AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer's handbook You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation ete. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations / guidelines as’specified by the equipment manufacturer, yours —— company, national safety authorities and national governments.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS With thanks to: AIRBUS INDUSTRIE ROLLS-ROYCE ple SMITHS INDUSTRIES. for permission to reproduce drawings.CONTENTS PAGE The moving coil instrument 1 The de ratiometer 4 ‘The ac ratiometer 6 Engine speed measurement (rpm) 9 Exhaust gas temperature measurement (egt) 18 Other temperature systems 27 a Engine pressure ratio indication (epr) 30 Oil pressure indication 37 Synchroscopes 43 Engine vibration indication 48 Torque measuring systems 52 Fuel flow indicating systems 58 Revision 67 The glass cockpit 7 Checking instruments - general 75HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK Written specifically for the B1 engineer but is also a good reference book for any engineer studying jet engine instrumentation. ‘The B1 man/woman should be able to describe the operation of all the engine indicating systems, their principles, and how to fault rectify. Specific examples of actual systems in the book need not be remembered in detail, but should be understood and be able to be related to the general principles of the appropriate system.INSTRUMENTS - GENERAL. This part of the book deals with instruments such as the: * Moving coil instrument * de ratiometer. * ac ratiometer. ‘The general principles of the systems are described as they can all be used for various applications. The moving coil instrument, for example, can be used to measure such things as fuel level (using a float), temperature - of oils, coolants ete (using a thermistor) or pressure (using a Bourdon tube or bellows). In all cases the output from the transducer is a current which is changed by a variable resistor - and this current “drives” the instrument windings against a spring. The dc ratiometer uses de to produce two opposing torque’s within the instrument. And when the torque’s balance (not the currents) the instrument comes to rest. ‘The ac ratiometer works on a similar principle to the de ratiometer except that it uses ac and this drives two separate (shaded pole) motors in the instrument ~ both with opposing torque’s. THE MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT Ifa coil carrying current is placed in the field of a permanent horseshoe magnet, the magnetic field due to the current interacts with the permanent magnet field in such a way that the coil turns (figures 1, 2 & 3). When conventional dc current flows in a wire and the wire is going into the page then current flow direction is indicated by the symbols © and ®. © represents the current flowing towards the reader (like the point of an ~~~ arrow coming towards you) and the symbol @ represents the current flowing away from the reader (like the flights of a departing arrow). When current flows in a-wire a magnetic field is set up around the wire, For a de current flowing away from.the reader the direction of the magnetic field is clockwise (the corkscrew rule), and for a current flowing towards the reader the field direction is anti-clockwise.ao FLUX LINES Current current coming going towards @ into reader ‘CONDUCTOR page Fig. 1 MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A CONDUCTOR Magnetic lines of force flowing between the poles of a magnet are said to flow from north to south. If the lines of force, called flux lines, meet other flux lines moving in the same direction then they are strengthened. If they meet flux lines moving in the opposite direction then they tend to cancel each other and become weaker (figure 2) FLUX LINES N se Ss ——MacNer—— ES s RESULTANT FORCE ON CONDUCTOR Fig. 2 FORCE ON A CONDUCTOR The flux lines tend to behave as if they are elastic. They try to straighten and will exert a force on the copper conductor (as shown). If the conductor is wound in such a way as to form a loop within the permanent magnet field then; when current flows, the loop will try to turn (figure 3). PIVOT LINE connor ov S —— S Ce So —— macnET Fig. 3 PRINCIPLE OF THE MOVING COIL INSTRUMENTIn a moving coil instrument, the loop of wire is repeated many times to form a coil. It is wound on a former with a soft iron core, which is hinged and connected to a pointer. The coil is connected to a de supply and the turning torque of the de supply is resisted by the hairsprings (figure 4). COIL WOUND ON FORMER SOFT IRON CORE Fig. 4 MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT Figure 4 shows the construction of a basic moving coil instrument, When the meter is connected to a circuit, and current flows, it will flow through the hairsprings to the coil and the coil turns in a direction dependent upon the direction of current through it. Thus, to get the pointer to move over the scale the meter must be connected the right way round in the circuit. ‘As the coil turns, so moving the pointer over the scale, the hairsprings tighten and oppose the movement. When the deflecting force due to the current in the coil is exactly balanced by the controlling force of the hairsprings, the pointer remains steady at this reading, An increase in current increases the deflecting —force-umnt the pointer moves-further-over the: i a controlling force. The coil is wound on an aluminium frame which rotates with the coil. This frame, moving in a magnetic field, has voltages induced in it and the resulting eddy currents produce a force tending to oppose the motion producing them. This gives a damping force to the meter and the pointer takes up its final position quickly, steadily, without overrunning.This instrument, in the flight deck, would be connected to a variable resistor type transducer fitted to the equipment to be monitored. For example, a pressure indicator system on a hydraulic/oil system would have a transducer made up of a variable resistor connected to a pressure operated bellows or Bourdon tube. This would send a dc supply proportional to the pressure. DC RATIOMETER The ratiometer is used to indicate temperature and pressure and registers the difference between opposing torque’s produced by electrical coils A permanent U shaped magnet has within it a pivoted coil assembly with two coils ‘A’ and ‘B’ wound on it at an angle. The strongest magnetic field is at the centre of the magnetic poles; it is crossed by the two coils ‘A’ and ‘B’ being wound on a soft iron concentrator. The coils are wound onto the core in opposite directions result in opposing torque’s being produced when an electrical current flows in them. When the current in both coils is the same, the torque’s are equal and the pointer attached to the core assembly will be stationary. Movement of the coils and pointer due to unequal torque’s will move the coils in the magnetic field. TORQUE DUE TO PERMANENT COIL A MAGNET TORQUE DUE-TO— COIL BThe stronger coil moving so that its coils are going into an area where the flux lines are less effective (at the top and bottom of the field), and the weaker coil (being pulled “backwards”) moving into an area where the flux lines are more effective (at the centre of the field). The effect of this is that the opposing torque’s will eventually balance, and the pointer will indicate the new condition in the system. ‘TRANSDUCER INSTRUMENT 28 V dic. == suPPLY BOURDON —e TUBE VARIABLE RESISTOR (moves up with an increase in pressure) 4 PRESSURE Fig. 6 DC RATIOMETER SYSTEM - PRESSURE INDICATION Example If the pressure increases (figures 5 & 6) then the resistance values change in such a way, that more current flows in coil A than coil B. Coil A has the greater torque and turns the instrument clockwise (against the torque of coil B). [As the instrument moves so coil A is moving into an area of weaker magnetic flux (and the flux line e acting at a less effective angle to the coil) - so it’s torque is getting weaker. - Coil B is being pulled “backwards” against its will into an area of stronger magnetic frax-and-to-en-es An het f flux are acting ata more — effective angle: So its opposing torque is getting stronger. When the two torque’s are equal the instrument stops moving Its reaction time is quick. The instrument moves at the same speed as the transducer.28 V d.c. SUPPLY TRANSDUCER TEMPERATURE SENSOR (resistance \creases with an increase INDICATOR in temperature) Fig. 7 TEMPERATURE INDICATION USING THE DC RATIOMETER In case of supply failure a weak spring is fitted in the instrument to pull the pointer off scale - otherwise it would stay where it is ~ not a good idea. The de ratiometer can also be used to indicate temperature. Figure 7 shows the temperature transducer which acts as a variable resistor. With ar. increase in temperature the resistance increases and less current flows in coil B. This means A is the controlling coil with the pointer moving clockwise. Again the instrument will move until the torque's of the 2 coils balance. S AC RATIOMETER The Transducer This system is supplied with 26V 400 Hz ac - but it can be any voltage the _ 2 ____- designer wishes so long as it is ac Ithas two coils and two soft iron cores. = ‘The cores are moved against a spring by.a pressure operated capsule stack. The current supply is divided between the two coils depending on their impedance (resistance) Impedance is the total resistance in a coil carrying an ac supply. It is measured in ohms.