G

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

GNED - 03
THIRD MODULE

x
Relation
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be set. A relation 𝑹 from 𝑨 to 𝑩 is subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵.
Given an ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦) in 𝐴 × 𝐵, 𝑥 is related to 𝒚 by 𝑹, written
𝑥 𝑅 𝑦, if, and only if, (𝑥, 𝑦) is in 𝑅. The set 𝐴 is called the domain of
𝑅 and the set 𝐵 is called its co-domain.

The notation for a relation 𝑅 may be written symbolically as

follow:
𝑥 𝑅 𝑦 means that (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅
The notation 𝑥 ≮ 𝑦 means that 𝑥 is not related to 𝑦 by 𝑅:
𝑥 ≮ y means that (𝑥, 𝑦) ∉ 𝑅
Example 1 A Relation as a Subset
Let 𝐴 = {1,2} and 𝐵 = {1,2,3} and define a relation 𝑅
from 𝐴 to 𝐵 as follows: Given any (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐵,

(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅 Means that 𝑥−𝑦 is an integer.

2
a. State explicitly which ordered pairs are in 𝐴 × 𝐵 and
which are in 𝑅.
b. Is 1 𝑅 3? Is 2 𝑅 3? Is 2 𝑅 2?
c. What are the domain and co-domain of 𝑅?
 Solution
a. 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3)}. To determine explicitly the
composition of 𝑅, examine each ordered pair in 𝐴 × 𝐵 to see whether is element
satisfy the defining condition for 𝑅.

1−1 0
(1,1) ∈ 𝑅 because = = 0, which is an integer.
2 2
1−2 −1
(1,2) ∉ R because = , which is not an integer.
2 2
1−3 −2
(1,3) ∈ 𝑅 because = = −1, which is an integer.
2 2
2−1 1
(2,1) ∉ R because = , which is not an integer.
2 2
2−2 0
(2,2) ∈ 𝑅 because = = 0, which is an integer.
2 2
2−3 2
(2,3) ∉ R because = − , which is not an integer.
2 2
solution
Thus

𝑅 = {(1,1), (1,3), (2,2)}

b. Yes, 1 𝑅 3 because (1,3) ∈ 𝑅
No, 2 ≮ 3 because (2,3) ∉ R
Yes, 2 𝑅 2 because (2,2) ∈ 𝑅
c. The domain of 𝑅 is {1,2} and the co-domain is
{1,2,3}
Example 2 The Circle Relation
Define a relation 𝐶 from 𝑹 to 𝑹 as follow as follows: For any (𝑥, 𝑦)
∈ 𝑅 × 𝑅, (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐶 means that 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1

−1 √3
a. Is (1,0) ∈ 𝐶? Is (0,0) ∈ 𝐶? Is ( , ) ∈ 𝐶? Is −2 𝐶 0? Is 0 𝐶 (−1)? Is 1
2 2
𝐶 1?
b. What are the domain and co-domain of 𝐶?
c. Draw a graph for 𝐶 by plotting the points of 𝐶 in the Cartesian
plane.
Solution
a. Yes, (1,0, ) ∈ 𝐶 because 1 2 + 0 2 = 1.
No, (0,0) ∉ C because 0 2 + 0 2 = 0 ≠ 1.
−1 √3 −1 √3 1 3
Yes, ( 2 , 2 ) ∈ 𝐶 because ( 2 ) 2 + ( 2 ) 2 = 4 + 4 = 1.
No, −2 Ȼ 0 because (−2) 2 + 0 2 = 4 ≠ 1.
Yes, 0 𝐶 (−1) because 0 2 + (−1) 2 = 1. No, 1 Ȼ 1 because 1 2 + 1 2 =
2 ≠ 1.

b. The domain and co-domain of 𝐶 are both 𝑅, the set of all numbers
Solution
c.
Arrow Diagram of a Relation
Suppose 𝑅 is a relation from a set 𝐴 to a set 𝐵. The arrow diagram for 𝑹
is obtained as follows:

