information, but
this is difficult for cracks that are shallow and close to the
ultrasonic probe. UT is also difficult to apply on tight-
radiussed surfaces, such as tube-to-header connections.
AC potential drop is able to make these crack depth mea-
surements, even on tightly curved surfaces. Application
of AC potential drop, therefore, allows the depth of
grinding to be determined beforehand, resulting in a
time savings by minimizing the need for repeat examina-
tions using other techniques. The main disadvantage is
that it is not practicable to use this technique to detect
cracks, although this is physically possible. Measure-
ments are made point by point, so it would take a very
long time to scan a surface. In practice, this means that
AC potential drop is a secondary, rather than a primary,
examination technique.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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An important consideration is that crack measurements
also tend to slightly underestimate the true depth because
the electric current will take the shortest distance beneath
the crack. As a crack tapers to a point, there comes a
depth at which the current can jump across the opposing
faces, resulting in a reduction in the voltage across the
crack, and hence the apparent depth.
Conducting debris trapped inside the crack and heavily
oxidized surfaces produce the same effect. Tight or rough
faced cracks may also create a bridge for the current.
Consequently, the AC potential drop technique works
best on wide, smooth-faced cracks, such as are character-
istic of corrosion-, thermal-, or creep-fatigue damage.
An alternative technique for measuring the depth of sur-
face-breaking cracks is AC field measurement (1012759,
2007).
15.9.2 Basic Theory
AC potential drop works by directing AC across the
component’s surface, perpendicular to the crack to be
measured. AC is used so that the current density is con-
centrated near the surface of the component, trapped
within a layer given by the depth of penetration.
If an electric current is injected into a component at one
point and extracted at another, there will be a voltage
drop between the two points. If the examiner uses a
probe that consists of two metal contacts a fixed distance
apart, he can use it to measure the voltage difference
between any two points within the current distribution.
Now, if the probe is held in such a way that the two con-
tacts are in line with the current injection and extraction
points, the examiner will measure a given voltage regard-
less of how close he is to either current contact, that is,
the voltage drop per unit length is constant along a
current path. This voltage is called the reference voltage.
If a crack runs perpendicular to the current path, the
crack will be in the way of the current, so that the current
is forced to pass underneath the crack to reach the cur-
rent extraction contact. The current travels an extra dis-
tance, equal to twice the depth of the crack, compared to
the distance that would be traveled with no crack
present.
If the same voltage-measuring probe is held over the
crack, the voltage recorded will be an increased voltage
because of the extra distance traveled. The ratio of the
voltage measured at the crack and the voltage measured
at a nearby (not cracked) location enables the crack depth
to be inferred.
15.9.3 Implementation
A measurement proceeds in the following way (1012759,
2007):
1. The crack is first detected using another NDE tech-
nique, which reveals the location of the crack but not
its depth.
2. The crack depth gauge is calibrated using a calibra-
tion block with various crack depths that has been
fabricated from material similar to the material to be
tested.
3. If not already so, the metal surface must be prepared
to give a shiny surface. An important consideration
is that the probe must make an electrically conduct-
ing contact with the component at two locations:
(i) over the crack itself and (ii) immediately adjacent
to the crack so that the reference voltage can be
obtained. The measurements cannot be made
through adhering paint, scale, etc. A 100 grit surface
finish is usually adequate to obtain reliable readings.
Compressed air should be used to ensure that the
crack is free of cleaning debris.
4. The current injection and extraction contacts are
placed on either side of the crack.
5. AC potential drop relies on the injected current pass-
ing perpendicular to the crack face so the probe is
first used to establish that the field is uniform. If it is
not uniform, then the current contacts must be
moved until the field is uniform. Occasionally, on
tight radiussed surfaces like those in many steam
chests, it may take considerable time to optimize the
positioning of the contacts with respect to the crack.
6. A reference voltage is obtained adjacent to the crack
position. The contacts in the probe are both on the
same side of the crack. The voltage is noted or stored
in the instrument, or the null voltage calibration is
set to zero.
7. The probe is then moved so that one contact strad-
dles the crack. A second voltage measurement is
made. During steps 5 and 6, the probe is rotated
slightly clockwise and counterclockwise to ensure
that the voltage drop is maximized, that is, so that
the probe is aligned along a line of current and not at
an angle to the field.
15-11
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8. The crack depth is calculated at that point using the
appropriate analytical equation (or, for some instru-
ments, the crack depth is directly presented).
9. Repeat measurements can be obtained at other points
along the crack front to produce a crack profile. Care
must be taken at all stages to ensure that the direc-
tions of the current and the orientation of the probe
are correct.
Additional detail about the AC potential drop method is
provided in (1012759, 2007).
15.10 Ultrasonic Testing
15.10.1 Introduction
Ultrasonic testing (UT) technology encompasses a wide
range of applications varying dramatically in technologi-
cal sophistication, complexity, required equipment,
implementation constraints, speed of application, detec-
tion reliability, sizing accuracy, and requisite operator
skills. The technology has evolved to a point at which
very few components are examined per generic proce-
dures. That is, specific techniques and application proce-
dures, designed to address certain desired performance
characteristics, are used for most components. What is
optimum for one application simply may not be ade-
quate, or in some cases even possible, for another. Con-
sequently, it is very difficult to provide guidance that is
short, concise, and easy to understand, while at the same
time providing sufficient detail to enable the reader to
make educated decisions. Here a basic introduction to
UT methods is presented, followed by some specific
applications of interest to boiler and HRSG tubes.
15.10.2 Method
As a general description, UT can be defined as the intro-
duction of high frequency sound waves, generally in the
low Megahertz (MHz) range of 0.5 MHz to 50 MHz,
into a component, part, or structure for the purpose of
determining some characteristic of the material from
which the component, part, or structure is made. Sound
waves are generated either mechanically via a piezoelec-
tric transducer crystal directly coupled (liquid or gel) to
the structure or electrically via an electromagnetic acous-
tic transducer (EMAT). Material characteristics that can
be, and have been, determined ultrasonically include
material structure, stress (both residual and applied),
hardness, anisotropy, and others. However, for power
plant examination, UT is utilized primarily for flaw
detection, classification, sizing, and dimensional mea-
surement (thickness).
15-12
UT, as used for flaw detection and thickness measure-
ment, is analogous to active sonar. A short-duration pulse
of sound is generated in the component by a transmitter.
Immediately following, the ultrasonic instrumentation is
switched to a “listening” mode. Any detected return sig-
nal is indicative of the presence of a “reflector” that has
redirected the propagating wave in the direction of the
receiver. Flaw detection and thickness measurement
applications of ultrasound operate on two fundamental
principles.
First, for a specific propagation mode, sound travels in a
given material at constant velocity. Therefore, a precise
measurement of the propagation time between initiation
of the pulse and detection of a signal at the receiver pro-
vides the basis for calculating the position of the reflector
relative to the transmitter and receiver positions. Second,
the response from a reflector is a function of the charac-
teristics of the transmitted beam, the material through
which it propagates, and certain characteristics of the
reflector that causes the response. If the ultrasonic practi-
tioner can extract those characteristics of the response
that are attributable to the beam and propagation mate-
rial, then he is left with a response that is characteristic of
the reflector. If he can further extract from this remain-
ing reflector response information that is related most
directly to the feature of interest (for example, flaw size),
then he may have a reasonable chance of estimating that
feature.
Ultrasonic testing (UT) is an excellent method to use for
many boiler and HRSG tube examinations. UT is used
to detect surface-connected or subsurface cracking, wall
thinning, and steamside oxide thickness.
The greatest limitation of the use of UT in HRSG tubing
is the presence of tubing fins. UT performed from the
outside surface can be performed only in regions of tub-
ing without fins or in selected locations where the fins are
removed for the examination.
Most UT methods are well-established. Although they
require a reasonably skilled operator for interpretation,
these skills are available to operators either in-house or
on a contract basis.
Factors that must be considered in UT include the angle
of the sound beam, the testing surface, the scan pattern,
and the scan coverage. Principal limitations to UT are
the need for coupling between the sound transducer and
the tube surface, the difficulty in interpreting signals,
and the limited sound penetration capability in nickel
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base alloys and austenitic stainless steels. Depending Within the past few years, there has been good correla-
upon the application, sample tubes may be required to tion of nondestructive ultrasonic measures of steamside
allow for custom designing the transducer shoe and oxide thickness using time-of-flight with those measured
establishing the testing procedures. in samples removed from service (TR-103377V7).
Considerably more detail about UT methods is available The details of the method have been described elsewhere
in (1012759, 2007; TR-108450, 1997). (Bonin, 1987; Beak, 1987; Adkins, 1987). Figure 15-1
shows the results of an experimental program at two con-
Various UT applications to tubing, except for the stan-
ventional units (one coal-fired and one gas-fired) to
dard use of UT to detect cracking, are examined in the
determine the accuracy of the UT method for measuring
subsections below.
oxide scale nondestructively. As shown, there is a good
15.10.3 Ultrasonic Testing to Measure Wall Thinning correlation between the UT results and those obtained
To measure wall thinning, a UT pulse is generated by a from tube sampling. It has been variously estimated that
transducer coupled to the surface of interest. When the the minimum oxide scale thickness measurable by the
pulse hits a boundary (surface), the energy is reflected. UT method ranges from about 0.051 mm to 0.25 mm
The time of transit can then be used to calculate the dis- (2 mils to 10 mils).
tance traveled and thus the thickness of the material.
UT thickness surveys are performed periodically on
boiler or HRSG tubing to measure the wall thickness.
Procedures for thickness gauging by pulse-echo UT are
described in detail in ASTM Standard Practice E797
(ASTM E797-90, 1990). An accuracy of ± 0.13 mm
(± 0.005 in.) can be obtained with proper calibration and
operation of the UT instrument.
Periodic surveys to detect tube thinning are a primary
part of a unit assessment. Data from previous surveys at
the same locations can be used to calculate a thinning
rate, an input to a remaining life assessment.
Figure 15-1
Damage caused by pitting can be difficult to detect unless Correlation of oxide thickness measurements by ultrasonic
it is extensive, in which case UT may be able to gauge the testing (UT) with metallographic sampling.
resultant loss of wall thickness. [1 mil = 0.0254 mm]
Source: TR-103377V7, 1993
UT is widely used to measure wall thinning. Survey
results from 2004 indicated that 55% of HRSG opera- Although this method avoids many of the problems
tors used this method of NDE (1013629, 2006). inherent in destructive sampling schemes, good judg-
ment is still required as there can be considerable varia-
15.10.4 Ultrasonic Testing for Measuring Steamside tion of the oxide thickness along the length of a tube and
Oxide Thickness around its circumference (TR-103377V7, 1993). An
The creep rupture of SH/RH tubes is a major cause of example of the challenge is illustrated in Figure 15-2.
unit outages in conventional units and is anticipated to
become a major cause of HRSG outages as the fleet of
currently built units ages.
Once the steamside scale thickness and tube dimensions
are known, the effective temperature and stress at a given
instant can be evaluated and remaining life methods (as
outlined in Chapter 14) can be applied. However, there
will be a distribution of gas and metal temperatures and
therefore a need to survey in a cost-effective way for the
highest risk locations.

15-13
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Figure 15-2
Steamside oxide thickness versus circumferential location at
two locations on a tube separated by a distance of approxi-
mately 1 m (~3 ft). [1 mil = 0.0254 mm]
Source: TR-103377V7, 1993
The figure shows the results of the measurement of
steamside scale in an RH tube in a conventional fossil
fueled plant. The tube was shielded for part of its length
(“in-plane,” Location “A”), while at a location less than
1 m (~3 ft) away it made a bend and took on the charac-
teristics of a leading tube (“out-of-plane,” Location “B”).
Metallographic results of the oxide thickness as a func-
tion of circumferential position showed a nearly 0.76
mm (30 mil) difference between the two locations. This
would have resulted in a considerable difference in the
estimate of remaining life between the two locations.
UT measurements taken on the tube at Location A, over
approximately a 60° arc, showed good correlation with
the measurements taken by destructive means. The les-
son from these results is that the location for UT testing
must be carefully considered, including (i) elevation
within the unit/tube bundle and(ii) circumferential loca-
tion with respect to flue gas flow or surrounding tubes,
and (iii) on the surface of the tube (TR-103377V7,
1993).
Some surface preparation is generally required such as
grit-blasting, sometimes followed by light grinding with
an abrasive flapper wheel. Care should be taken not to
“over-prepare” the surface, which will result in wall thin-
ning and lead to decreased tube service life as well as an
overly conservative estimate of tube wastage.
As noted above, measurement locations should be cho-
sen that represent the areas of highest metal temperature
(thickest oxide growth) and most severe external tube
wastage by erosion or corrosion. Typical key locations are
15-14
the 12 o’clock position on leading tubes of an assembly
(flue gas at 12 o’clock) and at the 1 to 2 o’clock and the
10 to 11 o’clock positions on trailing tubes. UT testing
for oxide thickness is normally done in conjunction with
wall thickness measurements.
Locations are chosen on the basis of needs, design and
unit operating data. Criteria will include: (i) sufficient
locations to determine accumulated creep damage and
metal temperatures across the boiler or HRSG and
through assemblies, (ii) accessibility, (iii) operating con-
ditions, and (iv) dimensional or materials transition loca-
tions. UT testing should be ideally performed on at least
75% of all material transition points.
15.10.5 Ultrasonic Testing for Measurements
of Waterside Deposit Thickness
UT has also been successfully applied to determine the
increase in waterside deposits (Hicks, 1994). A pulse-echo
or transit-time method has been used to measure deposit
thicknesses along with proprietary software/hardware to
differentiate the signal obtained from tubes with and
without significant deposits. Because of the lower density
of waterside deposits compared to steamside scales, the
results do not provide a quantitative measure of deposit
loading (in g/ft2 or mg/cm2, for example), but the ability
to survey large areas and pinpoint high deposit locations
for specific sampling is advantageous. The technique is
most useful for identifying areas with heavy deposit load-
ing (> 20 g/ft2 (>21.6 mg/cm2)), less so for moderate
deposit loading (5–20 g/ft2 (5.4–21.6 mg/cm2)).
Factors influencing the measurement of deposits include
(Hicks, 1994) (i) tube geometry and type (ribbed, metal-
lized, bends, eroded areas), (ii) tube surface condition
(internal and external), (iii) metal condition (corroded,
cracked, bulged), (iv) wet (flooded) versus dry tubes,
(v) internal deposit loading, (vi) internal deposit type
(composition, density, morphology, stratification), and
(vii) transducer type (frequency, delays, contact surface
area).
Locations chosen for UT testing should be among the
high risk locations, such as those subject to high heat flux
or local flow disruptions.
As with other UT methods, careful tube surface prepara-
tion is required to obtain accurate results. For this
method, the external surface condition as well as the
internal condition (for example, the extent of pitting)
will dominate the determination of deposit buildup.
Calibration via tube sampling is required to provide a
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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reference point for field test results. A minimum of one
tube prior to and one tube post testing is recommended
with additional samples to provide a range of deposit
readings and/or some that focus on areas with high levels
of deposits.
15.10.6 Ultrasonic Detection of Microstructural
Changes
UT has also been used in an attempt to detect subtle
changes in microstructure induced by hydrogen damage.
The wave velocity, attenuation, and backscatter signal are
all affected by hydrogen damage.
In the 1980s, an approach was tried to measure attenua-
tion associated with grain boundary cavitation (Lamp-
ing, 1991). A number of successful applications have
been reported; however, the method was not fully satis-
factory because of its sensitivity to various factors, includ-
ing surface condition (roughness), corrosion, pitting,
and transducer coupling. In a similar manner, the back-
scattering method was also found to have shortcomings,
notably the backscatter from hydrogen damage was diffi-
cult to separate from that due to inside surface corrosion
(Birring, 1987).
As a result of these shortcomings, a UT method based on
velocity changes was developed (Lamping, 1991; Birring,
1987; Birring, 1989). The method relies on the fact that
the velocity of sound through a material is a function of
its modulus of elasticity, a material property that is
changed by the accumulation of hydrogen damage. A
pair of transducers is operated in the pitch-catch mode.
As the signal passes through a damaged region, the
change in transit time is noted; that change can then be
related to the depth of hydrogen damage. Both labora-
tory and field tests have confirmed the usefulness of the
method developed (Lamping, 1991; Birring, 1987).
15.10.7 Linear Phased Array
An array is a type of ultrasonic transducer that has been
segmented into many individual parallel elements. Each
of these array elements is connected to a separate pulser,
receiver, and analog-to-digital converter. If all of the ele-
ments are pulsed simultaneously and no delays (or equal
delays) are applied upon reception, then the array func-
tions as if it were still intact as a single monolithic ele-
ment, and the array produces a sound beam that is normal
to its surface. If the pulsing times and reception delays
are varied linearly along the array, then the array pro-
duces an angled sound beam. If a nonlinear delay func-
tion is applied, the sound beam may be caused to focus.
Therefore, by controlling the timing or phase of each ele-
ment’s excitation and reception, a single array probe can
be made to simulate many different conventional probes.
Without moving the probe, sound beams of many differ-
ent angles can be generated sequentially, examining a
large portion of the component’s cross section. Instead of
the slow, two-dimensional scan pattern necessary to scan
a weld joint using conventional methods, the probe may
simply be swept along the length of the weld one or more
times at different array setback positions to achieve a
similar result.
In addition to improved coverage, the automated phased
array technique offers much simpler means of analyzing
the resultant data. The data analysis process tends to be
simpler, faster, and more reliable than conventional data
analysis.
15.11 Radiographic Testing
Radiography has been a primary weld examination tech-
nique for many years.
Radiographic testing (RT) is used to detect surface and
subsurface discontinuities, which can be aligned with the
propagation direction of the radiation beam. Factors to
be considered for RT include accessibility, radioisotope
source strength, geometry, exposure time and distance,
material thickness, and the spatial relationship of the
type of discontinuity. Selection of the radiation source
for a particular tube wall thickness is a critical factor since
low contrast and poor radiographic sensitivity will result
if the energy of the source is too high or too low. RT is
based on differences in density in the material so that
discontinuities must be more or less aligned with the
radiation beam. Since RT involves the use of a radioac-
tive source, radiographers must be specially trained and
licensed and safety procedures established.
There are three primary radiographic technologies:
(i) film, (ii) computed radiography, which uses
phosphor plates, and (iii) direct digital radiography.
Traditional film radiography is the dominant volumetric
NDE technique in use worldwide (ASNT, 2006). It uses
film to capture an image. The advantages of film are
(i) its long history of use, (ii) it is lightweight, (iii) it is
flexible, and (iv) it is suitable for many applications. Dis-
advantages of film are (i) time required to process, requir-
ing a darkroom and chemicals, (ii) limited shelf life, (iii)
limited ability to manipulate, analyze, and store images,
and (iv) requirement for an exclusion zone around the
area being radiographed.
15-15
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Approximately 25 years ago, computed radiography
(CR) was introduced. CR uses a photo stimulated phos-
phor (PSP) plate rather than film to capture an image.
The plate is contained within a cassette the same way as
film. The thickness of the cassette is essentially the same
as for film. The phosphor plate image is read by a laser
scanner, which transfers the data to a computer for
manipulation, analysis, and storage. The time to process
an image is considerably quicker than for film, depend-
ing on resolution and image size, approximately 1-5
minutes (ASNT, 2006). The phosphor plates can be
erased after each use and reused. The plates are available
in a number of standard sizes and may be cut to accom-
modate unique geometries.
The third radiographic technology is direct digital radi-
ography in which the photon radiation passing through
an object is digitized directly into an image that can be
displayed on a computer (ASNT, 2006). Three technolo-
gies for developing the image are amorphous silicon, a
charge coupled device (CCD), and complementary metal
oxide semiconductor (CMOS). Processing speed is on
the order of seconds, and image resolution is typically
better than computed radiography and most film tech-
niques. A disadvantage of flat panel imagers for field
applications can be their frailty.
15.12 Remote Field Eddy Current Testing
Eddy current (ET) examination is used to examine the
surface, or near surface, of electrically conducting mate-
rials. In eddy current testing, a search coil is used to
induce electric currents (electromagnetic induction) in a
part to be inspected. Discontinuities in the part create
eddy currents that are detected by the search coil. The
depth of the surface region that can be examined is gov-
erned by three parameters: (i) the frequency of the AC
excitation current, (ii) the electrical conductivity, and
(iii) the magnetic permeability.
ET is limited to examining the surfaces of conducting
materials, so it is an alternative technique to magnetic
particle and liquid penetrant examination.
The main factors in favor of ET examination are:
• ET probes can be constructed to be very small, so they
can enter components that are inaccessible to other
techniques.
• There is little need for surface preparation; in many
cases it is possible to examine through surface layers
such as paint.
15-16
• There is no need for the application of dyes, develop-
ers, etc. that may make the ET technique attractive in
applications where waste and contamination must be
minimized.
The main disadvantages of traditional ET are:
• Low frequencies are necessary to conduct a through-
wall volumetric inspection, and because the sensor
output is directly proportional to the rate of field
change across the sensor area, this leads to very low
sensitivity to flaws.
• The signals produced can be complex and require a
higher level of training and experience to interpret.
• The equipment is relatively expensive.
The Remote field eddy current (RFEC) technique for
conductive tubing is beginning to receive widespread
recognition as an examination technique for ferrous tub-
ing. As noted above, prior to the application of remote
field, traditional ET was unable to achieve adequate sen-
sitivity and penetration to satisfy most ferrous tubing
through-wall examinations. The technology is not par-
ticularly recent as remote field has been in use since 1951,
examining downhole well casings in the petrochemical
industry.
Remote field, in its original form, involves exciting a
transmitter coil with a relatively low frequency of 20-200
Hz while monitoring the eddy current flow with a
detached receiver coil. The receiver coil is placed down-
stream such that the spacing between the transmitter and
receiver is outside the near field of the eddy current flows.
The term remote field is analogous to the far field of
ultrasonics; it was coined to avoid confusion between the
methods. The distance between the exciter and the
receiver coil for tubing applications is typically three
times the tube diameter or greater.
Sollish (Sollish, 1991) reviewed a remote field eddy cur-
rent (RFEC) technology for use in measuring boiler tube
wall thickness. The results, obtained on several hundred
boilers, indicated a system accuracy of ± 10% (worst
case) to ± 1% (best case) with the greater wall loss having
the greater accuracy (Sollish, 1991). As a result, note
was made only of wall loss greater than 30%. Good
repeatability was found.
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The RFEC method is easy to implement, requires no
physical couplants, requires minimum surface prepara-
tion time, and can be applied to finned and non-finned
tubes. Other advantages include (1008093, 2005):
• No tube cleaning is needed, as long as the probe fits
inside the tube without restrictions.
• Flaw locations along the tube length can be provided
using either strip charts or color-coded amplitude
maps.
• Provides equal sensitivity to both ID- and
OD-initiating flaws.
• Sensitivity to pitting to 20% deep pits,
9.3 mm (0.366 in.) in diameter.
• Provides quantitative estimates of flaw depth in
percent wall loss with an accuracy of 10%.
• Fast inspection speed of around 15.2 cm/sec
(6 in/sec); sensors can be built to go around elbows.
• With an array receiver coil, flaw extents around the
tube circumference can be estimated.
Limitations include (1008093, 2005):
• The method is slower than conventional eddy
current, which can have speeds in excess of
30.5 cm/sec (12 in/sec).
• Tubes need to be out of service for inspection.
• For comprehensive testing, it requires access to the ID
of the tubes by cutting.
• Insensitive to axial cracks.
• Difficult to discriminate ID from OD flaws.
A detailed discussion of the operating principles, data
display and signal outputs, data analysis, and applicable
equipment and probe types is covered in (1008093,
2005).
15.13 Pulsed Eddy Current
Pulsed eddy current (PEC) uses stepped or pulsed input
signals, whereas conventional eddy current uses a con-
tinuous sinusoidal signal. The advantages of PEC are its
deeper penetration, relative insensitivity to probe lift-off,
and the capacity to offer quantitative remaining wall
thickness information. The technology can penetrate and
evaluate the condition of carbon steel tubes and pipes up
to 50.8 mm (2 in.) thick. The method is ideal as a screen-
ing tool, for example, to locate volumetric wall thinning
caused by flow-accelerated corrosion, as it can be used
through insulation. Once the areas of interest are identi-
fied, more traditional UT techniques can be used to more
accurately quantify the remaining wall thickness. Because
of the wide footprint (area defined by the sensor) that
allows deep penetration, PEC does not locate small-
volume flaws, such as pitting, well. The technology is
available commercially under the name INCOTEST.
Because it is tolerant of probe lift-off, it is potentially
suited for scanning finned carbon steel tubing. A labora-
tory evaluation of the technology for this application has
been conducted (1008093, 2005). A section of finned
tube was scanned at 10 different circumferential loca-
tions and at two elevations to detect corrosion-based wall
thinning. Measurements were compared to physically
measured thicknesses. The results indicated that the PEC
technology was able to qualitatively detect the corroded
sections of the tube, but quantitatively the remaining
wall thickness was significantly underestimated due to
the averaging effects of the system. The technique is cur-
rently applicable only from the OD side of tubes. This
application of PEC is called Through-Fin Inspection Sys-
tems for HRSGs (T-FISH) by its commercial supplier.
In summary, desirable aspects of the PEC technology
include (1008093, 2005):
• Ability to penetrate up to 51 mm (2 in.) thick carbon
steel piping and vessels.
• Ability to acquire wall thickness measurements through
insulation to locate and verify the presence of damage
such as FAC. Because it can be performed without
removing insulation, there can be considerable cost
savings in removing insulation only from the areas of
interest for further verification and testing with
ultrasonics.
• It is a great screening tool that offers reliable detection
of pipe/vessel wear with large areal extent, in excess of
25.4 cm (10 in.) or greater.
• Ability to inspect HRSG tubes from the external side
through magnetic fins.
Some of the notable limitations of the PEC technique
include (1008093, 2005):
• Due to the larger footprints, no localized pits are
detected with INCOTEST.
• Inspection time is slower in comparison with RFEC.
• Depending on the sensor diameter in comparison to
the combined insulation and pipe wall thickness,
localized FAC damage covering less than 25.4 cm
(10 in.) axial extent with less than 20% wall reduc-
tion can be missed.
• Remaining wall thickness values are generally
underestimated for HRSG tubing due to the presence
of magnetic fins.
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More information about the PEC technology and its

