AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training purposes only When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer’s handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/ guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS With thanks to: ROLLS-ROYCE ple for their permission to reproduce drawings.CONTENTS Thrust augmentation Water injection Water ~ methanol injection Air intake injection Combustion chamber injection Reheat Variable nozzle Reheat systems Thrust reversal Clamshell doors Bucket type doors Cold stream reverser/hot stream spoiler Safety features Typical operating system Lockout Noise suppression Turbine noise Compressor and fan noiseHOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK ‘The various subjects in this book are fairly straight forward, though some sections might need a little more time than others. Some of the topics are not common on commercial aircraft (thrust augmentation for example) but because it does exist you will need to know something about it. Other subjects such as thrust reverse is fitted to most jet engined aircraft. ‘The CAA will expect you to know enough about the systems to be able to fault rectify and to know their interrelationship with other services such as instrumentation, power supplies, aircraft configuration for operation etc. Written to level 2 for the B1 engineer but is also applicable for the A mechanic = though he/she need not know the subject to the same depth.THRUST AUGMENTATION There are occasions when the maximum thrust developed by a gas turbine engine is inadequate. These instances are take-offs when the mass air-flow through the engine has been reduced by either a high ambient temperature or a high-altitude airport. When these two factors are combined, eg ‘hot and high’, it is difficult to effect a safe take-off unless a reduction of auw (all-up- weight) is made. ‘The loss of thrust experienced by the reduction in mass air-flow due to altitude is the result of the fuel metering system reducing fuel flow accordingly. The Joss of thrust due to high ambient air temperature results in the fuel system reducing fuel flow to keep the turbine temperatures within limits. ‘There are various methods of thrust restoration which will be discussed later. There are also instances when the thrust normally developed by a gas turbine engine is inadequate for its operational role, eg take-off with high auw and rapid acceleration to supersonic speeds (Concorde) To enable large amounts of thrust to be developed for short periods of time without resorting to installing larger engines, requires a more specific method of thrust augmentation. Water Injection To enable the engine speed and hence thrust, to be increased for take-off, water is sprayed into the combustion chamber or compressor inlet or both to keep the turbine gas temperature down to an acceptable levei and slightly increase mass airflow. Cooling the air within the engine is like reducing the compressor inlet air temperature, increasing air density, without increasing the ‘compression’ work. ‘The air temperature drops and hence density rises as the water evaporates, with no increased energy absorption by the turbine. The water flow rate for the required turbine temperature reduction is set by the engine manufacturer. Generally, water/air ratios are 1 - 5 : 100 by weight. ‘The quantity of water carried is usually sufficient for one ‘wet’ take-off only. De-mineralised water is used to avoid fouling the compressor turbine blades.TO CONTENTS GAUGE ARCRAET WATER FLIGHT TRANSDUCER: ane beer swnron TF roaretow NOICATOR i I Y wean oOo, runswe PMP FR - reanspuce contrOoL VALVE Y rrangouceR 0 FLOW INDICATOR wate on ‘Row sensne rio row uN FucHT DECK _TOFUEL_! “INDICATIONS REGULATOR | UNIT y conoion Stowe TRANSDUCER Ss nsouce SNe ie wNiT uo spray noua Fig. 1 COMBUSTION CHAMBER WATER INJECTION SYSTEM Water - Methanol Injection To d.te, the addition of water or a water/methanol mixture has proved to be the cheapest practical means of restoring or increasing the power of an engine for lengthy periods. ‘The water increases the density of the air and methanol acts as a fuel which is burnt in order to maintain the correct air/fuel ratio. This ratio will have been changed due to the increased mass flow caused by the cooling effect of the water. The addition of methanol has the effect of acting as an anti-freeze which prevents the freezing of the water at high altitude -2-Adjustments to the engine fuel system are, therefore, unnecessary. The addition of water has two effects upon the performance of the engine: the cooling effect of water increases the density of the airflow to increase the thrust and, when the water is converted into steam, it provides a high volumetric expansion which increases the thrust everi further. ‘There are basically two methods of injecting water or water/methanol mix, one is into the air intake and the other into the combustion chamber. Fig. 2, PERFORMANCE CURVES FOR REHEAT ENGINES Air Intake Injection Spraying the mixture into the air intake is more effective for engines with centrifugal compressors than it is for axial compressors. With centrifugal compressors, an even distribution of the mixture is obtained whereas, with an axial flow compressor, even distribution is uncertain. (Turbo propeller engines use intake injection