Alkaline hydrolysis (body disposal)

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An alkaline hydrolysis disposal system at the Biosecurity Research Institute inside of Pat Roberts Hall at
Kansas State University

Alkaline hydrolysis (also called biocremation, resomation,[1][2] flameless

cremation, aquamation[3] or water cremation[4]) is a process for the disposal of human
and pet remains using lye and heat. The process is being marketed as an alternative to
the traditional options of burial or cremation.

Contents

 1Process
o 1.1History
 2Religious views
 3Legal status
o 3.1United States
o 3.2Canada
o 3.3United Kingdom
o 3.4Australia
o 3.5Mexico
o 3.6The Netherlands
o 3.7South Africa
 4See also
 5References
 6Further reading
Process[edit]
The process is based on alkaline hydrolysis: the body is placed in a pressure vessel
that is then filled with a mixture of water and potassium hydroxide, and heated to a
temperature around 160 °C (320 °F), but at an elevated pressure, which prevents
boiling. Instead, the body is effectively broken down into its chemical components,
which takes approximately four to six hours. A lower temperature and pressure may be
used, but at a longer duration (98 °C (208 °F), 14 to 16 hours).[5] At the beginning of the
process, the mixture is strongly basic, with a pH level of approximately 14; pH drops to
11 by the end, but the final pH level depends on the total operation time and the amount
of fat in the body.[6]

Alkaline hydrolysis treatment times of infected animal carcasses[6]

Pathogen Temperature Pressure Time

212 °F 15 psi
Microbal 3 hours
100 °C 100 kPa

300 °F 70 psi
TSE 6–8 hours
149 °C 480 kPa

The result is a quantity of green-brown tinted liquid (containing amino

acids, peptides, sugars and salts) and soft, porous white bone remains (calcium
phosphate) easily crushed in the hand (although a cremulator is more commonly used)
to form a white-colored dust. The "ash" can then be returned to the next of kin of the
deceased. The liquid is disposed of either through the sanitary sewer system, or
through some other method, including use in a garden or green space. [7] To dispose of
1,000 pounds (450 kg), approximately 60–240 US gallons (230–910 l; 50–200 imp gal)
of water are used, resulting in 120–300 US gallons (450–1,140 l; 100–250 imp gal) of
effluent, which carries a dried weight of 20 pounds (9.1 kg) (approximately 2% of
original weight).[6]
This alkaline hydrolysis process has been championed by a number of ecological
campaigning groups,[8] for using 90 kWh of electricity,[9] one-quarter the energy of flame-
based cremation, and producing less carbon dioxide and pollutants.[1][4] It is being
presented as an alternative option at some British crematorium sites. [10] As of August
2007, about 1,000 people had chosen this method for the disposition of their remains in
the United States.[11] The operating cost of materials, maintenance, and labor associated
with the disposal of 2,000 pounds (910 kg) of remains was estimated at $116.40,
[6]
 excluding the capital investment cost of equipment.
Alkaline hydrolysis has also been adopted by the pet and animal industry. A handful of
companies in North America offer the procedure as an alternative to pet cremation.
  Alkaline hydrolysis is also used in the agricultural industry to sterilize animal
[12]

carcasses that may pose a health hazard, because the process inactivates viruses,
bacteria, and prions causing transmissible spongiform encephalopathy.[6][13][14]
History[edit]
The process was originally developed as a method to process animal carcasses into
plant food, patented by Amos Herbert Hobson in 1888. [5][15][9] In 2005 Bio-Response
Solutions designed, sold, and installed the first single cadaver alkaline hydrolysis
system and placed it in Mayo Clinic where it was still in use in 2019.[16] In 2007, a
Scottish biochemist, Sandy Sullivan, started a company making the machines, and
calling the process (and company) Resomation.[17]

