This subject is designed to enhance the understanding of the

principles and concepts in the study of biology, particularly

heredity and variation, and the diversity of living organisms,
their structure, function, and evolution.

General Biology 2
 Grading System
Components %
Written Work (WW) 25 %

Performance Task (PT) 45 %

Quarterly Assessment (QA) 35 %

TOTAL 100 %
 MOLECULAR
STRUCTURE OF DNA,
RNA, AND PROTEINS
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
 describe the building blocks of DNA, RNA and proteins;
 identify the structural and functional differences between DNA
and RNA;
 discuss the different levels of protein structure (primary,
secondary, tertiary and quaternary), and
 explain how protein structural features may influence their
functions.
5
DNA
•DNA is often called
the blueprint of life.
•In simple terms,
DNA contains the
instructions for making
proteins within the cell.

6
Watson & Crick’s Model
Why do we study DNA?
We study DNA for many
reasons, e.g.,
• Its central importance
to all life on earth,
• Medical benefits such as
cures for diseases,
• Better food crops.

8
 Chromosomes and DNA

•Our genes are on our

chromosomes.
•Chromosomes are
made up of a
chemical called
DNA.

9
 The Shape of the Molecule

•DNA is a very long

polymer.
•The basic shape is like a
twisted ladder or zipper.
•This is called a double
helix.

10
The Double Helix Molecule
•The DNA double
helix has two
strands twisted
together.

11
One Strand of DNA
•The backbone of phosphate
the molecule is
alternating
phosphates and
deoxyribose sugar deoxyribose
•The teeth are
nitrogenous bases.

bases

12
 O
O -P O
NUCLEOTIDES
O
One deoxyribose together with
O its phosphate and base make a
O -P O nucleotide.
O O
O -P O
O Nitrogenous
O base
Phosphate
C

C C

O Deoxyribose 13
One Strand of DNA
nucleotide
•One strand of DNA is
a polymer of
nucleotides.
•One strand of DNA
has many millions of
nucleotides.

14
Four nitrogenous bases
DNA has four different bases:
•Cytosine C
• Thymine T
• Adenine A
• Guanine G

15
Two Kinds of Bases in DNA
N
•Pyrimidines are N C
single ring bases. O C C
N C

•Purines are double N

ring bases. N C
C C
N
N C
N C

16
Thymine and Cytosine are
pyrimidines

• Thymine and Cytosine each have one ring of

carbon and nitrogen atoms.

O
N
N C N C

O C C
O C C C
N C
N C
thymine cytosine
17
Adenine and Guanine are purines
•Adenine and Guanine each have two rings
of carbon and nitrogen atoms.

N O

N C N C

C C N C C
N N

N C N C
C
Adenine
N C Guanine
N
18
 Purines Pyrimidines
NH2 O O
Thymine Uracil
Adenine CH3 (DNA) (RNA)
N N NH NH
N N N O N O
O
NH2
Guanine
N Cytosine
NH
N
N N NH2 N O
Base Pairing
Guanine And Cytosine

-
+

+ -

+ -
Base Pairing
Adenine And Thymine

+ -
Adenine Thymine

-
+
Base Pairing
Adenine And Cytosine

-
Base Pairing
Guanine And Thymine

+
Two Stranded DNA
•Remember, DNA
has two strands
that fit together
something like a
zipper.
•The teeth are the
nitrogenous bases
but why do they
stick together?

24
 Hydrogen Bonds
• The bases attract each other

N
because of hydrogen bonds.

C
• Hydrogen bonds are weak but

N
there are millions and millions
of them in a single molecule of

C
dna.

C
C
O

N
• The bonds between cytosine
and guanine are shown here

C
with dotted lines N
C N

C C O
25
C N
 Hydrogen Bonds, cont.
O
• When making N C
hydrogen bonds,
cytosine always O C C C
pairs up with
guanine
N C
• Adenine always
pairs up with
thymine
• Adenine is bonded
to thymine here

