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    Deities Cee Fatigue and Fracture Toughness of Epoxy Nanocomposites I. Srivastava and N. Koratkar The fatigue and failure mechanisms of epoxy composites have been re- searched extensively because of their ‘commercial importance in fields de- ‘manding materials with high specific strength. Particulate, sheets, short and long fibers with dimensions in the mi- crometer and nanometer range are the ‘major filers which have been swudied for enhancing the fatigue resistance of epoxies. The nano and micro scale dimensions ofthe fillers give rise 10 une expected and fascinating mechanical properties, often superior to the ma- trix including fracture toughness and {fatigue crack propagation resistance. ‘Such properties are dependent on each ‘other (e.g, the fatigue properties of the polymer composites have been found to be strongly influenced by its tough- ness). This article is a review of the various developments in this field and the underlying mechanisms which are responsible for performance improve- ments in such composites: INTRODUCTION Fatigue is a mode of progressive failure in solids under cyclic loading at stresses lower than the material's ulti- ‘mate tensile stress.’ Due to the increas- ing use of polymers and their com- posites in engineering applications, especially the aerospace industry, the fatigue properties of composites have inspired much work The character- ization of material behavior under cy- clic loading is done either by fatigue life (5-N) measurement or by studying the fatigue crack propagation (FCP) rate in the material. The growth of a crack in the stable region under cyclic load- ing (Figure 1) is governed by the Paris da aw and is given by “4 =craKy'? given by >= C(AKY ‘According to the Paris law, the crack OOOO OVO KKHHEHEHEEYDDDDDDY How would yo Aeseribe the over of this paper? The mechanical properties of epoxy nanocomposites have been fextensvely researched because of their commercial importance in elds demanding materials with high ‘specific srength. Various filers like ano-ceramic, nano-rubber, carbon nanotubes, and nano-clay sheets Ihave been stud for enhancing the ftique resistance and fracture toughness of epoxy composites. This article sa review ofthe significant developments to enhance fracture toughness and ftigue resistance of pony nano-composies, ignificance describe this work to a materials science and engineering professional with no experience in Your technical specialty? Thermoset polymers like epoxy are important for the aerospace and ‘automobile industry de to their high specific strength. However they lack damage tolerance, a critical tribute for advanced applications Tnroducton of second phase in the epoxy matrix may improve the mechanical properties, expecially fracture toughness and fatigue reislance. Epoxy nanocomposites tilizing carbon nanotubes, nano: ceramics and nano-rubber exhibit ‘superior properties compared tothe .desribe this work to a layperson? Epoxy composites have greatly Influenced the aerospace and ‘automobile industry by allowing new designs and innovations. Two Important material properties evtical for advanced applications are high ‘racture roughness and resistance to ‘yee loading. Epoxy has poor crack propagation resistance because of Tove dacrilty and hence second phase nanoparticles are introduced in the epoxy matrix fr improvements. This article describes how fillers of various geometries and chemical nature affect the matrix propagation rate per cycle (da/dN) is directly proportional (o the stress in- tensity factor range AK and two con- stants, C and n, which depend on the testing parameters including moisture, temperature, loading frequency, and the stress ratio." The faster the rate of crack propagation, the lower the fatigue resistance. Smaller values of the Paris, exponent signify high material resis- tance to FCP. The Paris exponent, and hence the fatigue properties of the ma- terial, have been found to be strongly influenced by their fracture toughness. An increase in toughness of the matrix has been associated with an increase in FCP resistance of the material.”"” ‘The S-N curve is another