Religious views[edit]
See also: Cremation §  Religious views
In Christian countries and cultures, cremation has historically been discouraged and
viewed as a desecration of God’s image, and as interference with the Resurrection of
the dead taught in Scripture. It is now acceptable to some denominations. [18]
The Roman Catholic Church allows cremation of bodies as long as it is not done in
denial of the beliefs in the sacredness of the human body or the resurrection of the
dead.[19]
Desmond Tutu, former Anglican Archbishop of of Cape Town, chose to be aquamated,
[20]
 though more for environmental reasons rather than religious reasons. [21]
The Eastern Orthodox Church does not allow cremation.
Judaism forbids cremation as it is not in line with the teachings of respect and dignity
due to humans, who are created in God's image.
Islam forbids cremation of the deceased.
When alkaline hydrolysis was proposed in New York state in 2012, the New York State
Catholic Conference condemned the practice, stating that hydrolysis does not show
sufficient respect for the teaching of the intrinsic dignity of the human body. [22]

Legal status[edit]
United States[edit]
Alkaline hydrolysis as a method of final disposition of human remains is currently legal
in nineteen states.[4][23][24] Additional rules are pending in New Jersey, New York, North
Carolina, Ohio, and Pennsylvania.[25] The process was legal in New Hampshire for
several years but amid opposition by religious lobby groups it was banned in 2008 [26] and
a proposal to legalize it was rejected in 2013.[27][28] Alkaline hydrolysis has been used for
cadavers donated for research at the University of Florida since the mid 1990s and at
the Mayo Clinic[1] since 2005.[29] UCLA uses the process to dispose of donor bodies. [2]
 Alkaline hydrolysis policy by state

Polic
State Year Legislation Notes Refs.
y

Alabama 2017 H-212 Added definition of alkaline hydrolysis. [30]

Alkaline hydrolysis has been used at UCLA

since 1995 for donated cadavers. Previously,
California 2017 AB967 [31][32]

AB 1615 (2012) was advanced and passed

the Assembly, but died in Senate.

Colorado 2011 HB11-1178 [33]

In use at the University of Florida since the

Florida 2010 SB1152 [34]

mid 1990s.

SB296 pending in House to remove

Georgia 2012 HB933 [35][36]

conflicting language.

Docket 24- Adopted in a docket amending the Rules of

Idaho 2014 [37][38]

0801-1301 the State Board of Morticians.

Illinois 2012 SB1830 Enacted as Public Act 97-0679. [39]

Modified K.S.A. 65-1760 to define

cremation as "the mechanical and/or other
Kansas 2010 HB2310 [40]

dissolution process that reduces human

remains to bone fragments."

Maine 2009 144 CMR 244 [41]

[42]
Maryland 2011 HB995 Added definition for cremation as "the
process of reducing human remains to bone
fragments through intense heat and
 Alkaline hydrolysis policy by state

Polic
State Year Legislation Notes Refs.
y

evaporation, including any mechanical or

thermal process."

Minnesota 2003 SF1071 In use at the Mayo Clinic since 2005. [43]

20 CSR 2120-2.071 does not prohibit

Missouri ? ? alkaline hydrolysis in the definition of
cremation.

Nevada 2017 AB205 [44]

New Legislation to reinstate alkaline hydrolysis

2008 SB332 [28]

Hampshire was rejected in 2013.

North
2018 GS 90-210.136 [45]

Carolina

Added "dissolution" to the definition of final

Oregon 2009 SB796 [46]

disposal.

Texas — — — HB1155 (2017) died in committee. [47]

Utah 2018 HB0121 [48]

Vermont 2014 H.656 Enacted as Act No. 138 [49]

Washington 2020 SB 5001 [50]

 Alkaline hydrolysis policy by state

Polic
State Year Legislation Notes Refs.
y

Enrolled Act No. 21 adds definition for

Wyoming 2014 HB25 [51]

"chemical disposition."

