AIRFLOW CONTROL Rr, Licence By Post © copyright B1 15.4 15.13 ISSUE 180a AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer's handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations / guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments.Acknowledgements With special thanks to: AIRBUS INDUSTRIE ROLLS ROYCE ple UK CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY for permission to reproduce drawings. Note Certain drawings from Civil Aviation Authority Publications (CAPS) are no longer available as they have been removed (from CAPS) due to amendment action.CONTENTS SUBJECT Airflow control Airflow control Surge Stall Bleed valves Engine starting Electric starting Starter generators Maintenance of starters Starting procedure Hydraulic starting Air impingement starting Turbo-starters Air turbo-starters Ignition systems High energy ignition unit Igniter plug Typical start cycle Relighting PAGE Aner DIAN AROM BGZSSHOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK Written specifically for the category B1 Aeroplanes and Helicopters person to level 2. The category A person should study the same material but to level 1 After studying this book the B1 person should be able to describe the: * Problems associated with airflow through a jet engine and describe the systems designed to overcome them. You should be able to fault rectify any of the systems and describe the process of routine maintenance. * Engine starting systems, their routine maintenance and fault rectification. This will include the power supplies - electrical and pneumatic. * Jet engine starting and running. The above applies to the category A person except for fault rectification and general level of knowledge - check JAR66.AIRFLOW CONTROL In order to give a high degree of pressure rise, axial flow compressors are made up of a varying number of stages. Each stage will only develop the maximum stage pressure rise when the blades are operating at the most efficient angle of incidence, (Angle of Attack), relative to the incoming airflow. Unfortunately, because the angles of the blades are fixed the incidence changes with the varying conditions of rpm and airflow velocity and the optimum incidence only occurs over a very narrow set of operating parameters. ‘These conditions are normally those that the engine will run at for the rest of its life, e.g. cruise rpm’s. At all other times the blades at either the front or rear of the compressor tend to operate in conditions of incipient stall. Compressor Stall The aerofoil sections of the compressor blades can be made to stall if the relative airflow is varied beyond certain limits. This situation usually occurs when there is a reduction in air mass flow through the compressor which is due to some external influence. It can occur during the starting cycle, at very low rpm, during acceleration and at high rpm. The effect upon the angle of attack of an aerofoil as a result of a change in relative airflow is illustrated in the vector diagrams in Figure 1. Before looking at the different airflow angles and speeds entering the compressor, the relative vectors must first be explained. By referring to the top diagram in Fig. 1 carefully read and understand the following: Example. Compressor diameter. = — 36ins (0.91m) rpm 4000 Rotor blade tip speed 2nr x 4000 = 2xnx 18x 4000 in per min = 452389 in per min = 428 mph (686 kph) 300 mph (480 kph) Airspeed Consider a molecule of air travelling from Al to A2. Imagine sitting on a rotor blade travelling from B1 to B2 The molecule of air will appear to the viewer to move backwards as the rotor blade moves from B1 to B2. The relative velocity of the air therefore appears to move in the opposite direction to the compressor blade. Al = A2 @ 300 mph (480 kph) - or 400 mph (640 kph) a/c speed B1 = B2 @ 428 mph (686 kph) - or 856 mph (1370 kph)(8000rpm) -1-Fig. 1 EFFECT OF CHANGES IN RELATIVE AIRFLOW -2-At Low Speed At low rotational speeds the mass flow reduction from the design value is more pronounced than the reduction in rotational speed, this implies low axial velocity at the inlet with a corresponding high angle of incidence on the front stages. Due to the low compressor pressure ratio, the density of the air at the rear of the compressor is low which implies high axial velocity and a low angle of incidence on the rear stages. Due to the high air velocity the rear stages will probably be operating in a choked condition. At High Speed When the compressor is operating at its design condition, all of the rear stages are operating at similar values of axial velocity. The rear stages are no longer choked although the front stages may be approaching that condition. if, for any reason the air mass flow is reduced without a corresponding, decrease in compressor