classical approach used for studying fatigue be- havior of a material. The curve gives fan estimate of the material's fatigue life under controlled amplitude of cy- clic stress, Hysteresis loss measure- ments are also utilized to determine the resistance of polymers to crack initiation and crazing. ‘The fatigue process has been tradi- tionally divided into three stages: crack initiation, erack propagation, and final failure." Surface flaws and inclusions are the most common sites for fatigue crack initiation, In most engineering materials cracks ate inherently pres- ent on the component surface. An- other area prone to crack generation is the second phase-matrix interface. Due to high local stress concentration and the discontinuity in mechanical properties at the particle-matrix inter- face crack initiation becomes easy. In polymer matrix composites (PMC), the failure mechanisms are not as well understood/defined as in metals. In the failure of a PMC multiple mecha- nisms might contribute, such as matrix crazing, shear yielding, delamination, 50 www.tms.org/jom.htm! JOM + February 2010 owe 1.AN ECP dagan ‘eat matrix in com presi apodielan) Improved system.* stress intensity factor log AK fiber breakage, debonding, plastic void growth, and matrix cracking.” Some scanning electron micrographs to convey a broad picture of failures in polymer composites are shown in Fig- ure 2. See the sidebar on page 52 for a de- scription of polymer failure modes. THERMOSETTING EPOXIES Epoxy resin (two or more groups of epoxide per molecule) and a curing agent comprise an epoxy system. Ep- oxy composites are used for aircraft, automobiles, ship-building, resin cast- ing, slide bearings, and many other applications because of their good chemical and corrosion resistance, high specific strength, and multiple curing options. Despite these advan- tages epoxy lacks a crucial attribute damage tolerance. Offering a fracture nergy of less than 0.3 kJ/m?, they can be classified as highly brittle" As specified by Johnston,"* the fracture «nergy fora resin to be used in aircraft structures should lie in the range of 1.9-3 ki/m?. Epoxy possess aromatic rings, which increase the polymer chain stiffness and has high cross link density; hence the plastic deformation in front of the crack tip is highly local- ized. This extremely localized plastic deformation causes litle absorption of energy leading to catastrophic brittle failure, Enhancement in strength and stiffness of the polymer matrix can be obtained by increasing the cross-link density, but it also increases the brit- tleness of the polymer leading to re- duced toughness.*" In order to control the toughness and hence the fatigue of thermoset polymers, studies have been done on the introduction of a second phase in them. Since the toughening ‘mechanism in thermoset polymers is not a well-understood phenomenon, it led to the study of various kinds of fillers to obtain optimum mechanical properties of the composite. Some of the second phases that have been studied are micro- and nano-size par- liculates like rubber (e.g., carboxyl terminated butadiene acrylonitrile (CTBN))" thermoplastics (eg., polyethersulphone),* ceramic par- tiles (¢g., ALO)” some reactive di- Iuents long and shore fibers includ- ing carbon nanotubes; laminates of fibers" in different orientations, ay- ‘ered silicate membranes,” and their combinations.» FILLER PROPERTIES AFFECTING TOUGHNESS AND FATIGUE The use of fillers like elastomers with lower modulus than that of the matrix results in composites with in- ‘exeased toughness" due to high duc- tility, but modulus of the composite decreases,"" whereas for inorganic fillers the modulus of the composite is observed to be more than that of the polymer matrix.” The size of the fillers also plays a central role, Use of nano-filers (NF) has proved more cffective than micro-filer (MF) in en- hhancing the strength of the polymer ‘matrix, without compromising ductil- ity. The size of the NF (a few tens of rm in diameter) being smaller than the micro-sized filler reduces the stress concentrations in comparison (o MF (@ few tens of um in diameter)” The high stress concentration atthe