Canada[edit]
Saskatchewan approved the process in 2012, becoming the first province to do so.
[52]
 Quebec and Ontario have also legalized the process.[53] A funeral home in Granby,
Quebec, was the first in the province to receive an alkaline hydrolysis machine. [54]
United Kingdom[edit]
A public crematorium operated by Sandwell Metropolitan Borough Council at Rowley
Regis, central England, was the first to receive planning permission to offer the process
but in March 2017 the local water utility, Severn Trent Water, refused the council's
application for a "trade effluent permit" because there was no water industry standard
regulating the disposal of liquefied human remains into sewers. [55][56]
Australia[edit]
Aquamation based in New South Wales is the only company to currently provide
alkaline hydrolysis in Australia, with the remains being used as fertilizer on plantation
forests, due to difficulty with obtaining permits from Sydney Water.[57]
Mexico[edit]
Since 2019 Grupo Gayosso offers alkaline hydrolysis in Baja California. [58]
The Netherlands[edit]
In May 2020, the Health Council of the Netherlands issued an advisory report on the
admissibility of new techniques of disposing of the dead. The Council proposed a
framework to assess alkaline hydrolysis. It concluded that alkaline hydrolysis is safe,
dignified and sustainable.[59] In addition to alkaline hydrolysis, the Council also
considered human composting as a technique to dispose bodies yet concluded that too
little is known about composting and hence it cannot be assessed whether this
technique fulfills the conditions.[59] Taking into account the Council's recommendations,
the Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations currently [when?] prepares a law proposal
to amend the Corpse Disposal Act. Once the law proposal has been submitted to the
Parliament, the democratic process to admit alkaline hydrolysis as body disposal
technique can be commenced.
South Africa[edit]
In November 2019, Avbob introduced aquamation in South Africa, following the mutual
assurance society’s recent introduction of the alkaline hydrolysis process at its Maitland
agency in Cape Town. [60] Aquamation has been legal in South Africa ever since.
Following his death in December of 2021 the body of Archbishop Desmond Tutu was
aquamated.[20]

See also[edit]
 Burial
 Promession

References[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:      "Biocremation (Resomation) – Body Donation –
a b c

Mayo Clinic".  mayoclinic.org. Retrieved  4 September 2017.