1. Represent the elements of 𝐴 as points in one region and the

elements of 𝐵 as points in another region.
2. For each 𝑥 in 𝐴 and 𝑦 in 𝐵, draw an arrow from 𝑥 to 𝑦 if, and only if, 𝑥
is related to 𝑦 by 𝑅. Symbolically:
Draw an arrow from 𝒙 to 𝒚
if, and only if, 𝒙 𝑹 𝒚
if, and only if, (𝒙, 𝒚) ∈ 𝑹
Example 3 Arrow Diagram of Relations
Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3} and 𝐵 = {1,3,5} and define relations 𝑆 and 𝑇 from 𝐴
to 𝐵 as follows:
For all (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐵.
(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑆 mean that 𝑥 < 𝑦 𝑆 is a “less than” relation.
𝑇 = (2,1), (2,5).

Draw arrow diagram S and T

Solution

The example relations illustrate that it is possible to have several

arrows coming out of the same element of 𝐴 pointing in different
directions. Also, it is quite possible to have an element of 𝐴 that
does not have an arrow coming out of it.
Functions
A function 𝑭 from a set 𝑨 to a set 𝑩 is a relation with domain 𝐴 and co-
domain 𝐵 that satisfies the following two properties:

1. For every element 𝑥in 𝐴, there is an element 𝑦 in 𝐵 such that (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐹.

2. For all elements 𝑥 in 𝐴 and 𝑦 and 𝑧 in 𝐵. if (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐹 and (𝑥, 𝑧) ∈ 𝐹, then
𝑦 = 𝑧.

Properties (1) and (2) can be stated less formally as follows: A relation 𝐹
from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a function if and only if:

1. Every element of 𝐴 is the first element of an ordered pair of 𝐹.

2. No two distinct ordered pairs in 𝐹 have the same first element
Notation
If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are sets and 𝐹 is a function from 𝐴 to 𝐵, then given any
element 𝑥 in 𝐴, the unique element in 𝐵 that is related to 𝑥 by 𝐹 is
denoted 𝐹(𝑥), which is read “𝐹 of 𝑥”.

Example 4 Function and Relations on

Finite Sets
Let 𝐴 = {2,4,6} and {1,3,5}. Which of the relations 𝑅, 𝑆 and 𝑇
defined below are functions from 𝐴 and 𝐵?
a. 𝑅 = {(2.5), (4,1), (4,3), (6,5)}
b. For all (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐵, (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑆 means that 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1
c. T is defined by the arrow diagram
Solution
a. 𝑅 is not a function because it does not satisfy property (2). The
ordered pairs (4,1) and (4,3) have the same first element but different
second elements. You can see this graphically if you draw the arrow
diagram for 𝑅. There are two arrows coming out of 4: One points to 1
and the other points to 3.
b. 𝑆 is not a function because it does not satisfy property (1). It is not
true that every element of 𝐴 is the first element of an ordered pair in 𝑆.
For example, 6 ∈ 𝐴 but there is no 𝑦 in 𝐵 such that 𝑦 = 6 + 1 = 7. You can
also see this graphically by drawing the arrow diagram for 𝑆.
c. 𝑇 is a function: Each element in {2,4,6} is related to some
element in {1,3,5} and no element in {2,4,6} is related to more
than one element in {1,3,5}. When these properties are stated in
terms of the arrow diagram, they become (1) there is an arrow
coming out of each element of the domain, and (2) no element
of the domain has more than one arrow coming out of it. So you
can write 𝑇(2) = 5, 𝑇(4) = 1, and 𝑇(6) = 1.
Elementary
Logic
Statements and Quantifiers
 Statements
In the English language there are many types of sentences; a few of the
types are

• Factual statement (You had to pass the bar exam to practice law.)
• Commands (Get out of my face!)
• Opinions (Chocolate cake with cream cheese icing is the best dessert EVER.)
• Questions (‘Sup with you?)
• Exclamations (Holy cow!)

In the objectives study of logic, we will use only factual statement -it’s pretty
hard to decide if “Get out of my face” is true or false. And by “pretty hard” I
mean “completely impossible.”