surface makes MF more prone to cracking as ‘compared to NE. Another advantage of having nano- sized fillers is that for the same volume fraction of fillers added, the particle density will be higher for NF than for MF Therefore, the distance between ‘two neighboring particles will be Figure 2. Scanning electron micrographs of common mechanisms contributing to polymer composite flue (a) shear yelan ‘surface, and (d) parle pull out and past (b) crazing, (c) ber delamination fracture void grown" Vol. 62 No. 2 * JOM www.tms.orgijom.htm! BASIC FAILURE MODES IN POLYMERS Depending upon the chemistry and the curing agent used, the failure mode of the polymer matrix could be either ductile or bitle. The ductile mode is often identified by shear yielding. An increase in britle nature ofthe polymer is seen a a shift from shear yielding to micro-voiding followed by crazing. Incase of networked polymers lke epoxy highly brite failure without crazing is common, ‘Shear Yielding Shear yielding isan energy absorption mechanism associated with polymer failure. It ‘occurs when localized plastic flow stars in response to an applied stress at approximately 45° to the applied load. Such plastic flow might spread shear bands in the whole sample (Figure 2s) absorbing significant quantity of energy or might lead to localized yielding resulting in igolated shear bands Crazing CCrazing is another common failure mode that is observed in glass and amorphous thermoplastic polymers.” During crazing, microcracks form under tensile load and are held together by polymer fibril called erazes (Figure 2b). Formation and plastic deformation of such crazes involves absorption of energy, which leads to enhanced {oughness. When the applied stress is high enough to cause failure of the ibils, the microcracks start growing. smaller for nano-sized fillers, which {san important parameter in crack ‘bowing and pinning. Lack of transpar- ency is another issue associated with micrometer-sized fillers in polymer composites. ‘Transparency of the composite is improved for nano-fill- crs as their size is less than the wave- length of light, especially when a good dispersion is achieved. The presence of fillers affects the crystallinity, mo- bility, and other structural aspects of polymer chains? Fillers also act as nucleating sites for crystallization of polymer chains.‘ The effectiveness of load transfer between the polymer and the filler is a function of wettability and adherence. The two plots in Figure 3 demonstrate the difference in the static mechanical and fatigue prop- erties of the neat epoxy, Al,O, rein- forced epoxy, and APTES (3-amino- propyltrethoxysilane) modified Al,O, reinforced epoxy. The surface modi- fication of filers improves their dis- persion, which could also be attained by physical means like ultasonica- tion Another significant filler property is the aspect ratio.” Layered silicates, with thickness in nanometers and length and width in micrometers, and carbon nanotubes, with diameter in nanometers and length in micrometers, have much higher aspect ratios than particulates. This leads to a more ef- Reactive functional elastomers (e.g. CTBN (carboxyl terminated Butadi- enc)" HTBN (hydroxyl terminated Butadiene), ATBN (amine terminated Butadiene),** VIBN (Venyl_ termi- nated Butadiene),* and ETBN (epoxy terminated Butadiene)" increased the fracture toughness of the polymer matrix when added between 5-20% weight fraction.* To obtain rubber dispersion in epoxy, rubber is dissolved in epoxy resin fol- lowed by curing with appropriate hard- ener. After curing, a dispersed phase of rubber in epoxy matrix is observed ‘The degree of phase separation and the dispersion size can be controlled by ‘controlling curing parameters and filler volume fraction."** Elastomer addition by either phase separation at adequate temperature or through addition in the form of fine solid powder was found to improve the ductility of the thermo- set, increasing its toughness to around 2-4 Ki/m*.