RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

AND PARTITIONING
OF BODY CAVITIES
Trachea and Lungs
 Pulmonary Morphogenesis
- Starting at the level of the 4th pharyngeal pouches a
longitudinal diverticulum of the endodermal epithelial cells
grows ventrally from the foregut in the median plane
- This solid cord of cells hollows out to form the laryngotracheal
groove which grows ventrally and caudally into the splanchnic
mesoderm beneath the foregut
- Later the ridges of mesenchymal cells (tracheoesophageal
ridges) proliferates on both sides of the groove and fuse,
obliterating the communication between the trachea and
esophagus except at the level of the larynx
- The partition formed is the tracheoesophageal septum
Trachea and Lungs
 Pulmonary Morphogenesis
- The blind caudal end of the laryngotracheal groove
grows caudally ventral to the esophagus to form the
lung bud; the bud splits early to become bilobed
- As it grows caudally from its point of origin, the
epithelium of the connecting stalk becomes the
laryngotracheal tube; the mesoderm adjacent to this
tube will ultimately form the connective tissues of
the wall of the trachea and the tracheal cartilages
Trachea and Lungs
 Pulmonary Morphogenesis
- As the lung bud extends caudally between the foregut and the
developing heart, it is located in the embryonic mediastinum;
here the bilobed branches form the left and right principal or
primary bronchi
- In ruminant species and in the pig, a tracheal bronchus also
develops on the right side
- Continued growth and subdivision of the principal bronchi will
form the bronchial tree which will give rise to each lung
- The first bronchial branches formed will become the lobar
bronchi; the future segmenta; bronchi form nest, followed by
the smaller branches called bronchioles
Trachea and Lungs
 Pulmonary Morphogenesis
- The functional parenchymal unit on the end of this duct system
is the alveolus
- The distal bronchioles and alveoli continue to be formed
postnatally
- Repeated branching at the distal ends of the pulmonary
epithelial diverticula is necessary to create a greatly increased
surface area
- In sheep, the respiratory diverticulum appears on the 17th day
of gestation, the lung bud is evident by the19th day and is
bilobed on the 20th day. The laryngotracheal tube is delineated
on day 21 and the larynx develops over the next 10 days.
Lobar bronchi surrounded by dense mesoderm appear on day
22, and segmental bronchi by day 25.
 Lungs
- Continued branching of the bronchial tree produces additional
bronchioles and terminal sacs from which alveoli develop.
Splanchnic mesoderm forms the cartilage, fascia, smooth muscle,
and vessels of the lung.

- Initially, bronchiole branches are solid cores of cells that must

undergo canalization (the developing lung has the histologic
appearance of a gland).

- Eventually, terminal branches become hollow, dilated, and sac-like

with a thin epithelium (terminal sacs). Alveoli are created by the
formation of septae that partition the terminal sacs.