A statement is declarative sentence that can be objectively determined to be

either true or false, but not both.
Example 1 Recognizing Statements
Decide which of the following are statement and which are not

a. Most scientists agree that global warming is a threat to the

environment
b. is that your laptop?
c. Man, that hurts!
d. 432 + 8 ÷ 1.3 = √115,000
e. This book is about database management.
f. Watching reality shows turns your brain to mush.
solution
Parts a, d, and e are statements because they can be judged as
true or false in a non-subjective manner.

Part b. is not a statement because it is a question.

Part c. is not a statement because it is an exclamation.

Part f. is not a statement because it requires an opinion (unless

there’s a scientific study I’m un ware of)
Simple and Compound Statements
Statements can be classified as a 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 or 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑. A simple
statement contains only one idea. Each of these statements is an
example of a simple statement.

Your jeans are torn.

My dorm room has a pile of dirty socks in it.
Daytona Beach is in Florida.
A statement like “I’ m taking chemistry this semester
and I’ m going to get an A” is called a 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 since it’s formed from more than one simple
statement.

A compound statement is a statement formed by

joining two or more simple statements with a
connective. There are four basic connectives used in
logic: and (the conjunction), or (disjunction), if . . . Then
(conditional), and if and only if (biconditional).
Here are some examples of compound statement using
connectives.

John studied for 5 hours, and he got an A. (conjunction)

I’m going to pass this class or I’m going to change my

major. (disjunction)

If I get 80% of the questions on the LSAT right, then I will

get into law school. (conditional)

We will win the game if and only if we score more points

than the other team. (biconditional)
Classifying Statements as Simple
Compound
Classify each statement as simple or compound. If it is
compound, state the name of the connective used.

a. Our school mascot is a moose.

b. If you register for WiFi service, you will get three days
of free access.
c. Tomorrow is the last day to register for classes.
d. In the interest of saving the planet, I plan to buy either
a hybrid or a motorcycle.
Solution
a. There are no connectives involved, so this is a simple
statement.
b. This if . . . then statement is compound and uses a conditional
connective.
c. This is a simple statement.
d. Ultimately, this statement could be restated as “I will buy a
hybrid, or I will buy a motorcycle,” which makes it a compound
statement: specifically, disjunction.
Quantified Statements
Quantified statements involve terms such as
𝑎𝑙𝑙,𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ,𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦, 𝑛𝑜, 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒,𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠, and 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒. The
first five (𝑎𝑙𝑙,𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ, 𝑛𝑜, 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒) are called 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠
because they either include or exclude every element of the
universal set. The latter three (𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒,𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠, 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒) are
called 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠 because they claim the existence of
something, but don’t include the entire universal set. Here are
some examples of quantified statements:
 Every student taking philosophy this semester will pass.

No nursing student is also majoring in criminal justice

Some people who are Miami Hurricane fans are also

Miami Dolphin fans.

There is at least one professor in this school who does

not have brown eyes.

The first two statements use universal quantifiers, while the third
and fourth use existential quantifiers. Note that the statements
using existential quantifiers are not “all inclusive” (or all
exclusive) as the other two are.
Negation
The 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 of a statement is a corresponding statement with
the opposite truth value. This means that if a statement is true
its negation is false, and if a statement is false its negation is
true.

For example, for the statement “My dorm room is blue,” the
negation is “My dorm room is not blue.” It’s important to note
that the truth values of these two are completely opposite: one is
true, and the other is false-period. You can’t negate “my dorm
room is blue” by saying “My dorm room is yellow” because it’s
completely possible the 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ statements are false.
 Statement Negation
Auburn will win Saturday. Auburn will not win Saturday.

I took a shower today. I did not take a shower today.

My car is clean. My car is not clean.

Negations of Quantified Statements
Statement
Example Negation Example
Contain
All my meals are low Some do not or not Some of my meals
All All dooAldo
in fat all do are not low in fat.

Some majors There are no majors

Some do require 5 year of None do, or all do
that require 5 years
study not
of study
Some people don’t
Every goes to football
Some do not go to football All do
games
games.