application can be found in (1008093, 2005; Robers,
2002; Sather, 1977; Krzywosz, 1985; Cohn, 2004).

15.14 Low Frequency Electromagnetic Technique

Low frequency electromagnetic technique (LFET) is a
third electromagnetic method (along with RFEC and
PEC) that can provide volumetric inspection and charac-
terization of flaws in ferromagnetic tubing. Unlike the
previous two techniques, this method introduces a mag-
netic flux density across the tube wall using a magnetiz-
ing driver coil. Then changes in the active flux leakage
caused by the presence of flaws and or flux density within
a wall are monitored using an array of receiver coils, Fig-
ure 15-3. Unlike traditional flux leakage methods in
which induced signals exhibit only the amplitude infor-
mation, LFET relies on both received signal amplitude
and phase angle information.

Figure 15-4
Top and middle photographs show the LFET sensor for HRSG
finned tubing and test tubing with introduced flaws. The
bottom image shows a schematic of the introduced flaws.
Results for several flaw types are shown in Figure 15-5.

Figure 15-3
Principles of the low frequency electromagnetic technique
(LFET).
Detection is volume wall-loss dependent and not flaw
depth dependent.
This technology has been evaluated in a laboratory inves-
tigation for detecting HRSG tubing flaws. The test tube
was 50.8 mm (2 in.) diameter x 4.29 mm (0.169 in.)
wall thickness carbon steel with 19.0 mm (0.75 in.) high
carbon steel integral fins spaced 6.35 mm (0.25 in.)
apart. Figure 15-4 (top and middle) show the test equip-
ment. Manufactured flaws included axial and circumfer-
ential notches along with various size pits, Figure 15-4
(bottom).
Figure 15-5
Signal output for several flaw types.
Although signal levels decreased with fin heights, it was
possible to conduct meaningful tests from the OD side.
The method is sensitive to both horizontal and vertical
flaw orientations. Without optimizing the sensor config-
uration on suitable standards, it was not possible to
detect any pits that were 2.3 mm (~3/32 in.) in diameter,
regardless of the pit depth. Based on the transmitter/
receiver coil used in the test, circumferential notches
were easier to detect than axial notches.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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Capabilities of the LFET technique include (1008093,
2005):
• Scanning speed of up to 3 to 4.5 m/min
(10 to 15 ft/min).
• Can be used as a fast screening tool followed by
ultrasonic thickness measurements where applicable.
• Provides quantitative information based on suitable
calibration method.
• Provides real-time data display of both raw and
processed data.
• 8 to 16 received coils possible to allow 170° coverage
in a single scan.
• Applicable to both localized and volumetric flaws.
Some of the limitations of the LFET technique include
(1008093, 2005):
• Decreased sensitivity to flaws due to lift-off and the
presence of external fins.
• Tubes need to be out of service for testing.
• Limited to OD scanning.
• More sensitive to volume wall loss than to flaw depth.
• Due to transmitter coil orientation, less sensitive to
axial than circumferential discontinuities.
The LFET method is commercially available. More infor-
mation about it can be found in (1008093, 2005).
In summary, in comparing RFEC, LFET, and PEC elec-
tromagnetic techniques, RFEC and LFET are better
suited for flaw and wall loss detection, while PEC is more
applicable to detection of wall losses through insulation
(1008093, 2005). Flaw sizing by RFEC is excellent in
free-span sections but needs additional improvements
for sizing flaws in the vicinity of supports and attach-
ments. Similarly, the flaw sizing in non-finned tubing is
adequate for LFET, but additional sensor work is needed
to improve the flaw detecting and sizing for finned
HRSG tubing. Due to larger footprints needed to over-
come the lift-off effect of insulation, the PEC technique
is better suited for detection and serves as a screening
tool. The measured wall thickness tends to be
underestimated.
15.15 Weld Probes
There are a variety of promising weld probes that are
available for detecting cracks that are oriented along the
weld and transverse to the weld (1008093, 2005). Three
specific probes evaluated (cross wound/plus-point probes,
active flux leakage probes and self-balancing induction
coils) were currently better suited for detecting cracks
than for sizing (1008093, 2005). For quantifying
detected cracks, suitable reference standards containing
realistic flaws are desirable. By relying on the latest semi-
conductor sensors, cracks that are subsurface and/or
deeper than 5.1 mm (0.2 in.) from the surface can be
detected and quantified. Additional detail on the meth-
ods is available in (1008093, 2005).
15.16 Laser Profilometry
In sections of tubing connected to a large drum, laser
profilometry may be used to measure the tube inside
diameters. If the predominant wall loss mechanism
involves waterside corrosion and the waterside deposits
have been recently removed by chemical cleaning, this
technique can be used to measure the wall loss. In the
case of tube bundles with small headers, laser profilome-
try may be impractical or may involve addition inspec-
tion ports.
15.17 Acoustic Monitoring
Acoustic emission (AE) is based on the theory that a
growing crack, crack face rubbing, cracking oxide, local
plastic deformation, evolution of gases such as hydrogen,
or leakage of fluids from through-wall cracks will emit
energy in the form of sound waves, which can be detected
by piezoelectric sensors attached to the component. In
order to generate sound waves, the component must be
sufficiently stressed when the sensors are attached. An
array of sensors is usually utilized so that signals from a
“sound emitter” can be collected by very sophisticated
computers and the location of the crack identified by
triangulation.
Typically, the acoustic emission can be detected earlier in
the degradation process than airborne noise can (CS-
1938, 1981).
Acoustic emission technology has been applied for a
number of years in the industry. These applications
include both crack growth detection and leak detection
in components; the feasibility of on-line acoustic emis-
sion monitoring in hostile environments has been dem-
onstrated. While these systems are very good for leak
detection, they are somewhat poorer at leak location.
This is particularly true in tightly-spaced tube bundles
such as the superheaters and reheaters, and yet these are
the areas where manually locating a leak is most
difficult.
15-19
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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The advantages of acoustic emission are:
• A large volume of material can be examined very
rapidly.
• The data can be stored digitally for future recall.
• Sensors can be used in conjunction with waveguides
that transmit the sound waves (usually through a stain-
less steel rod) to the sensor. For insulated structures,
only enough insulation need be removed to install
waveguides.
The use of AE also has several disadvantages:
• It is sometimes very difficult to separate the signal noise
from the background, even with the use of the most
advanced (and expensive) instrumentation.
• Source location can be very difficult in complex
geometries.
• If transient conditions are required to activate the
source, a very narrow window of opportunity may exist
to detect the flaw(s).
15.18 Quantitative Alloy Identification
The use of alloy identification is important to many
aspects of boiler and HRSG assessment programs. With
time, documentation of materials of construction may
be lost, necessitating alloy identification for use in engi-
neering analyses, development of repair procedures, or in
planning component upgrades and replacements. In
addition, accidental substitution of materials occurs and
can have catastrophic results in critical applications
should a lower grade of material be mistakenly substi-
tuted for the specified material. The field identification
and/or verification of the materials of construction for
boiler or HRSG components consists of various tech-
niques that can be used in situ.
The three primary methods are manufacturer’s identifica-
tion, qualitative alloy identification, and quantitative
alloy identification. The manufacturer’s method relies on
the use of documentation and physical markings on
components to identify or verify the materials of con-
struction. Qualitative techniques include analysis of
materials through tests other than chemical analysis.
Quantitative identification is performed through the use
of in situ chemical analysis. Most field methods are non-
destructive so that the removal of a material sample is
unnecessary; however, a minimum amount of surface
preparation is required.
15-20
Quantitative field techniques sort and identify material
by actual chemical analysis of the component at one or
more locations. Although in situ chemical analysis tech-
niques do not typically analyze for all elements present in
a material, they are typically comprehensive enough to
identify unknown materials and provide certain compo-
sitional data with a high degree of accuracy. These tech-
niques are based on X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy
(XRF). In XRF, an X-ray beam impinging on the surface
of an unknown material causes the surface atoms of spe-
cific chemical elements in the material to emit fluores-
cent X-rays. These fluorescent X-rays have unique energy
levels and wavelengths that are characteristic of the spe-
cific chemical elements in the unknown material. These
characteristic X-rays are passed through detectors to
either measure the energy level or the wavelengths. Typi-
cally, the measurements are analyzed by a microprocessor
that compares the percentages of the chemical elements
present in the unknown material to preprogrammed
compositions of specific alloys. The instrument then
identifies the alloy if the measured composition matches
a preprogrammed alloy and displays the percentages of
the measured elements.
Many instruments used in this method of alloy identifi-
cation are very portable for field applications and provide
quantitative analysis results in an efficient and timely
manner. In addition, a range of instruments exists. The
selection of which one to use depends on time con-
straints, number of elements to be analyzed, and preci-
sion required from the measurements. In general, the
accuracy of measurements is dependent on the specific
instrument and the surface conditions at the test loca-
tion. Typically, some degree of surface preparation is
required for the effective use of these instruments. Spe-
cifically, a test location must be selected that is represen-
tative of the bulk of the component since the fluorescent
X-rays are obtained from only a comparatively thin layer
of the material. Also, the test area should be sufficiently
large for the particular instrument. Surface curvature and
irregularities should be minimized, and all extraneous
surface materials (scale, oxide, deposits, coatings, paints,
oils, or greases) must be removed. In addition, the sur-
face finish must be controlled through the use of grind-
ing unless the test location is a finished or machined
surface.
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15.19 Replication
15.19.1 Introduction
Replication is an NDE method for the reproduction of
surface topography from a component, and the examina-
tion of replicas using either optical or scanning electron
microscopy is useful in the evaluation and characteriza-
tion of surface features. Replication can be performed
using a wide range of materials and procedures, depend-
ing on the features to be reproduced and evaluated. The
most commonly referred to replication method is the
reproduction of microstructural features using metallur-
gical replication; however, casting replicas are also com-
monly used in the assessment of component condition.
15.19.2 Casting Replication
Quantitative assessment of surface features is a necessary
step in the evaluation of numerous damage mechanisms.
Silicon rubber or acetate castings (replicas) can be taken
from surfaces for the laboratory examination of features
associated with erosion, corrosion, dimensional changes,
and cracking. In addition, castings can be sectioned to
provide direct measurements of feature dimensions.
However, it must be realized that the dimensional accu-
racy retained in a casting replica is highly dependent on
the replication material used, curing times and tempera-
tures, and local environmental factors.
This form of replication is also routinely used as an effec-
tive method for the removal and preservation of surface
deposits and/or contaminants for subsequent chemical
analysis and identification. In addition, these replicas
provide archival evidence of the dimensions and mor-
phology of a surface condition or feature against which
future results can be compared to establish specific rates
of change.
15.19.3 Metallurgical Replication
As previously discussed, metallurgical replication is a
field-implemented technique that allows for NDE of
material microstructure and metallurgical condition and
is the most commonly used form of replication in the
condition assessment of fossil power plant components.
In lieu of replicas, a metallurgical evaluation of material
condition or identification of damage mechanism
requires the removal of material samples from a compo-
nent, submittal of the samples to a metallurgical labora-
tory, preparation and analysis of the sample, and repair
of the sampled location—all tasks that require significant
time and expense to complete. Metallurgical replication
allows for the metallurgical analysis of large numbers of
locations in a timely manner without the requirement
for repair, provided that the surface of examination is
accessible.
Metallurgical replication is performed following standard
metallographic techniques used in a laboratory; however,
replication is performed in situ on the component under
examination. Specifically, portable equipment is used for
the grinding stages to prepare the surface for subsequent
polishing. As with grinding, polishing is carried out in
progressively finer steps to remove scratches and the
deformed surface layer that can interfere with detailed
microstructural interpretation. After polishing is com-
pleted, the surface is etched with a suitable etchant solu-
tion to reveal the microstructural features of interest.
Once the preparation is complete, a thin piece of acetate
film is moistened in acetone and applied to the prepared
surface. The acetate will conform to the surface, “dupli-
cating” the surface features (although in reverse).
Once the acetate film is dry, it is removed from the com-
ponent and placed on a slide for analysis using a standard
metallograph or portable microscope. Following proper
procedures, replicas can be produced that can be inter-
preted using optical microscopes with magnifications up
to 1000X or scanning electron microscopes with up to
5000X magnifications.
The characterization of microstructures, with emphasis
on identifying fabrication history (forging, casting,
welded construction), heat treatment (annealed, as-fabri-
cated), and typical structures (creep voids, decarburiza-
tion, quenched structures, spheroidization, graphitization)
can be carried out on-site with the use of replication.
Characterization can also include the separation and
identification of benign fabrication-induced flaws (lami-
nations, forging laps, slag, porosity, liquation cracking)
from deleterious service-induced damage.
Service-induced damage mechanisms could include
spheroidization, graphitization, creep voids, fatigue
(mechanical or thermal), hydrogen cracking, stress cor-
rosion cracking, and corrosion. Each mechanism can be
identified so that only the appropriate remedial actions
are undertaken to minimize unnecessary maintenance
efforts.
Metallurgical replication is used extensively for the evalu-
ation of microstructural degradation (such as thermal
softening, spheroidization, precipitation, graphitization,
and decarburization) that occurs due to longterm
15-21
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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exposure to elevated temperatures. It must be realized
that these changes can affect critical properties (such as
creep ductility and strength) of the material and thus
affect the service life. These microstructural changes,
once observed, can affect the materials properties selected
in subsequent analytical assessments. Therefore, replica-
tion can provide assistance in the selection of critical
material properties in the analytical prediction of crack
growth or remaining life.
Historically, the most important use for metallurgical
replication in the fossil power industry has been in the
assessment and prediction of useful life of components
subject to creep damage. Specifically, creep is a progres-
sive damage mechanism that begins as isolated grain
boundary cavities. As damage progresses, the density of
cavities increases until microcracks form. Microcrack
development is then followed by macrocrack formation
and propagation.
Creep damage detected through replication can be
described using qualitative or quantitative approaches.
15.20 Portable Hardness Testing
Hardness is defined as the resistance of a metal to inden-
tation, scratching, cutting, etc. When hardness is mea-
sured by pressing a very hard ball or diamond point into
the metal under restrained conditions, the depth of pen-
etration can be correlated with the material tensile
strength. This process is conducted with hardness testing
machines or equipment, such as Equotip, Rockwell, or
Brinell testers.
Portable hardness testers come in many varieties and are
very useful as NDE tools as they can indicate hard or soft
spots in components, which can be indicative of compo-
nent damage. Estimates of the hardness of boiler tubes
can be of assistance in remaining life calculations. Hard-
ness traverses across welds can indicate whether the weld
has been stress relieved.
Due to its low cost, simplicity, and rapid data acquisi-
tion, this technique has many applications in a plant
NDE program.
Some of the portable testers are sensitive to the orienta-
tion and mass of the component being evaluated. These
factors must be carefully considered during the calibra-
tion phase of hardness testing. Measurements made on
thin-walled tubing may be difficult to make using
rebound-type hardness testers.
15-22
15.21 Sampling
Tube sampling is performed for a variety of reasons: (i) as
an aid to root cause determination or confirmation,
(ii) to confirm the accuracy of nondestructive examina-
tion results, (iii) to provide both qualitative and quanti-
tative information about the type, extent, and thickness
of deposits, (iv) to confirm oxide scale thickness, and
(v) to provide material needed to perform detailed visual
and metallurgical examinations. Sampling practices and
test methods are provided in ASTM Standards D887
(ASTM D887-82, 1989) and D3483 (ASTM D3483-
83, 1990).
Some general considerations about sampling include:
• Samples should be taken for a specific purpose, for
example, to confirm the results of NDE measures or to
bound the “worst” conditions (such as highest temper-
atures, thickest steamside oxide, thickest internal
deposits, or worst wall thinning).
• A plan for the use of samples should be prepared that
specifically lays out what kinds of testing are to be done
on samples removed for example, metallographic,
strength, creep rupture, wall, steamside oxide and
waterside deposits thickness, and measures.
15.22 Hydrostatic Testing
A hydrostatic pressure test is good practice following
weld repairs and as a means to ensure that all damaged
tubes have been identified following an outbreak of a
particular damage mechanism.
Visual examination to detect leaking after testing is indi-
cated. For safety reasons, the pressure should be reduced
prior to visual inspection.
15.23 References
1008092, 2005. Examination of Heat Recovery Steam
Generator (HRSG) Plants, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005.
1008092.
1008093, 2005. Electromagnetic Nondestructive Evalua-
tion (NDE) for Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSGs),
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005. 1008093.
1012759, 2007. Guidelines for the Nondestructive Exam-
ination of Heat Recovery Steam Generators, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA: 2007. 1012759.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Nondestructive Examination, Inspection, and Testing Methods
1013629, 2006. “BTF and HTF Survey Results Con-
ducted at the EPRI BTF/HTF International Confer-
ence,” Proceedings: International Conference on Boiler Tube
and HRSG Tube Failures and Inspections, held in San
Diego, CA, November 2-4, 2004, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2006. 1013629.
Adkins, 1987. Adkins, W.J. and D.F. Powell, “Boiler
Tube Internal Scale Measurement Using Ultrasonic
Inspection Techniques and Interpretation of Results,”
in B. Dooley, B. and D. Broske, eds., Boiler Tube Failures
in Fossil Power Plants: Conference Proceedings, Conference
held in Atlanta, Georgia, November 10-12, 1987,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1988. CS-5500-SR, pp. 5-1
through 5-25.
ASM, 1989. American Society for Metals, Metals Hand-
book, Volume 17: Nondestructive Inspection and Quality
Control, 9th edition, American Society for Metals, Met-
als Park, Ohio, 1989.
ASNT, 2006. http://www.asnt.org/publications/tnt/
tnt5-2/tnt5-2fyi.htm.
ASTM D887-82, 1989. American Society for Testing
and Materials, Standard D887-82 (1989), “Standard
Practice for Sampling Water-Formed Deposits,” 1992
Annual Book of ASTM Standards: Water, Volume 11.02,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadel-
phia, PA, 1992.
ASTM D3483-83, 1990. American Society for Testing
and Materials, Standard D3483-83(1990), “Standard
Test Method for Accumulated Deposition in a Steam
Generator Tube,” 1992 Annual Book of ASTM Standards:
Water, Volume 11.02, American Society for Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1992.
ASTM E797-90, 1990. American Society for Testing
and Materials, Standard E797-90 (1990), “Standard
Practice for Measuring Thickness by Manual Ultrasonic
Pulse-Echo Contact Method,” 1994 Annual Book of
ASTM Standards: Nondestructive Testing, Volume 03.03,
Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA,
1994.
Beak, 1987. Beak, W.E. and D.W. Bonin, “Nondestruc-
tive Technology to Evaluate Superheater Condition,”
in B. Dooley, B. and D. Broske, eds., Boiler Tube Failures
in Fossil Power Plants: Conference Proceedings, Conference
held in Atlanta, Georgia, November 10-12, 1987,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1988. CS-5500-SR, pp. 5-27
through 5-38.
Birring, 1987. Birring, A.S., D.G. Alcazar, J.J. Hanley,
G.J. Hendrix, and S. Gehl, “Detection of Hydrogen
Damage by Ultrasonics,” in B. Dooley, B. and D.
Broske, eds., Boiler Tube Failures in Fossil Power Plants:
Conference Proceedings, Conference held in Atlanta,
Georgia, November 10-12, 1987, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
1988. CS-5500-SR, pp. 5-59 through 5-67.
Birring, 1989. Birring, A.S., D.G. Alcazar, J.J. Hanley,
and S. Gehl, “Ultrasonic Detection of Hydrogen Dam-
age,” Materials Evaluation, March 1989, pp. 345-350,
369.
Bonin, 1986. Bonin, D.W., “Nondestructive Oxide
Thickness Measurement in Superheater and Reheater
Tubing,” in Proceedings of the EPRI Fossil Plant Inspections
Workshop, San Antonio, Texas, September 9-11, 1986,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1987. CS-5230.
Cohn, 2004. Cohn, M., “Experiences with Pulsed Eddy
Current,” EPRI Service Water Piping Technical Forum
Meeting, Coconut Grove, FL, February 9, 2004.
CS-1938, 1991. Vibration Signature Analysis and Acoustic
Emission Monitoring at Brayton, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
1981. CS-1938.
Fletcher, 1996. Fletcher, M.J., “A Review of Optical
Inspection Methods,” Insight, Vol. 38, No. 4, April
1996.
Hicks, 1994. Hicks, P., A. Banweg, and M. Parker, “The
Use of Ultrasonic Testing in Determining Waterside
Deposit Buildup in Boiler Systems,” Corrosion 94, Paper
No. 205, NACE International, 1994.
Krzywosz, 1985. Krzywosz, K.J., R.E. Beissner, and
J.E. Doherty, “Pulsed Eddy Current Flaw Detection and
Flaw Characterization,” Electromagnetic Methods of Non-
destructive Testing, Gordon and Breach Science Publish-
ers, 1985, pp. 307-320.
Lamping, 1991. Lamping, G.A., and S. Gehl, “Hydro-
gen Damage Assessment Using Ultrasonic Velocity Mea-
surement,” in B. Dooley, ed., Proceedings: International
Conference on Boiler Tube Failures in Fossil Plants, held in
San Diego, California, November 5-7, 1991, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA: 1992. TR-100493, pp. 8-23 through 8-35.
McMaster, 1959. McMaster, R.C., ed., Nondestructive
Testing Handbook, American Society for Nondestructive
Testing, 1959.
15-23
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Nondestructive Examination, Inspection, and Testing Methods Volume 1: Fundamentals