regardless of the type of engine in use) For gas turbine engines with axial flow compressors, better results are obtained when the water/methanol is injected into the combustion chambers There is then no distribution problem and this permits the use of larger quantities of water/methanol. Normally, with this method of injection, the mixture is delivered to the upstream side of the swirl vanes. When water or water/methanol mixes with the air at the compressor intakes the temperature of the air is reduced and, as a result, the air density, mass air flow, and thrust are increased. If water alone were to be injected, it would reduce the turbine inlet temperature and permit an increased fuel flow to be used, When methanol is added, the turbine inlet temperature is partially restored by burning the methanol in the combustion chamber. This restores the engine power without.adjusting the fuel flow. -3-When the system is switch ON, a water/methanol mixture is pumped from an airframe mounted tank to a control unit which meters the flow of mixture fed to the air intakes. The flow of water/methanol is controlled by a single metering valve and a servo piston that is powered by engine oil. The flow of the engine oil to the servo piston is controlled both by a shut-off cock and the position of a servo valve which, in turn, is moved by a control mechanism. This control mechanism balances propeller torque system oil pressure (on prop-jet engines) against atmospheric air pressure upon a capsule assembly within the control. ‘The oil cock is interconnected with the throttle lever in such a manner that, until the throttle is moved to the take-off position, the oil cock remains closed and the water/methanol system is inoperative. Moving the throttle lever to the ‘take-off position opens the oil cock to motivate the water/methanol system, | Selectos i wo Switch #--——_———>|Nozzle }|— Actuator Reheat Control Unit Fig. 3 ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEM Combustion Chamber Injection As has been already stated this increases the thrust by increasing the mass flow and by the water becoming steam. The pressure and temperature drop across the turbine is reduced and this further increases the thrust. The reduction in turbine inlet temperature due to water injection, enables the fuel system to provide for an increase in the maximum speed for the engine, thus providing further additional thrust without exceeding the safe turbine gas temperature limits. - = -4-When methanol is used with the water the turbine inlet temperature is partially restored without extra fuel from the fuel system, Water/methanol flows from an airframe mounted tank to an air turbine drive fuel pump and is delivered to a water flow sensing unit (figure 1). From the water sensing unit the mixture is distributed to the burner feed arms where two jets at the base of each arm spray the mixture onto the upstream side of the swirl vanes to cool the air entering the combustion zone. ‘The water pressure, between the sensing unit and the discharge jets, is sensed by the fuel system control, which automatically resets the engine speed governor to give a higher maximum engine speed. ‘The water/methanol system is brought into operation when the throttle lever is moved into the take-off position where it closes micro-switches to provide an air supply for the air turbine-powered water pump. The water flow sensing valve opens when a correct pressure difference exists between water pressure and compressor delivery air pressure. ‘The valve in the water flow sensing unit also acts as a non-return valve to prevent air pressure feeding back from the water discharge jets, and provides for the operation of an indicator to show when water/methanol is flowing, Reheat > Reheat —>| Flowmeter Ss ch < — >| Control | Throttle | | Hy ee ger} {Five} | Control Throttle, | — Rating — —| ~ Nozzle ee ies Actuator] Fig. 4 REHEAT CONTROL SYSTEMReheat Reheat is a method of augmenting the basic thrust of an engine to improve the take-off, climb and acceleration performance of the aircraft by the introduction of additional fuel. The increased power could be obtained by the use of a larger engine, but as this would increase the weight, frontal area and specific fuel consumption, reheat provides the best method of thrust augmentation for short periods. Reheating consists of the introduction and burning of fuel between the engine turbine and the jet pipe propelling nozzle, utilising the unburned oxygen in the exhaust gas to support combustion. The resultant increase in the temperature of the exhaust gas gives an increased velocity to the jet leaving the propelling nozzle and therefore increases the engine thrust. ‘This can be seen by referring to the thrust formula: Y THRUST = MASS (V9 - Vj) * v * the jet velocity increased by reheat © will increase the thrust Note that (Vo - Vj) is the acceleration given to the gas stream. If the outlet gas . velocity is increased due to burning fuel in the reheat pipe, the reaction to this & is an increase in thrust. In modern engine design the manufacturer will endeavour to achieve the maximum dry engine thrust (thrust without reheat) possible, but is limited by the maximum temperature the combustion chamber and turbine assembly can withstand. However, all energy in the gas stream is not extracted at the — turbines. It