rpm, the outlet pressure will rise. The combined effect will be a reduction in the axial velocity through the last stages and a relatively small increase in incidence that will cause the rear stage blades to go into stall. Surge Surge in axial flow compressors is caused by the blades being operated with excessive incidence (Angle of Attack). When the engine is running any factor which might affect the engine rpm or air mass flow independently could alter considerably the angle of incidence of the blades. As with any aerofoil operating at high angles of attack the air will break away from the curved surfaces of the blades and form turbulent whirls and eddies which reduce the effective passages between the blades. This effect reduces the stage pressure rise from the affected blades causing a brief reversal of flow from the higher pressure area downstream. ‘The result is a series of high frequency aerodynamic pulsations which subject the blades to severe bending stresses, and change the sound characteristic produced by the compressor which may change to a warbling roar. Banging and knocking sounds are produced as the flame extinguishes and re-ignites, and a shock wave can be produced which travels forward through the compressor into the aircraft intake. This effect is known as ‘Hammershock’.If the engine is allowed to operate in this condition for more than a few seconds structural failure of compressor blades, overheating of turbine blades and engine casings and damage and distortion to intake assemblies will occur. Causes of Surge and Indications During engine ground running for both maintenance and defect investigations it is particularly important that maintenance personnel are aware of the causes of surge and more importantly the indication that they may experience on the flight deck. The following are typical causes of surge, this list is not exhaustiv Blockage of air passages. Contaminated or damaged compressor blades. + Sudden changes in air demanded from the compressor being used to drive - auxiliary systems, e.g. engine starting, cabin conditioning. + Sudden increases in fuel flow. + Operation of reheat or reverse thrust. And for flight crews:~ + Hot gas ingestion due to taxiing too close to other aircraft. + Flying with excessive yaw, incidence or sideslip. + Flying in heavy rain and bird strikes. The following points should be noted as indications that an engine is ina surge condition. A rapid rise in tgt or jpt coupled with fluctuations in rpm, the engine will be reluctant to accelerate and vibration from slight to severe will be experienced. If any of the above is suspected or indicated the engine should be shut down without delay by selecting min rpm on throttle and then shutting the hp cock, Compressor Surge ‘A compressor surge normally occurs when periodical breakdown of airflow around the compressor blades results in a series of violent low frequency flow fluctuations and reversals.‘The difference between a stall and surge is that the latter is compressor flow instability leading to a loss of engine control whereas the former is compressor flow instability that does not lead to a loss of engine control. Rotating Stall This refers to a compressor stall that rotates around the compressor disc. Locked-in Stall This refers to a compressor stall that refuses to clear following initial action by the flight deck crew. Airflow Control Devices To avoid the problems of stall and surge it is necessary to modify the angle of the airflow onto the rotors and stators in order to maintain a constant angle of attack and to bleed off excessive amounts of air from the compressor during starting and acceleration. These control devices are called inlet guide vanes and bleed valves. Variable Inlet Guide Vanes and Fixed Inlet Guide Vanes (Figs. 1 & 3) The function of these devices is to match the air angles to the rotor speed. The blade operating mechanism is sensitive to rpm and air temperature signals (Tl). The overall effect is to change the characteristic of the compressor and cause the surge line to move away from the operating line, ihus increasing the surge margin. Bleed Valves (Fig. 2) Since the air mass flow, and hence the axial velocity at the front of the compressor depend upon the flow resistance, relief of the resistance will prevent high angles of attack during off design operation. The action of the bleed valve is to bleed air away from an intermediate stage of the compressor during starting and acceleration to and from idling rpm. As with the variable inlet guide vanes, operation is controlled by rpm and inlet temperature signals. The effect of the bleed valve being open is to reduce the incidence at the front and relieve the choking at the rear of the compressor. The effect is to move the operating line