NP-5834, 1988. Nondestructive Examination of Welds

Through Painted Surfaces, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1988.
NP-5834.
NP-5951, 1988. Reliability of Magnetic Particle Testing
Performed Through Coatings, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1988.
NP-5951.
NP-6832, 1990. Nondestructive Evaluation of Compo-
nent Structures, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1990. NP-6832.
Robers, 2002. Robers, M.A. and R. Scottini, “Pulsed
Eddy Current in Corrosion Detection,” NDT.net,
Vol. 7, No. 10, October 2002.
Sather, 1977. Sather, A., “Pulsed Eddy Current Testing
Apparatus for Use on Smooth and Ribbed Tubing,”
Materials Evaluation, December 1977, pp. 55-59.
Sollish, 1991. Sollish, D.B., “Field Experience Utilizing
State-of the-Art NDE Techniques Applied to In-Service
Boiler Tube Examinations,” in B. Dooley, ed., Proceed-
ings: International Conference on Boiler Tube Failures
in Fossil Plants, held in San Diego, California, November
5-7, 1991, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1992. TR-100493,
pp. 8-1 through 8-23.
TR-101699, 1993. Guidelines on Fossil Boiler Field
Welding, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1993. TR-101699.
TR-103377V7, 1993. Life Assessment of Boiler Pressure
Parts, Volume 7: Life Assessment Technology for Superheater/
Reheater Tubes, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1993.
TR-103377V7.
TR-108450, 1997. NDE Guidelines for Fossil Power
Plants, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1997. TR-108450.

15-24
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

Chapter 16
Monitoring

16.1 Introduction
On-line monitoring instruments installed in boilers and HRSG units are intended to ensure
that the components within the unit operate within their design, control, or alarm limits.
Existing plant instrumentation can also be used to keep track of some of the key damage
influencing factors (for example, temperature, water chemistry, pressure, and flow rate) of
boiler and HRSG tubing. This information can be used to estimate the likelihood of specific
damage modes and their rates and, in combination with NDE, to estimate the remaining life
or failure rates of selected tubing. The following sections discuss some specific instrumenta-
tion that may need to be added to the boiler or HRSG for specific BTF/HTF issues.

16.2 Monitoring Tube Metal Temperatures

16.2.1 General Considerations

Methods can be either direct, primarily using thermocouples that provide current tempera-
ture levels, or indirect.
Thermocouples may be used for a variety of purposes in fossil boilers and HRSG units,
including:
• To determine thermal transients for use in a stress/strain analysis.
• To monitor temperatures to back up decisions about when to chemically clean.
• To determine when and where to remove tube specimens for examination (of deposit
buildup or the presence of damage by various mechanisms).
Examples of the specific use of thermocouples for monitoring temperature transients
include:
• Measuring temperatures in SH/RH tubing of conventional units to provide input for an
accurate determination of remaining tube life.
• Measuring the very localized thermal gradients from the furnace side of the tubes to the
casing side of the tube to the channels, standoff plates and buckstays, and surrounding air
temperature for evaluating corrosion fatigue in conventional units.
• Measuring the severity of stratification of subcooled water to the lower furnace (that is,
subcooling).
• Measuring the global side-to-side and bottom-to-top temperature variations within the
waterwall panels.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Monitoring Volume 1: Fundamentals

• Measuring the steam temperature out of the super-

heater bundle just downstream of the duct burners in
an HRSG unit will provide an indication of burner
overfiring or increased gas temperatures due to operat-
ing the gas turbine at part load or with the diverter
damper partially open.
• Measuring the outlet temperature profiles across the
HRSG and through assemblies for operators, or in the
case of conventional fossil units, thermocouples can be
installed in critical areas of the furnace to detect increas-
ing tube wall temperatures. In the latter case, periodic
plots of the outer surface tube temperature can help Figure 16-1
monitor the growth of waterside deposits. Typical location of in-furnace chordal thermocouple
within a tube assembly.
Thermocouples are also extremely valuable for determin- Source: TR-103377 V7, 1993
ing off-normal conditions, such as steaming or conden-
Chordal thermocouples are normally installed in a tube
sate buildup and downshocking associated with specific
section at the factory. The installation is accomplished by
operating conditions (for example, normal load, low
placing a thermocouple junction at midwall points such
loads, and transients).
as locations at 25% and 50% from the outside surface.
Temperature readings need to be taken under as nearly Tube sections are drilled to place the thermocouple wires,
identical conditions as possible. For example, in conven- which are then tack welded in place and covered by peen-
tional units, sootblowing can have a significant effect on ing-in weld metal. The process is shown on the right side
both thermocouple readings and heat fluxes. of Figure 16-1.
The reliability of thermocouples can be affected by such A section is then cut out of a tube in the furnace wall,
processes as erosion from sootblowers, high-temperature and the segment containing the chordal thermocouple is
corrosion, and localized melting. welded in place and the lead wires covered with a stain-
Thermocouple material should be chosen to withstand less steel shielding tube. The resulting installation is
the high temperature and oxidative environment of the shown in Figure 16-2.
furnace.

16.2.2 Chordal and Groove Type Thermocouple

Installations
These two types of thermocouple installations have been
shown to be quite useful in determining tube
temperatures.
Chordal thermocouples. Chordal thermocouples are
designed to measure in-furnace tube metal temperatures
directly and to provide information about through-wall
temperature gradients. Figure 16-1 (left side) shows a
typical location that would be monitored with chordal
thermocouples.
Figure 16-2
Chordal thermocoupled tube sections reinserted into original
location within the tube assembly. Note stainless steel
shielding tube that surrounds thermocouple lead wires.
Source: TR-103377 V7, 1993

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Monitoring
This design protects the thermocouple wire from the
brunt of the fireside erosion and furnace heat, and the
exterior of the tube surface is free of projections that may
interfere with the normal buildup of slag.
A disadvantage of this design is that accurate placement
depends on the particular installation. A slight error in
the distance between the two thermocouples can pro-
duce relatively large errors in heat flux determination
(Wang, 1986).
An example of an installed chordal thermocouple is
shown in Figure 19-39.
Grooving type thermocouple. The grooving type ther-
mocouple design is shown in Figure 16-3.
Figure 16-3
Grooving type thermocouple.
Source: TR-102401, 1993 (adapted from CRIEPI, 1981)
The grooving type thermocouple was developed by the
Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry
(CRIEPI). It has a thermocouple and a thin (0.3 mm
(0.012 in) x 1.4 mm (0.055 in) wide) protective plate in
the outer surface of the waterwall tube (CRIEPI, 1981).
The result is a smooth surface similar to that for the
chordal thermocouple. This thermocouple type is favored
by utilities in Japan.
16.2.3 General Procedures for Installation of High
Temperature Thermocouples
To obtain accurate temperature measurements in heat
absorbing sections of the boiler or HRSG requires care-
ful thermocouple installation methods. The following
procedure successfully overcame some difficulties with
reliability and durability of welded thermocouples. The
temperatures measured by clamped thermocouples may
differ significantly from the actual tube metal tempera-
ture and are not recommended.
Thermocouple installation. Thermocouples installed by
this process will last for several months if the wires are
routed, supported, and protected carefully. They need to
be protected from weather and careless impact damage
outside the boiler or HRSG. An even more durable
method utilizes sheathed thermocouples and “bonds”
the thermocouple sheath to the header or tube surface in
a sprayed aluminum deposit.
Process specification. Bare two ends of a type K thermo-
couple for a distance of about 12.5 mm (0.5 in.). Make
a 90-degree bend halfway on each wire in the same direc-
tion. Ensure that opposite ends are not connected
together (each wire is isolated from the other). Do not
attach thermocouples to bends or within 1 inch of a bend
or a weld.
Sand all oxide/scale off the thermocouple attachment
spot on the tube (approximate 25 mm (1 in.) diameter).
For T91, preheat local area to 150°C (300°F). For T22,
preheat to 93°C (200°F). For T11 and carbon steel, pre-
heat to 93°C (200°F). Using a capacitor discharge
machine, place the magnetic ground clamp within
7.5 cm (3 in.) of the thermocouple attachment spot (a
pinch clamp may be used instead; for pinch clamps,
ground may be farther away on header or header attach-
ment). When using a remote ground, over 0.6 m (2 ft)
away, increase weld intensity to “high,” if needed). Use,
if available, automatic settings and medium weld inten-
sity (manual may also be used). Grab one wire with the
plier welder (or hemostat long neck plier) and touch the
tube with the wire end. Using a fine piece of emery cloth
or stainless brush, remove any black firing residue from
the area where the next wire will attach. Grab the second
wire; note whether the machine is ready to fire (green
light). Pick a location about 3 mm (0.125 in.) from the
first weld no farther than 6.5 mm (0.25 in.). Weld the
second wire. Brush residue with stainless wire brush.
Inspect for thermocouple leg distance less than 6.5 mm
(0.25 in.). Inspect for sound welds; VT and attempt to
slightly wiggle thermocouple attachment. VT inspect to
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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Monitoring Volume 1: Fundamentals
ensure that there are no cracks, use PT to resolve ques-
tions (ANSI Level II or III NDT required). If any
unsoundness is noted, remove (grind) spots and shift
location 12.7 mm (0.5 in); repeat steps.
An example of the finished installation is shown in
Figure 16-4.
Figure 16-4
Example of the finished thermocouple installation.
Additional important installation requirements. Wrap
the bonded ends and adjacent area of the tube at each
thermocouple pair with insulation material and secure in
place with stainless steel pipe clamps. This protects the
wire and spot-welded thermocouple ends and ensures
that the thermocouple measured tube or header outer
surface temperature is not influenced by gas temperature
or radiation from other surfaces.
The durability of the thermocouple is most likely threat-
ened by damage to the thermocouple wires between the
thermocouple attachment and the recorder. The wires
need to be well supported but retain sufficient allowance
for thermal expansions in the boiler or HRSG, especially
those attached to the bottom tubes and headers. Where
there is any possibility of construction or operations per-
sonnel getting into contact with the wires, the locations
need to be completely enclosed in conduits or “remove-
able” covers to prevent inadvertent contact. On the out-
side of the HRSG enclosure, the wires also need to be
protected from rain and water washing by threading
them through heavy duty flexible piping to the weather-
protected location of the temporary recorders.
16-4
16.3 Monitoring Heat Flux
Heat flux can be monitored in boiler or HRSG tubing or
tube banks using absorbed heat flux meters (flux tubes or
domes) and incident heat flux meters (flux probes).
Absorbed heat flux meters measure a thermal gradient in
a cylinder of known thermal conductivity and, thus,
deduce heat flux. These are attached as discrete devices to
the surfaces of existing tubes.
The flux dome consists of two concentric cylinders. An
inner, or “sensor,” cylinder contains two thermocouples.
Surrounding it the outer or “guard” cylinder ensures that
there is minimum unwanted loss of heat through the side
of the sensor cylinder. The temperature gradient in the
sensor cylinder is measured with two thermocouples
placed inside the sensor cylinder and is proportional to
the heat flux. The flux dome has a manufacturer’s speci-
fied range of operation of 0°C to 1200°C (32°F to
2192°F), with a temperature resolution of better than
3°C (5.4°F).
Experience at the former Central Electricity Generating
Board (CEGB) indicated that absorbed heat flux was
generally between 50 and 75% of the incident flux,
depending on tube condition (CEGB, 1977). The range
of absorbed heat fluxes was from less than 100 kW/m2 in
heavily slagged areas to over 500 kW/m2 on clean tubes
in boilers at high loads; typically values on CEGB com-
bustion chambers were 300–350 kW/m2 (CEGB, 1977).
It should also be noted that accurate heat flux measure-
ment requires that the device used should have the same
layer of ash as on the tubes surrounding it.
Flux meter. The flux meter is designed to measure total
(convective and radiative) heat flux. It consists of a water-
cooled probe that houses a cylindrical block. The block
has a serrated, blackened front surface to give high radia-
tion absorption. Front and rear thermocouples are used
to calculate heat flux (CS/EL-4415 V1, 1986).
16.4 Monitoring Displacements and Strains
There are a variety of sensors available to measure strain.
Those most commonly applied to tubes are weldable
strain gauges and capacitance strain gauges. Large dis-
placements such as for waterwalls and windboxes can be
monitored with LVDTs (linear variable displacement
transducers) or string potentiometers. A basic setup for
LVDTs is shown in field use in Figure 16-5.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Monitoring

Figure 16-5
Basic setup/orientation for LVDTs, here used to monitor
global horizontal displacements relative to buckstays at
selected buckstays/buckstay clip locations.
Source: EPRI TC/Set-Aside Project on Corrosion Fatigue

Displacements in more restrained conditions can be

measured with strain gauges. When more precision or Figure 16-6
real-time information is needed, linear voltage digital Waterwall strain gauges. Both axial and hoop directions
transducers are often used. should be evaluated. For example, SG7 is oriented in the
axial direction; SG8 is measuring hoop strains.
Conventional resistance strain gauges can be used for Source: EPRI TC/Set-Aside Project on Corrosion Fatigue
low-temperature locations but are generally limited to
temperatures up to about 300°C (~575°F). Weldable
platinum-tungsten gauges have temperature ratings up
to about 650°C (~1200°F) with field confirmation of
reliable static strain measures up to about 480°C
(~900°F). Nickel-chromium gauges were found to give
accurate dynamic strains at temperatures up to around
815°C (~1500°F). The gauges do not require shielding,
although the leads are shielded.
Minor grinding may be required to produce flat surfaces
in the vertical and horizontal directions.
Strain levels will most often be highly localized, so that
care must be taken to choose locations for analysis care-
fully considering the complexity of the local geometry, Figure 16-7
Strain gauge and thermocouple monitoring locations on a
loading conditions and temperature ranges. For practical buckstay attachment detail.
purposes, strain gauges are best used to measure changes Source: EPRI TC/Set-Aside Project on Corrosion Fatigue
in strain at a particular location as a function of changes
in operating conditions. A typical strain gauge setup is Here strain gauge locations were:
shown in Figure 16-6. • On the crown of the casing side of selected tubes in
axial and hoop directions.
An example of how strain gauges and thermocouples
might be combined in a monitoring program for corro- • On the casing side of weld membrane between selected
sion fatigue in a conventional unit is described in tubes.
Chapter 19, Volume 2. • On the plate between the channel and buckstay clips.

16-5
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Monitoring Volume 1: Fundamentals

16.5 Monitoring Fluid Flow 16.7 References

There have been numerous tube failures, particularly in CEGB, 1977. The Control of Fireside Corrosion in Power
HRSG units, that have experienced tube damage due to Station Boilers, Second edition, Central Electricity
unanticipated fluid flows. This includes situations where Generating Board, 1977.
the flow rate was significantly higher than expected,
CRIEPI, 1981. Optimization of Chemical Cleaning
much lower than expected, or even flowing in the oppo-
Interval for Supercritical Boilers, Energy & Environmen-
site direction through the tube from the expected flow.
tal Laboratory, Central Research Institute of Electric
In these cases, it is important to measure the fluid flows
Power Industry (Japan), CRIEPI Report E280003,
through a range of operational transients and anticipate
January 1981.
steady-state conditions.
CS/EL-4415 V1, 1986. Power Plant Performance Moni-
Velocity measurements in water-cooled tubes can be
toring and Improvement, Volume 1: Boiler Optimization,
made using UT velocity instruments. These measure the
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1986. CS/EL‑4415 V1.
time-of-flight of a UT wave between two transducers
that are separated along the longitudinal axis of a straight TR-102401, 1993. Guidelines for Chemical Cleaning of
section of pipe or tube. The transducers are typically Fossil-Fueled Steam-Generating Equipment, EPRI, Palo
placed 10 diameters downstream and 5 diameters Alto, CA: 1993. TR-102401.
upstream of any bends or fittings. The velocity of the TR-103377 V7, 1993. Life Assessment of Boiler Pressure
fluid can be determined by comparing the time-of-flight Parts, Volume 7: Life Assessment Technology for Superheater/
of the UT wave in both directions (from the upstream- Reheater Tubes, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1993.
to-downstream transducer and from the downstream-to- TR-103377-V1/7.
upstream transducer). This technique is typically limited
to liquid-carrying tubes with temperatures up to 260°C Wang, 1986. Wang, T.P. and E.D. Zysk, “Thermocou-
(500°F). Other methods are available to measure flow in ples for Industrial Applications,” Metals Handbook,
steam-carrying tubes or pipes. Volume 3, 9th edition, American Society for Metals,
Metals Park, OH, 1986.
16.6 Water Chemistry Monitoring
Many of the common boiler and HRSG tube failure
mechanisms are influenced or caused by excessive and
undesirable impurities in the water or steam or by inade-
quate shutdown, startup, or layup practices. A key ele-
ment of a water chemistry control or improvement
program is an on-line system to keep track of key chem-
istry parameters. Cycle chemistry monitoring and shut-
down, startup, and layup practices are described in
Chapter 8.

