AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer's handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations / guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS With thanks to AIRBUS INDUSTRIE for their permission to reproduce material.CONTENTS SUBJECT Principles Pumps Governors Burners Pressure control system. Flow control system ‘Typical fuel system ~ small helicopter Combined speed and acceleration control system Fan engine system FADEC Fuels PAGE 10 16 18 27 38 42 46 80HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK Engine fuel systems tend to be more complex than other systems, and that will probably mean that you will need to read through parts of the book several times. However, persevere and contact your tutor if you have any problems You should be able to draw and describe in block diagram form an engine fuel system, and relate this to you own engine/experience You should also be able to take a logical approach to fault finding and be able to describe this in reasonably straight forward terms. ‘An example of a fuel system of a small helicopter is described. You should read this through and be able to understand how the system works but there is no need to try to commit the detail to memory. The book is written to level 2 which is applicable to the B1 Aeroplanes/Helicopters person. The A person needs to know the subject to level 1ENGINE FUEL SYSTEMS The gas turbine power unit in use in aircraft operates on exactly the same basic principle as those developed by Sir Frank Whittle (inventor of the Jet Engine 1907 - 1996) in the forties. It is a heat engine which uses the changes of state of air to develop rearward thrust to propel an aircraft forward. The state of the air can be changed by rapid heating and by passing it through convergent (venturi) and divergent (diffuser) ducts inside the engine. Heating of the air is effected by burning fuel inside a dedicated burning zone (the combustion chamber). The fuel used to heat the air is normally kerosene based but other materials can and have been use, eg pulverised coal dust and diesel fuel. The amount of thrust developed is controlled by varying the amount of fuel introduced into the combustion system to heat and expand the air. The expanded air will drive the turbine, which is connected to the compressor, at a greater speed thus inducing and compressing more air by the compressor to which more heat can be added ..... and so the cycle is perpetuated. The speed of the engine, and thrust, is initially set by the flight crew by placing a manually controlled thrust lever to a certain position. To maintain this setting, without damage to the engine and it’s systems, requires a complex engine mounted automatic fuel control system. This system must be capable of satisfying the following requirements: * Provide an accurately metered and correctly atomised fuel supply over the whole flow/rpm range * Provide for flow variation relative to the pilot's throttle setting. * Provide for flow variation to allow for changes in intake conditions. * Prevention of excess fuelling during acceleration conditions. * Prevention of engine limitations being exceeded (rpm, temperature etc). * Provide a means of stopping the engine. System Principles (Figure 1) Fuel from the low pressure (Ip) system is supplied to the engine driven high pressure (hp) pump. The flow from this pump is routed to the burner situated in the combustion chamber. The burner is so designed as to give an atomised spray under the correct pressure to facilitate combustion.Any increase in the fuel flow through the burners will increase the rate of combustion and the acceleration of the hot gases onto the turbine causes the engine rpm to increase, which increases the thrust. Bumers Pump Throttle Hp cock | Servo oo _ L___ ACU |} |ASU +—— P1 ao P2 Fig. 1 A SIMPLE SYSTEM ‘The throttle, therefore, controls the engine speed, and stopping the engine is achieved by the use of the pilot operated hp cock. This cuts off the supply of fuel to the burners and the engine will run-down and stop The rpm selected by the throttle will remain as selected provided the mass airflow through the engine remains unaltered. ‘Throttle movement results in a signal to the pump to vary pump output. Automatic control is usually achieved by varying the pump output. The mass airflow through the engine will vary with changes in: * Altitude. * Forward speed Temperature.Altitude ‘As we know - with an increase in altitude there is a drop in air density. This means the weight of air passing through the engine will drop. (DENSITY = MASS PER UNIT VOLUME) If the mass airflow decreases with the same throttle setting (say sea level) then the engine will over-fuel resulting in an increase in rpm and subsequently stall and surge. An altitude sensing unit (ASU), sensitive to P1 (Compressor inlet pressure) signals the pump to decrease output - resulting in the correct air/fuel ratio. Forward Speed ‘An increase in forward speed will cause an increase of pressure in the air intake. This is known as “ram effect” and will increase the mass air flow through the compressor. The ASU will sense the P1 pressure rise and signal the pump to increase output. Temperature Should the ambient air temperature rise then the density of the air will decrease so the mass flow will decrease, and P1 pressure will drop. This is sensed by the ASU which sends a signal to reduce the pump output. If any of these three parameters are reversed then the opposite will happen. So the ASU will alter pump output to maintain the fuel/air ratio at the correct setting for any change in altitude, forward speed, and temperature. Acceleration Before an acceleration demand is made, the fuel/air ratio is normally at the correct setting. It is vitally important that during the acceleration period, the mixture is allowed to get richer under strict control, this will allow an increase in engine rpm and prevent overheating of the turbine section. On opening the throttle the pump will deliver more fuel to the burners which will increases the gas flow and hence rpm. Once the acceleration demand has been met, the fuel/air ratio is re-established at the new rpm and air mass flow. The way in which the throttle is opened has a direct bearing on how the FCU functions. If the throttle is opened slowly, the fuel will increase