away from the surge line.When the bleed valves are open compressor efficiency is very low, air is being wasted which means an increase in specific fuel consumption. COMPRESSOR SPOOL rN 4000 pm 8000 rpm 2108. Movee somaisee 125 m3'soc 100 ms'see 10 aise ONLY 10 msisec CAN BE PASSED, S025 maisec IS BLED TO ATMOSPHERE BY ABLEED VALVE Fig. 2. BLEED VALVES - REQUIREMENTS FOR Multi-spool Engines The basic problem of low speed stall is that during starting and initial acceleration the incidence of the front blades is increased and that of the rear ones reduced in comparison to design values. For high pressure ratio compressors the incidence can be maintained at the design values by reducing the speed of the early stages and increasing that of the later stages. These conflicting requirements are met by splitting the compressor into two or more sections, each one being driven by a separate turbine. In the common twin spool configuration the Lp compressor is driven by the Lp turbine and the hp compressor by the hp turbine. The speeds of the two spools are mechanically independent but the effect of the aerodynamic coupling allows the Lp spool to rotate at a lower rpm than the hp section.‘There are many different types of airflow control systems and the following paragraphs describe some of those in current use, but before looking at them can you answer the following questions? QUESTION: Why do compressors stall? ANSWER: _ Because changes in rpm affect the angle of attack of the airflow onto the blades. QUESTION: Why are bleed valves fitted to compressors? ANSWER: At low rpms, the compressor is trying to pass too much air through the exit annulus. This is because the air is occupying too much space, i.e. the pressure ratio is too low. The bleed valve is fitted to relieve this excess air to atmosphere. SYSTEM 1 In this system compressor stability is achieved by using a set of variable inlet guide vanes and three stages of variable stator blades. It does not have a bleed valve and is fitted to a helicopter engine. Linkage Arrangement (Fig 3) ‘The variable intake guide vanes and stators are operated by a hydraulic actuator acting through a mechanical linkwork mechanism onto four actuating rings. Slots cut into these rings engage with levers which are attached to the outer end of each vane or stator. Movement of the actuator ram via a bellcrank causes the rings to rotate and the subsequent pivoting action by the levers on the vanes ensures that the incidence does not become critical. The range of movement is approximately 33°, the exact value varies with the engine; with the minimum datum (open) position being unique to each engine. This value will range from “0” to minus 3°. Once it has been established it will be annotated in the engine log book for future reference.Z*STAGESTATORS 3. STAGE STATORS. 4" STAGE STATORS. ACTUATING RING © FIXED PIvoTS © movasLe puors LOWER LINK igy AND VARIABLE STATOR BLADE ACTUATOR Fig 3. RAM RETRACTED, VIGVs AND STATORS AT "MAXIMUM SWIRL" OR "CLOSED" Actuator (Figs. 4 and 5) The typical hydraulic actuator shown is powered by high pressure (hp) fuel tapped from the engine fuel system. It comprises in essence a piston across which the pressure is made to drop, thus resulting in a force which causes the piston to move. The direction in which the piston moves will determine whether the ram extends or retracts. Extension occurs as the engine rpm rises and the effect is to move the vigv's and stators from a max swirl to a min swirl position. A decrease in rpm will have the opposite effect. Control of the actuator piston is exercised by a SERVO VALVE which is positioned under the influence of a SIGNAL PISTON. If the servo valve moves in one direction hp fuel is directed to one side of the actuator piston and the fuel on the opposite side is passed via the servo valve to Lp. Movement of the servo valve in the opposite direction has the reverse effect. The signal piston is connected to the servo valve. One side of the piston is ubjected to fuel pump governor pressure and provides an rpm signal.‘ Fig. 4 VIGV AND STATOR ACTUATOR In opposition to the speed signal force is a spring, and the force exerted by the spring is in direct proportion to the amount of ram extension, and it serves to act as a FEEDBACK action force. The effect of feedback is to put the servo valve into a sensitive position if the engine rpm stabilises with the vigv and stators in the mid range position. This causes the actuator piston to be locked hydraulically and the movement of the vigvs and stators, due to the aerodynamic turning effect of the air as it passes over the vanes, will be prevented ‘A temperature sensing bellows sensitive to T1 signals will increase or decrease the feedback spring datum force value, and will affect the rpm at which the actuator starts to extend.CONNECTED TOG. AND. VARIABLE STATOR BLADES AcTuatoR CYLINDER actuator {—Fiston sionas STON _ seavo, TEMPERATURE SENSING UNIT BeLLows Livcen wc Cin FULCRUM. Fig. 5 HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR FULLY RETRACTED (IGVs at the 33 deg datum position) Key to Fuel Tappings on Actuator 1. Fuel pump governor pressure. 