16-6
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

Chapter 17
Repair and Replacement

17.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the repair and replacement of failed
or damaged boiler and HRSG tubes. There are essentially four general options available for
the repair and/or replacement of boiler or HRSG tubes:
• For leaks or failures: repair or replacement to restore (i) to original condition or (ii) to a
condition acceptable for service (meeting the appropriate rules and standards).
• For damaged, but not “failed” components: (iii) remove damage and assess whether
remaining material meets service and Code requirements, or (iv) perform integrity assess-
ment (“fitness-for-service”) to determine whether component can be placed back in service
in damaged condition at least until replacement is possible.
Where repair is not possible, option (iv), analysis, may be the only choice. However, such
methods are often complex, costly, and may require significant time.
The following historical information should be considered in making the decision about
repair (1004701, 2003):
• Was the original material selection in the design appropriate?
• Did all the original materials meet specified requirements?
• Did the operating conditions contribute to the failure in any way: creep, fatigue, erosion,
shock, or thermal loading?
• Are there any unusual metallurgical characteristics in the defective or suspect area?
• Has the problem occurred in any other units at the same site or within the industry?
Each utility should have in place a set of guidelines about minimum wall thickness to expe-
dite the repair decision. General guidance about when to replace or restore tubes is available
from boiler manufacturers but should be customized by each organization. These procedures
become an integral part of the Boiler Tube Failure Reduction/Cycle Chemistry Improve-
ment (BTFR/CCI) Program or Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failure Reduction/
Cycle Chemistry Improvement (HTF/CCI) Program as described in Chapter 11.
This is not an extensive repair/replacement treatise but covers some of the key processes
which, conducted improperly, have led to repeat BTFs and HTFs:
• Overview and General Comments (Section 17.2)
• Applicable Codes for Weld Repairs (Section 17.3)
• Specific Repair Procedures for Conventional Units (Section 17.4):
- tube section replacement – ID welding
- tube section replacement – conventional OD welding
- grinding out the defect and welding

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Repair and Replacement Volume 1: Fundamentals

- Window welding
- Pad welding/boiler tube buildup
- Large-scale tube replacement
- Tube-to-header stub tube repair
• Specific Repair Procedures for HRSGs (Section 17.5):
- Tube replacement on tubing away from upper and
lower headers
- Tube plugging procedures
- Tube repair
- Tube-to-header weld repairs
• Application of Surface Coatings (Section 17.6)
Additional guidance about repairs can be found in other
chapters of this book. Repair procedures specifically for
dissimilar metal welds are contained in Chapter 47, Vol-
ume 3. Discussion of the potential problems with pad
welding is contained in Chapter 63, Volume 3, which
discusses weld defects in detail.

17.2 Overview and General Comments

17.2.1 Overview of Welding Repairs

Welding is the most important maintenance activity for
repairing or replacing boiler tubes. An overall approach
to weld repairs of boiler tubes is shown in Figure 17-1.
Steps 1 through 6 are required to identify the defective
component, determine the root cause of the damage so
that corrective action can be taken to prevent future
problems and to assist in establishing whether a weld
Figure 17-1
repair is required. The remaining steps outline each phase Roadmap for boiler tube weld repairs.
of the welding operation that has to be addressed to per- Source: 1004701, 2003
form the repair. These include material identification,
defect removal, weld preparation, qualification and selec-
tion of a welding procedure, and weld performance test-
ing and inspection. Details of specific steps are provided
in (1004701, 2003) with discussion of key issues through-
out this chapter.
A similar procedure is applicable to HRSG weld repairs,
where possible.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Repair and Replacement
17.2.2 General Comments
The following will be applicable to all tube weld repair
procedures:
• Ensure that all procedures comply with the relevant
code requirements. This will ensure that standard
repair and inspection practices are applied.
• Qualified written procedures and qualified welders
should be used for every repair weld.
• Permanent weld repairs are preferable and should be
made by cutting out the defective tube section and
welding in a new section or by grinding out the defect,
opening up the excavation to a suitable geometry for
weld repair, and welding up the cavity.
• Temporary repairs such as pad welding or window
welding can be performed to return a unit to service in
the shortest possible time if a system emergency exists.
These repairs should be documented and a permanent
repair made at the next major outage.
• Access is critical and may be difficult (particularly in
HRSG units). It may be necessary to cut away a sound
tube to gain access to a damaged tube. EPRI is devel-
oping processes to make most repairs from inside an
HRSG tube by providing access through an appropri-
ate header.
• Actual component thickness and material should be
evaluated prior to beginning weld repairs. It is critical
to confirm the material(s) to be repaired prior to devel-
oping an optimized procedure. In situ or laboratory
confirmation is possible, depending on access.
The specific grade of material is required as well as the
specification number. For example, ASME SA213
includes a variety of material grades; SA213 T11 will
require a different repair procedure from SA213 T22,
for example.
• Because several materials are usually used in the SH/
RH sections, a schematic showing the locations of
materials and the transitions is critical, both for track-
ing materials and for developing the appropriate weld
procedures. “Upgrading” materials is, for several key
BTF mechanisms, a possible strategy. If a material
change is made, careful documentation should be
made of the new material and its location so that any
needed repairs can be properly executed.
• Where possible, use gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
for root passes. This produces a better quality root than
the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process. Back-
ing rings should not be used for tubing in water-
touched tubing. For SH and RH tubes, backing rings
should be used only if a high-quality root pass cannot
be made with the GTAW or SMAW processes without
backing. GTAW, SMAW, flux core arc welding
(FCAW), or gas metal arc welding (GMAW) can be
used for the filler passes using matching filler metals.
• Historically, semi-automatic welding processes have
been used in limited applications, mainly for skin cas-
ing and membrane replacement. However, many
developments and equipment improvements, which
now allow for semi-automatic welding in most areas of
the boiler, have been made over the last decade
(1004701, 2003). Repair organizations frequently use
automatic GMAW for boiler tube buildup and the
installation of corrosion-resistance overlays.
• Documentation of welding procedures should be main-
tained, including (i) welding procedure specifications,
(ii) procedure qualification records, (iii) weld qualifica-
tions, (iv) heat treatment procedures, (v) inspection
procedures, and (vi) specific detailed procedures, such
as covering specific boiler tube repair procedures. The
name of the welder making each weld should also be
documented.
Slag removal is required prior to performing maintenance
work; removal methods include water lancing, shotgun,
rappers, and water sootblowers. Tube failures have resulted
from the mechanical damage done during slag removal by
water blowing/water cannons (Chapter 29, Volume 2), by
explosive cleaning (Chapter 51, Volume 3), and from
sootblower damage (Chapter 33, Volume 2; Chapter 50,
Volume 3).
Detailed instructions for the repair of boiler tubes
(1004701, 2003) and HRSG tubes (1004875, 2004) have
been developed. The former reference also contains con-
siderable valuable background information on (i) weld
procedure development, (ii) filler materials, (iii) preheat
and postweld heat treatment, (iv) welder performance
qualification and training, (v) defect removal and weld
joint preparation, and (vi) inspection and testing.
17.3 Applicable Codes for Weld Repairs
17.3.1 U.S. Codes
Applicable U.S. codes for the welding of boiler tubes
include:
• National Board Inspection Code (NBIC), American
National Standard, ANSI/NB-23, The National Board
of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors, Columbus,
Ohio, January, 1991. Most repairs to utility boilers in
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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Repair and Replacement Volume 1: Fundamentals
the U.S. must be performed to the NBIC code, which
references the original code of construction ( frequently
the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code).
• ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel (B&PV) Code, Sec-
tion I. “Power Boilers,” particularly Part PW, “Require-
ments for Boilers Fabricated by Welding” and PG,
“General Requirements of All Methods of Construc-
tion.” Section I requires written welding procedures
qualified to Section IX requirements and inspection
requirements per Section V. Although Section I is a
boiler construction code, many jurisdictional authori-
ties use ASME Section I as a guide for in-service
repairs.
• ASME B&PV Code, Section IX, “Welding and
Brazing Qualifications” includes requirements for
weld procedures, “Welding Procedure Specification”
(WPS), procedure records, “Welding Procedure Quali-
fication Record” (PQR), and welder qualification
records, “Welder/Welding Operator Qualification
Record” (WQ).
• ASME B&PV Code, Section V, “Nondestructive
Examination” covers inspection requirements for com-
ponents fabricated by welding.
• ASME B&PV Code, Section II, Part A, “Material
Specification for Ferrous Materials” and Part C, “Weld-
ing Filler Materials” cover materials used in welding.
To reduce the number of weld procedures, the ASME
Code groups materials into “P” groups. Note that these
groupings are for weld procedure development and exe-
cution only; the materials are not interchangeable in
their properties.
It should be further noted that the Code is written for
original design and construction, usually shop-welded,
and not for repair situations. Because of the difficulties in
ensuring the highest quality welds in a field condition
(for example, access problems, weld positions possible,
and the inability to post-weld heat treat), repairs may not
have the same margin of safety as inherent in original
construction performed to the Code requirements. On
the other hand, there is a margin of safety built into Code
requirements. The main message here is that engineering
assessment and judgment may be required for specific
repair conditions; such assessments might include gain-
ing a knowledge of (i) actual operating conditions (tem-
peratures, stresses, cyclic, and steady state), (ii) the actual
integrity of components (actual material properties in the
aged condition, extent of damage, and defect sizes), and
(iii) the actual accumulation of damage in the
component.
17-4
17.3.2 International Codes
The ISO series of standards EN ISO 15607-15614 cover
welding procedure specifications and procedure approval.
A summary of the appropriate standards is provided in
Table 17-1. Coverage of the various specifications
includes (ISO, 2006):
• ISO 15607: 2003 defines general rules for the specifi-
cation and qualification of welding procedures for
metallic materials.
• ISO 15608: 2005 provides a uniform system for group-
ing of materials for welding purposes.
• ISO 15609 specifies requirements for the content of
welding procedure specifications for various welding
processes.
• ISO 15610: 2003 gives information to explain the
requirements of ISO 15607 concerning the qualifica-
tion of welding procedures based on tested consum-
ables. It applies to arc and gas welding but other fusion
welding processes may be accepted if specified.
• ISO 15611: 2003 gives information necessary to
explain the requirements referenced in ISO 15610 for
qualification of welding procedures based on previous
welding experience.
• ISO 15612: 2004 gives information necessary to
explain the requirements referenced in ISO 15610
about qualification by adoption of a standard welding
procedure and establishes conditions, limits, and ranges
of qualification necessary for the use of a standard
welding procedure.
• ISO 15613: 2004 specifies how a preliminary welding
procedure specification is qualified based on pre-
production welding tests.
• ISO 15614 specifies how a preliminary welding proce-
dure specification is qualified by welding procedure
tests for various materials.
 Table 17-1
Summary of EN ISO Specifications for Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS) and Approvals
Source: ISO, 2003

Process Arc Gas Electron Laser Beam Resistance Stud Welding Friction Welding
Welding Welding Beam Welding Welding
Welding
General rules EN ISO 15607
Volume 1: Fundamentals

Guidelines for a CR ISO/TR 15608 Not applied CR ISO/TR 15608

grouping system
WPS EN ISO 15609-1 EN ISO 15609-2 EN ISO EN ISO 15609- EN ISO 15609-5 EN ISO 14555 EN ISO 15620
15609-3 4
Approved EN ISO 15610 Not applied
consumables
Previous welding EN ISO 15611 EN ISO 15611 EN ISO 15611
experience EN ISO 14555 EN ISO 15620
Standard EN ISO 15612 Not applied
procedure
Pre-production EN ISO 15613 EN ISO 15613 EN ISO 15613
test EN ISO 14555 EN ISO 14555
Welding EN ISO 15164 EN ISO 15614 EN ISO 15614 EN ISO 15614 EN ISO 14555 EN ISO 15620
procedure test
Part 1: Steel/Nickel Part 1: Steel/nickel Part 7: Surfacing Part 12: Spot, seam
and projection
Part 2: Aluminum Part 3: Cast iron Part 11: Electron beam/laser
beam Part 13: Flash and
Part 3: Cast iron Part 6: Copper
butt
Part 4: Finishing welding of Part 7: Surfacing
aluminum castings
EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material

Part 5: Titanium/zirconium
Part 6: Copper
Part 7: Surfacing
Part 8: Tube to tubesheet
Part 9: Wet hyperbaric
Part 10: Dry hyperbaric

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Repair and Replacement Volume 1: Fundamentals
17.4 Specific Repair Procedures for Conventional Units
The preferred method for boiler tube repair, wherever
possible, is that the boiler tube leaks should be repaired
by cutting out the defective section of the tube and
replacing it with a new section. Conventionally, welds
were executed from the tube OD; however, a new proce-
dure has been developed (1008094, 2005; Anon, 2006;
Gandy, 2004) that greatly improves weld quality by
allowing the welds to be made from the tube ID. These
two methods are discussed in the next two sections.
17.4.1 Tube Section Replacement by ID Welding
This new procedure is referred to as the ID Tube Welder
and is shown in Figure 17-2.
The EPRI Tube ID Welder still requires removal of the
tubing; however, all welding is performed from the ID of
the tube. In this approach, the new section of tubing,
which contains end preps on either end of the tube and a
machined access port at the center of the tube, are
inserted into the location where the original tube was
damaged, Figure 17-3.
Welds are performed, one at the top location and one at
the bottom, to secure the replacement tube in place. Due
to the small thickness of the existing tube, only one pass
welding is typically used for both welds.
Figure 17-2
ID Tube Welder shown inserted into a tube for welding.
Source: 1008094, 2005
17-6
After completing the two welds, the final seal weld to
close the access is ready to be performed. A premachined
oval-shaped insert, shown in Figure 17-3, is used for this
replacement. This weld is performed manually by the
welder using the GTAW process. Because the welder has
much better access to the front of the tube (as compared
to welding using a mirror on the back side), high quality
welds can consistently be performed for the closure
weld.
The ID Tube Welder has been commercialized and can
perform both HRSG tube-to-tube welds (see Section
17.5.1) and waterwall window welds in conventional
units.
The welding procedure and the welders used to perform
the work must be qualified according to applicable
standards.
17.4.2 Conventional Tube Section Replacement Using
OD Welding
A roadmap of the steps to perform this repair procedure
for waterwalls is provided in Figure 17-4.
Figure 17-3
Example of the replacement tube with machined access port
and the oval-shaped insert used to seal the tube after the
weld is made.
Source: 1008094, 2005
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Repair and Replacement

Several factors of importance from the viewpoint of

boiler tube failures are:
• After removing the damaged section of tube, an inspec-
tion should be conducted as noted in the flowchart.
The purpose is to inspect the inside surfaces of the
remaining tube visually to ensure that a sufficient
length of defective tube has been removed and to check
for any wall thinning. If any defects are detected or the
wall thickness is below the Code allowable, further sec-
tions of tubing will need to be removed.
• The damaged section of tube should be saved and pro-
tected from damage for metallurgical examination,
particularly if the mechanism or root cause is unknown.
Flow direction, tube orientation, and hot or cold side
should be marked on the tube.
• Many waterwall and back pass repairs are easy to fix
from outside the boiler. One problem with this method
is determining where to remove the casing and insula-
tion. To positively identify the location of the tube
leak, it is suggested that a small 6.35 mm (1/4 in.)
diameter hole be drilled just above or below the failure
location. Drill from the fireside through the failed tube
and all the way out through the skin casing. The drill
bit can be seen from the outside prior to removal of the
casing. This will minimize the amount of casing
removal and also locate any interference such as buck-
stays, structural steel, or piping.
• During cutting steps, care must be taken to avoid
debris from getting into tubes that could lead to block-
age and subsequent boiler tube failures by short-term
overheating. Thus, cut the bottom first and block. This
may be performed by sliding the steel or stainless steel
shimstock into the cut tube.
• The replacement tube section should be the same mate-
rial and thickness as that removed. If matching thick-
ness is not available, a thicker tube can be used, but not
thinner. A thicker tube should be used only in an
emergency because flow through the tubing might be
changed and overheating of the tube could result. A
thinner tube should never be used. If a tube of the
Figure 17-4 same or thicker section and same material is not avail-
Steps required to repair a waterwall BTF by replacing a tube able, a higher grade material may be substituted. How-
section using conventional procedures. ever, an austenitic stainless steel tube should not be
Source: 1004701, 2003 used in water-touched service.
• The length of replacement should be shorter than the
distance between the prepared ends by 1.6 mm to
3.2 mm (1/16 in. to 1/8 in.) to allow for a root gap and
some shrinkage of the first weld. The replacement
length is more critical for waterwall tube replacement
where tubes are held in place by membranes.

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Repair and Replacement Volume 1: Fundamentals

• All completed welds should be examined visually and

inspected according to Code requirements. A hydro-
static test is also recommended. Radiography or ultra-
sonic testing may be used instead of hydrostatic testing
if approved by regulatory agencies.
Although the details will vary according to location and
local conditions, the fit-up details for a typical boiler
tube replacement and the sequence for a welding repair
are shown in Figures 17-5 and 17-6, respectively.

17.4.3 Grinding Out the Defect and Welding

This procedure should be used only for small defects
where the failure mechanism is known, such as pinhole
leaks caused by porosity. It should not be used to repair
cracks or when tube ID damage is suspected, which
would not be removed by preparing the tube from the
outside. Although quicker than a tube replacement, there
is a significant chance of repeat failures with this kind of
repair. To use this method (1004701, 2003):
1. Remove the defect by grinding to form a vee
preparation. Figure 17-5
2. Open up the excavation on the outside and taper it Fit-up details for boiler tube replacements.
[1 in = 25.4 mm]
to the inside surface. It is very important to keep the
root opening on the ID of the tube to a minimum. If Source: 1004701, 2003
the gap is too large, difficulties will be encountered
in depositing a root pass without drop-through or
suck-back (root concavity).
3. Grind the weld profile to the normal joint geometry
detailed in the weld procedure. Figure 17-7 shows a
typical profile.
4. Inspect the excavated cavity using liquid penetrant
or magnetic particle examination to ensure that all
defects have been removed.
5. Grind back about 25.4 mm (1 in.) from the edges of
the weld preparation to remove any surface oxide or
deposit.
6. Deposit the first pass using the GTAW process;
ensure that a full penetration weld results.
7. Complete the filler passes using GTAW or SMAW
processes. The welding procedure must be qualified
for the base material/thickness.
8. Upon completion of welding, grind the surface to
Figure 17-6
ensure that the weld blends smoothly into the base Sequence of welding a replacement tube section.
metals. [1 in = 25.4 mm]
9. Inspect and test the completed weld. Source: 1004701, 2003

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Volume 1: Fundamentals Repair and Replacement

Figure 17-7
Weld preparation following defect removal by grinding for a
boiler tube failure repair.
Source: 1004701, 2003

17.4.4 Window Welding (Canoe Piece Repair)

If access all around the tube is restricted, a window weld-
ing technique may be required. Examples are in a furnace
wall of tangent tubes with tube-to-tube fillet welds,
around firebox openings where multiple layers of tubes
exist, or in front of buckstays and windboxes. A defective
length of tube can be removed by cutting, but window
welds are required for completion of the butt welds at the
replaced tube section ends. Window welding can also be
used to repair a small bulge in a tube as well as for replac-
ing tube sections from one side.
The method involves cutting out an oval patch on the
furnace side, which provides access to weld the cold side
of the tube from inside the tube. On this half of the tube,
the root pass will be on the OD of the tube and the cap
pass will be on the ID. A new patch is then welded in
place on the furnace side of the tube. The patch must be
oval and not square. All welding is done from inside the
furnace. The main problem is fitting in the new patch
with an acceptable root fit-up all around the opening,
which is necessary to produce a good root pass. If the
patch does not match the ID contour of the tube, flow
disruptions will occur, initiating increased deposition
and associated underdeposit boiler tube failures.
As for pad welding, a window welding repair should be
used only as a temporary measure and should be replaced
at the next available outage.
Figure 17-8
The sequence for a window welding repair is provided in Roadmap of the window welding technique for boiler tube
Figure 17-8. replacement.
Source: 1004701, 2003

Weld details are shown in Figures 17-9 and 17-10.