slowly and the rotating spools will accelerate, increasing mass air flow and rpm with little increase in jpt. If, however the throttle is opened rapidly, or “slammed”, the fuel flow will increase at a very high rate and result in severe overfuelling.The rotating spools cannot accelerate too fast due to their inertia, so there is a high risk of overheating of the turbines and the possibility of compressor stall and surge should more fuel be burnt than the engine can cope with. The increased fuel flow following an acceleration demand has to be controlled at a rate that matches the air available from the compressor and this is achieved by the use of an Acceleration Control Unit (ACU) The ACU is sensitive to P2 compressor delivery pressure and only allows sufficient increase in fuel output from the pump to match the air available from the compressor despite the throttle having signalled the pump for maximum fuel output. The ACU and ASU are often combined into one unit known as the FCU. Rpm Limiting (max and min) ~ Automatic controls are required on most engines to limit the maximum and minimum rpm. This ensures that the engine stays within it’s normal operating rpm and that certain parameters are not exceeded, eg: * High egt. * Excessive compressor delivery. * Excessive rotating assembly speeds (Ip and hp compressors with 3 spools on some engines). * Flame out. ‘The maximum rpm is governed to prevent over stressing the engine and is achieved by governing the maximum pump output by a governor built into the pump. To ensure a minimum rpm is maintained, and to avoid a flame-out, especially at altitude with minimum throttle selected, a minimum flow valve bypasses the throttle valve, thus ensuring adequate supply to the burners to maintain combustion. To prevent excessive combustion chamber pressures as a result of the compressor taking in dense air at a high ambient pressure at high speed (fying low and fast on a cold day), the ASU will prevent an increase in fuel flow above a specific P1 by a mechanical device fitted internally. This will become clearer when we study a particular system.‘To avoid overheating the turbine assembly a tgt (turbine gas temperature) limiter will be fitted. This will prevent the addition of any more fuel by detecting the tgt and ‘spilling’ the fuel accordingly. On certain installations, eg multi-spool engines there will be N1, N2, and/or N3 limiters fitted as well as free turbine engines (fitted to helicopters), where a fuel spill system will prevent overspeeding of the rotors. Fuel Pump (Figure 2) Many systems have a swashplate type hp fuel pump fitted. This is a variable stroke type pump driven by the engine. It consists of a rotating block (rotor) containing a number of plungers. The plungers are held in contact with a non-rotating cam plate (swashplate) by individual springs. As the rotor rotates the cylinders containing the plungers line up with ports in the pump body, the inlet and outlet. Fuel enters the cylinders via the inlet port. Governor Rotor pressure Governor diaphragm Ea aa Pe rel Plungers € Swashplate late | LP | CZLZZZZZZA ZZ =— up Servo piston Servo piston spring pressure Fig. 2. VARIABLE SWASHPLATE MULTI-PLUNGER FUEL PUMP ‘As the plungers move round the cam plate they are forced back down the cylinders and at the same time they are lined up with the outlet port, thus providing the pumping action. Fuel is ducted via the rotor to the pump body around the rotor. The ports are known as “kidney shaped ports” by virtue of their shape.‘The cam plate angle determines the length of plunger stroke and therefore the pump output - the greater the angle the longer the stroke and the greater the output. The cam plate angle is controlled by a servo piston linked to one side of the cam plate. Pump delivery is ducted to one side of the servo piston tending to reduce the swash plate angle. The other side of the piston is subjected to pump delivery via a restrictor known as "servo pressure". The spring assists the servo to increase cam angle and therefore pump output. ‘The cam plate angle can thus be controlled by the bleeding away of servo pressure. If no servo is bled then servo plus spring will increase the cam plate angle and hence pump output. Bleeding the servo pressure will allow pump delivery to overcome the spring, reducing cam angle and reducing pump output HIGH PRESSURE SERVO LOW PRESSURE —= Fig. 3 SPUR GEAR TYPE FUEL PUMP Spur gear pumps have the advantage that they simple in construction and hence cheaper. Their flow rates are high but when it comes to pressure the piston type pump will deliver the higher pressure. On engines such as the RB 211 the use of a gear type fuel pump is preferred. This type of pump is also driven by the engine and it’s output is directly proportional to it’s speed. The flow to the burners is controlled by recirculating fuel in excess of that required back to the inlet side of the pump. The pumping action is produced by two intermeshing spur gears rotating in opposite directions in a close tolerance casing. As the gears rotate fuel is trapped in the spaces between the gear teeth and the casing. This transports the fuel from the inlet side of the pump to the outlet side. As the gear teeth intermesh so the space between them is taken and the fuel is forced to depart via the outlet. Should pump outlet pressure become excessive then a pressure relief valve will open to relieve this pressure from the pressure line back to the delivery line {see figure 3).Max rpm Centrifugal Governor ‘The max rpm governor is driven from the fuel pump via a common drive shaft. ‘At max rpm the centrifugal action of the rotor increases the pressure of the fuel surrounding it. This pressure is ducted to the top of a diaphragm which is sprung loaded and may be adjusted. At a predetermined pressure the diaphragm moves to operate a rocker to lift a bleed valve. This allows servo to bleed to Ip thus preventing any further increase in the cam plate angle, pump output, and rpm. Unfortunately this type of governor has to be reset for any change in the Specific Gravity (sg) of the fuel. The reason it has to be adjusted is because the pressure produced by the centrifugal action of the rotor will be increased by using denser fuels. If a denser fuel is used it will mean that "max rpm" will be detected by the diaphragm at a lower