2. Pump inlet pressure (Lp) 3. Fuel filter inlet pressure (Lp). 4. Pump delivery pressure (hp). Sequence of Operations System prior to engine starting. Ram retracted, igvs and stators at the 33 deg datum (fully closed or maximum swirl position). Signal piston and servo valve to the left (fwd) under the influence of the servo-valve spring. -10-Engine running and rpm increasing. Signal piston moves servo valve to the right. hp fuel to the right hand side of the actuator piston. Actuator piston moves to the left (ram extends). Igvs and stators open to datum annotated in the engine logbook, or travel to the minimum swirl position. Engine running and rpm decreasing As governor fuel pressure force decreases, the servo valve spring pushes the servo valve and signal piston to the left (fwd) Hp fuel to the left hand side of the actuator piston Actuator piston moves to the right (ram retracts). Igvs and stators close to the 33° datum, or maximum swirl position. Engine running and ambient air temp rising. If ambient air temperature rises, the density of the air will decrease, reducing the mass airflow. The system will now have to compensate for this change in mass flow in order to. maintain the correct angle of attack of the relative airflow onto the compressor blades. The vigys will therefore have to move from the max swirl position at a higher engine rpm. The temperature sensitive capsule will expand and apply a small force to the servo spring, this will require the pump governor pressure to be higher in order to operate the actuator, ie at a higher engine rpm. The reverse will be true for a reduction in air temperature, ie mass flow increase, vigvs move from max swirl at a lower rpm SYSTEM 2 (Fig 6) In this system, compressor stability is achieved by bleeding air from the hp compressor outlet through a “poppet” type bleed valve. Attached to the stem of the valve is a piston which operates in a chamber. A spring fitted around the stem of the valve biases it towards the “open” position. The valve is “closed” by P3 air pressure which acts against the opposite side of the piston to the spring. The air pressure in the chamber is controlled by a solenoid valve. . -11-When the solenoid valve is energised the piston chamber is vented to atmosphere, and this prevents the P3 air pressure in the chamber rising above the opposing spring pressure setting - the bleed valve will now open. If the solenoid valve is de-energised, the vent will close and the chamber pressure will rise until the spring pressure is overcome and the bleed valve will close. The electrical supply to the solenoid valve is controlled by a differential pressure switch. In this switch fuel is supplied to both sides of a bellows. Lp fuel pump inlet pressure to the outside, and hp governor pressure to the inside. As with previous systems this latter value acts as an engine speed signal. As the engine rpm rises, the pressure difference across the bellows is used to overcome a downward force exerted by a "Bellville" type of spring washer. When this occurs the washer deflects upwards which results in a pivoted beam moving to open a set of contacts. This action de-energises the solenoid valve. As the rpm decreases, governed fuel pressure will drop and the energy stored in the Bellville washer causes it to deflect back to its original position, thus causing the switch contacts to close and the solenoid valve to de-energise. -12-HP. FUEL PUMP GOVERNOR PRESSURE LP. FUEL PUMP INLET PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE SWITCH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE SWITCH CONTACTS SOLENOID CONTROL VALVE OVERBOARD VENT Py OPERATING AIR ‘Alm BLEED VALVE ASSEMBLY LECTRICAL POWER SUPPLY BELLEVILLE WASHER CLOSED Fig. 6 BLEED VALVE SYSTEM -13-BLANK eiticENGINE STARTING In order to effect a start on a gas turbine engine certain parameters must be met. The compressor must first be rotated to provide sufficient airflow to enable the fuel system to meter the required amount of fuel to the gas stream. ‘This combustible mixture must then be ignited and the cycle sustained until the rotating spools can accelerate on their own. Compressor Rotation To achieve rotation of the spools of a gas turbine, some form of mechanical starter motor is normally used. These can be divided into the following groups. Electric motor, hydraulic motor, turbo starter and direct air impingement. Electric Starter