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Repair and Replacement Volume 1: Fundamentals
17.4.5 Pad Welding
Pad welding should be used only in an emergency, such
as when it is necessary to minimize the forced outage
time when the system is in an emergency status. Repeat
failures are very likely to occur within a very short time if
this technique is applied. Any pad welds that are made to
repair tube failures should be replaced with a new tube
section at the next outage; as a result, careful documenta-
tion of pad weld locations is indicated.
Pad welding techniques have been used where weld metal
is added to the external surface of the tubing without
determining the failure mechanism or root cause. This
type of repair has led to repeat failures and also should be
used only in an emergency situation. An organization
should have a written procedure to indicate the few
instances when pad welding can be used as a function of
the BTF mechanisms and system requirements. It should
never be used for high risk BTF mechanisms.
Figure 17-9
Window welding details for boiler tube failure repair.
Source: 1004701, 2003
17-10
Pad welding of thinned tubes has been used as a tempo-
rary measure until a scheduled outage. It is not, however,
recommended as a regular or permanent repair proce-
dure, nor as a longterm “fix” of the problem for the fol-
lowing reasons:
• Heat input of pad welding can affect internal deposits.
Particularly bad is the presence of copper in the inter-
nal deposits on water wall tubes. These can, during the
welding process, become molten and embrittle the
grain boundaries of the tube wall. If copper is likely to
be present, some organizations have adopted a rule
that pad welds should not be applied where the tube
thickness is less than 3 mm (0.118 in.) (Barnett,
1995).
• There is no critical determination of the minimum
wall to which the process can be applied. If applied to
a wall that is too thin, then the weld beads can pene-
trate the wall or make the internal surface protrude into
the water or steam flow. This will cause a disruption of
Figure 17-10
Welding detail for a boiler tube failure repair using the
window welding technique to replace a tube section.
Source: 1004701, 2003
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Repair and Replacement

the flow and lead to deposition with the associated and

concomitant events, eventually leading to an underde-
posit corrosion mechanism: hydrogen damage, caustic
gouging, or acid phosphate corrosion.
• There is no indication of whether a crack is present on
the internal surface, such as is caused by corrosion
fatigue, or whether there is a material degradation
mechanism such as creep voids. The pad welding will
not seal the crack or voids, which can then act as an
initiating center or exacerbate the cracking process.
Figure 63-1 in Volume 3 shows an example of an
attempt to place a pad weld over a region of corrosion
fatigue attack.
Similar considerations occur in the repair of superheater/
reheater tubing where there is uncertainty about the tube
condition, such as the existence of creep cracks and their
depths, and of the conditions of the internal tube
surface.
If weld build-up is used to increase the wall thickness of
thinned tubes, care must be taken not to burn through
the remaining thickness; otherwise drop-through or
suck-back could occur on the ID of the tube. This leads
to flow disruption, deposition, and failures in water-
touched tubes by underdeposit corrosion mechanisms.
Tube buildup should not be used if the remaining wall
thickness is less than 2.54 mm (0.100 in.) thick; in this
case, a new section of tube should be installed. If there
are copper alloys in the feedwater system, the minimum
remaining wall criteria is 3 mm (~ 1/8 in.).
The roadmap of steps for the weld buildup technique is
shown in Figure 17-11.

Figure 17-11
Sequence of weld overlaying thinned boiler tubes.
Source: 1004701, 2003

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 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
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Ultrasonic testing should be used to ensure that these

criteria are met and to determine the extent of the thinned
wall. Either GTAW or SMAW can be used to deposit the
first layer. GTAW should be used on thinner tubes to
prevent burn-through. Tubes with wall thicknesses less
than 2.54 mm (0.100 in.) should not be repaired in this
manner. Further, only small areas can be welded if this
thin; large areas handled in this manner may lead to dis-
tortion and flow problems. Care should be taken to
remove oxides and scale prior to welding. The arc should
be started in the thicker areas. Try to ensure that the stops
and starts are not in a thin area. Each bead should cover
50-75% of the preceding or adjacent bead. To minimize
heat input, the buildup should be symmetrical, and on
vertical welds the weld progression should be downhill.
Reinforcement must not be greater than 3.2 mm
(1/8 in.) above the original surface.

17.4.6 Large-Scale Tube Replacement

For the large-scale replacement of tubing, the procedures
are mostly similar to those described above, with some
additional precautions. Caution should be exercised by
leaving sufficient tubes in place to provide support until
the replacements are installed to adequately take over
support. As a general rule, if five tubes are cut, two tubes
should be left in place to provide support. When the
replacement tubes are fitted and welded in place, then
the supporting tubes can be cut and replaced. For mem-
brane-welded panels, this is generally not practical
because panels are usually much wider than five tubes. Figure 17-12
Boiler OEMs have developed specific repair operations Large-scale tube replacement sequence.
for this type of repair and should be consulted prior to Source: 1004701, 2003
making panel replacements.
17.5 Specific Repair Procedures for HRSG Units
The tubes should be capped off to ensure that no debris
enters tubes once they are cut. The procedure is shown in Access for tube repairs or replacement is much more dif-
Figure 17-12. It includes (i) tack welding and complet- ficult for HRSG tubes than those in conventional units.
ing the bottom weld first, and (ii) tack welding and com- Options typically consist of either “cutting your way in
pleting the top welds starting with the smallest gaps and welding your way out” or “plugging and abandon-
first. ing.” Procedures for both alternatives are discussed next,
as are repairs of tube-to-header welds, a key location for
17.4.7 Repair of Tube-to-Header Stub Tube Damage tube failures in HRSG units.
Tube side damage is located adjacent or just above the
fillet weld, which reinforces the stub tube-to-header J-
weld. When removing damage in this area, the tube is
severed flush with the header, leaving insufficient tube
material in which to join a replacement tube. Hence, the
stub tube must be replaced entirely by boring out the
tube and existing J-prep and then rewelding a new stub
tube in place. Details are provided in (1004701, 2003).

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17.5.1 Tube Replacement on Tubing Away from
Headers
Steps for tube replacement include gaining access for
tube replacement, tube cutting, tube removal, installa-
tion of the new tube, welding, and quality control
(1004875, 2004).
Gaining access. After identification of the failing/dam-
aged tube, access must be arranged on both ends of the
tube. This is achieved through the access door located in
the header area or by opening the boiler casing in front
of the tube ends. Access can be gained through the casing
by cutting the steel sheet in the area. Flame cutting must
be performed very carefully when used to avoid damag-
ing pressure parts (tubes and header) that may be close to
the casing at the area of the cutting.
Tube cutting. The failed tube can be severed on both
ends. The location of the tube sever should be at the
existing weld to avoid the need for an additional replace-
ment weld. The length of the spare tube will not have to
be changed, corresponding to the weld-to-weld length of
the installed tube. Tube cutting will be performed with a
steel saw or micro-disk grinding machine. No flame cut-
ting is to be used. Depending on the arrangement of the
tube bundle and the location of the failed tube, return
bends may need to be removed to provide ample room
for the removal of the failed tube and for rewelding of
the replacement tube.
Tube removal. If a damaged tube is located at the upper
or lower part of the tube bundle (up to about the fourth
row), the tube can simply be severed on either end and
pulled out completely. The tube will slide on the tubesheet
and will not normally require assistance from inside the
HRSG. If the tube is located in the middle of the bundle
and cannot be accessed from inside the HRSG prior to
removing it, a steel cable should be firmly attached to the
extremity of the tube. If there is interference with a main
column, piping, or other unmovable obstacles, the tube
to be removed can be cut into pieces.
Installation of the new tube (in sections). The replace-
ment tube ends should be prepared for welding. A high
degree of cleanliness of the welding edges is required and
can be achieved by grinding the edge and the inner and
outer parts of the tube. If applicable, the return bend can
be welded to the replacement tube prior to its installa-
tion. This is better accomplished outside of the HRSG.
If the replacement tube must be cut into pieces for instal-
lation, it should be cut at this time. The number of
cuts should be minimized. The location of cuts must be
carefully selected so that no cut will be at the area of the
boiler tubesheet after installation in the boiler. Tradition-
ally, after cutting, the fins should be removed for about
50 mm (2 in.) from both ends of the replacement section
to allow for welding. (A newly developed procedure
termed the ID Tube Welder and discussed below may
offer the technology to allow for replacements with
finned sections.)
Installation of the new tube (full tube). If the tube is
accessible from the inside of the boiler (up to the fourth
row), the tube should be pushed from the outside and
guided manually from the inside of the HRSG so that
the tube is properly guided through each tubesheet. If
the tube is at the middle of the bundle and not accessible
from inside the HRSG, the tube should be fitted with a
shell and attached to the tube and to the steel cable that
was installed during the removal of the tube. Each weld
should be completed prior to further inserting that por-
tion of the tube inside the HRSG. The tube is then
installed by pulling on the steel cable from the opposite
side.
Welding. After installation of the tube, welding can be
performed.
In the past, replacements were performed with the
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process. Limited
access to the back side of such tubing weldments often
resulted in poor weld quality. Mirror welding was com-
monly used on the back side of each tube; however, this
repair technique requires high welder skill and often
resulted in poor quality. In addition, the welder had a
small envelope to work in that is encumbered by finned
tubing surrounding the tube being repaired. At least two
OD welds were required. An experienced welder, with
the ability to weld in any position (sometimes using a
mirror), was required. The area of welding required care-
ful protection, such as with tarpaulins and plates in order
to avoid air draft through the casing opening and stack
that would prevent proper welding.
The ID Tube Welder (described in Section 17.4.1) can
also be used in HRSGs. A method is also currently under
development at EPRI to perform an internal HRSG tube
weld up to a distance of 6 – 9 m (20–30 ft) via access
through the header.
Quality control. Each weld should be examined to
ensure its quality using the appropriate procedures and
applicable standards. A hydrostatic test should be per-
formed where possible to ensure the tightness of the cir-
cuit and the new welds. This test should be performed
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prior to rewelding the casing. If hydrostatic testing is not • Other suppliers attach a small fraction of the tubes to
possible or becomes a problem, radiography of the welds the tube supports. Any unattached plugged tube could
may be performed instead with permission of the autho- fall during operation if not properly secured.
rized inspector.
The best support for a plugged tube is a single attach-
To complete the job, the casing plate that was removed ment to one tube support near the top so that the tube
to gain access should be rewelded. The heat insulation will be supported in tension. There is not one course of
and cladding can also then be reinstalled. action that applies to all situations. Often there is enough
binding of the unsupported plugged tube with adjacent
17.5.2 Tube Plugging Procedures tubes that no added bracing is necessary for the tube that
Plugging is sometimes the preferred action because of has been cut.
time constraints, accessibility problems, and cost. The Sometimes tubes are removed, and the theoretical gas
decision to plug may have to involve the original equip- flow distribution impact is ignored.
ment manufacturer because there are specific circum-
stances involving multiple tubes in which repair becomes
17.5.3 Tube Repair
mandatory. One example would be the need to ensure
If a leak is determined to be from some type of through-
proper flow or to prevent overheating of the downstream
wall defect that is visible and accessible to welding, it
section of the HRSG. Typically if 5–10% of the tubes
may be repaired per traditional methods. First, grinding
become plugged, there will be issues that may affect
to sound material is required. The excavated area should
operation. In serpentine designs, plugging impacts two
be examined by either magnetic particle or liquid pene-
or more tubes.
trant methods to verify defect removal. Qualified weld-
There are two fundamental approaches to plugging a ing procedures and welders should be used. The welded
tube: i) the plug can be installed from the gas-side, or area should be inspected visually by either magnetic par-
(ii) the plug may be installed from the pressure side from ticle or liquid penetrant to verify weld surface integrity.
inside the header. Details about each procedure are pro- The requirement for performance of radiography or
vided in (1004875, 2004). hydrostatic testing should be discussed with the autho-
Note that there can be some problems that develop from rized inspector.
plugging tubes. For example, in horizontal gas path
17.5.4 Tube-to-Header Weld Repairs
HRSGs, it is common to leave the vertical tube in place,
The tube-to-header weld is one of the most common
welded to its respective headers following plugging at
locations of tube damage in HRSGs. Repairs of this joint
both ends to ensure physical stability. This presents a
are often more difficult to perform than conventional
potentially serious problem because the tube will then
tube repairs due to limited access. Figure 17-13 illustrates
expand more than the adjacent tubes that are experienc-
the complexity and limited access for such repairs.
ing inside cooling flow. This results in added stresses on
the tube-to-header welds of the adjacent tubes. To avoid
this problem, it is best to cut at least one end loose, pro-
viding a gap for expansion. When plugging from inside
the headers, the tube can be cut loose with special tools
such as a small cutting wheel inserted inside the header.
When a tube is cut loose from the header, but not
removed, it presents other problems:
• Some suppliers weld the tubes to each tube antivibra-
tion support. If this is not altered, the tube should
remain suspended by those supports, but the differen-
tial expansion between the newly plugged, hot-plugged
tubes and the operating cool tubes becomes a problem. Figure 17-13
The plugged tube could warp and could damage the Example of tube attachment to header locations showing
tube supports. the limited access available for repair.
Source: 1008094, 2005

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The selection of a repair methodology is also complicated The purpose of the taper is to provide a thicker tube-to-
by the number of different attachment configurations header transition, providing improved fatigue strength
used in the industry. Examples of some of the weld while allowing the tube to be rejoined by a normal weld-
designs are provided in Figure 17-14. ing process. The overbored hole also accommodates the
complete removal of the existing tube and attachment
As a result, such failures have often been left in place and
weldment. The stub tube may also contain a transition to
plugged. Plugging requires removing a window within
improve fit-up between it and the existing tube, thereby
the header 180° away from the stub tube attachment
improving joining.
location, machining, and inserting a plug into the dam-
age tube bore, welding the plug into place, and then rein- The next step is to join the new stub tube to the existing
stalling the window. tube that has been remachined (prepped) for welding
using reverse prep. This is accomplished by inserting an
When repairs are conducted, they have typically been
internal welding device (GTAW or GMAW) and weld-
done from the outside of the header. This requires cut-
ing the tube from the inside. This secures the stub tube
ting past a number of tubes in a tube bundle, performing
in place. A second and final weld is required to secure the
the weld repair, then rewelding all of the tubes that were
stub tube inside the header. This weld is made at the ID
cut to gain access.
surface of the header using automatic or manual equip-
A recent EPRI innovation addresses the repair of tube- ment. Another possible step in the sequence would
to-header damage by machining an access location (hole include roll expansion of the stub tube against the header
or window) in the header from a location 180° away bore.
from the damaged area (1008094, 2005; Anon, 2006;
Finally, the header window is manually welded back into
Gandy, 2004). A machining device is then inserted into
place and any post-weld heat treatment is performed.
the inside of the header to sever the tube at a location
approximately 5–10 cm (2–4 in.) away from the OD The repair device has been designed to accommodate
surface of the header. The remaining tube is then removed offset tubing (dog-leg tubing).
by cutting (boring or electrodischarged machined) the
tube away to a diameter slightly greater than the original
diameter of the tube. Next, a slightly oversized and
tapered new stub tube is inserted into the overbored loca-
tion as shown in Figure 17-15.

Figure 17-15
Figure 17-14 Schematic of the stub tube-to-header configuration.
Examples of HRSG tube-to-header attachment geometries. [1 in. = 25.4 mm]
Source: 1004240, 2003 Source: 1008094, 2005

