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Novel Soil Stabilization Method Used Flue Gas Desulphurization Gypsum and
Oil Palm Ash in Highway Construction

Conference Paper · May 2012

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 The 10th International Conference on Mining, Materials and Petroleum Engineering
The 6th International Conference on Earth Resources Technology
“Sciences and Technologies Towards 2012” : PSU-IC 2012

May 9-11, 2012, Songkhla, Thailand

Novel Soil Stabilization Method Used

Flue Gas Desulphurization Gypsum and Oil
Palm Ash in Highway Construction
Pakdee Baujan1, Danupon Tonnayopas2, Pipat Tongchim3
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Thailand
2
Department of Mining and Materials Engineering, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Thailand
E-mail: danupon.t@psu.ac.th

Abstract: In this study, presents the improve
characteristics of a Thungkong poor local soil (TKS)
which is inappropriate to be used as a bearing in any
road construction modified with varying flue gas
desulphurization gypsum (FGDG) of 20, 30, 40, and
50% or in combination with oil palm fiber ash
(OPFA) of 5, 10, and 15%. Unconfined compression
tests were conducted for both unsoaked and soaked
specimens cured at ambient temperature of 1, 7 and
28 days. Addition of a small percentage of OPFA (5
and 10%) along with FGD (30–50%) enhanced the
unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of modified
TKS within short curing periods (7 and 28 days). The
gain in unsoaked and soaked 28-day UCS of the TKS
was 29.86 and 22.53 ksc, respectively. The effect of 2 h
soaking showed reduction of UCS varying from 55 to
20% depending on mix proportions and curing
periods. The California bearing ratio (CBR) of the
OPFA-FGDG-TKS specimen increased up to 98.88%
with addition of 45% FGDG along with 5% OPFA to
the TKS and cured for 28 days. The effects of FGDG
content, water to binder ratio, curing period, and
OPFA content on the UCS of the TKS are highlighted
herein. XRD and SEM analysed results confirmed
hydration of FGDG in the production of stabilized
TKS for such applications can provide sustainability
for the local construction industry.
Keywords: Flue gas desulphurization gypsum/ Oil
palm fiber ash/ Soil stabilization/ Thung Kong soil/
Unconfined compressive strength.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the south of Thailand, soft clay, weathered
granitic soil and lateritic soil are often used as a road
making material and they form the sub-grade of most
tropical road, they are used as sub base and bases for
low cost roads and these carry low to medium traffic.
Furthermore, in rural areas of Thailand they are used
as building material for molding of blocks and
plastering.
Since its discovery by Buchanan [1] in Malabar,
India laterite has been defined and described by a
number of researchers in several different ways.
Tonnayopas et al. [2] used local terminology in
defining: Lateritic soils are all product of tropical
weathering with red reddish, brown colour with or
without nodules or concretion and but no exclusively
found below hardened ferruginous crust of hardpan.
Tonnayopas et al. [3] defined laterite, which is a
modification of that given by Alexander and Cady [4].
They defined laterite as a highly weathered tropical
soil rich in secondary oxides of any or a combination
of iron, aluminium and manganese.
Most tropical silty soils are composed
predominantly of quart with some clay minerals
(illite, kaolonite). In some cases they contain
swelling clay mineral type example vermiculite,
bentonite and montmorillonite. When silty soil
contains swelling clay mineral type, they are known
as problem base. The reason being they have
reputation of being problematic in road construction.
This is an admixture modification whose
growth over the years has some economic roots. It is
important to mention here that recent trends on soil
stabilization have evolved innovative techniques of
utilizing local available environmental and industrial
waste material for the modification and stabilization
of deficient soil [5, 6, 7]. In the process of soil
stabilization and modification emphasis is given for
maximum utilization of local material so that cost of
construction may be minimized to the minimum
extent.
The local available environmental material to
be used in this study in combination with flue gas
desulpherization gypsum (FGDG), waste from the