rpm. Max rpm Hydro-Mechanical Governor (Figure 4) To overcome the problem of the centrifugal governor of having to adjust the max rpm with changes in the sg of the fuel, the development engineers came up with the Hydro-Mechanical Governor. It consists of a cylindrical rotor which runs, immersed in fuel, in a chamber which is supplied, through a restrictor orifice, with pump delivery pressure. A variable orifice in the rotor permits fuel to pass from the chamber via the interior of the rotor at a controlled rate, to Ip. The flow rate through the variable orifice is controlled by a weighted cantilever contained within the rotor. The cantilever is positioned over the orifice so that increased mechanical (centrifugal) loading tends to close it off. Thus the spill through the orifice is varied by pump rotor speed and, therefore, jet engine speed. ‘The closing force is balanced through a diaphragm subjected to rotor chamber pressure, the diaphragm being attached at its centre to the centre of the lever. As the speed, and therefore the mechanical load varies, so the lever is moved to modify the spill through the orifice. This alters the chamber pressure acting on the diaphragm until the hydraulic force applied via the diaphragm to the lever is sufficient to re balance the lever centrifugal loading. The chamber pressure, therefore, becomes an indication of the lever loading, and this loading is precisely related to speed( ORIFICE, LP FUEL ‘OVERSPEED CONTROL, HYORO = © ROTOR MECHANICAL GOVERNOR: IAPHRAGM, ly y fen H PUMP DELIVERY THROUGH WEIGHT ARESTRICTOR GOVERNOR PRESSURE HALE ~ BALL CONTROL VALVE TORSION SPRING HINGE |OCKER LEVER APHRAGM eater Fig. 4 HYDRO-MECHANICAL GOVERNOR The signal pressure from the hydro-mechanical governor is directed to one side of the diaphragm in the overspeed control unit (with pump inlet pressure to the other side of the diaphragm). At a pre-determined pressure the spring loaded diaphragm deflects sufficiently for the tappet to depress the end of the rocker lever, opens the % ball valve and allow servo fuel to spill from the spring side of the pump servo piston. ‘This unbalances the pressures acting on it, causing the piston to reduce the cam-plate angle and, hence, reduce pump delivery.¥ Throttle stabilised ‘To bumers _—— Pump output —> | Pressure drop piston i Knife in sensitive position - pump ‘output matches servo bleed - pump stroke angle maintained —_-- _— Kinetic valve <— Pump servo Pump output Restrictor i Servo piston Fig. 5a OPERATION OF KINETIC VALVE 1 5 Throttle 4 opening Pump outpat. —» —————— = + To burners Lr” Pressure drop 7 piston — 1 | i i Knife out - servo not _e— Kinetic valve <— Pump servo bleeding pump stroke increasing valve. |= + CLOSED (_——— Pump a output —=—= Servo piston Restrictor Fig. 5b OPERATION OF KINETIC VALVE 2 -9-— Throttle closing Pump output, —* 2 => To burners Lf 7 Pressure drop piston T I I perma Knife in - servo bleeding - pump stroke reducing- valve OPEN i Kinetic valve ——— =— Pump servo Pump ——. output a Restrictor Servo piston ——] Fig. 5c OPERATION OF KINETIC VALVE 3 % Ball Valve The valve controls fuel through orifices to enable accurate fuel metering to be carried out. It consists of one half of a hardened steel ball contained in a housing. The flat surface of the valve can be made to seat against a flat orifice, or to be set at any intermediate setting. Kinetic Valve ‘An alternative type of metering valve is the Kinetic Valve (figures 5 and 12). It consists of two orifices opposite each other. A knife edge blade is moved into and out of the gap between the two orifices. As an example, pump servo is introduced through one jet and hp fuel through the other. If the blade is withdrawn, hp fuel at a much higher pressure than servo, will prevent servo pressure from escaping. The valve is now considered to be in the “closed” position (refer to the previously mentioned half-ball valve). Servo pressure will be increased and, as a result, pump output will be increased. SitsIf pump output needs to be decreased then the blade is inserted. This will allow servo to bleed away, as hp fuel is diverted by the blade away from the servo orifice. The valve in now considered to be in the “open” position. This type of valve has no mechanical touching parts and is less likely to be affected by small particles of debris, or wear. BURNERS ‘The purpose of the burner is to present the metered fuel into the combustion chamber in a readily combustible form over the whole operating range of the engine. There are various types of burner of which the earliest example is the Simplex burner. The Simplex Burner (Figure 6) ‘This burner is of the atomising type which presents the fuel in a finely atomised spray. The fuel is passed through a swirl chamber and a small fixed orifice. A limited airflow is introduced into the burner to help prevent a build up of carbon on the orifice. The fuel, however, is atomised outside the burner head. setet oT oy pee Fig. 6 THE SIMPLEX BURNER The main disadvantage of this type of burner is that it operates according to the ‘square law’ which states that: FUEL FLOW « AVPd Where A = Orifice cross sectional area Pd = Pressure difference across orifice The burner square law means that: If fuel pressure in the burner and combustion chamber at idle rpm (30%) for correct air pressure at idle"rpm (30%) is: atomisation is: 130 psi 30 psi -ll-Then the pressure drop = 100 psi Using the formula FLOW « AVPd The cross sectional area of the orifice can be taken as constant, and taking it to be the constant of the equation gives: FLOW = \Pd then FLOW = V100psi FLOW = 10psi (for the mathematicians amongst us the equation does not “balance” because flow in litres per minute cannot equal pressure in psi - but bear with me) If the fuel flow has to be doubled to increase the rpm (from say 30% to 40%), what pressure will be required in the burner? Gg From the example above FLOW = 10psi Assume the rate to be 10 I per min: (I= litres) 101 per min = 10psi Double the flow rate: 201 per min = the square route of a value that will give 20, ie 400 So 201 per min = V400psi So 201 per min=20 psi Again, as a mathematical “equation” this is not true, but as a tool in explaining the square route law it, I hope, helps S The burner pressure drop is the combustion chamber 400 psi the burner pressure is air pressure is