2. ^ Jump up to:    "Bio Cremation – UCLA Donated Body
a b

Program". ucla.edu.
3. ^ France-Presse, Agence (2 January 2022).  "What is
aquamation? The process behind Desmond Tutu's 'green
cremation'". The Guardian. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
4. ^ Jump up to:a b c McClurg, Lesley (July 24, 2017).  "Want to Cut
Your Carbon Footprint? Get Liquefied When You're Dead".
KQED. Retrieved 4 September  2017.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b Stockton, Nick (10 March 2017).  "The Fight to
Legalize a Machine That Melts Flesh From Bone". Wired.
Retrieved 4 September  2017.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e "Alkaline hydrolysis". Managing Contaminated
Animal and Plant Materials: Field Guide on Best
Practices  (PDF). Texas A&M University. Retrieved 4
September  2017.
7. ^ Olson, P. R. (2014). Flush and Bone: Funeralizing Alkaline
Hydrolysis in the United States. Science, Technology, &
Human Values, 39(5), 666–
693. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162243914530475
8. ^ The Groovy Green Archived 2012-03-06 at the Wayback
Machine website is one example of such sites.
9. ^ Jump up to:a b Rothstein, Karla Maria (2013). "Reconfiguring
Urban Spaces of Disposal, Sanctuary, and Remembrance". In
Staudt, Christina; Ellens, J. Harold (eds.). Our Changing
Journey to the End: Reshaping Death, Dying, and Grief in
America. Santa Barbara, California: Praeger.
p. 262.  ISBN  978-1440828461. Retrieved 4
September  2017.
10. ^ See the October 2007 Newsletter of Worthing Crematorium,
operated by Worthing Borough Council in West Sussex,
England.
11. ^ "UK firm: Don't burn bodies, boil them". Physorg News.
2007-08-06.
12. ^ "New 'petuary' liquifies deceased pets, green alternative to
cremation". Los Angeles Daily News.
13. ^ Kaye, G; Weber, P; Evans, A; Venezia, R (May 1998).
"Efficacy of Alkaline Hydrolysis as an Alternative Method for
Treatment and Disposal of Infectious Animal
Waste". Contemp Top Lab Anim Sci.  37  (3): 43–
46.  PMID  12456159.
14. ^ "BBC World Service – People Fixing The World, Greener In
Death".  BBC. Retrieved  2018-11-08.
15. ^ US 394982, Amos Herbert Hobson, "Process of separating
gelatine from bones", published 25 December 1888
16. ^ "About Us".  Bio Response Solutions. Retrieved 2019-12-
04.
17. ^ Siegle, Lucy (2010-04-03). "The innovator: Sandy
Sullivan".  the Guardian. Retrieved 2018-11-08.
18. ^ Gassmann, Günther; Larson, Duane H.; Oldenburg, Mark
W. (2001). Historical Dictionary of Lutheranism. Scarecrow
Press. p.  48. ISBN 978-0810866201. Retrieved  22
April  2014. Cremation was unheard of from the time
Charlemagne outlawed it (784) until the 17th century. At that
point, the practice was urged primarily by those opposed to
the church, and for a long time cremation was forbidden by
Roman Catholicism and practiced only reluctantly by
Protestants. Recently, these strictures have eased, and more
and more churches have established columbaria or memorial
gardens within their precincts for the reception of the ashes
by the faithful.
19. ^ "Catholics and Cremation: Questions and Answers from the
Bishops of New York State". New York State Catholic
Conference. December 6, 2002. Archived from the original  on
June 7, 2015. Retrieved  April 12,  2014.
20. ^ Jump up to:a b "Desmond Tutu: Body of South African Hero to be
Aquamated".  BBC.com. BBC News. Retrieved  1
January  2022.
21. ^ https://www.cnn.com/2022/01/02/africa/desmond-tutu-
aquamation-intl/index.html
22. ^ "NY Catholic conference opposes 'chemical digestion' of
human remains". Mar 25, 2012.
23. ^ Bowdler, Neil (2011-08-31).  "New body 'liquefaction' unit
unveiled in Florida funeral home".  BBC News.
24. ^ Davidson, Lee (2018-02-16). "Lawmakers pass bill to allow
'water cremation' as an alternative to burial, traditional
cremation". The Salt Lake Tribune.
25. ^ Funerals360 (2020-01-14). "Alkaline Hydrolysis Laws in
Your State".  Funerals360.  funerals360.com. Retrieved 2021-
08-21.
26. ^ "States consider: Is it legal to dissolve
bodies?".  msnbc.com.
27. ^ "New Hampshire Senate Rejects Proposal For Alkaline
Hydrolysis". Connecting Directors Funeral News. 3 May
2013. Archived from the original  on 1 May 2015.
Retrieved 12 August  2015.
28. ^ Jump up to:a b New Hampshire General Court  (2008), SB332
(2008): prohibiting the disposal of human remains through a
reductive process utilizing alkaline hydrolysis in New
 Hampshire and establishing a committee to examine the
practice of resomation.
29. ^ ABC News. "New in mortuary science: Dissolving bodies
with lye".  ABC News.
30. ^ "Act Number 2017 – 433". Alabama Secretary of State. 26
May 2017. Retrieved 13 March  2020.
31. ^ Gloria, Todd (16 February 2017).  "AB-967 Human remains
disposal: alkaline hydrolysis: licensure and regulation".
California Secretary of State. Retrieved 5 September  2017.