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17.6 Application of Surface Coatings
17.6.1 Introduction
Welding overlays are a primary repair method for apply-
ing coatings to tubing, such as for improving erosion-
resistance of tubes subject to sootblower erosion or for
improved corrosion resistance in the case of fireside cor-
rosion. Cladding the area by welding ensures that the
surface is completely protected. This produces the neces-
sary reliability not previously available (1008037,
2004).
Thermal spray coatings can also have good wear- and
corrosion-resistance when applied under ideal (clean)
conditions imposed during laboratory testing, but not
under conditions during a boiler repair campaign
(1008037, 2004). Thermal spray coating quality and
subsequent reliability are very heavily dependent on sur-
face preparation and quality control during the applica-
tion process. Most often spray coatings do not produce
satisfactory results in the unit because of the environ-
ment (ash, dust, grease) in the field. Spray-on coatings
might be considered only where simple erosion needs to
be checked and only for system emergencies where the
unit needs to be returned quickly to service. These restric-
tions do not exist with welded coatings.
Desirable characteristics of coatings of the various tech-
nologies are resistance to corrosion, resistance to crack-
ing and spalling during and after application, repairability,
bond strength, and ductility.
17.6.2 Application of Surface Coatings by Welding
The process of surfacing by welding is commonly referred
to as hard facing, cladding, or overlaying. Thick deposit
layers are formed by melting coating alloys on the com-
ponent surface by gas or arc welding. The most com-
monly utilized welding methods for tube overlays are
(1008037, 2004):
• Gas metal arc welding (GMAW or MIG)
• Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW or TIG)
• Plasma arc welding (PAW)
• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
The coating material can be applied in the form of pow-
der, paste, rod, strip, or wire. The choice of optimum
overlay coating alloys is dependent on the oxidizing, cor-
rosive, or erosion-wear environmental conditions.
17-16
It is generally accepted that weld overlays can be per-
formed on carbon steel tubes and low alloy tubing up to
and including materials such as 1¼ Cr - ½ Mo (an ASME
Code P4 material) without preheat or postweld heat
treatment (PWHT). Higher alloy materials generally
require higher preheat and PWHT.
Successful cladding of waterwalls is characterized by sig-
nificantly low porosity, a reasonably smooth surface, and
adequate erosion and corrosion resistance. The deposit
must exhibit no significant spatter, negligible undercut, a
low dilution level, and be free of lack-of-fusion defects
and cold-lapping (1008037, 2004).
Repair and cladding of waterwalls can take place when
the tubes are either empty or full of water (TR-107719,
1997). Water backing is recommended to allow for faster
travel and a more consistent process while reducing dis-
tortion and residual stress levels.
A minimum wall thickness of 2.54 mm (0.1 in.) of water-
filled tubing is recommended for cladding in order to
prevent burn through of the wall (1008037, 2004;
1009755, 2005).
Prior to performing weld overlays, the utility should
thoroughly understand the condition of the tubing, spe-
cifically for pre-existing damage. It should be noted that
weld overlay is essentially no different from pad welding,
except as to extent. Thus, the same warnings apply in
regard, to overlaying tubes with damage or precursors to
any of the “high risk” damage mechanisms. For example,
in waterwalls, this might include damage such as hydro-
gen damage or other underdeposit corrosion mechanism,
and corrosion fatigue. For superheater/reheater tubing,
an example of the damage type of concern is longterm
overheating/creep.
Weld overlays must be conducted in accordance with the
governing code or standard. In the U.S., that typically
means in accordance with the original code of construc-
tion as provided in the National Board Inspection Code,
ANSI/NB-23 (NBIC, 2004) and the ASME Code, par-
ticularly ASME Section I (ASME, Section I) and Section
IX (ASME, Section IX). Similar codes are applicable
internationally.
Specific weld procedures have been developed for initial
overlays and for repair of prior overlays (1009755,
2005).
EPRI report (1004615, 2002) can be useful when pre-
paring specifications for quotes on waterwall overlay
projects.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Volume 1: Fundamentals Repair and Replacement
17.6.3 Application of Surface Coatings by Thermal
Spraying
Thermal spray coatings are usually comparatively thin,
usually less than 0.5 mm (19.7 mils) (1000410, 2000).
These coatings create a barrier layer for protecting the
underlying metal from wastage. In most situations, this
form of protection is inadequate because the field appli-
cations can never duplicate the clean laboratory condi-
tions used during development; an operator must expect
repeat failures if thermal spray coatings are applied. Many
thermal spray methods have been tried for protection
from waterwall corrosion and sootblower erosion protec-
tion with mixed results (TR-107775, 1997). Four appli-
cation methods are (1008037, 2004):
• High-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF). This process acceler-
ates the coating particles to supersonic speed and thus
achieves a high degree of bond strength and very lim-
ited porosity (Thermal spray, 2003). The equipment is
similar to the plasma spray gun with modifications to
sustain higher temperature and gas speed. Depending
on the parts to be coated, special precautions may be
needed to prevent overheating. HVOF is now com-
mercially available for field application (1009618,
2005) although it has in the past been primarily used
in fabrication shops. Other supersonic processes are
termed HVCC (High Velocity Continuous Combus-
tion) or HVHD (High Velocity High Density).
• Detonation gun (D-Gun). The D-Gun is a piece of
thermal spray equipment with a water-cooled barrel
where oxygen, fuel (mostly acetylene), and powder are
admitted and the mixture ignited by a spark that is
cycled with a frequency of a few tenths of a second.
The ignition propels the heated particles of powder at
supersonic speed onto the substrate to be coated. An
elevated level of noise is produced, requiring properly
insulated facilities. Detonation flame spraying can be
performed only in a fabrication shop.
• Plasma spray. Plasma spraying, of the four thermal-
spray processes discussed here, has higher bond prop-
erties and lower porosity and internal defects (Thermal
spray, 2003). A special torch or gun is designed to gen-
erate a very hot gas in a highly ionized form (plasma).
The plasma flame meets and carries along powder fed
through the side of the nozzle and heats the particles to
a very high temperature. The particles are then pro-
pelled with high velocity toward the surface to metal-
lize. The gases used for making the plasma are normally
nitrogen mixed with about 10% hydrogen.
In modern setups, all of the functions are computer
controlled. It is possible, for example, with special
arrangement, to spray a buffer layer with one material
and then move gradually to a different material so that
the proportions of the two change continuously along
the thickness of the sprayed overlay. Plasma spray can
be applied in air or in a vacuum chamber. Plasma
spraying is primarily performed in fabrication shops.
• Twin wire arc spray (TWAS). This process is per-
formed with a special torch that feeds two electrode
wires, with opposite electrical charges, meeting at their
tips where an arc is struck between them (Thermal
spray, 2003). The electrode metal is atomized and
sprayed by the propelling gas, usually compressed air,
onto the substrate. This process has been largely super-
seded by more modern and effective processes
(1008037, 2004).
None of the coatings forms a metallurgical bond, but the
denser coatings seem to perform better than the less-
dense processes such as twin wire arc spray (TWAS). Pro-
prietary coatings are continually being developed and
offer higher impact velocities that provide higher bond
strength (under clean conditions) and a denser coating
(1008037, 2004).
To be successful, a sprayed coating, when applied to
a base metal as convoluted as a waterwall, requires
(TR-107719, 1997):
• An absolutely clean base metal, mechanically
roughened by an angular shotblasting media, and
perfectly free of pre-existing debris (ash, dust, grease,
and fingerprints).
• Spraying applied normally to the surface.
• A base metal not subject to large temperature
fluctuations and preferably exhibiting similar thermal
properties to the coating.
• A substrate that will not be subject to mechanical
strains, such as occur on sections of the waterwall
during heating.
• No areas presenting substantial porosity.
These conditions are not compatible within a boiler
enclosure and especially not with tube walls that have
been subjected to previous repairs and renewals (TR-
107719, 1997).
If for some reason, a small section of the sprayed coating
becomes detached (called a “holiday”), preferential wear
occurs at that position, and maintenance interventions
such as cutting and replacing boiler tube sections become
necessary (1008037, 2004).
17-17
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Repair and Replacement Volume 1: Fundamentals
17.7 References
1000410, 2000. Guidelines for Intelligent Sootblowing
Control, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2000. 1000410.
1004240, 2003. Delivering High Reliability HRSGs,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2003. 1004240.
1004615, 2002. Weld Overlay of Waterwall Tubing,
Repair Procedures and Contract Specifications, EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA: 2002. 1004615.
1004701, 2003. Guideline on Fossil Boiler Welding,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2003. 1004701.
1004875, 2004. HRSG Material Selection and Repair
Guidelines, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004. 1004875.
1008037, 2004. Tube Repair and Protection for Damage
Caused by Sootblower Erosion, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004.
1008037.
1008094, 2005. Repair Welding Technologies for Heat
Recovery Steam Generators, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005.
1008094.
1009618, 2005. Materials Solutions for Waterwall Wast-
age – An Update, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005. 1009618.
1009755, 2005. Application and Repair of Overlay Welds,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005. 1009755.
Anon, 2006. “New Technologies to Facilitate HRSG
Tube Repair,” Combined Cycle Journal, Second Quarter,
2006, pp. 42-43.
17-18
ASME, Section I. ASME Code, Section I, Rules for Con-
struction of Power Boilers, Latest Addenda.
ASME, Section IX. ASME Code, Section IX, Welding
and Brazing Qualifications, Latest Addenda.
Barnett, 1995. Personal Communication from D. Bar-
nett (Pacific Power) to R.B. Dooley, February 12, 1995.
Gandy, 2004. Gandy, D., G. Frederick, and K. Cole-
man, “Repair Welding Technologies for Heat Recovery
Steam Generator Tubing,” in Proceedings: International
Conference on Boiler Tube and HRSG Tube Failures and
Inspections, held in San Diego, CA, November 2-4, 2004,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2006. 1013629.
ISO, 2003. DIN ISO 15607, 2003.
ISO, 2006. http://www.iso.org.
NBIC, 2004. National Board Inspection Code, ANSI/
NB-23, NBIC 2004.
Thermal spray, 2003. http://www.welding-advisors.
com/Thermal-spray.html. July 29, 2003.
TR-107719, 1997. Gandy, D.W. and S.J. Findlan, Weld-
ing and Repair Technology for Power Plants, Second Inter-
national Conference, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1997.
TR-107719.
TR-107775, 1997. State of Knowledge Assessment for
Accelerated Waterwall Erosion with Low NOX Burners,
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1997. TR-107775.
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Index
A ammonia slip 10-11, 10-12, 39-3
accelerated creep rupture testing 14-11
acid dewpoint corrosion 1-3, 2-4, 2-7, 2-10, 2-13, 3-3, 3-5,
3-8, 3-9, 3-10, 3-11, 4-7, 10-8, 10-11, 18-2, 18-7,
18-9, 39-2, 39-3, 39-4, 42-10. Chapter 41
acidic contamination 13-2, 13-3, 22-5, 22-7, 22-8, 22-9,
22-10, 22-13, 22-16, 22-17, 22-21, 22-22, 22-25,
22-27, 22-28, 23-5, 24-3, 24-7, 36-1
acid phosphate corrosion 6-6, 7-5, 7-10, 8-1, 8-2, 8-5, 8-6,
8-14, 8-15, 8-16, 8-17, 9-5, 9-13, 13-1, 13-2, 18-1,
18-7, 18-8, 19-34, 20-20, 22-2, 22-5, 22-6, 22-7,
22-9, 22-14, 22-31, 24-1, 24-3, 24-4, 24-5, 24-11,
36-1, 37-6, 37-7. Chapter 23
acoustic monitoring 15-19, 15-20
AC potential drop 15-10, 15-11, 15-12, 26-18
additives 7-7, 40-3, 40-6, 41-6, 41-8, 46-7, 46-8, 46-9,
46-13, 46-15, 46-17, 64-6, 66-5, 66-7
air inleakage 7-9, 8-6, 8-13, 8-18, 24-8, 37-5, 37-8, 41-3,
41-4, 41-5, 58-4, 58-5, 58-6, 58-9
alkali chlorides 25-4, 25-6, 25-7, 25-8, 25-9, 25-12, 66-4,
66-5
alkali iron trisulfates 45-1, 45-5, 45-10, 45-18
alkali salts 25-13, 45-5
all-ferrous feedwater systems 7-9, 8-11, 8-12, 32-2, 32-11,
32-16, 36-3
all-volatile treatment 7-14, 8-4, 8-13, 8-16, 8-17, 13-3,
19-34, 22-30, 23-26, 24-17, 25-11, 26-15, 26-20,
31-4, 31-5, 31-6, 31-8, 31-12, 31-14, 31-15, 32-5,
32-6, 32-7, 32-11, 32-12, 32-17
all-volatile treatment, oxidizing AVT (O) 8-2, 8-3, 8-5, 8-6,
8-7, 8-8, 8-10, 8-11, 8-12, 8-17, 8-18, 9-17, 11-16,
25-11, 26-20, 31-6, 31-14, 32-7, 32-11
all-volatile treatment, reducing AVT (R) 7-5, 8-2, 8-3, 8-8,
8-10, 8-11, 8-12, 8-13, 8-17, 8-18, 9-17, 26-15,
31-5, 31-8, 31-12, 32-5, 32-6, 32-11, 32-12
alligator hide 13-7, 13-8, 25-2, 26-2, 43-6, 44-3, 44-5,
44-17, 45-2, 45-3, 45-4, 45-22, 46-4, 48-4, 51-2
ammonia 8-6, 8-10, 8-11, 8-13, 8-15, 8-16, 8-17, 8-18,
10-11, 10-12, 22-29, 23-8, 31-5, 31-7, 31-8, 31-15,
32-1, 32-6, 37-5, 37-6, 37-9, 39-2, 39-3, 39-4,
42-4, 42-9
ammonium sulfate 3-8, 3-9, 8-23, 10-11, 10-12, 39-1,
39-2, 39-3
approach temperature 4-3, 4-4, 10-9, 30-19
ash deposition 10-1, 10-2, 10-3, 10-4, 26-11, 26-17,
26-20, 26-26, 29-8, 29-9, 29-11, 33-1, 33-2, 33-3,
33-4, 33-5, 40-2, 40-5, 40-6
ash loading 21-3, 21-6, 21-10, 21-12, 21-15, 21-16,
21-17, 21-19, 33-2, 50-2
attemperation 4-2, 4-5, 7-12, 22-22, 22-25, 23-22, 23-23,
24-15, 24-17, 31-7, 31-8, 31-11, 31-14, 48-15,
53-5, 53-11, 53-13, 54-7, 56-1
availability loss 1-1, 1-2, 8-1, 11-1, 11-8–11-9, 19-1, 22-1
AVT (O). See all-volatile treatment, oxidizing
AVT (R). See all-volatile treatment, reducing; See reducing
all-volatile treatment
B
backing rings 17-3, 18-6, 22-2, 22-3, 22-7, 22-8, 22-10,
22-12, 22-17, 23-7, 23-11, 23-12, 23-14, 24-5,
24-8, 24-10, 24-12, 31-12, 32-13, 49-2, 63-1, 63-2
bathtub rings 23-2, 23-19
benchmarking 8-22, 11-7, 11-8, 11-9, 11-10, 11-11,
11-12, 11-14, 11-15, 11-16, 31-1, 31-11, 31-15,
32-12, 32-15
black boiler water 23-11, 23-13
Boiler Tube Failure Reduction (BTFR) Program. Chapter 11
Boiler Tube Failure Reduction/Cycle Chemistry
Improvement Program (BTFR/CCIP) 8-4.
Chapter 11
boiler water treatment 8-13–8-17, 8-14, 19-14, 19-17,
19-41, 20-23, 22-31, 23-6
borehole 18-6, 19-37, 20-12, 20-13, 27-1, 27-2, 27-3,
27-5, 27-7, 30-3, 30-5, 30-6, 30-7, 30-8, 30-9,
30-13
borescope 15-7, 19-21, 19-22, 19-35, 20-16, 22-11,
22-15, 22-22, 22-23, 22-24, 22-26, 23-22, 23-23,
24-15, 24-16
Borio index 45-8, 45-13
breakdown of magnetite 6-5, 6-6
Index-1
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Index
breakdown of makeup water treatment systems 22-14,
22-26
bubbling fluidized bed (BFB) 38-1. Chapter 64
burner misalignment 22-7, 22-10, 22-12, 22-17, 23-7,
23-9, 23-11, 23-12, 23-15, 24-5, 24-6, 24-8, 24-10,
24-13
burnishing 21-1
C 37-2, 42-3, 42-4, 42-5. Chapter 36
carbides 14-13, 22-1, 22-4, 22-6, 22-9, 23-4, 25-24,
25-25, 30-14, 33-4, 34-1, 34-2, 35-3, 44-4, 44-9,
45-7, 45-14, 46-2, 46-8, 46-12, 47-2, 47-3, 47-4,
47-5, 47-6, 47-12, 48-3, 49-3, 49-7, 59-3
carburization 44-5, 45-3, 45-4, 45-7, 45-11, 45-14, 45-18,
45-20, 45-21, 45-25, 46-2, 46-4, 46-8, 46-10,
46-12, 46-16, 46-17, 47-3, 48-4
carryover 7-7, 7-8, 7-12, 7-14, 8-6, 8-8, 8-9, 8-10, 19-34,
20-20, 23-15, 24-6, 24-13, 34-6, 36-3, 37-1, 41-3,
41-4, 42-3, 45-19, 46-17, 49-2, 49-4, 49-5, 49-6,
49-7, 49-11, 54-14, 58-1, 58-2, 58-4, 58-5, 58-6,
58-8, 58-9, 58-10, 60-1, 66-2, 66-7
cation conductivity 8-6, 8-8, 8-10, 8-11, 8-12, 8-13, 8-17,
8-18, 8-19, 19-15, 19-29, 20-7, 22-10, 22-11,
22-12, 22-13, 22-14, 22-21, 22-22, 22-23, 22-25,
22-26, 23-10, 23-12, 24-9, 24-15, 31-14, 32-11,
42-5, 49-7, 49-9, 49-12, 58-6
caustic attack. See caustic gouging
caustic corrosion. See caustic gouging
caustic gouging 6-6, 8-1, 8-2, 8-3, 8-14, 8-16, 8-17, 11-9,
13-1, 13-2, 13-3, 13-4, 17-11, 18-7, 18-8,
Chapter 24, 64-2, 64-3, 64-6, 64-7, 65-2
caustic treatment 8-4, 8-5, 8-6, 8-8, 8-13, 8-16, 8-17,
8-17–8-18, 19-34, 20-7, 22-11, 22-23, 22-31, 23-4,
24-5, 24-6, 24-8, 24-10, 24-11, 24-12, 24-13,
24-15, 24-17, 24-19, 31-15, 42-3, 42-5
cavitation of in-bed FBC tubes 64-4
chain graphitization 59-2
change in fuel source 22-7, 22-10, 22-12, 23-7, 23-11,
23-12, 24-5, 24-8, 24-10
CHECUP 32-10, 32-12, 32-14, 32-17
chemical cleaning 8-3, 8-4, Chapter 9, 44-20, 44-34, 45-18,
46-16, 48-14
chemical cleaning damage 6-6, 6-7, 8-2, 11-9
