Definitions of Translation

1. Translation is a mental activity in which a meaning of given linguistic discourse

is rendered from one language to another. It is the act of transferring the linguistic
entities from one language into their equivalents into another language. Translation
is an act through which the content of a text is transferred from the source language
in to the target language (Foster, 1958).
2. According to Ghazala (1995), "translation is generally used to refer to all the
process and methods used to convey the meaning of the source language in to the
target language".
3. According to Catford (1995), translation is the replacement of textual material in
one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)
4. Translation is a product since it provides us with other different cultures, to
ancient societies and civilization life when the translated texts reach us (Yowell
and Mutfah, 1999).

5. Nida states that translation consist of reproducing in the receptor language the
closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of
meaning and secondly in terms of style.

6. Newmark in Rudi Hartono states that translation is rendering the meaning of a

text into another language in the way that the author intended the text.

From the definitions above the translation has the same term “equivalence”. The
meaning, context, though, or message of both source of reproducing in the receptor
language, the closest natural are equivalent to the message of source language. The
first is meaning and secondly is style. The message of source language must
equivalent. The reader of translation who knows the target language only will be
confused if the target language is influenced by the source language.

Meanwhile the result of translation must be transferring the meaning of the source
language clearly. In order to make the clear meaning of source language, it is
expected that the meaning of target language can be understood by the readers. So,
the result of translation must be readable. In target language, readability is needed,
because it makes the readers easier to catch the content of the translation text,
conversely when the translation text is not readable. It will make the readers
difficult to understand the content of the text well.
Based on many definitions above, the writer assumes that the translation is a
process of transferring thoughts and message from the source language to the
target language, in the form of written or spoken.

REFERENCES:
Catford, J. (1995) Alinguistic Theory of Translation. London. Oxford University
Press.
Foster, M. (1958) Translation from/in Farsi and English. Retrieved April, 2007,
from http://www.parasa.ts.com/index.htm.
Ghazala, Hasan, (1995) Translation as problems and solutions (4th ed.) Syria: Dar
Elkalem ElArabi.
Yowell, A. Muftan, S. L (1999) Principles of Translation. Dar Annahda Alarabiya.

TRANSLATION METHODS
(by Alan Duff)
SL emphasis TL emphasis

Word for word translation Adaptation

Literal translation Free translation

Faithful translation Idiomatic translation

Semantic translation Communicative translation

Word-for-word translation
This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation with the TL immediately
below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the words translated
singly by their most common, out of context.

Literal translation
The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents
but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context.
 Faithful translation

A faithful translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of

the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures.

Semantic translation

Semantic translation differs ‘faithful translation’ only in as far as it must take

more account of the aesthetic value (that is, the beautiful and natural sound) of the
SL text.

Adaptation
This is the ‘freest’ form of translation. It is used mainly for plays (comedies)
and poetry: the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture
converted to the TL culture and the text rewritten by an established dramatist or
poet.

Free translation
Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content
without the form of the original.

Idiomatic translation

Idiomatic translation reproduces the ‘message’ of the original but tends to

distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do
not exist in the original.

Communicative translation
Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of
the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable
and comprehensible to the readership.

SEMANTIC AND COMMUNICATIVE TRANSLATION

Definitions:

♦ Semantic translation differs from 'faithful translation' only in as far as it must

take more account of the aesthetic value of the SL text.
♦ Semantic translation attempts to recreate the precise flavor and tone of the
original the though-processes in the words.

 Dịch ngữ nghĩa là quá trình chuyển dịch mà cấu trúc và nội dung ngữ nghĩa
của ngôn ngữ gốc được giữ lại trong ngôn ngữ dịch.

♦ Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of

the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable
and comprehensible to the readership

♦ Communicative translation addresses itself solely to the second reader who does
not anticipate difficulties or obscurities, and would expect a generous transfer of
foreign elements into his own culture as well as his language where necessary.

 Dịch giao tiếp/thông báo là quá trình đưa vào ngôn ngữ dịch một cách diễn đạt
phù hợp với nội dung, ý nghĩa của văn bản mà không lệ thuộc vào cấu trúc ngữ
pháp của ngôn ngữ gốc, chủ yếu là chuyển ý chứ không chuyển từ.