* Shown in Figure 4a is a scanning electron micrograph of the dispersed phase of nano-rubber in ep- oxy. Treatment of rubber with silane ‘coupling agents, plasma oxidation, and acid treatment has been found t0 en- hance interfacial interaction, leading to an increase in fracture toughness." ficient load transfer and the increased toughness of the composite." PARTICULATE-POLYMER. COMPOSITE Rubber - Thermoset Around 1971, the Sultan and McGar- ry group initiated research on the effect, ‘of rubber in thermoset polymers“ 10 sr @ wor ) =n Zep zo Zot Figure 3. A comparison r Tyo tea Poymer of (a) toughness” and 4] (G tonarnay {© FCP resssiance of al toprnrazoyer | | ©) FOP resistance of %0 —(etophrAPTESALOVE*] | Gra surace. modified AO, in epoxy" o2 4s 8 a sean) 1 x10 gate Patel as aye aK $2 wo xe Bg oxo 33 > New Poh 2 wx04 2 1p NEALOVEP + 10h APTES-ALO/EP oxo . _ of 2Z___03_04 05 06 07 08051 » ‘Appi Sass ensty Range, AK (Pain) 82 www.tms.org/jom.htm! JOM « February 2010 a 00mm b oonm 00am Figure 4. Transmission electron micrographs of dispersed phases: (8) nane-rubber, (9) nano-siica, and (c) organoclay C30B in nylon-6 matrix? The crack propagation velocity in rubber-reinforced polymers has been measured’ and it was observed that «rack blunting in the rubber phase of the composite significantly decreased the crack propagation velocity. In the pres- cence of rubber particles the crack tip blunts due to localized shear yielding around it. Figure Sais a plot of FCP rate in rubber reinforced epoxy composite with increasing filer content. ‘The plot shows improvement in the fatigue resistance of the composite with increasing rubber phase fraction, Fatigue property studies of elastomer- ‘epoxy composites have shown the early initiation of crazes around the rubber particles, proving useful inthe late life of the material by improving the toughness of the polymer matrix via microeraz- ing, cavitation, and shear yielding.™”* ‘The rubber phase undergoes significant strain and finally acts as a Ligament in the polymer craze.”” However, this duc- Iility is achieved atthe cost of modulus, strength, and impact resistance of the matrix! ~ 20.2 wi.% of nano SiO, fillers, with an increase in elastic modulus from 2.96 GPa to 3.85 GPa." Numerous phenomena are associ- ‘ated with the toughness increase in par- ticulate-reinforced composites, some of Which are crack deflection, crack pin- ning, and debonding followed by plastic void growth, Crack deflection is the pro- cess of tilting and twisting of cracks in the matrix around the filler particles, as shown schematically in Figure 6a and b During the deflection process the crack tip propagates under mixed I and II ‘mode and the fracture surface roughens (Figure 6e) as an outcome of increase in fracture toughness." Theoretical models for such deflec- tion studies have been analyzed by Faber and Evans." Crack pinning is a process similar to pinning of dislocations by im- purity or second phase particles in the ‘matrix. First proposed by Lange," the process describes the bending of the ‘rack front in the presence of pinning elements, which obstruct its smooth ‘motion. The crack pinning is studied by ‘observing the bowing of the crack front, Ceramic -Thermoset a a Ka) ‘The reinforcement of epoxy using ceramic particles with materials such 10000 as glass beads." silica and alu- 1% ‘in, from micrometer to nanometer L size, is found to increase the toughness ee nf of the matix without compromising its z rigidity, Surface-coated inorganic filles 3 soo have been fund to improve mechanical = properties of the composite under both Figure 5. (a) FOP rate g 100 tensile and cyclic load." In Figure 4b‘ neat (Q) and rein. 2 seaming elton micrograph of he BESBOPOM ANT), | dispersed phase of nano-silica in epoxy ber aontont™ () FCP matrix is shown, The fatigue studies of rate in_neat (8), and , ceramic-flled polymer have shown sig-_fOfPed,epony_ wth be as 040s 08 a7 08 08 nificant improvement," increasing Ky and 40%(0) A,0, eon= Ak MPa 2) from ~0.5 MPa to 0.88 MPa!? with tent Vol. 62 No. 2* JOM worw.tms.org/jom.html 53 as shown schematically in Figure 7a Crack pinning is observed only when the filler size is greater than the erack- ‘opening displacement; hence it is an ef- fective pinning mechanism mostly for ‘micrometer size fillers for epoxy matrix ‘whose crack opening size has been cal- ccalated