32. ^ Miller, Jeff (8 February 2012). "AB-1615 Human remains".
California Secretary of State. Retrieved 5 September  2017.
33. ^ Looper; Fields; Labuda; Nikkel; Schafer, S; Stephens;
Todd; Vigil; Wilson; Williams, S. (3 February
2011). "Concerning the regulation of persons who dispose of
human remains in the ordinary course of lawful
business"  (PDF). Colorado Legislature. Retrieved  5
September  2017.
34. ^ "Chapter 2010-125: Florida Funeral, Cemetery, and
Consumer Services Act". Florida Department of State. 2010.
Retrieved 5 September  2017.
35. ^ Rogers, Carl; Williams, Roger; Brockway, Buzz; Miller,
Butch (7 February 2012). "HB 933: Preneed escrow
accounts; release funds when a monument is placed into a
bonded memorial storage program; provide". Georgia
General Assembly. Retrieved 5 September  2017.
36. ^ Heath, Bill (14 January 2020).  "SB 296: Funeral Directors
and Embalmers; alternative cremation process; provide".
Georgia General Assembly. Retrieved  14 March 2020.
37. ^ "Bureau of Occupational Licenses – State Board of
Morticians"  (PDF). Legislative Services Office, Idaho State
Legislature. 18 September 2013. Retrieved 20 October  2017.
38. ^ "Minutes"  (PDF). Idaho Senate Commerce & Human
Resources Committee. 4 February 2014. Retrieved 20
October  2017.
39. ^ "Real Estate License Act 2000". Illinois General Assembly.
6 February 2012. Retrieved 20 October  2017.
40. ^ "Senate Substitute for House Bill No. 2310: An Act
concerning the state board of mortuary arts, relating to
crematory operations; licensure; fees, amending K.S.A. 65-
1760, 65-1763, 65-1764, 65-1765, 65-1766 and 65-1768 and
K.S.A. 2009 Supp. 65-1727 and 65-1762 and repealing the
existing sections"  (PDF). Kansas State Legislature. 2010.
Retrieved 24 October  2017.
41. ^ "State of Maine: Rules for establishment and operation of
crematoria"  (PDF). Department of Health and Human
Services, Maine Center for Disease Control and Prevention,
Division of Environmental Health. October 26, 2009.
Retrieved 24 October  2017.
42. ^ "House Bill 995". Maryland General Assembly. 12 February
2010. Retrieved  24 October 2017.
43. ^ "Human remains alkaline hydrolysis disposal method
licensing and regulation". Minnesota State Legislature. 13
May 2003. Retrieved 20 October  2017.
 44. ^ Araujo, Nelson (13 February 2017). "An Act relating to
cremation; authorizing the use of alkaline hydrolysis for
cremation; requiring notice be provided to certain entities
relating to a crematory which intends to use alkaline
hydrolysis for cremation; revision provisions relating to the
location of a crematory; and providing other matters properly
relating thereto". Nevada Legislature. Retrieved 5
September  2017.
45. ^ "Article 13F"  (PDF). North Carolina General Assembly. 1
October 2018. Retrieved  29 November  2019.
46. ^ "Relating to death care; and declaring an emergency".
Oregon State Legislature. July 14, 2009. Retrieved  24
October  2017.
47. ^ Davis, Sarah  (19 January 2017).  "Relating to the cremation
of human remains by alkaline hydrolysis". Texas State
Legislature. Retrieved  14 March 2020.
48. ^ "Regulation of Alkaline Hydrolysis Process". Utah State
Legislature. May 8, 2018. Retrieved  6 July 2018.
49. ^ "H.656 (Act 138): an act relating to professions and
occupations regulated by the Office of Professional
Regulation". Vermont General Assembly. 22 May 2014.
Retrieved 20 October  2017.
50. ^ "An Act Relating to human remains"  (PDF). Legislature of
the State of Washington. 2019. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
51. ^ "An Act relating to embalmers, funeral directors,
undertakers and crematories; etc"  (PDF). Legislature of the
State of Wyoming. 2014. Retrieved 24 October  2017.
52. ^ Christianson, Adriana (November 28, 2012).  "Liquifying
bodies new cremation technique offered in
Saskatchewan".  News Talk 650 CKOM. Rawlco
Communications. Retrieved  2012-11-28.[permanent dead link]
53. ^ Cohen, Jeremy (November 17, 2015).  "Bio Cremation: A
Greener Way To Die?". Retrieved 2015-11-17.
54. ^ Quenneville-Girard, Romy (April 1, 2015).  "La bio-crémation
débarque à Granby".  Granby Express. Retrieved  2015-04-01.
55. ^ "Fears over liquefied remains of the dead". BBC News. 18
December 2017. Retrieved 18 December 2017.
56. ^ Kalia, Ammar (9 July 2019). "A greener way to go: what's
the most eco-friendly way to dispose of a body?".  The
Guardian. Retrieved 10 July  2019.
57. ^ Kilvert, Nick (2019-04-27). "What's the greenest way to deal
with your body after you die?".  ABC News. Retrieved  2019-
04-29.
58. ^ "Aquamación, lo nuevo para sustituir al entierro o
cremación".
59. ^ Jump up to:a b "Health Council of the Netherlands 2020
Admissibility of new techniques of disposing of the dead".
Health Council of the Netherlands. 25 May 2020.
60. ^ https://www.businessinsider.co.za/funerals-cremation-
green-alternative-cremation-aquamation-2019-11