BASIC FEATURES OF SEMANTIC AND COMMUNICATIVE TRANSLATION

Semantic Translation Communicative Translation

      Author-centered Reader-centered
4.  Semantic and syntactic- Effect-oriented
oriented
      Faithful, more literal Faithful, freer
      Informative Effective
7.  Usually more detailed, more Easy reading, more natural.
complex

12 Always inferior to the original May be better than original

because of loss of meaning. because of gain in force and
clarity, despite loss in semantic
 content.
16 The translator has no right to The translator has the right to
improve or to correct correct and improve the logic and
style of the original
19 Unit of translating: tends to Unit of translating: tends to
words, collocations and clauses sentences and paragraph
24 Meaning. Message.
CONNOTATION AND DENOTATION
Denotation refers to the literal meaning of a word, the "dictionary definition." ̈ For

example, if you look up the word snake in a dictionary, you will is cover that one of its
denotative meanings is "any of numerous scaly, legless, sometimes venomous reptiles
having a long, tapering, cylindrical body and found in most tropical and temperate
regions."

Connotation, on the other hand, refers to the associations that are connected to a certain
word or the emotional suggestions related to that word. The connotative meanings of a
word exist together with the denotative meanings. The connotations for the word snake

could include evil or danger.

Denotation is when you mean what you say, literally.

Connotation is created when you mean something else, something that might be initially
hidden. The connotative meaning of a word is based on implication, or shared emotional
association with a word.

You may live in a house, but we live in a home. If you were to look up the words house
and home in a dictionary, you would find that both words have approximately the same
meaning- "a dwelling place." However, the speaker in the sentence above suggests that
home has an additional meaning. Aside from the strict dictionary definition, or
denotation, many people associate such things as comfort, love, security, or privacy with
a home but do not necessarily make the same associations with a house. The various
feelings, images, and memories that surround a word make up its connotation. Although
both house and home have the same denotation, or dictionary meaning, home also has
many connotations.
 TRANSLATION EQUIVALENCE
Nguyen Thi Nhan, M.A.
English Linguistics Division

Extract

- Tương đương một - một: (One to one)

Là kiểu tương đương trong đó một cách diễn đạt ở ngôn ngữ gốc chỉ có một cách diễn đạt
tương đương ở ngôn ngữ dịch. Kiểu tương đương này thường xảy ra ở hệ thống thuật ngữ.
Ví dụ:
Information Technology công nghệ thông tin
Permanent Virtual Circuit mạch ảo cố định

- Tương đương một đối với nhiều hơn một: (One to many)
Một cách diễn đạt ở ngôn ngữ gốc có nhiều cách diễn đạt tương đương ở ngôn ngữ dịch.
Ví dụ:
Nuôi - To breed Bamboo Tre
- To feed Nứa
- To raise Trúc
- To keep Mai
- To support Vầu
- Tương đương một với một bộ phận nhỏ hơn một: (One to part of one)
Một cách diễn đạt ở ngôn ngữ gốc có nhiều nét nghĩa mà một cách diễn đạt ở ngôn ngữ
dịch chỉ tương đương với một trong các nét nghĩa đó.
Ví dụ: Rồng = dragon
Bush – Thảo nguyên
- Bất tương đương: (Non-equivalence)
Một cách diễn đạt có ở ngôn ngữ gốc nhưng không có ở ngôn ngữ dịch có nguyên nhân từ
sự bất tương đồng ngôn ngữ và văn hóa.
Ví dụ: Modem = Mô đem
Bánh Chưng = Chung cake/Banhchung
To deal with non-equivalence at word level, Baker listed the following strategies
used by professional translators
1. Translating by a more specific word.
It may be necessary to use a more specific word to translate a SL word to a TL word. This
strategy usually involves in selecting one word among several ones because there may be a
SL word whose meaning can be expressed by several TL words.
For example: The word “rice” in English can be translated into many different Vietnamese
words depending on whether one person is planting it, cooking it or eating it. Therefore, the
English word itself cannot determine the word it Vietnamese, but it is based on the context.
2. Translating by a more general word
Translators have to use a more general word since the specific word in the SL does not exist
in the TL.
For example: The English distinguishes three types of vehicle: mopeds, motorbikes and
scooters; on the other hand, Vietnamese only has “xe máy” to replace such three words.
3. Translating by cultural substitution
This strategy often involves in replacing culture-specific items by a TL item which does not
have the same propositional meaning, but is likely to have the same impact on the target
readers. This strategy is beneficial to readers of the TL since they can imagine what that item
looks like in their culture.
For example: as gentle as a lamb
4. Translating using a loan word or loan word plus explanation
This strategy is useful when the translator has to deal with concepts or ideas that are new to
the audience as culture-specific items, proper names of diseases or medicines…
For example: The words HIV and AIDS are two of many loan words that are frequently in
Vietnamese. In the past, this new disease was quite new to Vietnamese people; therefore, it
was often used with an explanation. However, these words have long been used in Vietnam
for a long time up to now and most people seem to get accustomed to this concept so these
two words are frequently used without any explanations nowadays.
5. Translating by paraphrase
This strategy can be used when a word or phrase in the SL does not exist in the TL or when a
when a term in TL does not include all the meanings conveyed by the SL term for the same
concept.
For example:
Source text: “Pregnant women should avoid alcohol”
Target text: “Phụ nữ mang thai không nên uống rượu”
In English, the word “alcohol” includes all alcohol drinks in its meaning, but that equivalent
word in Vietnamese “rượu” does not include “bia” in its definition. Therefore, the
Vietnamese sentence should add “bia” or use another phrase “đồ uống có c ồn” to reflect the
full meanings.
6. Translating by omission
Although some theorists may object to this strategy since it is too drastic, it is sometimes
appropriate to omit some words or phrases that are not essential to the meaning or the impact
of the text.
For example:
Source text: “Much can be done even without being physically present at the meeting”
Target text: “Nhiều việc có thể làm ngay cả khi không có mặt tại cuộc họp”
In this translation, the difference between “physically present” and “present” is so minimal
that it does not seriously affect the meaning of Vietnamese meanings. Therefore, the omission
of “physically” in Vietnamese sentence can be acceptable.
REFERENCES
1. Baker, M. (1992). In Other Words: a Coursebook on Translation. London:
Routledge.
2. Kade, O. (1968). Chance and regularity in translation. Leipzig: Enzyklopädie.
3. Pym (1992) Translation and Text Transfer. An Essay on the Principles of
Intercultural Communication, Frankfurt/Main: Peter Lang.
4. Nida, Eugene A and Charles R. Taber (1982). The Theory and Practice of
Translation. Leiden: E.J.Brill.
5. Koller, W. (1979). Contrastive Linguistics and Translation Studies: Similarities
and Distinctions. Heidelberg: Quelle and Meyer

