FORMATION OF VEINS

 In the early embryonic life, isolated endothelial vesicles coalesce to form discrete venous channels
which become the venous system of the developing embryo.

 A plexus of small venous channels usually drains a particular region of the embryo and later, as
muscles, bones and visceral tissues are forming, a single channel is selected. (selection of the
definitive venous channel is the result of blood flow being increased along whichever pathway
offers the least resistance)

 Three pairs of venous channels drain into the sinus venosus in the early embryo

1. Vitelline (omphalomesenteric) veins- bring blood from the yolk sac into the heart

2. Umbilical veins- bring blood from the allantois into the heart

3. Cardinal veins- collect blood from different parts of the body and bring it to the heart

 Initially, these three pairs of venous vessels are bilaterally symmetrical, but as a result of unequal
patterns of vascular degeneration, this symmetry is lost.
VITELLINE VENOUS SYSTEM

 The paired vitelline veins course from the yolk sac into the septum transversum where they
anastomose with the sinus venosus.

 Intraembryologically, the vitelline veins may be subdivided into:

1. Proximal (cranial) part- located between the sinus venosus and septum transversum after these
two tissues separate; the left proximal vitelline vein degenerates while the right proximal vitelline
vein is retained to form the hepatic segment of the caudal vena cava

2. Middle part- incorporated in the liver where they subdivided into numerous small channels called
hepatic sinusoids. The sinusoids drain into the hepatocardiac channels and then into the hepatic
segment of the caudal vena cava.

3. Distal (caudal) part- located in the splanchnic mesoderm between the liver and the umbilical stalk;
the distal segment forms many branches which anastomose to form channels passing around the
duodenum to form the portal venous system and its branches

UMBILICAL VENOUS SYSTEM

- Pass from the allantois through the

umbilical cord, then along the ventral
body wall to the septum transversum

- Anastomose with the hepatic sinusoids

in the liver

- Subsequently, the umbilical venous

system cranial to the anastomoses
degenerates

- Increased blood flow from the placenta

to the liver results in the enlargement of
the left umbilical vein while the right
umbilical vein atrophies or degenerates

- The large vascular channel between the

left umbilical vein and the hepatic part
of the caudal vena cava is the ductus
venosus

- Formation of the ductus venosus allows oxygenated blood from the placental vessels to flow
directly through the liver to the heart.

- The ductus venosus persists until birth in carnivores, ruminants and primates; it disappears during
gestation in the pig and horse, necessitating the umbilical venous blood to pass through the liver
parenchyma
 - Two umbilical veins pass through most of the length of the umbilical cord of carnivores and
ruminants; these join to form the left umbilical vein before entering the body of the embryo

- After birth, the part of the umbilical vein coursing along the ventral body wall disappears, with
vestiges in the falciform ligament of the liver (in pig and horse). In young puppies, remnants of
this vessel are found in the round ligament of the liver

- The ductus venosus becomes obliterated soon after birth in carnivores and ruminants; vestiges
may remain in the form of the ligamentum venosum

- Small parts of the original umbilical veins contribute to the intrahepatic part of the portal vein

CARDINAL VENOUS VEIN

 The cardinal venous system is an

intraembryonic venous system which consists
of the large cranial and the smaller caudal
cardinal veins.

 These veins enter the sinus venosus via the

common cardinal veins.

 The major venous channels in the adult are

established by transformations of these paired
vessels and retention of parts of new cardinal
vessels arising in conjunction with
development of the intermediate mesoderm

Cranial Cardinal Veins

 The cranial cardinal veins are retained as the internal jugular veins and its branches

 A branch from the cranial cardinal vein, the external jugular vein, appears to drain the facial
region.

 The subclavian veins, although they originally arise as branches of the caudal cardinal veins near
their conjunctions with the common cardinals, eventually shift their site of origin to the cranial
cardinal veins upon descent of the heart and elongation of the thorax (in the same manner as the
subclavian arteries)

 Following the formation of an anastomotic channel connecting the right and left cranial cardinal
veins, the proximal part of the left cranial cardinal vein atrophies

 Both cranial cardinal veins now enter the right common cardinal vein

 The anastomotic channels becomes the left brachiocephalic vein, thus the left brachiocephalic
vein is formed by the union of the external jugular vein and the subclavian vein
  The internal jugular vein is considered a branch of the left brachiocephalic vein

 The short right brachiocephalic vein is formed by the right cranial cardinal vein between the
junction of the right external jugular and the right subclavian veins and the attachment of the
anastomotic branch (left brachiocephalic vein)

 The two brachiocephalic veins join to form the cranial vena cava, which is derived from the
proximal part of the right cranial cardinal and the right common cardinal veins

Caudal Cardinal, Subcardinal and Supracardinal Veins

- Most of the venous drainage of the body wall, pelvic limbs, axial muscles and viscera is formed
from the cardinal venous network; during the course of embryonic development, three pairs of
cardinal veins form in the trunk