- Breathing movements take place in utero to prepare for postnatal

respiration. At birth, lungs contain amniotic fluid that drains or is
absorbed as air is breathed. Alveolar cells produce a phospholipid
surfactant that reduces surface tension and thus facilitates alveolar
expansion (as opposed to alveolar collapse).
Larynx
- The larynx develops from 2 primordia: epiglottal swelling
and laryngeal swellings
1. Epiglottal swellings- appear in the floor of the pharynx
immediately rostral to the laryngotracheal groove and caudal
to the base of the tongue at the level of branchial arch 4
- This swelling elongates in the transverse plane as a result of
local proliferation and dispersal of underlying mesenchyme
2. Laryngeal swellings- longitudinal structures located on
either side of the laryngotracheal groove
 Growth of the epiglottal and laryngeal swellings causes
laryngeal opening (aditus) to become T-shaped
 The lumen of the larynx becomes occluded by these
swellings; later an epithelial-lined lumen is reformed and the
paired laryngeal cartilages are formed
 Most of the laryngeal cartilages are derived from visceral
arch (neural crest) mesenchyme
Larynx
Malformations of the Respiratory System
 Laryngotracheal defects
1. Tracheal hypoplasia or tracheal stenosis- abnormal
narrowing of the trachea
2. Collapsed trachea- characterized by partial
occlusion of the tracheal lumen and fusiform or
flattened (instead of circular) tracheal cartilage
3. Tracheoesophageal fistula- results from improper
separation of the caudal portion of the
laryngotracheal groove from the foregut
(esophagus)
 Malformations of the Respiratory System
 Pulmonary abnormalities
1. Accessory lungs- result from an extra lung
bud developing in an abnormal site, such as
the neck or abdomen
2. Pulmonary hypoplasia- results in decrease
lung development
3. Pulmonary agenesis or aplasia- absence of
lung development
SEPARATION OF THE PLEURAL AND
PERICARDIAL CAVITIES
- Caudal to the level of the laryngotracheal groove, the heart is
surrounded by a splanchnic mesoderm-lined cavity called the
coelom
- The coelom extends the length of the thoracic and abdominal
regions, but does not reach the level of the pharynx cranially.
- Formation of the lateral body folds closes the coelom
ventrally, except at the level of the umbilicus
- In the adult, the parts of the intraembryonic coelom are
identified by the tissue they surround (i.e. pleural, pericardial
and peritoneal). However, in the embryo, all regions of the
intraembryonic coelom are continuous
- The only partition present is the septum transversum, which
lies in a transverse plane between the sinus venosus and the
liver. Dorsal to this septum the common pleuropericardial
cavity is continuous with the peritoneal coelom
SEPARATION OF THE PLEURAL AND
PERICARDIAL CAVITIES
- Caudal growth of the laryngotracheal groove brings the lungs
into the dorsal part of the pleuropericardial cavity near the
level of the septum transversum and into the cranial
mediastinum, which in this region is derived from the dorsal
mesocardium
- The term mediastinum refers to any median partition, and is
most commonly used in reference to that within the thoracic
cavity. On either side of this tissue are the pleural cavities.
- The paired lung buds form and grow rapidly; as a result of
their branching, the pulmonary tissue expands caudally and
ventrolaterally, partially surrounding the heart. The pleural
cavities expand dorsally and ventrally to accommodate this
growth
SEPARATION OF THE PLEURAL AND
PERICARDIAL CAVITIES
- The formation of the pericardial cavity and its
separation from the pleural cavity is initially related
to the growth of the common cardinal veins. These
vessels run along the lateral body wall dorsally when
pass ventromedially to enter the sinus venosus near
the level of the septum transversum
- The mesenchymal tissue surrounding each common
cardinal vein is the pleuropericardial fold. These folds
grow medially and fuse with the mediastinum ventral
to the esophagus, forming a pleuropericardial septum
- As the lungs grow laterally into the body wall, this
horizontal septum expands laterally. Similarly as the
heart descends, the pleuropericardial septum becomes
elongated craniocaudally
SEPARATION OF THE PLEURAL AND
PERICARDIAL CAVITIES

- With continued lateral and ventral expansion of the

lungs, the sites of attachment of the pleuropericardial
septum from the lateral body wall shift progressively
towards the ventral midline
- This results in the heart being completely surrounded
by a heavy sheath, the pericardium, which is
continuous dorsally with the mediastinum, and
ventrally is attached to the thoracic wall
- The cavity between the pericardium and epicardium,
which is the outermost serous lining of the heart, is
the pericardial cavity. These growth changes
completely isolate the pericardial cavity from the
common pleuropericardial cavity
Formation of the Diaphragm
- The ventral component of the diaphragm, the septum
transversum, develops early during heart formation, and later
forms the central tendinous portion of the diaphragm
- The second component is the caudal mediastinum through
which the esophagus (mesoesophagus) becomes elongated
dorsoventrally as a result of caudodorsal growth of the lungs
- Because of this expansion, which causes the roof of the pleural
cavities to elevate on either side of the midline, the left and
right pleuroperitoneal canals enlarge dorsally
- Final closure of the pleuroperitoneal canals is accomplished by
formation of a pair of pleuroperitoneal membranes. These are
folds of tissue that project into the peritoneal cavity from its
dorsolateral margin
Formation of the Diaphragm
- Simultaneous with ventrolateral expansion of the
lungs and enlargement of the mesonephrei, these
pleuroperitoneal folds expand and fuse with the
septum transversum, ventrally, and the caudal
mediastinum, medially, to close the pleuroperitoneal
canals
- Later on, as the thoracic cavity enlarges, tissues of the
body wall become incorporated into the diaphragm
circumferentially to give rise to the lateral and dorsal
muscular components (pars costalis and lumbaris)
 A lateral view at a later
developmental stage illustrates
that the inferior surfaces of the
lungs lie on the developing
diaphragm. The heart occupies
the ventral portion of the
thoracic cavity.