electricity power plant [8] in silty soil of Thung Table 1. Chemical compositions of TKS and used
Kong and oil palm fiber ash (OPFA). The OPFA is cementitious materials
the remains of fibrous waste after the extraction of Chemical FGDG OPFA
TKS (%)
the palm oil from fiber. This material usually poses a composition (%) (%)
disposal problem in palm oil factories particularly in SiO2 70.12 14.41 59.01
tropical countries [9]. In many tropical countries Al2O3 14.34 2.66 1.16
there are substantial quantities of palm shell (the CaO 0.41 70.43 11.08
fibrous residue from the crushing the oil palm fruit), Fe2O3 6.72 3.63 7.44
and husks from rice both are rich in amorphous K2O 1.99 0.97 5.37
silica. The ash produced from these organic materials TiO2 0.98 0.30 0.15
is ground to a fine size and mixed with cement in
P2O5 1.50 - 5.49
order to obtain a material with a blinding
characteristic [10]. SO3 - 3.78 -
Yoder and Witczak [11] concluded that all laterite Cl - - 2.97
soil could be modified using ½ to 4% of cement and MgO - 1.38 3.56
lime for base construction, modification of clays Na2O - - 0.06
changes water film. It also improves poorly graded LOI 4.37 2.44 3.62
base and sub-base. The conventional methods of
evaluation are Atterberge limit and grain size weight of silica, alumina and ferrous oxides as 70%
analysis. for classes of F and C pozzolans, which the OPFA
In certain situation cement may be used to has satisfied.
decrease soil plasticity, this is often termed as The TKS samples used for the analysis were
“Sweetening the soil”. Cement generally brings collected at a depth of between 2 m and 3 m
about a decrease in liquid limit and an increase in the corresponding to the B - horizon usually
plastic limit with a corresponding decrease in the characterized by accumulation of material leached
plasticity index. The increase in plastic limit is from the overlying A - horizon. All tests were
accompanied by a corresponding increase in performed in accordance with BS 1377 [16] and BS
optimum moisture content. Situation, which indicates 1924 [17]. Preliminary classification test were
the use of modified soil, include construction over performed on the soil in accordance with Unified
wet plastic sub-grades [12]. Soil Classification (USC) [18]. The results obtained
are summarized in Table 2.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
The soil sample used for this study was 2.2 Chemical analysis and type size
collected in Thung Kong area of Kanchanadit Each specimens used in unconfined
district, Surat Thani province from private borrow compressive tests were cast in a cylindrical mould,
pit. A study of the geological map of Surathani, 39 mm in diameter by 78 mm height. Specimens
Thailand after DMR [13] and the soil map of were, after moulded, cured in plastic bag for 7 and 28
Thailand, scale 1:1,200,000 after LDD [14] reveals days to prevent the moisture due to change. A series
that the soil sample belongs to the group of of specimens were soaked in water for 2 hours
ferruginous tropical soils weathered from clastic according to the DH-S 206/2532 [19].
sedimentary rocks (arkosic sandstone and shale) of
Jurassic-Cretaceous age. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
3.1 Identification of soil
The results of tests for identification of the
natural soil and the determination of its properties
before modification are presented in Table 2. The
TKS is classified as an ML-CL based on the Unified
Soil classification system. It is a brownish red well-
a) b) graded fine-grained soil with inorganic clay of low
Fig. 1 Ground raw materials a) treated flue gas plasticity. The silt and clay content is about 79.10
desulphurization gypsum and b) oil palm fiber ash and 20.90%, respectively.
According to the Department of Highways
2.1 Chemical analysis and type size standard [19], the TKS is adjudged unsuitable for
The chemical analysis of OPFA was carried out direct use as base or subbase material. On the basis
using the X-ray Fluorescence (XRF). The results are also of both the plasticity and percentage passing
as follows (Table 1), 59.01% SiO2, 1.16% A12O3, MIT Sieve No. 200 sieves as a well as the free flow
CaO-11.08%, Fe2O3-7.44%, K2O-5.37%, P2O5- criteria [20] for assessing suitability for OPFA
5.45%, MgO-3.56%, and L.O.I-3.62%. stabilization; this TKS is adjudged unsuitable for
Then ASTM C618 [15] specify the combined direct stabilization with FGDG and OPFA.
Table 2. Properties of TKS before modification 1600
FGDG20 FGDG30
Property Test values