Further reading[edit]
  New in mortuary science: Dissolving bodies with
lye – ABC News
 New body 'liquefaction' unit unveiled in Florida
funeral home – BBC News
show

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Catabolism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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For the accelerated changed that occur when certain chemical agents are introduced,
see catalysis.

Schematical diagram
Catabolism (/kəˈtæbəlɪsm/) is the set of metabolic pathways that breaks
down molecules into smaller units that are either oxidized to release energy or used in
other anabolic reactions.[1] Catabolism breaks down large molecules (such
as polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins) into smaller units (such
as monosaccharides, fatty acids, nucleotides, and amino acids, respectively).
Catabolism is the breaking-down aspect of metabolism, whereas anabolism is the
building-up aspect.
Cells use the monomers released from breaking down polymers to either construct new
polymer molecules or degrade the monomers further to simple waste products,
releasing energy. Cellular wastes include lactic acid, acetic acid, carbon
dioxide, ammonia, and urea. The formation of these wastes is usually
an oxidation process involving a release of chemical free energy, some of which is lost
as heat, but the rest of which is used to drive the synthesis of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). This molecule acts as a way for the cell to transfer the energy
released by catabolism to the energy-requiring reactions that make up anabolism.
(Catabolism is seen as destructive metabolism and anabolism as constructive
metabolism). Catabolism, therefore, provides the chemical energy necessary for the
maintenance and growth of cells. Examples of catabolic processes include glycolysis,
the citric acid cycle, the breakdown of muscle protein in order to use amino acids
as substrates for gluconeogenesis, the breakdown of fat in adipose tissue to fatty acids,
and oxidative deamination of neurotransmitters by monoamine oxidase.

Contents

 1Catabolic hormones

 2Etymology

 3See also

 4References

 5External links

Catabolic hormones[edit]
There are many signals that control catabolism. Most of the known signals
are hormones and the molecules involved in metabolism itself. Endocrinologists have
traditionally classified many of the hormones as anabolic or catabolic, depending on
which part of metabolism they stimulate. The so-called classic catabolic hormones
known since the early 20th century are cortisol, glucagon, and adrenaline (and
other catecholamines). In recent decades, many more hormones with at least some
catabolic effects have been discovered, including cytokines, orexin (known
as hypocretin), and melatonin.[citation needed]
Etymology[edit]
The word catabolism is from New Latin, which got the roots from Greek: κάτω kato,
"downward" and βάλλειν ballein, "to throw".

See also[edit]
 Autophagy
 Dehydration synthesis
 Hydrolysis
 Nocturnal post absorptive catabolism
 Psilacetin § Pharmacology
 Sarcopenia

References[edit]
1. ^ de Bolster, M.W.G. (1997).  "Glossary of Terms Used in Bioinorganic Chemistry:
Catabolism". International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. Archived from  the
original on 2017-01-21. Retrieved 2007-10-30.

External links[edit]
  Media related to Catabolism at Wikimedia Commons

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Metabolism, catabolism, anabolism

show

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 Metabolism
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