now: therefore: 460 psi to produce 60 psi 4 times the flow rate. So if the fuel flow is to be doubled then the fuel pressure required is quadrupled. Thus if the nozzle is required to supply a range of fuel flows, say, from 3 1b/min (1.36 kg/min) to 20 Ib/min (9.1 kg/min) - high altitude idle to max sea level power for example - then the range of the pressure drop (Pd) would be: (20/3)? :1 = 44:1 -12-If the pump can supply fuel at a maximum pressure of, say, 2000 psi (13.8MPa) at sea level max rpm, then at high altitude the pressure drop across the nozzle will be about 45 psi (0.3MPa) - assuming the combustion chamber pressure to be 100 psi (0.7MPa} at sea level and negligible at altitude. This pressure drop would be insufficient for good atomisation, and could lead to flame-out. ‘As an example the Simplex burner is used on the Dart 7 engine (older aircraft). QUESTION: What is meant by “MPa”? (Smins) ANSWER: M means mega and is the SI prefix for one million (1,000,000). Pa is the SI unit of pressure called the Pascal. So 2000 psi is 13,800,000Pa. The Duplex Burner (Figure 7) The problem of the square law can be solved by using the Duplex fuel spray burner. This has a primary and main manifold, and two independent orifices - one smaller than the other. The smaller orifice is for the lower flow rates whilst the larger one is for the higher rates of flow at the higher burner pressures. \ primary manifolé— AT Wht Coals u Se = Fig. 7 DUPLEX BURNER Main manifold A pressurising valve may be used to apportion the fuel to the appropriate manifolds. At low fuel flow rates the fuel is fed via the small orifice, as the flow rate (and pressure) increases so the pressurising valve progressively moves to allow more fuel to the main manifold - and hence the main orifice. This will allow fuel flow through both manifolds and both orifices. -13-In this way the Duplex burner is able to provide effective atomisation at the low flow rates as well as the high flow rates. This is a significant advantage over the Simplex burner. On some high performance helicopter engines the burner system consists of two sets of Simplex burners, the fuel flow to them being apportioned by a flow divider. This means that if the system has twelve burners then six will be used for low rpm and the full twelve at high rpm. ‘The Vaporiser Burner (Figure 8) In this type of burner fuel is sprayed into J shaped tubes protruding into the combustion chamber. The fuel passing down the tubes as a coarse spray, mixes with the primary air and vaporises before it enters the combustion zone of the combustion chamber. A protruding pin within the J tube causes the fuel and air to be mixed thoroughly. When the vapour is burnt in the combustion chamber the flame is pointing to the front of the engine, this helps to stabilise it onto the vapour tubes, keeping it within the flame tube and preventing it from being blown away from the secondary air. Fuel feed Flame tube Fig. 8 VAPORISING BURNER -14- .The mixture should not be overheated while travelling up the tube as it may crack the already weak mixture. In order to start this type of engine it is usual to incorporate a set of atomiser burners for starting and allow the engine to reach a speed at which the vaporiser burners will work. The Spray Nozzle (Figure 9) ‘This may be called an Air Spray Atomiser. It supplies a proportion of the primary combustion air with the injected fuel. The other types of burners have local fuel rich concentrations within the combustion zone, and this burner, by aerating the fuel avoids this problem. This reduces carbon formation and exhaust smoke, and is in common use, as well as being fitted to the RB211 family of engines. Another advantage of this system is that it requires a low pressure to operate, this means that for the fuel supply, a light low power consumption pump can be used. Some spray nozzles utilise separate flows when operating at different rpm. On the General Electric CF6 for instance there are 30 spray nozzles fitted. They are flange mounted to the compressor rear flange. There are 28 standard nozzles identified with aluminium coloured bands and 2 pilot or altitude re- light nozzles with blue bands. FUEL INLET FUEL FILTER FEED ARM ‘SWIRL SLOT DEFLECTOR SWIRL CHAMBER Nozze NOZZLE SECURING NUT NOZZLE SECURING NUT LOCK RING 30. ARINLET PORT 11 LOCATING PIN 42. FUEL SUPPLY PIPE MOUNTING Fig. 9 SPRAY NOZZLE BURNER | -15-Both types of nozzle have two distinct and separate fuel flows, primary and secondary. The primary flow of some 70 pints (40 litres) per hour is a low volume flow system with its own discharge tip. This flow provides fuel for starting, acceleration to idle and low power settings. The secondary flow supplements the primary flow to provide fuel for the rest of the power range. It is signalled to flow by a pressure differential device sensed at the fuel flow divider. The fuel flow can now rise to 800 pints (455 litres) per hour total. ‘The two pilot nozzles fitted in the two lower positions provide a richer than normal fuel flow in the primary system of some 115 pints (65 litres) per hour. This creates a “torch” or pilot-light effect to ensure combustor relight or re- propagation after a deceleration demand preventing flame-out. A check valve is fitted at each nozzle to prevent the fuel manifold from draining through the fuel nozzles at shut-down. The check valve opens at 20 psi (138kPa) differential pressure and closes, on shut-down at 13 psi (90kPa) differential pressure QUESTION: What does k mean? (2 mins} ANSWER: Kilo = 1000 Pressure Control System. (Figure 10) This type of system was used on early gas turbine engines and metering of the fuel was achieved as follow: The pump output fuel pressure is sampled upstream of the throttle valve, and is fed to a piston in the Barometric Pressure Control (BPC). The piston is connected by a rod to a pivoted rocker assembly. The rocker with the aid of a spring keeps the half ball valve on its seat. At a pre-determined pressure the piston moves up, the attached rod lifts the rocker allowing the half ball valve off its seat. Pump servo can now bleed to Ip thus reducing the cam plate angle and therefore reduces pump output at that throttle setting, When the pressure has dropped sufficiently to give the correct fuel flow the spring reasserts itself and the half ball valve