to be ~1.7 um." The crack front bows in between the particles, leaving behind tail-like structures (Figure 7b). Particle debonding and local plastic void growth is another phenomenon contributing (othe fracture toughness in- crease of the polymer matrix infiltrated with micro- and nano-flless Figure 8) The debonding of the filler relaxes the stress state at the crack tip and causes deformation of polymer matrix by void growth process. Plastic void growth of the polymer thas been reported to be the major cause ‘of toughening for nano-sized SiO, and 1,0, particles due to enhanced shear yielding of the polymer. Functionalized pano-Al,0, fillers which had better ad- hesion with the epoxy matrix than un- tweated fillers, were found to have 39% higher strain to break as compared to the neat polymer, whereas unmodified nano-AL,, fillers showed only 6% in- ‘cease at 10 phr (parts per hundred) filler concentration, It was realized that the plastic void growth mechanism is FATIGUE BEHAVIOR IN COMPOSITES. Clay Nanosheet Polymers Exfoliated clay sheet reinforced polymers have been considered, for improved fatigue resistance of polymers. When the intercala- tion of clay layers through polymer chains is not possible, phase separation occurs and a micro-composite instead of nano-compos- ite is obtained, making the dispersion of nano-clay in the polymer critical for composite properties, Dispersion of clay nano-sheet in polymer is difficult due to the hydrophilic nature of clays and hydrophobic nature of polyamers. The dispersion barrier is over- ‘come using organic surfactants like vinylbenzyldimethyldodecy- ammonium chloride (VDAC), which makes the clay surface or- _ganophillc.” Forcing polymer chains through the exfoliated layers ‘of clay sheets (afew nm thick) leads toa finely dispersed compos ite (Figure 4c)" The high aspect rato of exfoliated clay layers provides large interfacial contact area with the matrix.” Studies ‘nthe mechanical properties including fatigue of such nang-layer reinforced composites have shown improvement in neat and ta ditional fiber reinforced polymers. An addition of S wi.% nano silicate clay in polypropylene has been found to increase fatigue strength coeflicient (tue stress which causes failure in one rever- sal) by 13.39% with respect to the neat polymer and at the same time resulting in an increment in modulus and yield strength by 90% and 5%, respectively ™ The sifiness and toughness of nano- clay epoxy composite has been reported to increase with an increase in Giller content * The facture surfaces of such composites have been found to be much rougher than plain epoxy, indicating higher energy absorbtion by the system prior to fracture, Crack deflection has been implied by the presence of steps and microcracking on the fracture surface. The fracture toughness and FCP resistance ofthe composite have been found to increase by chemical modification of clay sheets like sutface treatment of the clay layers with 3-amino- _propyltriethoxysilane or long chain alkylammonium salt and using physical means lke forcing polymer in between clay layers using a (win serew extruder" Nanofibers [Nanolibers are whiskers with diameters in the range of «few hun- red nanometers and lengths ofa few hundred micrometers. Vapor grown carbon nanofibers (VGCNFS) obtained from chemical vapor eposition of hydrocarbons, have been used to reinforce the epoxy matrix due to its excellent mechanical properties.” Vapor grown carbon nanofibers consist of a few-nanometeriameter carbon tubes surrounded by concentric circles of carbon layers increasing its outer diameter to around 50-200 nm, Dispersion of the VGCNF® is difficult to achieve as the fibers get twisted and intertwined. Using surface treatments like funetional- ‘gation and plasma treatment, beter dispersion and interfacial ad- 10 Theory PURE EPOXY — Theory + 0.10% MNT — Theory -0.25% MWNT Figure A. (3) Scanning electron micrograph ofthe side view ofthe fatigue crack. The microstructure of the sample in the vicinity ofthe crack is shown. () Close to the crack tip, fiber bridging zone is shown, where the nanctubes are pulled out of the matrix but are effectively bridging the crack interface. (¢) Ata small distance behind the crack tip, some nanotubes are bridging the crack and some are pulled out of the mati (d) Far behind the crack tp, nanotubes are completely pulled out of the matt (8) Lowering of FCP rate in MWNT reinforced epoxy with ing Weight fraction of MVWNT.