26
 5’Phosphate group
OH
3’Hydroxyl group
NH2 H OH
HO P O
N
O N
N N
CH2 O

D
O CH2
O

H O P HO
O
O H OH
H2O

N
HO P O
N
O NH
N N NH2
CH2 O
O CH2
O

A HO
O

O
O
H
NH2

N
H
O
P
O
H
HO

H2O

N O
5’Phosphate
O
CH2
O CH2

group
O

3’Hydroxyl group
O HO
OH H P
HO
 -
The Watson - Crick - A T
-
Model Of DNA - C G -
- G C -
- T A - 3.4 nm
Minor -
- 1 nm
groove - -
G C
- T A -
- C G -
-
A T -
Major -
-
groove
A T
- -
- C G -
- G C -
- T A -
0.34 nm
-
CHARGAFF’S RULE:
• Adenine and Thymine always
join together
A T
• Cytosine and Guanine always
join together
C G

29
 DNA by the Numbers
• Each cell has about 2 m of
DNA.
• The average human has 75
trillion cells.
• The average human has
enough DNA to go from the
earth to the sun more than
400 times. The earth is 150 billion m
• DNA has a diameter of only or 93 million miles from
0.000000002 m. the sun.

31
Types of Nucleic Acids

What are the two types of

nucleic acids?
• Ribonucleic acid
(RNA) – single stranded
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
-Double helix
• (Twisted ladder)
DNA
• Deoxyribose sugar
• Base pairs
A-T G-C

• Phosphate
• Most importantly---
• Contains the code for ALL the proteins in the body
 RNA
• Ribonucleic acid
(RNA)
• Sugar + phosphate backbone
• Differs from DNA
• Single stranded
• Ribose sugar
• Base pairs A-U, G-C
• Are there T’s in RNA?
• A, U no T’s in rna
• RNA assists DNA in manufacturing
needed proteins
There are 4 types of RNA, each encoded by its own type of gene.

The genomic DNA contains all the information for the structure and
function of an organism. In any cell, only some of the genes are
expressed, that is, transcribed into RNA.

1. mRNA - Messenger RNA: Encodes amino acid

sequence of a polypeptide.
2. tRNA - Transfer RNA: Brings amino acids to
ribosomes during translation.
3. rRNA - Ribosomal RNA: With ribosomal proteins,
makes up the ribosomes, the organelles that
translate the mRNA.
4. snRNA - Small nuclear RNA: With proteins, forms
complexes that are used in RNA processing in
eukaryotes. (Not found in prokaryotes.)
Questions:
• Name one difference between DNA and RNA.
• DNA – double helix, rna – single stranded

• DNA --- A-T, RNA ---A-U

• DNA ---deoxyribose sugar, RNA---ribose

• What is the similarity of DNA and RNA?

• G binds with C in both DNA and RNA

• Both have sugar and phosphate backbone

 DNA
• What is the main job of DNA?
• It contains the code for the proteins an organism may
produce.
• What are the basic units or monomers of DNA?
• Nucleotides make up DNA.
• Where is DNA found?
• It is found mostly in the nucleus of a cell making up its
chromosomes.
RNA
• What is the main job of RNA?
• It retrieves the protein code from DNA and carry
out the processes needed to produce proteins.
• What are the basic units or monomers of RNA?
• Nucleotides
• Where is RNA found?
• It is found both inside and outside of the nucleus.
Proteins
Proteins are the most versatile
macromolecules in living systems and
serve crucial functions in essentially all
biological processes. They function as
catalysts, they transport and store other
molecules such as oxygen, they provide
mechanical support and immune
protection, they generate movement, they
transmit nerve impulses, and they control
growth and differentiation.
 Abbreviations for Amino acids

Amino acid Three-letter abbreviation One-letter abbreviation

Alanine Ala A
Arginine Arg R
Asparagine Asn N
Aspartic Acid Asp D
Cysteine Cys C
Glutamine Gln Q
Glutamic Acid Glu E
Glycine Gly G
Histidine His H
Isoleucine Ile I
Leucine Leu L
Lysine Lys K
Methionine Met M
Phenylalanine Phe F
Proline Pro P
Serine Ser S
Threonine Thr T
Tryptophan Trp W
Tyrosine Tyr Y
Valine Val V
Asparagine or aspartic acid Asx B
Glutamine or glutamic acid Glx Z
Proteins: Key properties
1.Proteins are linear polymers made of Amino
Acids
2.Proteins contain many functional groups
(i.e.. side chain of AA)
3.Proteins interact with proteins and with
other biological molecules to form
complexes
4.Proteins can bind with and/or modify other
molecules
5.Proteins can be rigid or can have regions
with high flexibility
Other properties of proteins
• Colloids
– Pass through filter paper, not membranes
– Protein shouldn’t be found in urine unless
cellular damage
• Indicator of kidney damage