Motor Early types of jet engines were small and, in general, employed an electric starter to turn the engine during the starting cycle. The starter is usually a de motor coupled to the engine shaft through a reduction gear and a ratchet- mechanism or other automatic disengaging drive. A sprag type clutch is often used. The electric motor suffers from the disadvantage that it cannot accelerate the engine to self-sustaining speed as quickly as most other types of starter systems. Some engines use a separate electric motor for starting, whereas others may use a starter/generator acting as a starter during the starting cycle. When the generator is used as a motor is offers the advantages of reduced overall weight and no disengaging mechanism is needed. ‘These advantages are, however, countered by the disadvantages that when a generator is used as a motor it is less powerful than a starter motor and increases the time taken to start the engine. When an electric starter motor is used to turn the engine the starting current must be supplied by an external source such as a ‘ground power unit’ (gpu) or an ‘auxiliary power unit’ (apu), this prevents excessive loads on the aircraft's batteries. An electric starter motor usually consists of a de motor, an overload clutch, a reduction gear and an automatic engagement/disengagement mechanism. On some engines all this equipment is in the engine gearbox with the motor on the outside. -1-rue oave SMArT DRAWING FROM CAP 562 Fig. 1 TYPICAL de STARTER MOTOR The starter drive can be coupled to the engine in one of several ways: * An axially moved starter jaw on the drive shaft. On starter operation the inertia of the jaw allows the helical splines on which it is mounted to rotate which causes the jaw to move axially forward to engage with a similar jaw on the engine gear box. * — Solenoid engaged jaw. The solenoid is operated at the same time as the starter motor. It pushes the jaw axially to engage with the gear box jaw. * Ratchet drive and sprag clutch. The ratchet sprags rotate with the engine. Engagement takes place when the starter motor starts up and as engine speed picks up so centrifugal force will cause the sprags to disengage.5) Starter Generators These are generally compound wound dc machines, similar to a de starter except that it does not have fitted: * a reduction gear and * an engagement/disengagement mechanism. It has compensating windings and interpoles and is permanently coupled to the engine via a drive shaft and gear train. When in starting mode the starter is supplied with de current and functions as a compound motor (figure 2). ‘COMPOUND WINDING eno 4 ELECTRICAL \ EARTH RETURN SUPPLY he MOTOR Fig 2. COMPOUND MOTOR WIRING DIAGRAM The current is supplied via a field change-over relay. When the engine reaches self sustaining speed the starter motor is isoiated from the power supply, the change over relay is automatically de-energised and its contacts connect the shunt field winding to the voltage regulator. The relay also allows current to flow from the de bus through the shunt winding to provide initial generator (for that is what it has now turned into} excitation. Now the machine is acting as a generator whose output is connected to the de bus bar on reaching the regulated level.Maintenance of Starters and Generators Routine maintenance is carried out in accordance with the maintenance schedule using manuals such as the maintenance manual etc. Inspections include: * Visual inspection for oil leaks, security, damage, corrosion, fluid contamination, signs of burning, security of electrical connections. Check for open circuits. Rectify any defects found. * Check gear box oil level and top up if necessary. If a large amount of oil is needed check reasons why and rectify. * Check brushes for correct seating, correct length and that they are a good sliding fit in their housing with no chips of cracks. Change if defective and ensure new brushes seat correctly on the commutator. * Check springs for correct tension. Replace if necessary: ~ * Check commutator segments, as far as possible, for security, scratching and burning. * Check cooling air ducts are clear. * Check insulation value between terminals and frame is as per manual or 0.5 Mohms min, if not stated. * Check engagement/disengagement mechanism as far as possible for correct operation and wear. Starting Procedure The electrical circuit for supplying energy to an electric starter will be different for various installations however a typical cycle and circuit is described as follows (See Fig. 3). On pressing the starter button, current is applied from the supply to: 1. The electric starter motor through two series resistors R1 and R2, which reduce the current to the motor and, consequently, its initial speed. 