chemical cleaning, improper, as a cause of pitting 58-1,
58-2, 58-4, 58-6
chemical cleaning, improper, as a cause of short term
overheating 48-6, 48-7, 48-8, 48-9, 48-15
chemical cleaning, improper, as a cause of stress corrosion
cracking 49-4, 49-5, 49-7
chemical cleaning and corrosion fatigue 19-13, 19-14,
19-15, 19-19, 19-21, 19-34, 20-6, 20-7, 20-11,
20-15, 20-17
Index-2
chemical cleaning and underdeposit corrosion mechanisms
22-7, 22-10, 22-11, 22-14, 22-16, 22-17, 22-18,
22-23, 22-26, 22-27, 22-28, 22-29, 23-7, 23-14,
23-15, 23-22, 23-23, 23-25, 23-26, 24-5, 24-8,
24-9, 24-12, 24-13, 24-15, 24-16, 24-18, 24-19
chemical cleaning damage in steam-touched tubes.
Chapter 60
chemical cleaning damage in water-touched tubes 18-7,
chevrons 31-2, 32-3
chloride or sulfate hideout 22-16
chlorides 6-6, 6-7, 7-7, 8-5, 8-10, 8-14, 8-16
chlorides and corrosion fatigue 19-12, 19-17, 19-34, 20-5,
20-9, 20-19
chlorides and gas-side corrosion in HRSG units 39-1, 39-2,
39-3
chlorides and hydrogen damage 22-4, 22-8, 22-9, 22-13,
22-14, 22-17, 22-18, 22-23, 22-25, 22-26
chlorides and pitting 37-3, 37-4, 58-3, 58-4, 58-5
chlorides and stress corrosion cracking 42-3, 42-4, 49-2,
49-3, 49-4, 49-5, 49-6, 49-8, 49-11
chlorides to waste-to-energy units 66-1, 66-2, 66-3, 66-4,
66-6
chlorides and waterwall fireside corrosion 25-2, 25-4, 25-5,
25-6, 25-7, 25-8, 25-9, 25-12, 25-14
chlorine in coal 10-2
chlorine in coal, effects on SH/RH fireside corrosion 45-1,
45-8, 45-9, 45-10, 45-22, 45-23
chlorine in coal, effects on waterwall fireside corrosion 25-1,
25-2, 25-3, 25-4, 25-5, 25-7, 25-8, 25-9, 25-11,
25-14, 25-26, 25-27, 25-28, 25-29
chlorine in fuel, FBC units 64-5, 64-6, 64-8
chlorine in fuel, waste-to-energy units 66-1, 66-2, 66-4,
66-5, 66-6
chordal thermocouples 16-2, 16-3, 19-32, 25-11, 25-13,
25-23, 26-10, 26-14, 26-16, 26-17, 29-4, 29-6,
29-8, 30-15, 53-17
circulating-bed fluidized bed (CFB) units. Chapter 65
circular cracking 18-6, 18-8, 19-2, 19-4
circulation ratio 22-24, 23-23, 24-16, 64-5, 64-6
circumferential cracking 20-21, 25-1, 25-17, 26-1, 26-2,
26-5, 26-13, 26-15, 26-17, 26-21, 26-22, 26-23,
26-24, 26-25, 26-26, 26-27, 27-1, 28-1, 47-2, 63-4
co-extruded tubing 25-19, 45-16, 46-14
coal ash corrosion. See Fireside Corrosion, Chapter 45
coal particle erosion 18-2, 18-7. Chapter 38
coatings 17-16, 17-17, 19-11, 19-39, 19-40, 20-5, 20-22,
21-12, 21-13, 25-16, 25-18, 26-19, 26-26, 29-8,
33-2, 33-3, 33-4, 38-1, 45-24, 46-14, 50-3, 50-4,
50-5, 64-7, 65-3, 66-5
coefficients of thermal expansion 25-16
cold air velocity technique 21-1, 21-5, 21-11, 21-12,
21-13, 21-14, 21-15, 21-18, 21-19, 21-25, 21-27,
44-12, 44-16, 44-21, 45-10, 45-13, 45-18, 46-9
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
cold end corrosion 10-11. See acid dewpoint corrosion
combustion gas distribution 22-22, 23-22, 24-15
commissioning 3-7, 3-8, 8-8, 9-14, 11-16, 44-13, 44-31,
53-15, 53-16, 55-4, 56-1, 56-2, 56-4, 56-6, 56-7
concentration of impurities 6-6, 6-8, 6-17, 7-6, 7-7, 7-8,
8-8, 8-9
condensate-filled tubes 48-14, 48-15
condenser leaks 22-9, 22-13, 22-14, 22-18, 22-21, 22-23,
22-25, 22-26, 49-5, 49-6, 49-8, 49-9, 49-11
congruent phosphate treatment 8-5, 8-14, 8-17, 19-16,
20-9, 22-14, 23-1, 23-2, 23-7, 23-8, 23-16, 24-11,
64-6
copper, limits 22-18, 23-12, 24-9, 32-11
copper, presence of in welds 63-3
copper alloys 7-12, 8-6, 8-12–8-13, 17-11, 22-16, 23-14,
24-12, 26-20, 32-9
copper deposition 7-10, 7-12, 9-7
core monitoring parameters for cycle chemistry 8-8
corporate commitment to tube failure reduction 31-11,
32-12
corporate directive 11-2, 11-12
corrective actions for units suffering from deposition 7-13
corrosion fatigue 5-16, 5-17, 6-6, 6-7, 6-21, 6-22, 8-1, 8-2,
8-3, 8-5, 8-14, 8-19, 11-9, 11-13, 11-15, 13-1,
13-4, 13-5, 13-6, 14-4, 15-7, 16-1, 16-5, 17-11,
17-16
corrosion fatigue in boiler tubes of conventional units 18-6,
28-2. Chapter 19
corrosion fatigue in HRSG tubes 18-8, 30-2, 30-4, 30-7,
30-8. Chapter 20
corrosion fatigue versus OD-initiated mechanical fatigue
13-4, 13-5
corrosivity indices 45-7
counter-flux diffusion growth 6-3
craze cracking 26-2
creep 21-2, 22-18, 23-3, 23-12, 23-15, 24-10, 24-13,
25-22, 26-2, 26-3, 34-2, 34-3, 34-7, 44-1–44-36,
50-2, 52-2, 52-3, 53-4. See low temperature creep
creep, analysis methods 14-5, 14-6, 14-7, 14-8, 14-11,
14-12, 14-14, 14-15, 14-16, 14-17, 14-18
creep, design issues 5-10, 5-11, 5-13, 5-15, 5-16, 5-17
creep, detecting and measuring the extent of 15-8, 15-13,
15-14, 15-21, 15-22
creep, distinguishing from fireside corrosion 13-6, 13-7,
13-8
creep, distinguishing from graphitization 13-9
creep, distinguishing longterm overheating/creep from short
term overheating 44-5
creep, in short term overheating failures 48-1, 48-2, 48-3,
48-4, 48-6, 48-8, 48-13, 48-15
creep, mechanism in dissimilar metal weld failures 47-2,
47-3, 47-4, 47-5, 47-9, 47-10, 47-12, 47-13, 47-15
creep-fatigue 5-15, 13-10, 28-3, 30-4, 30-6, 43-8, 52-3,
53-4, 53-7, 53-14. Chapter 54
Index
creep cavitation 13-9, 14-15, 14-16, 15-15, 18-6, 18-8,
35-2, 43-6, 43-8, 44-3, 44-4, 44-10, 44-21, 44-26,
47-2, 49-2, 54-2, 54-9, 59-3. See cavitation
critical strain 6-7, 19-11, 19-31, 20-4, 26-7, 54-5, 56-3
cumulative damage modeling 44-18
cycle chemistry 7-9, 7-13, 7-14, 9-4, 9-5, 9-16, 11-3, 11-7,
11-8, 11-9, 11-11, 11-12, 11-13, 11-14, 11-15,
11-16, 16-6. Chapter 8
cycle chemistry, list of available reports 8-3, 8-4
cycle chemistry and corrosion fatigue 19-15, 19-20, 19-28,
19-29, 20-1, 20-8, 20-9, 20-15, 20-17
cycle chemistry and flow-accelerated corrosion 31-4–31-8,
31-14, 31-15, 32-5–32-13
cycle chemistry and underdeposit corrosion mechanisms
22-10, 22-14, 22-16, 22-17, 22-18, 22-22, 22-23,
22-26, 22-27, 22-28, 23-4, 23-6–23-8, 23-11,
23-13, 23-14, 23-22, 23-23, 23-24, 23-25, 23-26,
24-5, 24-8, 24-11, 24-12, 24-15, 24-17, 24-18
Cycle Chemistry Improvement (CCI) Program 8-3, 8-4,
8-19, 11-1, 11-2, 11-12, 11-17
cycling 4-3, 4-6, 4-8, 5-15, 5-16, 5-17, 7-6, 7-15, 8-3, 8-4,
8-11, 8-16, 8-18, 8-23, 9-2, 9-4, 11-1, 12-8, 19-13,
19-21, 19-34, 20-11, 20-19, 26-12, 27-9, 28-3,
28-4, 30-3, 30-5
cycling unit 47-9
cyclone burners 18-7, 38-1
D
damping 19-24, 28-5, 28-6, 52-5, 55-2, 55-3, 55-4, 55-5,
55-6, 55-7, 55-8, 55-9
decarburization 22-1, 22-2, 22-4, 22-6, 22-9, 22-17,
22-28, 23-4, 23-20, 47-3, 47-4, 62-1, 62-2
departure from nucleate boiling 6-18, 7-8, 10-10, 23-2,
64-6
deposit assessment activities 9-2
deposition, ash. See ash deposition
deposition, basic mechanisms 7-6
deposition, common locations 7-1, 7-2
deposition, effects on thermal response of tubes 7-3, 7-4,
7-5
deposition, factors influencing 7-6, 7-7, 7-8, 7-9
deposition, fluidside 6-4, 6-5, 6-6, 6-17–6-18, 6-19, 12-10.
Chapter 7
deposits. Chapter 7; See deposition, copper deposition, ripple
magnetite, sodium sulfate deposits
deposits, actions for addressing 7-13, 7-14
deposits, assessment for chemical cleaning. Chapter 9
deposits, effect on tube temperature 7-4
deposits, list of crystalline compounds found in 7-11
deposits, local tube conditions leading to 7-3
deposits, minimizing through cycle chemistry. Chapter 8
deposits, permissible deposit weights 9-4, 9-5, 9-17, 9-18
deposits, sources 7-2
Index-3
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Index
design codes 5-1, 5-11, 5-15, 14-5, 30-4, 53-4, 54-5
determining the need to chemically clean 9-3, 9-4, 9-5,
9-17, 9-18
dewpoint corrosion. See acid dewpoint corrosion
di-sodium phosphate 8-2, 8-14, 11-9, 13-2, 13-3, 23-4,
23-5, 23-6, 23-8, 23-9, 23-11, 23-13, 23-14, 23-15,
23-16, 23-21, 23-22, 23-24, 23-25, 64-5, 64-7
diffusion screens 21-10, 21-11, 21-17, 21-18
digital radiography 15-1, 15-15, 15-16, 19-22, 19-23,
22-15, 26-18, 47-12, 47-10,
dimensional measurements 12-6, 15-1, 15-8, 15-12, 20-20,
23-20, 25-21, 25-24, 25-26, 25-27, 44-23, 45-22
dissimilar metal welds (DMW) 14-8, 15-10, 25-18,
47-1–47-16. Chapter 47
dissolved oxygen 8-6, 8-8, 8-12, 19-12, 19-14, 19-15,
19-16, 19-17, 19-20, 19-28, 19-29, 20-5, 20-7,
20-8, 20-9, 20-14, 20-15, 31-6, 31-7, 31-8, 31-13,
32-8, 32-9, 32-14, 37-4, 49-4, 58-4
distiguishing corrosion fatigue and thermal fatigue cracks
20-2, 20-3
distinguishing flyash erosion from sootblower erosion 50-2
distinguishing graphitization, longterm overheating/creep
and dissimilar metal weld failures 59-2, 59-3
distinguishing intergranular stress corrosion cracking
(IGSCC), intergranular creep, and inter-granular
attack (IGA) 13-9
DMW-PODIS 47-7, 47-8, 47-12, 47-13, 47-16
drum level control 34-4, 34-5, 34-6, 49-5, 56-3, 56-4,
56-5, 58-5, 58-9
duct firing 20-14, 30-16, 41-4, 53-16, 54-3
ductile gouging. See caustic gouging
dutchman 47-8, 47-11, 47-12, 47-14
dye penetrant. See liquid penetrant testing
E Chapter 32
economizer steaming 4-4, 10-10, 30-11, 30-18
EDX analysis 23-4
elephant hiding 26-2
equilibrium phosphate treatment 8-5, 8-14, 8-17, 22-13,
22-14, 23-7, 23-8, 23-16
equivalent void parameter (EVP) 14-11, 14-12, 14-16,
14-17, 14-18, 44-17, 44-18
erosion-corrosion 31-1, 32-2. See flow-accelerated corrosion
erosion of in-bed tubes 38-1
excessive deposits 22-11, 22-24, 22-29, 23-10, 23-15,
23-23, 23-26, 24-7, 24-9, 24-13, 24-14, 24-16,
24-19, 26-11, 26-16, 34-7, 36-1
excess oxygen 46-6, 46-7, 46-9, 46-12, 46-16
excess oxygen, effect on acid dewpoint corrosion 41-3, 41-4
exfoliation 6-8–6-17, 6-9, 6-10, 6-11, 6-12, 6-14, 6-15,
6-16, 6-17, 6-21, 6-22, 9-9, 14-8, 31-6, 31-7, 32-7,
32-8, 44-3, 44-20, 44-21, 44-27, 44-34, 44-35,
45-19, 46-17, 48-1, 48-2, 48-5, 48-6, 48-7, 48-8,
48-10, 48-11, 48-12, 48-13, 48-16, 51-1, 60-1,
60-3
Index-4
explosive cleaning damage. 10-4–10-6, Chapter 51
external deposits 26-13, 26-16, 41-6, 41-8
F
falling slag damage 10-2, 18-7, 38-1. Chapter 40
fatigue analysis 14-4, 14-5, 30-4, 30-12, 30-13, 53-4
fatigue, in design codes 5-10, 5-11, 5-12, 5-15, 5-16, 5-17
FBC units 9-1, 9-20
feedwater limits 8-12, 8-13
feedwater treatment 8-10, 8-11, 8-12, 8-13, 8-17, 8-18
ferric oxide hydrate (FeOOH) 7-10, 8-12, 31-6, 31-8, 32-7,
32-9
fiber optics 15-7, 27-4, 32-16, 37-8
film boiling 6-18
fine-grained austenitic alloys 6-12
fins 5-12, 5-13, 5-14, 5-15, 7-13, 10-8, 10-12, 14-6, 14-7,
15-6, 15-7, 15-9, 15-10, 15-12, 15-17, 15-18,
15-19, 17-13
fins, tube 22-29, 41-2, 42-6, 44-30, 44-33, 48-2, 48-3,
48-8, 49-11, 49-12, 53-7, 54-9, 55-2, 55-6, 55-8,
58-9, 58-8, 58-9, 62-2, 62-3, 64-7
fireside corrosion 11-9, 13-6, 13-7, 13-8, 18-6, 18-7.
Chapter 25. 66-2, 66-3, 66-5. Chapters 45 and 46
fireside environment 10-1–10-4
fish-mouth damage appearearance 18-6, 18-7, 18-8, 34-1,
34-3, 43-6, 43-8, 44-5, 44-23, 44-26, 45-4, 46-4,
48-2, 48-4, 48-11, 48-12, 48-13, 66-3, 66-4
flame impingement 15-7, 22-12, 23-12, 25-12, 25-13,
26-6, 26-14, 26-17, 26-19, 40-4, 45-14, 46-12,
48-3, 48-14, 66-2
flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) 5-15, 8-12, 8-17, 8-18,
12-2, 13-6, 14-2, 14-3, 15-7, 15-17, 64-1
flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) in economizer header
tubing of conventional units 18-8, 26-21, 27-3.
flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) in HRSG units 18-8.
Chapter 31
flow-induced vibration 14-4, 28-3, 28-4, 28-5, 28-6, 52-3,
52-5, 55-2. Chapter 55
flow disruption 6-20, 7-3, 7-13, 7-14, 22-8, 22-9, 22-10,
22-12, 22-16, 22-18, 22-22, 22-24, 22-27, 23-5,
23-9, 23-11, 23-12, 23-15, 23-16, 23-19, 23-22,
23-23, 24-6, 24-8, 24-9, 24-10, 24-13, 24-15,
24-16, 24-19, 62-2, 63-1
flow interruption, leading to short-term overheating 34-3
flux dome 16-4
flux meter 16-4
fluidized bed combustion (FBC) units. Chapters 64 and 65
flyash erosion 18-6. Chapter 21, 50-2, 64-2
flyash erosion versus sootblower erosion 13-8
forced cooling 19-19, 19-21, 19-34, 26-17, 48-10, 48-16,
58-4, 58-8
forging laps 15-21, 22-20, 62-1
formalized programs. Chapter 11
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
fouling 3-10, 4-6, 4-7, 9-10, 10-1, 10-2, 10-5, 10-7, 10-8,
10-9, 10-11, 10-12, 10-13, 14-6, 15-7, 21-4, 21-18,
26-11, 26-16, 26-20, 26-23, 29-3, 29-9, 33-4, 39-2,
39-3, 40-3, 40-4, 40-6, 41-2, 41-3, 41-6, 41-9,
45-7, 46-15, 50-5, 55-4, 64-2, 66-2, 66-7
fretting 57-1, 64-1, 64-2, 64-3, 65-2
G I
gas-side corrosion 10-8, 12-9, 14-8, 14-9, 14-11, 18-2.
Chapter 39, 44-6, 44-7, 44-9, 44-32
gas-touched length 5-10, 14-7, 14-8, 14-20, 14-21, 43-6,
44-6, 44-10, 44-11, 44-13,
44-14, 44-15, 44-16, 44-18, 44-29, 44-31, 44-32,
44-34, 45-5, 45-10, 45-12, 46-5, 47-8, 47-9, 53-7
Grade 91. See also T91 (9Cr-1Mo-V-X[Cb/N/Ni/Al]) steel
graphitization 5-3, 5-13, 6-7, 26-3, 44-4, 54-2, 61-1, 63-1.
Chapter 59
graphitization and longterm overheating 13-9
H 49-13
H2S 25-4, 25-5, 25-6, 25-9, 25-10, 25-11, 25-12, 25-14,
42-3, 45-3, 45-7, 45-11, 45-13, 45-21, 49-5, 66-3,
66-6
hardness 34-3, 35-3, 35-4, 35-6, 35-7, 43-8, 44-4, 44-5,
44-22, 44-26, 45-4, 45-14, 46-2, 46-4, 46-12, 47-3,
48-3, 48-4, 48-11, 49-9, 54-9, 54-13, 56-2, 62-3,
64-4
hardness, as a means of estimating tube temperatures 14-10,
14-11
hardness measurements 12-7, 15-22
header/drum humping 20-13, 30-8, 30-9, 53-10
heat-affected zones 19-6, 43-6, 47-2, 54-4, 54-13, 56-2,
59-2, 59-3, 59-4, 62-3, 63-2
heat flux 5-9, 5-10, 5-12, 5-13, 6-18, 7-4, 7-5, 7-8, 7-9,
16-4, 22-7, 22-25, 23-7, 23-12, 24-5, 24-10, 24-17,
25-3–25-8, 25-13, 26-5, 26-6, 26-8, 26-10, 26-11,
26-13, 26-14, 26-15, 26-16, 26-17, 26-18, 26-19,
26-20, 26-21, 26-22, 44-8, 44-13, 44-19, 44-23,
44-27, 46-4, 54-4, 64-7, 66-5
heat flux domes 25-13, 25-23, 30-15, 44-23, 53-17
heat flux meters 26-14, 29-7
hematite (Fe2O3) 6-2, 6-3, 6-8, 6-10, 6-11, 6-12, 6-13,
6-14, 6-15, 6-16, 8-12, 23-2, 23-9, 31-6, 32-7,
37-2, 37-5, 37-8, 58-2, 58-4, 58-5, 58-7, 58-8, 58-9
hideout, chemical cleaning acid 60-2
high sulfur coals 25-3, 45-7, 66-5
horizontal cracking. See thermal fatigue of waterwalls
horizontal gas path HRSGs 4-7, 4-8, 17-14, 18-8, 22-6,
23-6, 24-4, 30-20, 53-19, 53-20, 54-10, 56-2
horseshoes 31-2
hydrazine 8-6, 8-11, 8-13, 8-18, 9-13, 22-19, 26-24, 31-4,
31-7, 31-14, 31-15, 31-16, 32-1, 32-6, 32-8, 32-9,
32-17, 37-5, 37-6, 37-9, 58-5, 58-6, 58-10
Index
hydrogen damage 8-1, 8-2, 8-3, 8-5, 8-14, 8-15, 8-16,
8-17, 15-15, 17-11, 18-6, 18-8, 19-4, 19-14, 20-6,
25-15, 36-1. Chapter 22, 63-1, 63-3, 63-4, 63-5,
64-2, 64-3–64-4, 65-2
hydrogen embrittlement 19-12–19-13, 20-6, 22-1
hydrostatic testing 15-22, 17-13, 23-19, 25-17, 61-2
ID tube welder 1-8, 17-6, 17-13
impurity ingress 7-1, 7-2, 7-5
in-bed wastage 64-3, 64-4, 64-5, 64-6, 64-7, 64-8
induction pressure welds 63-1
influence diagram 19-7, 19-20, 19-27, 19-28, 19-30,
19-34, 19-35, 19-36
inspection. Chapter 15
installation of high temperature thermocouples 16-1–16-5
instrumentation, cycle chemistry 8-3, 8-4, 8-19
intelligent sootblowing 10-7, 26-20, 29-9, 33-3, 33-4,
40-6, 50-3, 50-4, 50-5
intergranular corrosion 45-14, 46-12, 49-2, 49-9, 49-10,
intergranular creep 44-21, 44-26, 47-3, 48-3, 48-6, 49-2,
54-2, 54-13
iron sulfide (FeS) 25-4, 25-5, 25-6, 25-7, 25-9, 25-14,
25-19, 25-21, 45-3, 45-7, 45-8, 45-17, 45-18,
45-24
L
laning 20-11, 20-12, 22-6, 23-6, 24-4, 30-5, 30-6, 30-20,
44-8, 44-11, 44-12, 44-15, 44-16, 44-21, 44-29,
44-30, 44-31, 44-33, 44-34, 45-10, 45-13, 45-18,
45-21, 46-9, 46-11, 46-16, 48-16, 53-7
Larson-Miller parameter 14-13, 44-22, 44-25
laser profilometry 15-19, 20-16, 31-9
layup 1-7, 7-6, 7-12, 7-13, 8-4, 8-18, 8-19
layup, improper as a cause of tube failures 19-14, 19-15,
19-19, 19-21, 19-27, 19-28, 19-29, 20-7, 20-11,
20-15, 20-17, 20-19, 37-1, 37-3, 37-4, 37-8, 58-1,
58-4, 58-5, 58-6, 58-8, 58-9, 58-10, 58-11
layup procedures 37-6, 37-9
linear variable displacement transducers 16-4
liquid penetrant testing 15-9, 15-10, 26-18, 27-5, 29-8,
42-5
liquid phase corrosion. See SH/RH fireseide corrosion in
conventional oil-fired units, Chapter 46
local tube conditions that can lead to initial deposits 22-7,
23-7, 24-5
longterm overheating (creep) versus fireside corrosion
13-6–13-8
longterm overheating/creep 14-7–14-21, 45-2, 46-4, 47-9.
Chapter 44
Index-5
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Index
low frequency electromagnetic technique (LFET) 15-18,
15-19, 20-14, 20-16, 36-3, 37-8, 42-5, 49-12, 58-9,
60-3
low NOX combustion systems/burners 18-7, 19-27, 22-12,
23-12, 24-10, 25-1, 25-5, 25-12, 25-15, 25-27,
26-2, 45-7, 45-11, 45-13, 45-17, 45-23
low temperature corrosion. See acid dewpoint corrosion
low temperature creep cracking 18-6, 18-8. Chapter 35
M accelerated corrosion 31-8, 31-11, 31-12, 31-13,
magnetic particle testing 15-1, 15-4, 19-36, 25-14, 26-18,
27-5, 29-8, 42-1, 49-1, 49-7, 49-9, 49-12, 63-2
magnetic particle testing magnetite (Fe3O4), breakdown
leading to acid phosophate corrosion 23-9–23-10
magnetite (Fe3O4) 5-10, 5-12, 6-1, 6-2, 6-3, 6-4, 6-5, 6-6,
6-7, 6-9, 6-10, 6-12, 6-13, 6-14, 6-15, 6-16, 6-17,
7-4, 7-10, 7-12, 8-11, 8-12, 8-14, 44-8, 45-23,
48-6, 48-8, 48-10, 48-11, 48-12, 48-17
magnetite (Fe3O4), breakdown leading to caustic gouging
24-4, 24-6, 24-7
magnetite (Fe3O4), breakdown leading to corrosion fatigue
19-10, 19-11, 19-12, 19-14, 19-15, 20-4,
20-5–20-6, 20-7
magnetite (Fe3O4), breakdown leading to fireside corrosion
25-4–25-7
magnetite (Fe3O4), breakdown leading to flow-accelerated
corrosion 31-1–31-8, 32-1–32-9
magnetite (Fe3O4), breakdown leading to hydrogen damage
22-6, 22-7, 22-8
magnetite (Fe3O4), breakdown leading to thermal fatigue
26-7, 26-8
maintenance damage 18-7, 18-9. Chapter 61
manufacturing flaws. Chapter 62
maricite 8-14, 23-2, 23-3, 23-4, 23-5, 23-8, 23-9, 23-24,
24-3, 37-7, 64-3, 64-7
material flaws. Chapter 62