Dry bulk density (kg/m )

1500 FGDG40 FGDG50

3
Passing No. 200 B.S. Sieve (%) 80.12 FGDG45:OPFA5 FGDG40:OPFA10
1400
Liquid limit (%) 23.1 FGDG35:OPFA15

Plastic limit (%) 15.4 1300

Plasticity index (%) 7.7

1200
Unified Soil Classification (USC) ML-CL
MDD - Mg/m3 2.10 1100 Curing 28 days

OMC (%) 15.00 1000

Unconfined compresive strength 8.32 30 40 50

(OMC), unsoaked - ksc Water to dry weight of modified TKS ratio (%)

Unconfined compresive strength unidentified Fig. 4 Effect of water to modified TKS ratios on dry
(OMC), soaked - ksc bulk density cured for 28 days
CBR, modified, unsoaked (%) 116.9
CBR, modified, soaked (%) 2.0 2.50
FGDG20
Specific gravity 2.69 FGD30
FGDG40
2.00
Colour Brownish red FGDG50

Water absorption (%)

FGDG45:OPFA5
1.50 FGDG40:OPFA10
FGDG35:OPFA15

3.2 Effect of FGDG and OPFA on bulk density 1.00

and water absorption
0.50
The effect of FGDG and OPFA on the dry bulk
density (DBD) on the modified TKS-FGDG-OPFA 0.00
mixture are shown in Figs 2-4 for water to total dry 0.3 0.4 0.5

weight (TDW) of modified TKS ratios of 0.20, 0.30, Water to dry weight of modified TKS ratio
0.40, and 0.50, respectively. While the corresponding a)
water absorption are shown in Figs 5 for curing 1- 2.00

day, 7-day and 28-day compactive efforts 1.80 FGDG20 FGDG30

FGDG40 FGDG50
respectively. Result shows increasing TDW and 1.60
FGDG45:OPFA5 FGDG40:OPFA10
Water absorption (%)

1.40
decreasing DBD and water absorption as the FGDG35:OPFA15
1.20
percentages of FGDG and OPFA content increased,
1.00
0.80
1600
0.60
FGDG20
1500 FGDG30 0.40
curing 7 days
Dry bulk density (kg/m )
3

FGDG40 0.20
FGDG50
1400 0.00
FGDG45:OPFA5
0.3 0.4 0.5
FGDG40:OPFA10
1300
FGDG35:OPFA15 Water to dry weight of modified TKS ratio

1200 b)
Cured 1 day 2.00
1100 FGDG20 FGDG30
1.80
FGDG40 FGDG50
1.60
Water absorption (%)

1000 FGDG45:OPFA5 FGDG40:OPFA10

30 40 50 1.40 FGDG35:OPFA15
1.20
Water to dry weight of modified TKS ratio (%)
1.00
Fig. 2 Effect of water to modified TKS ratios on dry 0.80
bulk density cured for 1 day 0.60
0.40 curing 28 days

1600 0.20
FGDG20 FGDG30 0.00
1500 FGDG40 FGDG50 0.3 0.4 0.5
Dry bulk density (kg/m3)

FGDG45:OPFA5 FGDG40:OPFA10
FGDG35:OPFA15 Water to dry weight of modified TKS ratio
1400
c)
1300
Fig. 5 Effect of water to modified TKS ratios on
1200 water absorption cured for a) 1 day b) 7 days and c)
Cured 7 days 28 days
1100