2. The time delay switch, which controls the sequencing and timing. ‘After a delay of 3 seconds, R1 is short-circuited, the current to the motor increases and the motor speeds up.Five seconds after pressing the starter button, current is supplied to: 1. A fuel supply valve, which operates to provide a supply of fuel to the engine. 2. The high energy ignition unit which begins to charge. At 11 seconds, resistor R2 is short circuited and the motor speeds up to its maximum speed. This sequence causes the air to flow through the gas-turbine engine and produces the required fuel/air mixture. ‘At 15 seconds, the high energy ignition unit discharges across the gap of the igniter plugs (situated in the engine combustion chamber) and ignition takes place. At 35 seconds, the start contacts open to release the starter button and de- energise the starter motor. The time delay switch will continue to run until the contacts return to the original pre-start positions. san fue supp vee | ston + os eclay = high eeray sue ten imo > : ses Oa eH hugh energy 1Sses———] —gntion unt fy ‘Secharges as Fig. 3 TYPICAL ELECTRIC STARTING CIRCUIT Hydraulic Starter Some small gas turbine engines may be started by feeding high pressure hydraulic fluid to an engine-driven hydraulic pump. The engine-driven hydraulic pump used for engine starting is called a pump/starter and is. capable of turning the engine up to a speed suitable for ‘light up’ and then assisting it to reach self-sustaining speed. shePower for the pump/starter is provided by hydraulic fluid under pressure from a ‘ground supply unit’. The starting operation is controlled by an electrical circuit which also operates hydraulic valves, so that, on completion of the starting cycle, the pump/starter functions as a normal hydraulic pump. Other installations may use a separate hydraulic pump for starting. The means of transmitting the torque to the engine may also vary but, in every case, a suitable disengaging mechanism will be included Direct Air Impingement Air impingement starting is a system that can be used on those jet engines which are not fitted with starter motors. It is a simple method and gives a saving in weight compared with other systems. An external air supply is connected to the engine, as illustrated in Fig. 4. Jets of air impinge directly onto the engine turbine blades to rotate the engine up to self-sustaining speed. non-return valve (open) air supply‘The air feed to the turbine is controlled by a simple on/off cock and the engine ignition system is controlled by a suitable timing device. The considerable amount of high velocity air required for this type of starting is obtained from an external source or, on multi-engined aircraft, from an engine that is running, it is fed through non-return valves and nozzles onto the turbine blades. Turbo-Starter A turbo-starter consists of a small very high speed turbine which can be driven by compressed air from either an external source, an apu, or from another engine. Other methods of providing a compressed gas flow are rarely used nowadays. These include cartridges fired in a breech with the resulting high pressure gases rotating the turbine or a mono-fuel being burnt in a combustion chamber, again with the resulting gases turning the turbine. Another method normally used only on military engines is the ‘driver’ type of starter, where a small gas turbine is started up and directly coupled to the main engine’s gearbox. Once the main engine is started, the ‘driver’ is shut down and plays no further part in the aircrafts operation. ar outlet redyeon gen entine ve shat Fig. S AIR TURBO STARTER “7.Air Turbo-Starter The most popular type of turbo-starter for modern engines is the compressed air starter. It consists of a turbine, reduction gears, clutch and drive shaft (Fig. 5). Low pressure air at about 3 bars {300 kPa or 44 psi) is used to drive the impulse type turbine. This air is supplied from its respective source by an electrically controlled air valve which is selected ‘open’ from the flight deck. It is selected closed by a ‘speed’ switch fitted to either the starter or main engine. The output from the turbine shaft is now fed via a reduction gear through a sprag type clutch to the engine gearbox. This prevents the engine driving the starter motor once the engine has ‘lit up” and is accelerating to idle rpm. Fig. 6 shows the main components of an Airbus A330 system. The air supply duct is part of the pneumatic bleed air system that supplies air for air conditioning, anti icing, domestic water supply pressurisation and hydraulic reservoir pressurisation. Fig. 6 AIRBUS A330 AIRSTART COMPONENTS Pee‘On starting the system is used with suitable valving and with the air starter valve oper to supply air from the apu, external supply, or the