materials of construction 5-1–5-8, 5-13–5-15
maximum tube metal temperatures 5-13
mechanisms not covered in this book 2-13
metallographic analysis 12-6, 12-7
metallurgical analysis 14-8, 15-21–15-22. Chapter 12
microvoids 14-12, 14-15, 14-16, 14-17, 44-4, 44-10,
44-15, 44-24, 44-25, 45-23
mixed-metallurgy feedwater systems 7-10, 8-3, 8-5, 8-6,
8-10, 8-12, 8-13, 22-11, 23-10, 24-9, 32-2, 32-9,
32-12
molten salt attack. See fireside corrosion in SH/RH tubes in
coal-fired units, Chapter 45
monitoring. Chapter 16
monitoring, cycle chemistry 8-5, 8-6, 8-7, 8-8, 8-9, 8-19,
16-6
monitoring, displacements and strains 16-4, 16-5
monitoring, fluid flow 16-6
Index-6
monitoring, for evaluation of thermal transients 53-15,
53-16, 53-17, 53-18, 53-19
monitoring, heat flux 16-4
monitoring, importance and use in characterizing corrosion
fatigue 19-14, 19-15, 19-16, 19-17, 19-18, 19-19,
19-20, 19-21, 19-31, 19-32, 19-36, 19-37, 19-38,
20-7, 20-9, 20-10, 20-14, 20-15, 20-17, 20-18,
20-19, 20-20, 20-21, 20-22, 20-23
monitoring, importance and use in characterizing flow-
31-14, 32-9, 32-10, 32-12
monitoring, importance and use in characterizing thermal
fatigue in economizer inlet headers 27-5, 27-6, 27-7,
27-8
monitoring, importance and use in characterizing thermal
fatigue of waterwalls 26-13, 26-16, 26-19, 26-20
monitoring, importance and use in characterizing thermal
mechanical fatigue in HRSGs 30-1, 30-5, 30-12,
30-13, 30-14, 30-15, 30-16
monitoring, tube metal temperatures 16-1–16-4
monitoring for evaluation of thermal transients 30-1, 30-5,
30-12, 30-13, 30-14, 30-15, 30-16
monosodium phosphate 23-9, 23-13, 23-24, 23-25
N
nitrogen blanketing 7-12, 37-5, 37-7, 37-8, 58-4, 58-5,
58-9
nodules 7-13, 13-9, 34-5, 59-2, 59-3
nondestructive examination (NDE). See Chapter 15 for
generic information about methods and the individual
mechanism chapters of Volumes 2 and 3 for specific
techniques applicable to each damage type.
nucleate boiling 6-18, 6-19, 7-4, 7-8, 10-10, 22-8, 22-17,
23-14, 24-12, 30-9, 53-7, 53-10, 64-6
O
operational cleaning of HRSG units 9-16
optimizing feedwater treatment 8-11, 8-12
orange peel 27-3, 31-15, 32-2, 32-3, 32-4, 41-1
orange peel appearance of damage 44-5, 45-4, 48-4
organization of this book 1-3
ovality 21-2, 25-24, 26-24, 35-3, 35-4, 35-5, 42-8, 42-9
overfire air ports 19-35, 25-3, 25-12
oxidation limit 44-7, 44-9, 44-10, 44-11, 44-13, 44-15,
45-12
oxide, strain 6-12–6-14
oxide formation 6-1–6-12, 8-11, 44-10, 45-6, 48-10
oxide notches 47-2, 47-3, 47-4, 47-5, 47-10, 47-13
oxide scale analysis 6-9, 14-7–14-9, 14-8, 14-9, 14-20,
44-14, 44-18, 44-21, 44-22, 44-23, 44-26, 44-27,
44-28, 44-30, 44-33, 45-15, 47-9
oxide thickness, measuring 15-13, 15-14
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
oxidizing-reducing potential (ORP) 8-6, 8-8, 8-10, 8-11,
8-12, 8-13, 22-12, 23-12, 24-9
oxidizing-reducing potential (ORP) and flow-accelerated
corrosion (FAC) 31-4, 31-5, 31-6, 31-7, 31-8,
31-14, 32-1, 32-4, 32-5, 32-6, 32-7, 32-8, 32-9,
32-10, 32-11
oxygenated treatment (OT) 8-2, 8-4, 8-5, 8-10, 8-11, 8-12,
8-13, 8-17, 8-18, 8-19, 22-12, 23-12, 24-9, 26-19,
26-20, 49-13
oxygenated treatment and role in reducing FAC 31-6, 31-8,
31-14, 32-7, 32-9, 32-11, 32-12
oxygenated treatment and role in reducing ripple magnetite
buildup 26-1, 26-3, 26-4, 26-15, 26-21, 26-22
P 31-2, 31-5, 31-6, 32-6, 32-7, 33-1, 37-1, 39-2, 42-2
pad welds 6-19, 17-10–17-12, 19-25, 19-26, 19-27, 21-12,
22-7, 22-12, 22-16, 22-17, 23-7,
23-12, 23-14, 24-5, 24-10, 24-12, 24-13, 25-15,
33-3, 44-17, 45-14, 46-13, 50-3, 50-4, 63-1, 63-3,
63-4
parallel cracks appearance of damage 19-2, 19-11, 19-21,
20-2, 20-5, 26-2, 26-7
phased array ultrasonic testing methods 15-15, 19-25,
20-14, 20-16, 27-5
pH depression 8-14, 19-14, 19-16, 19-17, 20-7, 20-9,
22-9, 22-14, 22-15, 22-21, 22-25, 22-26, 23-8,
36-2, 60-2
phosphate continuum (PC) 8-4, 8-6, 8-8, 8-10, 8-13, 8-14,
8-15, 8-17, 19-17, 20-9, 22-13, 22-14, 22-16,
22-26, 22-28, 23-8, 23-10, 23-11, 23-14, 23-15,
23-21, 23-24, 23-25, 24-5, 24-10, 24-11, 24-15,
42-3, 64-8
phosphate hideout 7-6, 8-5, 8-8, 8-14, 8-15, 8-16, 8-17,
8-18, 19-14, 19-16, 19-17, 19-20, 19-28, 20-6,
20-9, 20-10, 20-20, 23-4, 23-6, 23-8, 23-10, 23-11,
23-13, 23-14, 23-15, 23-16, 23-17, 23-21, 23-22,
23-22–23-23, 23-24, 23-25, 24-5, 24-6, 64-1, 64-6,
65-2
phosphate treatments 8-5, 8-14, 8-15, 8-16, 8-1, 22-14,
23-1, 23-2, 23-7, 23-8, 23-15, 23-16, 23-25, 24-5,
24-10, 24-11, 24-17, 49-4, 64-6, 65-2
phosphor plate radiography 15-15, 15-16, 19-22, 47-10
pinch temperature 4-3, 4-4
pinhole leak 18-6, 18-8, 19-2, 20-2, 20-15, 23-2, 23-19,
24-1, 24-7, 24-14, 27-2, 31-15, 42-1, 49-1
pitting 9-13, 15-7, 18-2, 18-7, 18-9, 36-2, 36-3, 41-8.
Chapters 37 and 39. 60-1, 60-3, 61-1. Chapter 58
pitting as a precursor to corrosion fatigue 19-16, 19-18,
19-20, 19-21, 19-34, 20-1, 20-2, 20-4, 20-7, 20-9,
20-11, 20-14, 20-15, 20-16, 20-20, 20-21
polythionic acids 39-2, 39-3, 42-3, 42-4, 49-5
portable hardness testing 15-22
Pourbaix diagram 19-12, 20-5
Index
Powder River Basin coals 25-8, 25-27, 40-2, 40-4
preoperational cleaning of HRSG units 9-14
primary components in combined cycle units 4-2
primary components in conventional fossil-fuel power plants
4-1
program directives 11-2, 11-12
progression velocity 29-4, 29-5, 29-6, 29-8
protective magnetite (Fe3O4) 6-3, 6-5, 6-6, 6-17, 7-4,
13-3, 19-11, 19-15, 20-5, 20-7, 23-3, 23-9, 23-16,
24-1, 24-7, 31-3, 31-5, 32-3, 32-5, 32-6, 32-11,
32-12
protective oxide 19-11, 19-13, 19-14, 19-20, 19-31, 20-4,
20-6, 20-14, 22-5, 22-6, 22-8, 22-9, 23-5, 23-6,
23-9, 23-16, 23-20, 24-3, 24-4, 24-7, 25-8, 26-5,
pulsed eddy current 15-17, 15-23, 15-24, 31-9, 32-10,
36-3, 60-3
pulse detonation 10-4, 10-5
pyrite 21-9, 25-6, 25-11, 25-14, 25-15, 25-19, 40-2, 40-3,
40-4, 40-6, 45-17
Q
quantitative alloy identification 15-1, 15-20
R
radiographic testing 15-15–15-16, 19-21, 19-36, 22-15,
31-9, 32-10, 42-5, 47-14, 49-7, 49-12, 63-2
railroad track appearance of damage 23-2, 23-18
redox 6-4. See oxidizing-reducing potential (ORP)
reducing all-volatile 8-10
reducing AVT 8-8
remaining life assessment 9-10. Chapter 14, 25-15, 25-16,
31-9, 32-10, 44-17, 44-18, 45-15, 46-14, 59-5
replication 53-15, 54-9
remote field eddy current testing 15-16
repairs. See Chapter 17 for general information about methods
and the individual mechanism chapters of Volumes 2 and
3 for specific techniques applicable to each damage type.
repeat failures 1-8, 1-9, 17-8, 17-10, 17-17
replication 15-21, 15-22, 30-14
residual stresses 14-21, 19-10, 25-18, 28-4, 28-5, 30-4,
35-2, 35-3, 35-4, 35-7, 42-2, 42-4, 49-3, 49-6,
49-9, 49-11, 52-4, 53-3, 54-4, 54-13, 54-14, 62-3,
63-2
restricted steam flow 8-2, 11-9, 13-8
rifled tubing 6-19, 22-10, 22-17, 23-11, 23-14, 23-16,
24-8, 24-12
ripple magnetite 1-8, 6-4, 6-5, 7-5, 7-10, 25-13, 25-20,
25-22, 25-25, 25-26, 25-27, 26-1, 26-2, 26-3, 26-4,
26-10, 26-15, 26-19, 26-21, 26-23
rubbing 55-2, 64-1, 64-2. Chapter 57
rust 21-2, 25-14, 32-3, 33-1, 37-8, 50-2, 58-8, 66-6
Index-7
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Index
S steamside oxide scale 44-3, 44-8, 44-11, 44-13, 44-14,
sampling 15-22
secondary failures 13-10
short term overheating 6-7, 36-3. Chapters 34 and 48
shutdown 7-6
sigma phase 14-11, 14-12, 14-13, 14-14, 14-15, 44-4,
44-9, 44-10, 44-15, 44-18, 44-24, 44-25, 45-15,
46-14
single-phase FAC. Chapters 31 and 32. See flow-accelerated
corrosion (FAC)
slag falling damage. See falling slag damage
slag formation and evaluation 22-13, 22-17, 23-12, 23-14,
24-10, 24-13, 25-6, 25-8, 25-12, 25-13, 25-14,
26-14, 45-5, 45-7, 46-2, 46-5, 47-9
slag shedding and removal as a cause of thermal fatigue 26-6,
26-7, 26-8, 26-13, 26-16, 26-17, 26-23. Chapter 29
slagging 10-2, 10-3, 10-4, 10-5, 10-6
sliding supports 28-2
sodium sulfate deposits 7-6, 7-12
solid particle erosion 6-16, 9-9, 9-10
solubility of magnetite 6-6, 31-5, 31-7, 32-6, 32-9
solvent selection 9-7, 9-11, 9-18, 9-19
sootblower erosion 18-7. Chapters 33 and 50
sootblowers and sootblowing 25-13, 26-16, 26-20.
See intelligent sootblowing; Chapters 29 and 33
sootblower erosion versus flyash erosion 13-8
sootblowers 10-4, 10-5, 10-6, 10-7, 10-8, 16-2
spacers 18-8, 21-13, 28-2, 28-3, 42-2, 43-6, 43-8, 45-5,
46-5, 47-8, 47-12, 49-3, 52-5
spalling 6-12, 6-13, 6-14, 6-15, 6-16, 46-8, 48-5, 48-13,
48-17, 54-14
spheroidization 14-9, 14-10, 15-21, 23-4, 23-10, 23-20,
24-3, 26-3, 44-22, 51-2, 54-2, 54-4, 54-9, 54-13,
59-3, 59-5
spray coating 17-16, 17-17
startup 4-5, 4-6, 4-7, 5-12, 6-16, 7-6, 7-12, 7-14, 7-15,
8-4, 8-14, 8-16, 8-18, 8-22, 8-23, 9-4, 9-9, 9-20,
11-2, 11-9, 11-15, 44-26, 44-32, 45-7, 45-11,
45-13, 45-14, 46-2, 46-9, 46-11, 48-7, 48-8, 48-9,
48-10, 48-11, 48-12, 48-13, 48-14, 48-15, 49-7,
49-11, 49-12, 49-13, 53-3, 53-4, 53-5, 53-6, 53-7,
53-14, 53-15, 53-18, 53-19, 54-6, 54-7, 54-8, 54-9,
54-10, 55-4, 58-2, 58-4, 58-8, 58-11, 60-2, 64-8,
64-9
steam blanketing 6-19, 22-9, 22-10, 22-12, 22-14, 22-17,
22-22, 22-24, 22-26, 22-28, 22-30, 23-2, 23-3,
23-4, 23-9, 23-12, 23-14, 23-18, 23-19, 23-21,
23-23, 24-6, 24-7, 24-10, 24-12, 24-16, 24-18,
34-1, 62-2, 64-1, 64-3, 64-5, 64-6
steam flow controllers 44-18, 44-19, 44-28, 45-17
steam flow redistribution 44-11, 44-18, 44-20, 44-35,
45-17, 45-25, 46-16, 46-18, 48-13
steam impingement 23-19, 49-9
Index-8
44-16, 44-18, 44-20, 44-25, 44-26, 44-27, 44-28,
44-29, 44-30, 44-31, 44-33, 44-34, 45-12, 45-18,
45-21, 45-22, 45-23, 46-9, 46-11, 46-16, 48-1,
54-9, 54-13, 60-3
strain gauges 10-7, 15-8, 16-4, 16-5, 20-18, 26-7, 26-23,
28-5, 28-6, 30-5, 30-12, 52-4, 52-5, 53-5, 53-13,
54-7, 54-8, 55-4, 55-9
stress corrosion cracking 10-11, 18-8, 19-10, 19-13, 35-2.
Chapter 42, 60-1, 62-3, 63-1. Chapter 49
subcooling 16-1, 19-18, 19-19, 19-20, 19-32, 19-34
sulfates 6-7, 8-2, 10-2, 10-12, 13-6, 13-7, 13-9, 20-5,
22-8, 22-13, 25-3, 25-9, 37-3, 39-1, 39-2, 39-3,
42-3, 42-4, 44-5, 45-1, 45-2, 45-4, 45-5, 45-8,
46-2, 46-4, 46-6, 48-4, 49-2, 49-4, 49-5, 49-6,
58-3, 66-2, 66-3, 66-4, 66-5, 66-6
sulfidation 25-4, 25-5, 25-7, 25-14, 25-20, 25-22, 25-23,
25-25, 25-26, 25-27, 26-3, 45-5, 45-6, 45-7, 45-13,
45-14, 45-18, 45-23, 45-24, 46-8
Super 310 25-19, 45-16, 46-14
supplemental firing 4-7, 4-9, 5-12, 10-10
supports 4-8, 9-2, 12-2, 12-3, 14-3, 15-6, 15-7, 15-19,
17-14, 18-8, 19-24, 20-3, 20-11, 20-12, 20-14,
28-2, 28-3, 30-5, 30-6, 30-11, 30-12, 37-4, 42-2,
42-4, 42-9, 43-6, 43-8, 47-8, 47-9, 47-12, 49-3,
49-6, 49-11, 52-3, 53-5, 53-6, 53-7, 53-12, 53-13,
54-4, 54-6, 54-7, 54-8, 54-12, 55-1, 55-2, 55-4,
55-5, 55-7, 55-9, 57-1, 58-4, 64-4
surface coatings 17-16, 17-17
symmetric wastage flats 33-1
T
T11 (1 1/4Cr-1/2-Mo) steel 5-3, 5-6, 5-7, 5-8, 5-9, 5-14,
6-9, 14-5, 14-6, 14-9, 16-3, 17-3, 19-10, 22-6,
22-17, 22-28, 25-16, 26-2, 31-10, 31-14, 32-10,
32-11, 34-7, 44-1, 44-4, 44-7, 44-13, 44-14, 44-21,
44-22, 44-30, 44-31, 45-22, 48-2, 59-5, 60-2
T22 (2 1/4Cr-1Mo) steel 5-3, 5-6, 5-7, 5-8, 5-9, 5-14,
5-15, 6-8, 6-9, 6-13, 6-14, 9-10, 14-5, 14-6, 14-9,
14-10, 16-3, 17-3, 44-1, 44-4, 44-7, 44-8, 44-13,
44-14, 44-15, 44-25, 44-30, 44-31, 45-3, 45-5,
46-5, 47-1, 47-7, 48-3, 48-11, 51-1, 53-12, 54-12,
60-2, 66-3, 66-4
T9 (9Cr-1Mo) steel 1-7, 5-3, 5-6, 6-10, 14-9, 44-1, 44-4,
47-1
T91 (9Cr-1Mo-V-X [Cb/N/Ni/Al]) steel 5-3, 5-5, 5-6, 5-7,
5-14, 5-15, 6-10, 6-11, 6-13, 6-14, 6-21, 13-7,
14-9, 14-22, 16-3, 44-1, 44-3, 44-4, 44-5, 44-7,
44-14, 44-26, 44-27, 44-30, 44-31, 44-35, 45-4,
46-4, 48-3, 48-4, 48-5, 53-12, 54-2, 54-12, 56-6
thermal-hydraulic monitoring parameters 30-15, 53-17
thermal-mechanical fatigue in steam-touched tubes of
conventional units. Chapter 52
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
thermal-mechanical fatigue in steam-touched tubes of HRSG
units. Chapter 53
thermal-mechanical fatigue in water-touched tubes of
conventional units. Chapter 28
thermal-mechanical fatigue in water-touched tubes of HRSG
units. Chapter 30
thermal-mechanical fatigue versus creep-fatigue 13-10
thermal expansion 4-6, 6-13, 10-10, 20-4, 25-16, 25-17,
25-18, 26-7, 26-14, 28-2, 28-3, 28-4, 28-5, 29-3,
47-2
thermal expansion, contstrained, effects of 19-6, 19-19,
20-2, 20-3, 20-4, 20-12, 20-13, 30-3, 30-5, 30-6,
30-7, 30-8, 30-9, 30-10, 30-11, 30-12, 30-13,
30-17, 52-2, 52-3, 52-4, 52-5, 53-5, 53-6, 53-9,
53-10, 53-11, 53-12, 53-13, 53-14, 53-18, 54-3,
54-4, 54-6, 54-7, 54-8, 54-9
thermal expansion, differential, in dissimilar metal welds
47-4, 47-5, 47-6, 47-7, 47-8, 47-9, 47-12, 47-13,
47-14
thermal fatigue 47-14, 47-15, 48-15, 53-1, 53-3, 53-4,
53-8, 53-9, 53-13, 54-8, 55-2, 56-1, 56-3, 63-4
thermal fatigue caused by sootblowing 33-1
thermal fatigue caused by water blowing. Chapter 29
thermal fatigue in waterwalls. Chapter 26
thermal fatigue of economizer inlet header tubes. Chapter 27
thermal quench-induced fracture. Chapter 56
thermal spraying 17-17, 25-18
thermocouples 19-31, 19-32, 19-33, 19-36, 26-6, 26-13,
27-4, 27-5, 30-14, 30-16, 30-17, 44-14, 44-15,
44-30, 44-31, 45-12, 46-9, 46-11, 48-9, 48-14,
48-15, 50-4, 50-5, 53-6, 53-15, 53-16, 53-17,
53-18, 54-7, 54-8, 54-9
thermocouples tiger-stripes 31-2
tiger-stripes 31-2
total void length 14-15, 14-16
transgranular cracking 18-6, 18-8, 19-2, 19-4, 20-2, 20-3,
27-2, 28-2, 30-2, 32-4, 43-6, 43-8, 49-2, 53-2,
54-2, 54-11, 55-2
transients 1-7, 1-8, 1-9, 5-12, 6-11, 7-6, 8-11, 8-18,
11-12, 11-14, 11-15, 14-5, 14-21, 15-7, 16-1, 16-2,
16-6
transverse cracking. See thermal fatigue in waterwalls
tri-sodium phosphate 13-2, 13-3, 19-17, 20-9, 22-5, 23-1,
23-5, 23-8, 23-9, 23-10, 23-11, 23-15, 23-16,
23-18, 23-22, 23-25, 24-3, 24-17, 31-7, 31-8,
31-14, 37-7
tri-sodium phosphate tube metal temperature 26-6, 26-22,
34-2, 34-4
tube-to-header weld repairs 17-14–17-15
tube materials 5-1–5-8, 5-13–5-15, 5-15
tube metal temperature 5-5, 5-8, 5-9, 5-10, 5-12, 5-13,
6-9, 6-18, 7-4, 9-4, 9-9, 9-10, 9-13, 11-3, 11-13,
14-5, 14-6, 16-2, 16-3, 26-6, 26-22, 34-2, 34-4,
44-7, 44-8, 44-13, 44-14, 44-15, 44-18, 44-20,
Index
44-22, 44-25, 44-26, 44-30, 44-31, 44-32, 45-6,
45-12, 45-17, 46-12, 46-16, 47-4, 47-9, 48-2, 48-5,
53-10, 56-5
tube plugging 17-14, 45-17
tube replacement 9-5, 9-16, 10-4, 14-9, 17-7, 17-8, 17-9,
17-12, 17-13, 19-25, 19-26, 22-16, 25-18, 31-9,
37-5, 45-16, 46-14, 47-11, 58-6
tube section replacement 17-6
tube wall temperature 22-12, 22-24, 23-12, 23-23, 24-10,
24-16, 26-1, 26-4, 26-6
TULIP code 14-8, 14-9, 14-21
tuning to control vibration-induced fatigue 28-5, 28-6,
52-5, 55-4, 55-8, 55-9
two-phase FAC. Chapters 31 and 32; See flow-accelerated
corrosion (FAC)
type 304H (18Cr-10Ni-Cb) fine grained austenitic stainless
steel 44-7, 45-16, 47-1, 49-2, 49-8
type 304H stainless steel 5-3, 5-6, 5-7, 5-8, 6-14, 14-6,
14-13, 14-14, 14-15, 14-16, 14-17
type 304 stainless steel 5-3, 5-13, 6-15, 21-17, 31-10,
32-10, 42-10, 45-15, 60-2
type 310 (25Cr-20Ni) austenitic stainless steel 25-18,
25-19, 45-16, 46-7, 46-14
type 321H stainless steel 5-3, 5-6, 5-8, 6-12, 14-6, 14-13,
14-14, 14-15, 44-7, 44-15, 47-1, 49-3, 49-4, 49-8
type 347 HFG (1Cr-10Ni-Cb) fine grained austenitic
stainless steel 6-12
type 347 HFG stainless steel 5-4, 5-6, 5-7, 5-8, 14-6,
14-13, 14-14, 48-5, 48-10, 48-11
type 347H stainless steel 44-7, 45-16, 47-1, 49-3, 49-4,
49-8, 49-13
U
“U” bends 28-3, 28-5, 30-5, 30-14
“Upgrading” materials 5-8, 5-15, 17-3
ultrasonic testing (UT) 15-10, 15-12, 15-13, 15-14, 15-15,
45-14, 46-12, 49-7, 49-12, 50-4, 52-5, 58-5, 58-9,
60-3, 61-2, 64-5, 64-6
ultrasonic testing (UT) for measuring steamside oxide
thickness 14-7, 14-8, 14-19, 15-13, 15-14
ultrasonic testing (UT) for monitoring fluid flow 16-6
ultrasonic testing (UT) to measure wall thinning 15-13
underdeposit corrosion mechanisms 63-1. See hydrogen
damage, acid phosphate corrosion, caustic gouging.
V
vertical gas path HRSGs 4-5, 4-7, 4-8, 6-11, 18-8, 22-6,
23-6, 24-4
vibration-induced fatigue. Chapters 28 and 52
visual examination 12-3, 12-6, 15-6, 15-7–15-8
vortex shedding 28-4, 28-5, 52-4, 52-5, 55-2, 55-3, 55-4,
55-6, 55-7, 55-9
Index-9
 EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
Index
W weld overlays as a factor in developing thermal fatigue 26-2,
wall blowers 10-4, 10-7, 33-1, 33-3, 33-4, 40-6
wastage flats 13-7, 13-8, 13-9, 13-10, 18-6, 18-7, 33-1,
38-1, 43-7, 44-3, 44-5, 45-2, 45-4, 45-19, 45-24,
46-4, 48-4, 50-1, 50-2, 57-1, 59-3
waste-to-energy units. Chapter 66
water blowers 2-3
water cannons 10-4, 10-5, 18-6, 26-1, 26-4, 26-7, 26-11,
26-13, 26-17, 26-23, 26-24, 26-25, 26-26, 29-1,
29-2, 29-3, 29-4, 29-6, 29-7, 29-8, 29-11
water lances 10-4, 10-5, 10-7, 29-1, 29-3, 29-4, 29-5,
29-6, 29-7
water treatment plant upset 22-14, 22-26, 24-9, 24-15
waterwall fireside corrosion 45-16, 45-18, 45-19.
Chapter 25
weld discontinuities 20-2, 30-2, 53-2, 54-2, 55-2, 55-8,
63-2
welding defects. Chapter 63
welding repairs 17-2–17-15
weld overlays 17-16–17-17, 25-16, 25-17, 25-28, 45-16,
45-24, 46-14, 50-4, 50-5, 63-4, 63-5, 66-5
Index-10
26-6, 26-7, 26-8, 26-9, 26-13, 26-14, 26-18, 26-19
weld probes 15-19
weld profile 19-26, 28-3, 28-5, 52-3, 52-5, 54-12
wick boiling 7-5, 7-7, 22-8, 23-9, 23-14, 24-6, 24-7,
24-12
window, type access for HRSG header-to-tube welds 17-15,
54-9
window blowout damage type 18-6, 18-8, 19-2, 19-4, 22-2,
22-5, 42-1, 49-1, 49-9, 49-10, 62-3
window welding 17-9, 20-16, 22-16, 22-17, 23-5, 23-14,
24-12, 63-3
world class programs 11-10, 11-11, 11-12, 11-16
wustite 5-10, 6-2, 6-3, 6-9, 7-11–7-12
Z
zeta potential 7-9, 34-4
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