A popular saying goes “It is easier to change the course of a river than a
person’s nature.” Despite my parents’ tireless guidance, my natural desire to talk
never went away, and that is what makes my name – Mo Yan, or “don’t speak” –
an ironic expression of self-mockery. After dropping out of elementary school, I
was too small for heavy labor, so I became a cattle- and sheep-herder on a nearby
grassy riverbank. The sight of my former schoolmates playing in the schoolyard
when I drove my animals past the gate always saddened me and made me aware of
how tough it is for anyone – even a child – to leave the group.
Có một câu nói quen thuộc rằng "bản tính con người còn khó uốn nắn hơn cả
dòng sông". Bất chấp sự uốn nắn không mệt mỏi của cha mẹ, khao khát tự nhiên
của tôi - là nói chuyện - không bao giờ cạn, và đó là nguồn gốc cái tên của tôi -
Mạc Ngôn, hay "đừng nói" - một sự tự phê thật tréo ngoe. Sau khi bỏ trường tiểu
học, tôi quá nhỏ để có thể lao động nặng, do đó tôi trở thành người chăn cừu và gia
súc bên một bờ sông đầy cỏ. Cái cảnh bạn học đang chơi trong sân trường, trong
khi tôi lùa lũ động vật qua cổng, luôn làm tôi buồn và thấy rằng thật không may
cho những ai - ngay cả một đứa bé - nếu phải rời bỏ tập thể.
I turned the animals loose on the riverbank to graze beneath a sky as blue as
the ocean and grass-carpeted land as far as the eye could see – not another person
in sight, no human sounds, nothing but bird calls above me. I was all by myself and
terribly lonely; my heart felt empty. Sometimes I lay in the grass and watched
clouds float lazily by, which gave rise to all sorts of fanciful images. That part of
the country is known for its tales of foxes in the form of beautiful young women,
and I would fantasize a fox-turned-beautiful girl coming to tend animals with me.
She never did come. Once, however, a fiery red fox bounded out of the brush in
front of me, scaring my legs right out from under me. I was still sitting there
trembling long after the fox had vanished. Sometimes I’d crouch down beside the
cows and gaze into their deep blue eyes, eyes that captured my reflection. At times
I’d have a dialogue with birds in the sky, mimicking their cries, while at other
times I’d divulge my hopes and desires to a tree. But the birds ignored me, and so
did the trees. Years later, after I’d become a novelist, I wrote some of those
fantasies into my novels and stories. People frequently bombard me with
compliments on my vivid imagination, and lovers of literature often ask me to
divulge my secret to developing a rich imagination. My only response is a wan
smile.
Tôi để lũ động vật nhởn nhơ gặm cỏ bên bờ sông, dưới nền trời xanh nước
biển, trên thảm cỏ xa hết tầm mắt - chẳng có bóng dáng hay tiếng người, chẳng có
gì ngoài tiếng chim kêu trên đầu. Tôi cô đơn khủng khiếp, và thấy tâm hồn trống
rỗng. Thỉnh thoảng tôi nằm trên cỏ nhìn mây trôi lững lờ và hình dung ra ở đó đủ
loại hình ảnh. Khung cảnh ấy gắn liền với những câu chuyện về những con cáo với
vẻ ngoài thiếu nữ xinh đẹp, và tôi tưởng tượng rằng một hồ ly tinh đến cùng mình
chăn dắt lũ động vật. Cô gái ấy không đến. Tuy nhiên, có lần một con cáo đỏ lửa
ve vẩy cái đuôi trước mặt tôi, khiến tôi hoảng hốt rụt chân lại. Tôi vẫn ngồi đó run
rẩy khá lâu sau khi con cáo biến mất. Đôi lúc tôi ngồi thụp xuống cạnh con bò,
nhìn chằm chằm vào đôi mắt xanh sâu thẳm của nó, đôi mắt thu gọn bóng hình của
tôi. Vài lần tôi trò chuyện với lũ chim trên trời, bắt chước tiếng kêu của chúng; vài
lần khác tôi tiết lộ với một cái cây những hy vọng và khao khát của mình. Nhưng
lũ chim phớt lờ tôi, và những cái cây cũng vậy. Khi đã là một tiểu thuyết gia, tôi
đưa một số câu chuyện tưởng tượng ấy vào tác phẩm. Mọi người thường công kích
tôi vì tính hư cấu quá nhiều, còn những người yêu văn học thường đề nghị tôi tiết
lộ bí mật trong việc phát triển một sự hư cấu phong phú. Phản ứng duy nhất của tôi
chỉ là một nụ cười cầu hòa.