adopts a "sensitive" position. priorThe other end of the rocker is under the influence of an aneroid capsule sensitive to intake or atmospheric pressure. Should the aircraft climb, the intake pressure will reduce, and less fuel is required. The aneroid will expand forcing down the rocker which pivots and opens the half ball valve reducing pump output. SERVOVALVE JLP — % BALL VALVE PISTON a THROTTLE Fig. 10 PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEM. When the throttle is opened the pressure under the piston reduces and the half ball valve starts to close - increasing pump servo and therefore output until the “sensitive” position is established. Any increase of pressure around the aneroid will result in the half ball valve moving towards the closed position to increase pump servo and therefore pump output. When maximum rpm is reached the centrifugal governor within the pump will lift the governor half ball valve and reduce pump servo and pump output. One of the main problems with this system is that the pump is always operating at its maximum pressure, as determined by the spring acting on the pivoted rocker. This leads to rapid wear of the pump internal parts. To cut down the wear and allow generally higher fuel flows the Flow Control System was developed -17-Flow Control System. (Figure 11) In the flow control system the flow of fuel is determined by the size of the throttle valve orifice and the pressure drop (PD) across it. The system hardware is not too different from this system except that the control principle is that a constant pressure drop is maintained across the throttle valve irrespective of its position for a given altitude and airspeed eg, Small orifice - throttle in min range 200/300psi (1.4Mpa/2Mpa) = low flow Large orifice - throttle in max range 400/500psi (2.7Mpa/3.4Mpa) = high flow SERVO VALVE LP YABALL VALVE +t capsuLe 2) BPC a PUMP ORIVE PISTON FUEL PUMP SERVO PISTON he THROTTLE j Fig. 11 FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM ‘The pressure drop across the throttle orifice in both instances is the same ie, 100 psi (0.7Mpa). The flow, however, is different. The BPC can superimpose its control by changing the PD across the throttle for variation in intake pressure. The pump still retains its centrifugal governor for max rpm Pump delivery to the throttle is sampled to the underside of a piston in the BPC, Downstream throttle pressure is sampled to the top of the piston which is assisted by a spring. When the throttle is opened the PD across it will change, (upstream it will drop, downstream it will rise] and the piston will move down. Attached to the piston is a rod to a rocker which houses a half ball valve. As the piston moves down the half ball valve closes allowing pump servo to build, increasing cam plate angle, increasing pump output, till the original PD is re- established at a high/low rate. StClosing the throttle will have the reverse effect. On the other side of the BPC an evacuated capsule is connected to the rocker, the outside of which is subject to intake pressure. When intake pressure falls. due to increased altitude, a decrease in sf zed, or an increase in temperature resulting in less dense air - requiring less fuel, the capsule will expand pushing down the rocker opening the half ball valve, reducing servo and cam plate angle and pump output and a lower PD across the throttle will be established resulting in a lower fuel flow, though the throttle has not changed the size of its orifice. An increase in intake pressure due to a descent, a drop in temperature, or an increase in speed will require more fuel and the BPC will restrict servo bleed giving an increase in pump output. A power limiter in the form of a peg stop, prevents the capsule response from going above 14.7psi (1013.2mb) at sea level and full throttle. This means that, at low altitude and high speed, there will be no increase in fuel flow as the capsule will have no effect on the servo valve. In effect, limiting the combustion chamber pressure and preventing damage. QUESTION: What does mb mean? (3 mins) ANSWER: It means millibar and it is the ICAO standard pressure for air at sea level - as is 14.7psi of course. Acceleration Control By referring back to page 3, it can be seen that some form of fuel scheduling is required during the overfuelling phase of engine acceleration. Figure 12 shows one type of Acceleration Control Unit (ACU). The unit consists of a plunger in a seating situated in the fuel delivery line from the pump. Pump delivery pressure is fed via a restrictor to the top of the plunger, whilst unrestricted pump delivery is fed to the bottom of the plunger and then on down the system to the throttle An independent control system regulates the rise of the plunger. This consists of a kinetic knife between the upper and lower plunger pressures, the knife being controlled by an aneroid which is subjected to compressor delivery pressure. Thus, as compressor delivery increases so the aneroid contracts, the knife goes in, allowing upper plunger pressure to bleed away, hence the plunger rises and increases the fuel flow. -19-Puuncer senvo comtnon| =e y THROTTLE VALVE leur lseRvo contnon fp Fig. 12 ACCELERATION CONTROL UNIT The rate at which the plunger rises is dependent upon the intrusion of the kinetic knife which is controlled by the aneroid which is sensitive to compressor delivery pressure. Thus the flow of fuel to the main system is controlled to match compressor delivery air. Additional Controls Some fuel systems incorporate other controls in addition to the ones already described. Top Temperature Control (TTC). Temperature control of Turbine Gas Temperature (tgt) may be sensed in the exhaust unit or in some cases just after the NGVs. If the temperature goes above the prescribed limits, caused by over fuelling, the sensor will send a signal to an amplifier which will operate a spill valve to reduce pump servo and pump output. Yet another method is for the amplifier to energise an actuator which closes the throttle linkage. = 20-HP & LP Shaft Governors, The LP Shaft Governor on a twin spool engine usually consists of a ‘bobweight' on a rotating shaft which, at a given rpm, will open a spill valve to reduce pump servo and pump output. Another rather drastic type of Ip governor is a mechanical device incorporated in