•Proteins are Polypeptides

•Proteins- Amino Acids are linked by peptide
bonds
Protein Functions
Protein structure
It is convenient to describe protein structure in
terms of 4 different aspects of covalent structure
and folding patterns. The different levels of protein
structure are known as primary, secondary, tertiary,
and quaternary structure.
Primary Structure of Proteins

The primary structure is the sequence

of amino acids that make up a
polypeptide chain. 20 different amino
acids are found in proteins. The exact
order of the amino acids in a specific
protein is the primary sequence for
that protein.
Secondary Structure of Proteins

Protein secondary structure refers to regular, repeated patterns of folding of

the protein backbone. The two most common folding patterns are the alpha
helix and the beta sheet.

Alpha Helix Beta sheet

In an alpha helix, the polypeptide
backbone coils around an imaginary
helix axis in clockwise direction.
In this illustration, only the N-C-CO
backbone atoms are shown. Note the
coiling of the backbone around an
imaginary axis down the center of the
helix.
In the beta sheet secondary
structure, the polypeptide backbone
is nearly fully extended. The R-
groups (not shown) are alternately
pointed above and then below the
extended backbone.
Tertiary Structure of Proteins

Tertiary structure refers to the overall

folding of the entire polypeptide
chain into a specific 3D shape. The
tertiary structure of enzymes is often
a compact, globular shape.
Quaternary Structure of Proteins

Many proteins are formed from more than one

polypeptide chain. The quaternary structure describes the
way in which the different subunits are packed together to
form the overall structure of the protein. For example, the
human hemoglobin molecule shown below is made of four
subunits.
The CENTRAL DOGMA
DNA
REPLICATION
Junalyn Gale D. Tapaya, LPT
OBJECTIVES

• Identify and discuss the requirements,

proteins and enzymes in DNA replication;

• Diagram the steps in replication.

Enrichment!
Replication
How does DNA replication transmit genetic information?
DNA replication allows genetic information to be inherited from a
parent cell to daughter cells (by mitosis) and from generation to
generation (starting with meiosis).
 Models of DNA Replication

Does DNA replication follow the conservative, semiconservative, or

dispersive model?

Experiment:

Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl

cultured E. coli for several generations in a
medium containing nucleotide precursors
labeled with a heavy isotope of nitrogen,
15N. They then transferred the bacteria to
a medium with only 14N, a lighter isotope.
They took one sample after the first DNA
replication and another after the second
replication. They extracted DNA from the
bacteria in the samples and then
centrifuged each DNA sample to separate
DNA of different densities.
Conclusion:
 Meselson and Stahl compared their
results to those predicted by each of
the three models. The first replication
in the 14N medium produced a band
of many molecules of hybrid (15N-
14N) DNA.
 This result eliminated the
conservative model.
 The second replication produced both
light and hybrid DNA, a result that
refuted the dispersive model and
supported the semiconservative
model.
 They therefore concluded that DNA Data from M. Meselson and F. W. Stahl, The replication of DNA in Escherichia
coli, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 44:671–682 (1958).
replication is semiconservative.
Image modified from "Basics of DNA replication: Figure 1,"
by OpenStax College, Biology (CC BY 3.0)._
Getting Started!
When a cell is getting ready to divide
(Interphase), its DNA replicates.

1. The replication of chromosomal DNA

begins at particular sites called origins of
replication (ORI), short stretches of DNA
that have a specific sequence of
nucleotides.
2. The two strands are separated by an
enzyme called Helicase at the Origin of
Replication.
3. Each nucleotide is then bound by a Single-
Stranded DNA Binding Protein which
keeps the strands from re-healing (coming
back together).

4. The untwisting of the double helix causes

tighter twisting and strain ahead of the
replication fork. Topoisomerase is an enzyme
that helps relieve this strain by breaking,
swiveling, and rejoining DNA strands.
At each end of a replication bubble is
a replication fork, a Y-shaped
region where the parental strands of
DNA are being unwound.
Synthesizing a New
DNA Strand
The unwound sections of parental DNA strands
are now available to serve as templates for the
synthesis of new complementary DNA strands.