® 84 www.tms.orgijom.htm! JOM + February 2010 the main mechanism resulting in the rise in toughness.““* Figure 5b isa plot of FCP in Al,O, epoxy composite with varying volume fraction of filler. See the sidebar for fatigue behavior in vari- ‘ous composites. THREE-PHASE COMPOSITES Oriented fiber reinforced compos- ites with excellent longitudinal prop- certies have poor transverse properties due to lack of fibers in the thickness direction." Lack of fibers through the thickness of the composite also leads to poor fatigue behavior. Weaving of fibers in the thickness direction (ie. stitched composites) can be used to im- prove the transverse properties of lami- nated composites but only at the cost of longitudinal properties." Another approach to improve the properties of these traditional composites is by us- ing nanofillers like CNTs to improve the interlaminar strength of the com- posite. The CNTs could either be randomly distributed or vertically ori- ‘ented on the fibers."""!" The effect of functionalization of the CNTs in such three phase composites was observed to further enhance the transverse and longitudinal toughness of traditional ‘epoxy/fiber composites." hhesion between the polymer matrix and carbon nano-fibers (CNF) is achieved." Since random dispersion of VGCF leads to isowopic properties in the composite, to oblain desired alignment extrusion'™ and magnetic field" are employed. Vapor grown carbon nanofibers hhave resulted in an increase in the fracture toughness of epoxy with increasing fiber content ™ The fatigue life and the fatigue strength of nanofiber-reinforced epoxy were also found to improve substantially ‘0 introduction of ~2% VGCE. The increase in fracture toughnest is attributed to fiber debonding and the pull out mechanism, ‘Carbon Nanotube Polymers Carbon nanotubes have been demonstrated to increase the fatigue life of PMCs. The fatigue crack propagation velocity is significantly reduced through the action of crack bridging by the CNTs and the subsequent dissipation of energy that occurs due tothe frictional pull. ‘out ofthe bridging CNT fibers as shown in Figure Aa-d, In the low stress intensity factor amplitude regime a decrease inthe crack propa gation rate by over ten-fold is reported.” with strong dependence on the weight fraction of CNTs, Figure Ae shows the increase in resis tance to fatigue erack propagation with an inerease i the weight frac~ tion of multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWNTS) in the epoxy matrix. ‘The amount of CNT required for such a reduction in FCP rate is lest than 1% which is small in comparison to the amount of particulate nano-fllers (-S-10%) For the ease of CNT filles, a substantial reduction in the fatigue suppression with increasing AK (Figure Ac) is observed. This is because in the case of CNTs the dominant toughening and fatigue 10 + Eay $1020 ym 212m os Eto = E 7 3 aa se crack suppression mechanism is crack bridging. The fatigue crack. is bridged by high aspect ratio nanotubes generating a tber-bridg- ing zone in the wake of the crack tp, As the crack advances energy is dissipated by the fictional pull-out of the bridging nanotubes, from the epoxy matrix which slows the erack propagation speed, However this erack bridging effect loses effectiveness at high AK due to progressive shrinkage in the sizeof the fiber-bridging zone as AK is increased.” The fact that such behavior is not observed ‘in nanoparticle filled epoxy composites indicates that crack bridg- ing phenomena are not playing a dominant role in the fracture and fatigue of nanoparticle filled polymer systems. Reducing the CNT diameter and increasing its length has been shown to increase the effectiveness (Figure B) of the crack bridging mechanism.” Functionalizing CNT with amido-amine groups has also been shown to enhance the epoxy’s resistance to fatigue crack propaga- tion by