I was born ugly. Villagers often laughed in my face, and school bullies sometimes
beat me up because of it. I’d run home crying, where my mother would say,
“You’re not ugly, Son. You’ve got a nose and two eyes, and there’s nothing wrong
with your arms and legs, so how could you be ugly? If you have a good heart and
always do the right thing, what is considered ugly becomes beautiful.” Later on,
when I moved to the city, there were educated people who laughed at me behind
my back, some even to my face; but when I recalled what Mother had said, I just
calmly offered my apologies.
My illiterate mother held people who could read in high regard. We were so poor
we often did not know where our next meal was coming from, yet she never denied
my request to buy a book or something to write with. By nature hard working, she
had no use for lazy children, yet I could skip my chores as long as I had my nose in
a book. … (Diễn từ Nobel của Mạc Ngôn)

Old Anthony Rockwall, retired manufacturer and proprietor of Rockwall's Eureka

Soap, looked out the library window of his Fifth Avenue mansion and grinned. His
neighbour to the right--the aristocratic clubman, G. Van Schuylight Suffolk-Jones--
came out to his waiting motor-car, wrinkling a contumelious nostril, as usual, at
the Italian renaissance sculpture of the soap palace's front elevation.

"Stuck-up old statuette of nothing doing!" commented the ex-Soap King. "The
Eden Musee'll get that old frozen Nesselrode yet if he doesn't watch out. I'll have
this house painted red, white, and blue next summer and see if that'll make his
Dutch nose turn up any higher."……

……"You're a gentleman," said Anthony, decidedly. "I've heard of these young

bloods spending $24 a dozen for soap, and going over the hundred mark for
clothes. You've got as much money to waste as any of 'em, and yet you stick to
what's decent and moderate. Now I use the old Eureka--not only for sentiment, but
it's the purest soap made. Whenever you pay more than 10 cents a cake for soap
you buy bad perfumes and labels. But 50 cents is doing very well for a young man
in your generation, position and condition. As I said, you're a gentleman. They say
it takes three generations to make one. They're off. Money'll do it as slick as soap
grease. It's made you one. By hokey! it's almost made one of me. I'm nearly as
impolite and disagreeable and ill-mannered as these two old Knickerbocker gents
on each side of me that can't sleep of nights because I bought in between
'em."…….. (Mammon and the Archer by O. Henry)

The road ahead will be long. Our climb will be steep. We may not get there in one
year or even in one term. But, America, I have never been more hopeful than I am
tonight that we will get there.

I promise you, we as a people will get there.

There will be setbacks and false starts. There are many who won't agree with every
decision or policy I make as president. And we know the government can't solve
every problem.

But I will always be honest with you about the challenges we face. I will listen to
you, especially when we disagree. (Hello, Chicago by B. Obama)