1. Caudal cardinal veins- the first to form and are evolutionarily, the most primitive. They appear
early in the intermediate mesoderm dorsal to the mesonephric duct. Subsequently, the
intermediate mesoderm on each side in the thoracolumbar region hypertrophies and form the
mesonephros, which functions as a kidney during part of the fetal development in mammals and
birds

2. Subcardinal veins- in the ventromedial part of the mesonephros

3. Supracardinal veins- in the dorsal part of the mesonephros

- Both the subcardinal and supracardinal veins join the caudal cardinal veins near the heart

- As the mesonephros regress later, when the definitive metanephric kidney becomes functional, a
major transformation of these three cardinal venous pathways of the trunk occurs. As a result of
the differential growth, fusion and degeneration, a caudal vena cava is formed that incorporates
portions of all these vessels.

Changes in the Caudal Cardinal Veins

1. The cranial part of the left caudal cardinal vein atrophies at its junction with the left common
cardinal vein

2. The cranial part of the right caudal cardinal vein persists as the proximal part of the azygous vein,
joining the cranial vena cava in the horse, dog and cat. The remainder of the azygous vein is
derived from the right supracardinal vein. In the ox and pig, the azygous vein is derived from the
left supracardinal, left caudal cardinal vein and the left common cardinal vein. The left azygous
enters the right atrium via the coronary sinus

3. The caudal part of the caudal cardinal vein gives off a branch, the iliac vein which drains the pelvic
region and the pelvic limb

4. After the supracardinal veins join the caudal cardinal veins at the site slightly cranial to the iliacs,
the caudal cardinals degenerate except for the short segment between the iliac and supracardinal
veins
Changes in the Subcardinal Veins

1. A large median subcardinal sinus is formed by the coalescence of anastomosing branches

between the right and left subcardinal veins

2. A venous channel develops between the right subcardinal vein and the proximal part of the right
vitelline vein (proximal part of the caudal vena cava)
 3. Several anastomosing branches between the subcardinal veins and the degenerated caudal parts
of the caudal cardinal veins will form the adrenal and renal veins

4. The left subcardinal vein degenerates cranial to the subcardinal sinus

5. The right subcardinal vein persists between the subcardinal sinus and the cranial part of the right
caudal cardinal vein

6. The caudal part of the subcardinal veins are retained and form the testicular or ovarian veins

- The supracardinal veins are paired veins that join with the remnants of the caudal cardinal veins
both cranially near the common cardinal veins and caudally near the iliac veins

- They form numerous intersegmental branches and also establish several anastomoses with the
subcardinal veins and subcardinal sinus

1. Most of the left supracardinal vein degenerates soon after forming. Vestiges of it are represented
only in those animals in which a left azygous vein is present

2. The right supracardinal vein degenerates cranial to its anatomosis with the subcardinal sinus. The
distal part of the azygous vein (right azygous if a pair is present) represents only remains of the
cranial part of the supracardinal vein

3. Caudally the right supracardinal vein is retained as the venous channel joining the iliac veins
(caudal cardinal vein derivatives) to the rest of the caudal vena cava

- As a result of the events just described, blood flowing from the pelvic limbs in the embryo would
pass through the following vessels upon leaving the external iliac vein

i. Interiliac anastomosis

ii. Caudal cardinal veins

iii. Right supracardinal vein

iv. Subcardinal sinus

v. Right subcardinal vein

vi. Right subcardinal vein- right vitelline anastomosis

vii. Right vitelline vein

viii. Right sinus venosus

- In the adult, the interiliac anastomosis becomes the common iliac veins. The caudal vena cava
consists of 3 segments, namely, hepatic (right vitelline vein), mesenteric (right subcardinal-right
vitelline anastomosis) and postrenal (right supracardinal vein caudal to the subcardinal sinus)
segments
MALFORMATIONS OF THE VENOUS SYSTEM

1. Portasystemic shunt- a malformation which occurs when an anastomosis persists between the
caudal part of the vitelline veins, which form the portal system and any of the cardinal veins of
the trunk

2. Persistent ductus venosus- the ductus venosus instead of being obliterated, remains patent, thus
portal venous blood is directly carried to the caudal vena cava bypassing the hepatic sinusoids

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

- Derived from mesoderm and develops in parallel with many parts of the venous system.

- However, little is known about factors that control the assembly of these vessels or their pattern
of branching

- The branches of this system are closed; they collect fluids as well as macromolecules and
discharge them into the venous circulation

- In the embryo, coalescence of the developing lymphatic channels forms 6 lymphatic sacs.

- Of the six, only one, the cisterna chyli, is retained in the adult

- The cisterna chyli empties into the thoracic duct that pass to the thoracic inlet, join with the
thoracic limb and head lymphatics, and connect to the venous system