inidating craze formation (Figure 2b) in the epoxy." The origin ofthe crazing behavior was traced toa significant amount of ‘unreacted epoxy that was kinetically rapped inthe crosslinked ma- ‘six structure that is formed at the CNTiepoxy interface. Suck local heterogeneity inthe curing may be caused by a variety of factors, such as, for example, the fact thatthe chemistry may be modified locally due to the presence of amido-amine groups. Epoxy chain alignment, which is known to influence the cross-linking density, ‘may also be modified locally due to the presence of these functional, groups, Heterogeneous cross-linking resuls in localized pockets of enhanced molecular mobility: the correlated evolution of such contiguous mobile regions under mechanical loading lead to craz~ ing which substantially boosts the toughness and the resistance to fatigue crack propagation of the baseline epoxy. 1 oer 5 250m toe a” gu Zs i P : me ZA ws} 97 02 03 (035 OF 045 | 05 085 | 0804s 0 AKIMPan) 0% 0305 08 0a Os OSS 0805 rn AK(MPavn) Figure B. (a) Effect of nanotube diameter on fatigue suppression performance; (b) effect of nanotube length on fatigue suppression perfor- Vol. 62 No. 2 * JOM www.tms.orgijom.htm! CONCLUSION Fatigue life improvements in epoxy ‘composites have been studied and re- cn ° crack Propagation Diecton searched for a wide variety of second- phase particles. Different kinds of fill- cers have different ways of obstructing FCP. Particulate fibers obstruct the fa- op twist’ under» mixed mode on encounter Ing second phase particles." (c) and {) scanning electron tou Figure 7.(a) A schematic of second phase particles pinning the crack font, leaving behind {alike structure." (b) Scanning electton micrograph ilistrating the fracture surface of ‘epoxy reinforced with TiO, nanoparticles, demonstrating the tailike structures.” Figur 8. (a) and (b) Scanning elecon micrographs iustrating the fracture sulace of alass-parcle epoxy mat ate debonding * tigue crack by crack deflection, crack pinning, debonding, and plastic void growth whereas short fibers undergo ‘rack bridging and erack trapping. Rubber composites degrade the original stiffness of the epoxy matrix whereas inorganic particles are not as, efficient as rubber in enhancing the toughness of the composite. High-as- pect-ratio fibers such as carbon nano- tubes are able to significantly enhance the epoxy’s fatigue crack propagation resistance at relatively low weight fractions (below 0.5%), but they lose their effectiveness at high stress in- tensity factor amplitudes. Graphene is another emerging nano-material and shows promise to enhance fracture and fatigue properties of polymers" at low loading fractions due to its high specific surface area, two-dimensional sheet geometry, strong. filler-matrix adhesion, and the outstanding me- ‘chanical properties of the sp? carbon bonding network in graphene." Due to the increasing interest of research- ‘ers in graphene composites, in-depth study of the fracture and fatigue prop- erties of grapheme-based composite materials is clearly warranted, In addition, theoretical/computa- tional modeling of fracture and fatigue in nanocomposites is still in its infan- cy. Improved models for toughness in nanocomposites and validation with experimental data are essential for development of nanocomposite poly- mers with optimized strength, stiff- ness, fracture, and fatigue properties. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS NK. acknowledges the fund ing support from the US. Office of Naval Research (Award Number: 000140910928) and the U.S. Na- tional Science Foundation (Award Number: 0900188). References 1.8. Sure, Faigu cf Mater, 2(Cambrge Unive iy Press, tea) 2.LA, Piso and Mal Mena, Advanced Composte Meri, 1 Ben, Germany: Sang, 884, 5L.PM Aaya eta, Nanccopest Since and Tech roy Wein, Germany Wle-VCH. 2008 4,0. Hull and Che, An introduction fo Compasie Matera, 2 (Camerdge, UK: Carriage Ui Press, 1996) 5.1 Lpaov etal, Pohmer Rentrcement 1 Ontari, Canasa Chere Pulshing, 1965) ‘S.WeAtstag, Faiqu of Polmere Nate Ene pedi of Mate: S2ence and Technology (Amt 56 www.tms.org/jom.htm! 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