the Ip turbine shaft coupling. This will sense an Ip shaft overspeed and mechanically shut-down the engine via a bowden cable attached to the hp cock. A similar device can be found on some rotorcraft installations. This protects the blade transmission system if a free-turbine overspeeds. The free-turbine sends a signal of the overspeed to the overspeed trip governor (otg), which then shuts the hp cock. The hp shaft governor on multi-spool engines normally uses the fuel pump governor. This governor controls pump delivery which of course is proportional to pump rpm and hence hp shaft speed. Normal Operation Of a Flow Control System Using the diagram in figure 13 there follows an explanation of the operation of a flow control system. This system is actually fitted to a turbo-prop engine. ‘The fuel system supplies the engine with fuel in a form suitable for combustion, and controls the quantity to that amount which will give the required engine power output under all operating conditions without exceeding the temperature limitations of the turbine assembly. ‘This is achieved by feeding fuel from the aircrait tanks through a filter to a variable stroke, positive displacement, high pressure pump. The hp fuel is delivered to the combustion chambers through a flow control unit (fu) which meters the flow rate. The burners atomise the fuel and feed it into the flame tubes. In flight the quantity of fuel supplied to the engine is governed by both manual and automatic controls, housed in the feu, which controls the flow according to the throttle position and the pressure at the intake. This pressure is dictated by altitude, forward speed and ambient temperature. ‘The schematic layout of the fuel system shows that low pressure fuel from the aircraft system is admitted to the fcu through the filter and to the fuel pump inlet. -21-WGLSAS TOMLNOO MOTE ET “3tt ayun tozaue> nota eanssaad wey Ho | wOUrEA0 wda xen L—“worsyg oases aanssead “onxag are GaN dund tons 0202 duma » : -22-Rotated by the rotor against the inclined camplate, the fuel pump plungers deliver fuel at high pressure to the throttle valve (the controlling point). Fuel then passes through the back pressure valve and high pressure cock to the fuel manifold and burners. Servo hydraulic pressure is produced by feeding the pump delivery pressure through a restrictor and allowing the restricted flow to return to the fuel pump inlet side through two controlled bleeds, one in the FCU and one in the pump itself. Flow through each bleed orifice, and hence servo pressure, is controlled by a spill valve; the valve in the FCU exercises normal control, while the one in the fuel pump acts as a safety valve against excessive fuel delivery pressure or overspeeding of the engine. Under steady running conditions, the servo fuel pressure plus a spring on one side opposes fuel pump delivery pressure on the other side to stabilise the servo piston at a given position. Increased bleed from the servo side reduces servo pressure, so causing the pump to reduce strokes to maintain the predetermined pressure difference across the throttle valve. Equally, reduced bleed from the servo side through closing off the spill valve will result in an increased pump stroke and delivery to maintain the pressure difference as before. Any alteration to intake pressure, however, through change in forward speed or altitude, will affect the spill valve through a capsule assembly to maintain equilibrium at a different throttle pressure drop, ie there will be a change of fuel flow without a change of throttle plunger setting. Automatic Limitation of Maximum Speed and Pressure The servo spill valve positioned in the fuel pump, serves to reduce servo pressure and pump delivery to prevent: (a) Excessive overspeeding of the engine should there be any failure of the normal propeller control (>) Fuel pressure in the pump and delivery lines from exceeding a save limit, ie the ‘stall’ pressure. Overspeeding is prevented by governor fuel pressure, produced by centrifugal action, overcoming a spring to open the spill valve and reduce pump stroke and delivery, whilst excessive pump delivery pressure causes a correspondingly high servo pressure which forces the spill valve off its seat. -23-Fuel Pump The function of the pump is to deliver the fuel requirements of the engine at high pressure to the throttle valve in the FCU where the flow is controlled before passing to the burners. Typically the pump is an oscillating multi-plunger unit of variable stroke. It has a displacement at maximum stroke of about 12 gallons per hour (54.5 litres per hour) per 100 rpm of pump speed, with an output pressure which can exceed 1900psi (6.2Mpa). All moving parts are fuel lubricated. The main parts of the pump are the rotor, camplate, the servo mechanism, and spill valve limiting servo pressure. The rotor, which carries 7 hollow rotor plungers, is driven by a shaft which is fitted with a seal to protect against ingress of oil from the engine drive and against fuel leakage back into the oil system. A drain, common to both seals, is incorporated. The pump operates on the swashplate principle. The stationary inclined face of the camplate being presented to the plungers as they are revolved with the rotor, Movement of the servo piston alters the camplate angle and therefore the length of the plunger stroke. The effective delivery of the pump at a given rpm therefore depends on the position of the servo piston. The forces acting on the servo piston, which is lightly sprung loaded towards the maximum stroke position, are pump delivery pressure on one side and servo fuel pressure plus che spring on the uther. Servo fuel pressure is produced by fuel at pump delivery pressure entering a filter protected metering orifice in the fuel pump and discharging through a half-ball spill valve in the FCU. The more the spill valve closes, the nearer will servo pressure approach pump delivery pressure. ‘The fuel pump spill valve is also of the half-ball pattern. Normally held in the closed position, this valve opens to reduce servo pressure, and therefore pump stroke and hence fuel delivery - if the engine should overspeed or if the pump delivery pressure should rise excessively. At excessive rpm, radial drillings in the pump rotor cause a build-up of centrifugal fuel pressure which acts on the