5. An initial nucleotide chain that can

be used as a pre-existing chain is
produced during DNA synthesis; is
actually a short stretch of RNA, not
DNA. The RNA chain is called a primer
and is synthesized by the enzyme
primase.
6. One of the DNA strands encodes the “leading strand”
(new strand), which is laid down continuously from its 5’ to
3’ end (towards the Helicase). This is done by an enzyme
called DNA Polymerase III which moves towards the
helicase.

7. The other DNA strand (which runs in the opposite

direction) encodes the “lagging strand” (other new
strand), which must also be laid down from its 5’ to 3’
end (this time away from the Helicase).
8. Another DNA Polymerase III then attaches to the RNA Primer
and lays down a short length of DNA (away from the Helicase)
called an Okazaki Fragment (100 – 200 Nucleotides long) until it
reaches another RNA Primer further down the line. Once the DNA
Polymerase III reaches the 2nd RNA Primer it dissociates.

9. DNA Polymerase I then replace the RNA Primer (between the

two Okazaki fragments) with DNA.

10. DNA Ligase then links the two Okazaki fragments together.
Proofreading and Repairing DNA

 Upon finding an incorrectly paired nucleotide, the

polymerase removes the nucleotide and then resumes
synthesis.

- This action is similar to fixing a texting error by deleting the

wrong letter and then entering the correct one.)
 Mismatched nucleotides sometimes evade proofreading
by a DNA polymerase. In mismatch repair, other
enzymes remove and replace incorrectly paired
nucleotides that have resulted from replication errors.

 In many cases, a segment of the strand containing the

damage is cut out (excised) by a DNA-cutting enzyme—a
nuclease—and the resulting gap is then filled in with
nucleotides, using the undamaged strand as a template. The
enzymes involved in filling the gap are a DNA polymerase and
DNA ligase.
Thank you for watching!

J U N A L Y N G A L E D . T A P AY A , L P T

GENERAL Biology 2
The CENTRAL DOGMA
Gene
Expression:
From Gene to
Protein
TRANSCRIPTION & TRANSLATION

JUNALYN GALE D. TAPAYA

 š describe the requirements,
proteins and enzymes in DNA
transcription and translation;
Objectives
š diagram the steps in
transcription and translation.
 Gene Expresion
is the process by which DNA directs
the synthesis of proteins. The
expression of genes that code for
proteins includes two stages:
transcription and translation.
 • Transcription is the synthesis
(production) of RNA using
information in the DNA. The two
nucleic acids are written in
different forms of the same
language, and information is
Transcription simply transcribed, or "rewritten,"
from DNA to RNA.
• Just as a DNA strand provides a
template for assembling a
complementary sequence of RNA
nucleotides.
 • Translation is the synthesis of a
polypeptide using the
information in the mRNA.
• During this stage, there is a
change in language: The cell
must translate the nucleotide
sequence of an mRNA molecule
Translation into the amino acid sequence of
a polypeptide.
• The sites of translation are
ribosomes, molecular complexes
that facilitate the orderly linking
of amino acids into polypeptide
chains.
 This idea, that the flow of information went only one
way, was named the central dogma by Francis Crick in 1956.
 When biologists began to suspect
that the instructions for protein
synthesis were encoded in DNA,
they recognized a problem:

the GENETIC There are only four nucleotide

bases to specify 20 amino acids. Thus,
CODE the genetic code cannot be a
language like Chinese, where each
written symbol corresponds to a word.

How many nucleotides, then, would

turn out to correspond to an amino
acid?
Codons: Triplets of Nucleotides
Experiments have verified that the flow of
information from gene to protein is based on a
triplet code:
The genetic instructions for a polypeptide
chain are written in the DNA as a series of
nonoverlapping, three-nucleotide words. The series
of words in a gene is transcribed into a
complementary series of nonoverlapping, three-
nucleotide words in mRNA, which is then translated
into a chain of amino acids
 A segment in the middle of
an mRNA has the
sequence 5′-
AGAGAACCGCGA-3′. Using
the codon table, translate this
sequence, assuming the first
three nucleotides are a
codon.
Transcription
is the DNA-directed
synthesis of RNA
 Synthesis of an RNA Transcript

INITIATION ELONGATION TERMINATION

 exposing 10-20 DNA
nucleotides at a time
for pairing with RNA nucleotides

5'-3' direction
the enzyme adds nucleotides o
Elongation of the 3' end
the RNA Strand newly synthesized RNA
molecule peels away
DNA double helix re-forms

rate of 40 nucleotides/sec in
eukaryotes
 polyadenylation signal
sequence

AAUAAA
acts as signal
Termination of
Transcription
10-35 nucleotides from signal
proteins cut the RNA transcript
free

pre-mRNA undergoes
processing
 RNA Processing
Enzymes in the eukaryotic nucleus modify pre-mRNA in specific ways
before the genetic message is dispatched to the cytoplasm. Both
ends of the primary transcript are altered.