is the oxygen content in the gas stream in the exhaust unit which is used to mix with the reheat fuel, burn and provide an increase in nozzle exit velocity. Consider an engine running in a non reheat condition, at full throttle conditions (maximum dry), the nozzle will be choked. This means that no increase in gas exit velocity can be achieved unless the gas temperature is increased; -Remember that temperature affects. Mach _number-and when mach 1 is reached the nozzle is said to be choked If reheat is selected this increases the temperature of the gas flow and also alters the Mach number of the exhaust gas. In addition to this the volume of gas will increase, and unless the nozzle is allowed to open, the exhaust pressure and temperature will increaseThis increase will cause a back-pressure on the engine and reduce the mass flow from the engine compressor. This would result in stall and surge. It is for this reason that the reheat system is fitted with a fully variable jet pipe nozzle: Variable Nozzle Ifit is assumed that an after burning engine is operated initially without reheat, then at full throttle conditions the nozzle will be choked. Figure 2 shows typical thrust/rpm and compressor characteristic curves for the engine When reheat is applied, the augmented thrust will occur at 100% rpm, therefore, on the compressor characteristics, the augmented thrust should also lie on the 100% rpm line. Position 'X' represents the operating point for 100% rpm operation without reheat. When reheat is applied without increasing the nozzle area, the flow resistance which the compressor feels will increase, and the mass flow rate will decrease along the constant rpm line to produce point 'Y', which is in the surge region This is unacceptable and, for optimum conditions, the added flow resistance caused by the specific volume increase in the afterburner must be exactly balanced oy a decrease in flow resistance. This is brought about by opening the nozzle. Under these conditions the operating point for reheat operation will coincide with point 'X'. In practice, the nozzle is operated to maintain a constant, pre- set pressure ratio across the turbine. As nozele exit temperature rises during reheat, so also must the nozzle exit area increase to maintain a nozzle pressure such that the turbine pressure ratio is constant. In this way, the efficient operation of the rotating mechanism upstream of the afterburner is maintained. Reheat Systems ‘There are many different types of reheat systems in use, and, they are normally only fitted to military aircraft. The scope of these notes would normally preclude their inclusion, however Concorde has a reheat system installed so there follows a brief description of it’s operation. << rigure 3 stows a block diagranr of the engine controtsystem ‘The control of the engine is through a micro-miniaturised control unit. The system is fully duplicated with automatic change-over in the event of a failure being detected in one channelThe pilot's lever controls the engine throttle via the Engine Control Unit so that the No (LP spool) is adjusted by varying the fuel flow. The relationship between Nj (HP spool) and Np is controlled by the variable primary nozzle which adjusts the pressure drop across the LP turbine. This relationship is determined by a logic network in the control unit known as the "E Schedule’ A pilot operated engine Rating Selector Switch is provided which, with the engine throttles in the fully forward position, programs the correct datum TET (Turbine Entry Temperature) for the flight condition. The engine conditions are automatically adjusted to suit the required engine rating so that under normal take-off, climb and cruise conditions there is no need for the pilot to adjust his/her throttle levers to prevent any engine TET limitations from being exceeded. The engine rating selector switch also selects the appropriate reheat conditions for the engine rating in use By referring to figure 4 it can be seen that control of the reheat fuel flow is by a separate electrical control system and a fuel control unit. The fuel is supplied from the first stage engine driven pump. The amount of reheat boost is automatically controlled by scheduling a ratio of engine/reheat fuel flow to suit the engine and aircraft operating conditions. Reheat fuel flow will not occur until two independent switches have been activated. Initiation is by a pilot operated Arming Switch while a second switch fully energises the system when the engine reaches approximately 81% rpm. With the reheat system in operation the engine primary nozzle is still controlled by the engine contro! system. On reheat ignition, to keep the jet pipe pressure constant, the primary nozzle is opened to ensure the correct relationship between Nj and Ng so that engine operating conditions are not. affected ‘There are two separate systems used to detect reheat ignition. An ionisation probe extends into the reheat flame area and detects the presence of ions in the reheat flame. The second method employs tappings which measure the increased pressure drop through the jet pipe resulting from the increased velocity of the reheated exhaust gas. Upon receipt of either of these signals the trolainit the fuel ui] the required val: reached. When reheat is cancelled the system is automatically purged.