governor diaphragm to open the spill valve, to reduce servo pressure and so prevent overspeeding, -24-Opposing this governor fuel pressure is outlet fuel pressure and a spring, the tension of which can be adjusted by a screw. If for any reason the pump delivery pressure rises to the pre-determined safe working limit for fuel pipes and manifolds, servo pressure will increase proportionately and force the spill valve off its seat as a normal relief valve - so preventing any further rise. In this way, delivery pressure is prevented from exceeding what is termed the ‘stall’ pressure setting. Provision is made to attach a gauge to measure pump delivery pressure. Air in the fuel feed to the pump, which can be caused by running a tank dry or disconnected at any point in the aircraft fuel system, will cause erratic running and the system must then be bled. Also the AMM must be consulted for any further action to be taken such as filter/mag plug inspection for pump debris, possible pump replacement etc. ‘Two spring loaded ball valves are provided for bleeding purposes on the fuel pump; one in the governor chamber itself, bleeding from both sides of the diaphragm when the valve is fully open, and a second valve on top of the rotor chamber. Flow Control Unit The function of the FCU is to control the fuel delivery from the fuel pump to suit the airflow at any given engine rpm and intake pressure. Incorporated in the FCU is a low pressure fuel filter, a throttle valve, an hp cock, and a servo control mechanism. Throttle Valve ‘The throttle consists of a hollow plunger, of uniform diameter but profiled by graduated slots working in a fixed orifice. ‘The plunger is operated through a rack and pinion by a lever which is connected to the pilot's throttle lever in the flight deck. To minimise the force required to operate the throttle, the fuel pressures at each side of the plunger are balanced. The plunger is also spring loaded to take up any backlash between the rack and pinion. This assists accurate control of the fuel flow and the matching of it to the airflow as determined by the engine rpm selected. 7 -25-High Pressure Cock The hp cock is also a rack and pinion operated hollow plunger. In the closed position, the plunger cuts off the fuel supply to the burners and diverts it back to the pump inlet, so avoiding excessive pressures in the fuel pump delivery line. At the same time two slots formed axially in the plunger permit fuel already in the fuel manifold and burner feed lines to drain or be blown out to atmosphere by the combustion chamber air pressure on run-down. Servo Control Mechanism This mechanism controls fuel pump output through control of servo pressure and consists of a half-ball spill valve, carried on a spring-hinged lever, which is acted upon by a control piston assembly tending to close the valve, and a spring and a twin capsule assembly tending to open it. A back pressure relief valve is also fitted immediately after the throttle valve to provide sufficient delivery and servo pressure for controlling purposes at low fuel flows. ‘The piston in the control piston assembly is subject to the pressure difference existing across the throttle valve, sample pressures from upstream and downstream of the throttle being led through attenuators to the opposite sides of the piston. The attenuators tend to dampen out fluctuations and pulsations from the pump. The piston spring is adjusted during rig testing only. Should the pressure difference across the throttle fall below the required value, the control piston will move to close off the spill valve, so increasing the servo pressure and pump stroke. Equally, if the pressure difference across the throttle and control piston becomes too great the control piston will move to permit an increased opening of the spill valve to reduce servo pressure and pump stroke The controlling movement of this valve is very small, and its orifice is protected by a fine wire-wound filter to prevent any possible interference by small particles in the fuel. ‘The function of the twin capsule assembly is to correct the fuel for changes in altitude or airspeed. The assembly is immersed in low pressure fuel and consists of an evacuated capsule and another, of equal effective area, subject internally to air intake pressure. -26-‘The capsule assembly is arranged to increase progressively the loading tending to open the servo spill valve with increase in altitude, so causing the unit to stabilise at a progressively lower pressure drop across the throttle valve and hence lower fuel flow. ‘The linkage with the lever carrying the spill valve is such that it has no effect, should the air intake pressure rise above ISA stated sea-level, eg through ram effect at low altitude; fuel flow cannot therefore rise above the maximum for take-off conditions Ram Pressure Sensing Line Aram pressure sensing line fitted to the air intake casing and the feu signals air intake pressure to the capsule assembly. This pipe has a drain hole incorporating a rattle pin in the lowest point of the pipe to reduce the possibility of ice blockage. Fuel Filter All fuel entering the engine passes through a low pressure filter contained in the fcu. The filter element consists of a paper filter contained in a perforated metal casing. The element, which is secured into the casing by a central bolt, a spring and a filter retaining plate, seats squarely at the top of the filter bowl to avoid any leakage of unfiltered fuel ‘A drain valve incorporated in the head of the central bolt enables samples of fuel for examination to be drawn off without disturbing the filter or allowing dirt or air to enter the fuel system. The drain valve, central bolt, and filter cover are each fitted with renewable rubber sealing rings. TYPICAL FUEL SYSTEM USED ON A SMALL HELICOPTER ENGINE ‘The general arrangement of the hydro-mechanical fuel system is laid out in figure 14. There is no need to remember the details, but you should be able to read it through (following the drawing) and understand what is happening. It consists of a simple Lucas flow control system, in which fuel is delivered from the pump through a throttle valve and shut-off cock to the burners. A governor incorporated in the pump protects the gas generator against overspeed, and a mechanically operated trip mechanism driven off the