CAPPING TAILING RNA SPLICING

The 3′ end, which is synthesized
first, receives a 5′ cap, a
modified form of a guanine (G)
nucleotide added onto the 5′
end after transcription of the
first 20–40 nucleotides have
been transcribed.
At the 3′ end, an enzyme
large portions of the RNA primary
then adds 50–250 more
transcript molecules are
adenine (A) nucleotides,
forming a poly-A tail. removed and the remaining
portions are reconnected
Translation
is the RNA-directed
synthesis of a polypeptide
 Protein Synthesis

INITIATION ELONGATION TERMINATION

Thank you for listening!

J U N A L Y N G A L E D . T A P AY A , L P T

GENERAL Biology 2
 Biology 2
GENETIC
ENGINEERING

Junalyn Gale D. Tapaya

Objectives:
• Outline the processes involve in genetic
engineering.
• Discuss the applications of recombinant
DNA.

Biology 2
 The artificial manipulation,
modification, and recombination of
Defining Genetic Engineering

DNA or other nucleic acid molecules

in order to modify an organism or
population of organisms.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
 Biology 2
Genetic Engineering
The term genetic engineering initially referred to various
techniques used for the modification or manipulation of
organisms through the processes of heredity and
reproduction. As such, the term embraced both artificial
selection and all the interventions of biomedical techniques,
among them artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization (e.g.,
“test-tube” babies), cloning, and gene manipulation.
 Biology 2
Genetic Engineering
• The process of using technology to change the genetic
makeup of an organism - be it an animal, plant or a
bacterium.
• This can be achieved by using recombinant DNA
(rDNA), or DNA that has been isolated from two or
more different organisms and then incorporated into a
single molecule, according to the National Human
Genome Research Institute (NHGRI).
Goals of Genetic Engineering
• cure diseases
• crop improvement
• knowledge build-up
Biology 2

History
 The company isolated the genes for
human insulin into E. coli bacteria,
which allowed the bacteria to produce
Recombinant DNA human insulin.
technology was first
After approval by the Food and Drug
developed in the early Administration (FDA), Genentech
1970s, and the first produced the first recombinant DNA
genetic engineering drug, human insulin, in 1982.

company, Genentech, was

founded in 1976. The first genetically engineered
vaccine for humans was approved by
the FDA in 1987 and was for
History

hepatitis B.
 Since the 1980s, genetic
engineering has been used to
produce everything from a more
environmentally friendly
lithium-ion battery to infection- These organisms made by
resistant crops such as the genetic engineering, called
HoneySweet Plum. genetically modified
organisms (GMOs), can be
bred to be less susceptible to
diseases or to withstand
specific environmental
History

conditions.
Recombinant DNA
Molecules of DNA from two
different species that are
inserted into a host organism
to produce new genetic
combinations that are of
value to science, medicine,
agriculture, and industry.

Biology 2
 Gene Cloning
or DNA cloning produces multiple copies of
a gene (or DNA segment) that can be used
to manipulate and analyze DNA and to
produce useful new products or organisms
with beneficial traits. In genetic engineering,
bacterial restriction enzymes are used to cut
DNA molecules within short, specific
nucleotide sequences (restriction sites),
yielding a set of double-stranded restriction
fragments with single-stranded sticky ends.

DNA restriction fragments of different lengths can be separated by gel electrophoresis.

 1.Cutting or cleavage of DNA by restriction enzymes

General Outline (REs).

of Recombinant 2. Selection of an appropriate vector or vehicle which

would propagate the recombinant DNA (e.g., circular
DNA plasmid in bacteria with a foreign gene of interest).

3. Ligation (join together) of the gene of interest (e.g.,

from animal) with the vector (cut bacterial plasmid).