1000 for all the tests carried out of three curing periods.
30 40 50
The initial reduction in dry bulk density was as
Water to dry weight of modified TKS ratio (%)
a result of flocculation and agglomeration of silt
Fig. 3 Effect of water to modified TKS ratios on dry particles occupying larger space leading to a
bulk density cured for 7 days
corresponding drop in dry density. It is also as a 40
w30%-1 day w30%-7 days
result of initial coating of the TKS by the FGDG and 35 w30%-28 days
w40%-7 days
w40%-1 day
w40%-28 days
OPFA to form large aggregates and cement, which 30 w50%-1 day w50%-7 days

Unsoaked UCS (ksc)

w50%-28 days
consequently occupy larger spaces [21]. 25

20
3.3 Effect of FGDG and OPFA on unconfined 15
compressive strength
10
The effect of FGDG contents on the unconfined
5
compressive strength (UCS) of the unsoaked and
0
soaked TKS-FGDG mixture are displayed in Fig 6 a) 0 5 10 15
and Fig. 6 b), respectively for curing periods of 1, 7 OPFA replaced FGDG content (%)
and 28 days. The UCS was observed to increase with
a)
increased in FGDG and water to dry weight of 35
modified TKS ratios. w30%-1 day w30%-7 days
30 w30%-28 days w40%-1 day
w40%-7 days w40%-28 days

Soaked UCS (ksc)

30 25 w50%-1 day w50%-7days
w30%-1 day w30%-7 day w30%-28 days w50%-28 days
25 w40%-1 day w40%-7 days w40%-28 days 20
Unsoaked UCS (ksc)

w50%-1 day w50%-7 days w50%-28 days

15
20
10
15
5
10
0
0 5 10 15
5
OPFA replaced FGDG content (%)
0
20 30 40 50
b)
FGDG content (%)
Fig. 7 Effect of OPFA replacement on a) unsoaked
unconfined compressive strength and b) soaked
a)
30
unconfined compressive strength
w30%-1 day w30%-7 days
25 w30%-28 days
w40%-7 days
w40%-1day
w40%-28 days
Number 200 sieve 0.075 mm and has a PI of at least
10. Although the cohesionless mixtures prepared in
Soaked UCS (ksc)

20 w50%-1 day w50%-7 days

w50%-28 days
15
10
5
0 findings of Kaewmuneechoke et al. [21] and
20 30
FGDG content (%)
b)
Fig. 6 Effect of FGDG content on a) unsoaked
unconfined compressive strength and b) soaked
unconfined compressive strength
The effect of OPFA replacement on the
unsoaked and soaked UCS are shown in Fig. 7 a) and
7 b) respectively for 1, 7 and 28 days. It confirmed
result of FGDG content effort and given highest
strength at 5%OPFA. The results of unconfined
compression tests performed on FGDG- and/or
OPFA-treated cohesionless specimens TKS given in
Fig. 5 shows that the UCS of both mixtures is
comparable. The presence of kaolinite was expected
to increase the strength with FGDG treatment, and
significant gain can be observed. Similar behavior is
valid from the CBR test results as shown in Fig. 8.
The CBR of these two mixtures is 45%FGDG and
5%OPFA. The U.S. Air Force Soil Stabilization
Index System identifies a soil to be suitable for lime
stabilization if the soil has at least 25% passing the
this study included 80% fines by weight, the attempts
to determine the PI indicated that the mixtures are
nonplastic (Table 2). It is believed that such a small
percentage of clay did not increase the plasticity
significantly. This is somewhat comparable with the
40 50 Suwansuntron et al. [22] that Para rubber wood ash
decreased plasticity and caused the formation of a
granular mixture like FGDG. Furthermore, the
presence of cohesionless fines might have inhibited
cementation reactions between FGDG and OPFA,
which confirmed from test result of Nikhom and
Tonnayopas [23] and Tonnayoas et al. [24].
3.4 Effect of FGDG and OPFA on California
bearing ratio
The results of California bearing ratio (CBR)
test clearly shows that the addition of FGDG has
influenced the CBR value. The improvement of TKS
strength in CBR due to addition of FGDG is the
function of soil cement interlocking phenomena. Fig.
6 shows the CBR values of soil mixed with different
water to dry weight of modified TKS for varied
curing periods. The CBR values of 45%FGDG
+5%OPFA+TKS mixtures for curing of 1, 7, and 28-
day are 31.62%, 36.89% and 44.72% by reducing
water to dry weight modified TKS ratio downto 0.3,
the CBR values are increased upto 96.71%, 97.41%
and 98.88%, respectively. According to improvement
 100 possibly as a result of carbondioxide of gas formed
90 Curing 1 day during FGDG hydration. Spherical crystal of silica
80 Curing 7 days (Si) originated from OPFA and consists of dense
Soaked CBR (%)