power turbine shaft, operates the fuel shut-off cock to limit a runaway of the power turbine in the event of transmission failure. OTeThe inlet guide vane actuator is operated by high pressure fuel, and controlled by a fuel pressure which varies with the speed of the gas generator. The fuel system main components are as follows: (a) Centrifugal filter. (b) Low pressure filter. (c) Pump and flow control unit. (a) Fuel cooled oil cooler. {e) Flow divider. () Manifold assembly and 16 burners. (2) Overspeed trip governor. (h) Inlet guide vane actuator. The Centrifugal Filter ‘The Centrifugal Filter is driven from the front port side of the Accessory Casing on which it is mounted. It consists of two double-walled annular cages which are rotated at high speed. The inner wall of each cage is perforated and as fuel from the aircraft tank passes axially along the inner walls, dirt or ice particles are centrifuged through the perforations and collected in the cavities between the perforated inner walls and the inner surface of the outer walls. The cavities for dirt and ice collection are outside the normal flowpath, therefore no resistance to flow is created, in fact the filter has a pumping action which raises the fuel inlet pressure by approximately 15psi (103kPa) at top gas generator speed. The filter casing consists of two halves clamped together and is easily dismantled for cleaning purposes. Low Pressure Fuel Filter The Centrifugal Filter is not effective at very low engine speeds, or when the engine is static and the fuel system is being primed. To protect the pump under these conditions a low pressure fuel filter is fitted upstream of the pump inlet. A paper filter element is retained in the filter casing by a spring and end cap. Fuel enters via a union on the casing, passes through the element from outside to inside and then via a banjo union to the fuel pump inlet. If the element is blocked, the resulting pressure difference across it causes the element to slide in the filter body, compressing the retaining spring. Fuel then by-passes the element and ensures an adequate flow for operation of the engine. > -28-UALAOOITGH TIVINS - WALSAS TANA ANION AIdAVXA T BiThe Pump and Flow Control Unit This unit forms a single compact assembly and contains the following: (a) Fuel Pump. (b) Hydro Mechanical Governor. (c] Gas Generator Overspeed Control Unit. (@) Simple flow control mechanism. (e) Stall valve. () Rotary throttle. (@) Double-acting shut-off cock. (h) Pressurising Valve. Fuel Pump The pump unit comprises a rotor running in carbon bearings, and carrying5 spring loaded plungers with plated slipper heads, which run on the highly polished surface of a variable angle cam-plate. As the rotor revolves the plungers receive and discharge fuel through an insert which contains two kidney-shaped ports. The end face of the rotor is loaded axially against a plated, ported insert, by hydraulic forces The stroke control cam-plate is linked to a servo piston which is pressure balanced. Fuel under pump delivery pressure acts on one side of the piston and is opposed by restricted pump delivery pressure plus the force exerted by a spring on the other side. The movement of the piston is controlled by two variable orifices to low pressure which set the fuel pressure acting on the spring side of the piston. This pressure is normally referred to as “servo” pressure, Hydro Mechanical Governor ‘The Hydro Mechanical Governor is situated to the rear of the fuel pump and is driven by an extension shaft from the rear of the pump rotor. It consists of a cylindrical rotor which runs, immersed in fuel, in a chamber which is supplied, through a restricting orifice, with pump delivery pressure. A variable orifice in the rotor permits fuel to pass from the chamber via the interior of the rotor at a controlled rate, to pump suction. The flow rate through the variable orifice is controlled by a weighted cantiliver contained within the rotor. The cantilever is positioned over the orifice so that increased mechanical (centrifugal) loading tends to close it off. Thus the spill through the orifice is varied by pump rotor speed and, therefore, gas generator speed. S e204)‘The closing force is balanced through a diaphragm subjected to rotor chamber pressure, the diaphragm being attached at its centre to the centre of the lever. As the speed, and therefore the mechanical load varies, so the lever is moved to modify the spill through the orifice. This alters the chamber pressure acting on the diaphragm until the hydraulic forc. applied via the diaphragm to the lever is sufficient to rebalance the lever centrifugal loading. The chamber pressure, therefore, becomes an indication of the lever loading and this loading is precisely related to speed. The chamber pressure provides the speed reference pressure to: (a) The gas generator overspeed control unit. (b) The inlet guide vane actuator. As the reference pressure is not in itself generated by centrifugal action, it is insensitive to variation in fuel density. Gas Generator Overspeed Control Unit The gas generator overspeed control unit comprises a spring-loaded diaphragm carrying a tappet at its centre which engages or disengages with a rocker lever having a half-ball valve in one end sealing an orifice in communication with the pump servo system. The signal pressure from the hydro mechanical governor is directed to one side of the diaphragm and pump inlet pressure to the other side. At a pre-determined pressure the spring loaded diaphragm deflects sufficiently for the tappet to depress the end of the rocker lever, open the servo valve and allow servo fuel to spill from the spring side of the pump scrvo piston. Thus unbalancing the pressure acting upon it, causing the piston to reduce the cam-plate angle and, hence, reduce pump delivery. Flow Control Unit This unit is an altitude sensitive flow control, which regulates the fuel pump output for variations in throttle setting and ambient air pressure. It consists of a piston which is balanced by upstream throttle pressure on its under-side, acting against downstream throttle pressure plus a spring on its top-side. ‘These pressures are communicated through passages having attenuators to dampen out pressure fluctuations, Movement of the piston is transmitted through a push rod to a rocker lever. -31-