No airlines include At least one airline

None do some do checked Some do allow a checked bag
bags for free. for free
Example 3 Writing Negations
Write the negation of each of the following quantified
statements.

a. Every student taking philosophy this semester will

pass.
b. Some people who are Miami Hurricane fans are also
Miami Dolphin fans.
c. There is at least one professor in this school who does
not have block eyes.
d. No nursing student is also majoring in criminal justice.
Solution
a. Some student taking philosophy this semester will not pass
(or, not every student taking philosophy this semester will pass).

b. No people who are Miami Hurricane fans are also Miami

Dolphin fans.

c. All professors in this school have brown eyes.

d. At least one nursing student is also majoring in criminal

justice.
 Symbols for the Connectives

Connective Symbol Name

and ˄ Conjunction
Or ˅ Disjunction
if . . .then → Conditional
if and only if ↔ Biconditional
 Simple statements in logic are usually denoted with
lowercase letters like 𝑝, 𝑞 and 𝑟. For example, we could use 𝑝 to
represent the statement “I get paid Friday” and 𝑞 to represent
the statement “I will go out this weekend.” Then the conditional
statement “If I get paid Friday, then I will go out this weekend”
can be written in symbols as 𝑝 → 𝑞.

The symbol ~(tilde) represents a negation. If 𝑝 still

represents “I get paid Friday,” then ~𝑝 represents “I do not get
paid Friday.”
Example 4 Studying Order in Logical
Connectives
Let’s use symbol 𝑝 to represent the statement “Large Coney is a
dog,” and 𝑞 to represent the statement “Guinness is a cat.”

a. What does the statement (~𝑝) ˄ 𝑞 mean?

b. What does the statement ~(𝑝 ˄ 𝑞) mean?
c. Do these two statements say the same thing?
 Solution
a. The parentheses tell us that the first thing we should do is negate
statement 𝑝. Since 𝑝 = Large Coney is a dog, ~𝑝 = Large Coney is not a
dog. So (~𝑝) ˄ 𝑞 would be translated into words as “Large Coney is not a
dog Guinness is a cat.”

b. The parentheses tell us to first form the conjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞. This is

Large Coney is a dog and Guinness is a cat.” Then we need to negate this
statement, giving us ~(𝑝 ˄ 𝑞)= It is not the case that Large Coney is a dog
and Guinness is a cat.

c. These two statements don’t say the same thing. The first clearly says
that Large Coney is not a dog. But the second one says it’s not true that
BOTH Large Coney is a dog and Guinness is a cat. So that statement
could be true if Large Coney is a dog, but Guinness is not a cat.
Example 5 Writing Statement Symbolically
Let 𝑝 represent the statement “It is cloudy” and 𝑞 represent the
statement “I will go to the beach”. White each statement in
symbols.

a. I will not go the beach.

b. It is cloudy, and I will go to the beach.
c. If it is cloudy, then I will not go the beach.
d. I will go to the beach if and only if it is not cloudy.
Solution
a. This is the negation of statement 𝑞, which we write
as ~𝑞.
b. This is the conjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞, written as 𝑝 ˄ 𝑞.
c. This is the conditional of 𝑝 and the negation of 𝑞: 𝑝
→ ~𝑞.
d. This is the biconditional of 𝑝 and not 𝑞: 𝑝 ↔ ~𝑞.
Example 6 Translating Statements
from Symbols to Words

Write each statement in words. Let 𝑝 = “My dog is a golden

retriever” and 𝑞 = “My dog is fuzzy.”

a. ~𝑝 b. 𝑝 ˅ 𝑞 c. ~𝑝 → 𝑞 d. 𝑞 ↔ 𝑝 e. 𝑞 ˄ 𝑝
Solution
a. My dog is not a golden retriever.

b. My dog is a golden retriever or my dog is fuzzy.

c. If my dog is not a golden retriever, then my dog is fuzzy.

d. My dog is fuzzy if and only if my dog is a golden retriever.

e. My dog is fuzzy, and my dog is a golden retriever.