70 Curing 28 days
scaly crystals of kaolinite, as shown in Fig. 10.
60

50

40

30

20 G K
30 40 50

Water to dry weight of modified TKS ratio (%)

a) Si
120

100
Soaked CBR value (%)

80 G P
60

40

20 30% 40% 50%

Fig. 10 SEM photomicrograph of modified TKS
specimen with 45%FGDG and 5%OPFA cured for
0
0 7 14 21 28
28-day
Curing period (day)
5. CONCLUSIONS
b)
The following conclusions can be drawn from
Fig. 8 Variation of soaked CBR of
the result of this investigation on the effect of OPFA
FGDG+OPFA+TKS mixtures on a) water to dry
on FGDG modified TKS.
weight of modified TKS ratio and b) curing time
1. The physical and chemical composition of oil
palm fiber ash (OPFA) are satisfactory and
TKS could be used as subbase layer of highway
confirm to the requirements of ASTM C618 [15],
construction. On the other hand, curing periods were
slightly effected on CBR values (Fig. 8 b). class C pozzolanas in finances and specific
gravity and oxide composition.
2. The Thung Kong soil is classified to be a ML-CL
3.5 Mineral compositions and microstructure of
soil based on Unified soil classification system. It
modified TKS specimen
contains quartz as the predominant silicate
Mineral compositions as determined by X-ray
diffraction (XRD) of modified TKS specimen is mineral. Illite and kaolinite also identified these
given in Fig. 9, shows phase of planar plate-like are in general agreement with ferruginous tropical
gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), quartz originated from TKS, soils in Thung Kong area likely lateritic soil as
kaolinite and calcite. identified by Tonnayopas et al. [2, 3].
3. The water to dry modified TKS ratios content
7000
increased while dry bulk density (DBD)
decreased with increasing OPFA and FGDG
6000
G G = Gypsum content. This is in agreement with Nikhom et al.
G Q = Quartz
5000
Q K = Kaolinite [22] and Tonnayopas et al. [23]. This water ratio
C = Calcite behaviour occurs as a result of both the grain size
Counts

4000
Q

3000 distribution and specific gravities of the soil and

G
the modified FGDG and OPFA in this case. The
2000 G
K
K
Q KK Q C K K C modifier initially coats the soils to form larger
1000
aggregates, which consequently occupy larger
0 spaces. This tendency is for the cohesionless soil
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
to decrease in bulk density especially with OPFA
Position 2Theta
and which has specific gravity lower than that of
Fig. 9 XRD pattern of modified TKS specimen with FGDG and TKS. The increase in optimum
45%FGDG and 5%OPFA cured for 28-day moisture content may be due to water requirement
for cement hydration and pozzolanic reaction of
The SEM microstructure of TKS fracture surface is the OPFA released during hydration of FGDG.
illustrated in Fig. 10. Two main features are observed 4. The effect of OPFA replaced FGDG in modified
in 45%FGDG and 5%OPFA sample, namely open TKS on UCS and CBR is that, the bulk density
porosity (P) consists of fine and interconnected pores and water absorption decreased while the UCS
with irregular shape. Large irregular pores are and CBR increased. This may be due to
 pozzolanic reaction of calcium silicate hydrate
(CSH).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was financially partially
supported by the PSU Graduate School.
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