other engine to the air starter turbine. The starter turbine is connected via a gear train and pawl and ratchet type clutch to the engine. Figure 7 shows the pneumatic system of the A330. Note the ground air supply and the supply from the apu. Note also the starter air valve and the starter. The system is used for normal ground starts and in-flight re-starts. The air is supplied at a rate of 94lbs per min and can be supplied from: * The apu * — The other engine. * — Anexternal ground supply. The start sequence can be automatic or manual. ENG 2 q jz STARTER Anvawve | apy a aru priguManic BteeD CROSS BLEED VALVE Valve PRECOOLER glee a STARTER AIR VALVE we GROUND CONNECTION = Sl WF (Pe INTERMEDIATE PRESSURE ent Fig. 7 A330 AIR START SYSTEMIgnition Systems The high energy ignition system fitted to a gas turbine engine must provide the electrical spark necessary to ignite the fuel/air mixture in the combustion chamber(s) during the starting cycle. It must also be capable of operating independently in the event of a flame extinction (flame out) in flight. A dual system is used on each engine to provide a positive light up on starting, with each high energy ignition unit connected to its own igniter plug. To aid flame propagation, each of the two igniter plugs is situated in a different combustion chamber or at different positions in an annular chamber. High Energy Ignition Unit Each high energy ignition unit has a low voltage supply which is controlled by the control unit in the starting system. Depending on the engine, the supply may be dc or ac. If the supply is de, either a trembler mechanism or a transistor wave generator is used to convert the dc input to low voltage ac. CHOKE DISCHARGE GAP. RECTIFIER BOOSTER CON ‘ar TREMBLER SAFETY RESISTOR Capacitor Fig. 8 HIGH ENERGY IGNITION UNIT Thereafter, the operation is the same as that of the system supplied with ac: The low ac voltage is stepped up to a high voltage by the transformer. The high value alternating voltage is then ‘rectified’ to provide a high value of de voltage which is used.to charge a capacitor. -10-When the capacitor voltage is high enough it breaks down a discharge gap and the discharge is applied to the igniter plug when the energy (high voltage, high current) is converted to a spark across the face of the igniter plug (See Fig. 8). The current then goes to earth return. ‘The actual energy required to ensure ignition, varies with atmospheric and flight conditions; for example, more energy is required as the altitude increases. Thus, high energy (12 joules) systems are normal for certain conditions of flight and for engine starting. For adverse conditions, such as icing or when taking-off in heavy rain or snow, it may be desirable to have the ignition system operating continuously to give an automatic re-light should ‘flame-out’ occur. For continuous operation, a low energy (3 joules) system is adequate. Where continuous operation of the ignition unit is not desirable, a ‘glow plug’ can be fitted in the combustion chamber to ensure re-light if necessary. Igniter Plug ‘The igniter plug consists of a central electrode and an outer body, the space between being filled with an insulating material which terminates at the firing end of the electrode. During operation a small electrical leakage from the ignition unit is fed through the central electrode to the plug body to produce an ionised path across the surface of the pellets; any subsequent high intensity discharge takes place across this low resistance path. This igniter plug is classed as a ‘surface discharge’ plug because the energy does not have to jump an air gap. The contact button mates with a similar button on the ignition lead Ifany maintenance is carried out on an ignition system, the lethal warnings must first be read. On most systems, the Lt (low tension [low voltage}) cable must first be disconnected and at least 5 minutes must be allowed to elapse to enable the capacitors to discharge. ethicThe Airbus A330 Fig. 9 shows the ignition system components of the Airbus A330 with PW engines. Each engine has 2 independent systems - systems A & B. Each system can be used at the same time or alternately. Electrical power is controlled by the ERU (Engine Relay Unit) to each system which includes a capacitor discharge type ignition exciter and igniter plug. The system is controlled by the FADEC (Pull Authority Digital Engine Control) which integrates starter, fuel and automatic start sequencing.Figure 10 shows the power supply to one engine. Note the duplication of the systems with a 115V 12 (single phase) supply via a C/B. Note the control relay and the power supply to each channel. Note the exciter and ignition plug with electrical return connections back to the ECU. 331 on my os [ak J ‘ax al RE ‘DOZEN Go ee Fig. 10 A330 IGNITION ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM Typical Start Cycle ‘The starter motor is capable of cranking the engine to a speed higher than that at which sufficient gas flow is generated to enable the engine to accelerate under its own power. ‘The starter motor will normally be fitted to the engine accessory gearbox, which in tum is connected to the compressor spool or, in the case of a multi spool engine, the high pressure spool. Part of the pre-start sequence of actions will be to select ‘ON’ the fuel supply, by opening the required fuel cocks. The engine throttle lever is moved to the fully closed position. ‘The START MASTER and IGNITION switches are selected ‘ON’. Then finally the engine selector switch is set to the engine to be started and the starter button pressed; this then initiates the automatic start sequence to correctly start the engine, eg starter air valve, ignition, starting atomisers etc. The opening of the air valve can be confirmed by a drop in air duct pressure. ‘The engine commences to rotate, the ignition system commences to operate and fuel pressure rises, and when sufficient rpm is reached the engine hp fuel cock can be opened, after a short delay the engine should light up’. From this point no further action is necessary by the crew member, but the engine speed, exhaust gas temperature (egt) and oil pressure should be closely monitored and the throttle lever adjusted accordingly, Once the engine has lit up, the engine ASSISTED by the starter motor, accelerates to ‘self sustaining’ speed. This speed is BELOW idling speed, but sufficient gas flow is generated to enable the engine to continue to accelerate under its own power. 213-‘The starter drive disengages through the sprag clutches when the engine begins to turn faster than the starter motor. Power supplies to the starter air valve and ignition circuits are cancelled at this stage The engine should continue to accelerate and stabilise at the normal ground idling rpm. If required, the starting operation can be stopped at any time by closing the hp fuel cock and switching OFF the engine START MASTER switch. Example Starting Sequence - A330 (Automatic Mode) The engine start selector switch is set to IGN START. The master lever for engine 1 (ENG 1) and/or engine 2 (ENG 2) is moved to ON. When the master lever is moved to ON, a signal is sent to the EEC to automatically control the sequencing for: Air starter valve operation. Ignition. * The HP Fuel shutoff valve. The EEC monitors N1, N2 and EGT and ensures the appropriate limit protection. The EEC will automatically close the starter air valve (if N2 speed is more than 43 - 47.8%) and tum off the ignition. If an impending hot start or rotating stall is detected by the EEC the HP fuel shutoff valve will be cycled for a period of time in an attempt to clear the condition. If specific start faults are detected during the autostart sequence on the ground, the EEC will: Automatically shut off fuel. * Tum off ignition. * Close the starter air valve. The EEC will also send fault messages to the Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM) system for display on the flight deck. Relighting - General Certain conditions of flight may extinguish the flame in the combustion chamber(s) leaving the aircraft without power. Provision is made to re-start the engine in flight, but the pilot may need to fly at a favourable altitude and forward speed to achieve this. aeIf the pilot is able to fulfil these conditions, and the engine has no mechanical defects the engine compressor will ‘windmill’ to provide an airflow to the combustion system and a metered fuel flow from the flow regulator. The conditions will now be suitable for re-starting the engine. Because the engine is turning, the starter motor is not needed during a re-light start of the engine. Consequently, the re-light switch is designed to energise the ignition system only. -15-Questions on Book 2 1. An engine fitted with an air starter fails to reach self-sustaining rpm. List all of the possible mechanical causes of this symptom. 2. What indications would you see on the flight deck that an engine air starter had commenced rotation? (Engine start button pressed) Instruments fitted are: (Or use your own aircraft assuming you are familiar with its start system). N1._ (hp spool rpm) N2 (Lp spool rpm) Oil Pressure Jpt (jet pipe temperature) Air duct pressure (air from an external air trolley) Starter overspeed light Start master light Starter air valve “OPEN” light What is the difference between “light up” and “self sustaining” rpm? 4. In the airflow system (Fig. 5): {a) the servo valve spring is broken. (b) the signal piston is stuck to the left. What effect would these defects have on engine operation?