4. Transfer of the recombinant plasmid into a host cell

(that would carry out replication to make huge copies of
the recombined plasmid).
5. Selection process to screen which cells actually
contain the gene of interest.
6. Sequencing of the gene to find out the primary
Biology 2 structure of the protein.
 Methods of Introducing rDNA Into
Host Organisms

Microinjection Heat Shock Protoplast Fusion

Treatment

Biolistic Electroporation
Microinjection
is a technique of delivering foreign
DNA into a living cell (a cell, egg,
oocyte, embryos of animals)
through a glass micropipette. The
holding pipette holds a target cell
at the tip when gently sucked. The
tip of the micropipette is injected
through the membrane of the cell.
Biolistic
• Microscopic gold beads are
coated with the gene of
interest and shot into the
plant cell with a pulse of
helium.
• Once inside the cell, the
gene comes off the bead
and integrates into the
cell's genome. The gene gun can be used to shoot
callus..
 Heat Shock Treatment
• The target cells are pre-treated before
the procedure to increase the pore sizes
of their plasma membranes.
• Make the cells “competent” for
accepting the plasmid DNA.
• Plasmid is cold treated and then applied
with "Heat Shock", then cold treatment
again
• The cells that took up the plasmids
acquire new traits and are said to be
“transformed”.

4°C for 30min. Heat shock with 42°C for 1 minute then back to 4°C for 2 minutes.
Electroporation
• Plant cells could be
"electroporated" or mixed
with a gene and "shocked"
with a pulse of electricity,
causing holes to form in the
cell through which the DNA
could flow. a microbiology technique in which an electrical
• Commonly used for insertion field is applied to cells in order to increase the
permeability of the cell membrane, allowing
of genes into mammalian chemicals, drugs, or DNA to be introduced into the
cells. cell
Protoplast Fusion
• Protoplasts are capable of fusing;
forms somatic hybrids of even
genetically incompatible plants.
• Hybrid protoplasts are then
regenerated by tissue culture into
whole hybrid plants .
 Application of Recombinant DNA
MODIFIED TRAIT GENE MODIFICATION RECIPIENT APPLICATION (FIELD)
ORGANISM
Insulin Production Insertion of Human Bacteria (Medicine) Production of Human
Insulin Gene Insulin in Bacteria
Pest Resistance Insertion of Bt-toxin Corn / Maize (Agriculture) Production of corn plants
gene with increased resistance to corn boxer
Delayed Ripening Disruption of a gene (Agriculture) Production of plants with
for a ripening enzyme (anti- Tomato plant fruits that have delayed ripening fruits.
sense/gene silencing) These fruits will survive longer transport
(e.g., polygalacturonase) time, allowing their delivery to further
locations (i.e., export deliveries)
Chymosin Insertion of a gene for Bacteria (Industry) Enhance large scale production
Production chymosin of chymosin. This enzyme serves as a
substitute for rennet in the coagulation of
milk. Rennet has to be harvested from
calves. The large-scale production of this
enzyme in bacteria provides an abundant
supply of this important component for
the cheese production industry.
 DNA Template
Polymerase
Chain Reaction Primers

(PCR) DNA polymerase

discovered by Kary Mullis in 1985
and is a way to copy a DNA Magnesium
molecule. This process is an enzyme
type reaction which revolves around
Buffer mix & dNTP’s
the conditions of the enzyme.

PCR Enhancing Reagents

Biology 2
 Denaturation Annealing Extension
This occurs with an increase Here the primers bind to the The polymerase add dNTP’s
of temperature where the separated complement in the 5’ to 3’ direction. The
weak hydrogen bonds are strands due to lowering of primers are extended by
broken and the double temperature to allow the addition of complementary
strand DNA separates into DNA to recombine. The bases (A, T, C, G) read from
two single strands. primers are added in excess the 3’ to 5’ direction. (72
Temperature may vary to ensure that the primer degrees).
according to enzyme and binds and not the original
desired result (usually above DNA (54 degrees)
90 degrees)

Three stages to PCR

 Diagnosing Infections

Crime Investigations

Uses of PCR
Genetic Research

Molecular Biology
Biology 2

Thank You
for Watching!

Genetic Engineering
Junalyn Gale D. Tapaya

General Biology 2