‘The impedance of a coil is increased when the soft iron core is moved into the coil. This increased impedance reduces the current in that coil. If the core is removed from the coil then its impedance drops and its current rises. Indicator Consists of two shaded pole motors (cam discs and coils) mounted on the same shaft with a pointer. Each motor is wound in such a way, that their turning effects are opposite to each other. sS vouween rrxeo coms a fund aren Getgere tren wey — sy ito'n om ee | . Stee meoncan08 ~ Fig. 8 AC RATIOMETER When a current supply is sent to the two motors the most powerful one dominates and this will cause the complete assembly to rotate in its direction. In so doing, however, less of the cam disc is affected by the motor and its torque decreases. The less powerful motor, however, is having more disc area placed underneath it and therefore its torque is increasing (in opposition to the most powerful motor). When the torque’s balance the discs, shaft and pointer —eome-te- rest Remember ~ the cam disc assembly only rotates, say, about 90°, and does not rotate passed the ‘step’. QUESTION: What would happen in the event of power failure? (2 mins)ANSWER: In it’s present condition ~ as so far described - it would stay in the position that it was prior to power failure, thus giving a false indication to the pilot that all is well. Obviously not a good idea. Something must be done. Do you have a solution? ANSWER: The manufacturers solution is that they fit a weak spring so in the event of power failure the pointer will be pulled off-scale. Example With reference to Figure 8. As pressure increases so the soft iron core is pushed further into coil A and its impedance is increased, while the soft iron core is moving out of coil B its impedance is reduced. Therefore more current flows in coil B and less in coil A. Shaded pole motor B has more current than A and discs and pointer are = rotated clockwise. Motor A tries to rotate the assembly anti-clockwise but has insufficient power. As the discs rotate clockwise so the torque of motor B decreases while that of A increases. When the torque’s are the same the discs and pointer come to rest.ENGINE SPEED MEASUREMENT The three most common methods of engine speed measurement are: () Direct driven indication (i) Tacho generator indicator. (ii) Pulse probe indicator or Tacho probe system. DIRECT DRIVEN INDICATION Used on small single engined aircraft (and on most road vehicles for speed indication). A flexible drive from the engine to the cockpit instrument rotates a magnet inside a drag cup manufactured from non-magnetic material (copper or aluminium). The rotation of the magnet induces eddy currents into the a drag cup. These eddy currents create a magnetic field which is attracted to, and tries to follow, the permanent rotating magnetic field. HAIR SPRING. TTT NS DRIVE CABLE POINTER DRAG CUP, ROTATING MAGNET. ' ' ' n 1 ' ' ' 1 Fig. 9 DRIVE AND DRAG CUP SYSTEM A hairspring coupled to the drag cup prevents it from producing a continuous rotation of the pointer and provides a controlling force. The final position of the pointer tindicated-rpm}-is-determined-by the speed of rotation and the strength of the-hairspring. This type of tachometer proves impracticable for the majority of aircraft uses since the flexible drive requires frequent servicing, has a limited life and becomes erratic when long drive lengths are usedTACHO GENERATOR SYSTEM (Figure 10) This consists of a simple generator mounted on the engine, and the instrument in the flight deck. The tacho generator is basically a rotating field ac generator usually driven off the compressor rotor via a reduction gearing - but may be driven by any shaft. On a multi spool jet engine the low pressure compressor speed is Known as Ni and the high pressure compressor speed as Nz. If a third spool is fitted to the engine this is known as Na. Flight deck indication is usually in terms of % rpm. The generator’s rotating field cuts the stator windings and the frequency of the generator output is proportional to engine compressor rpm: This signal is passed to the indicator and is applied to the motor in the 2 indicator, which is basically an induction motor with synchronous characteristics. The signal from the tacho generator creates a rotating magnetic field in the stator of the indicator motor; this field therefore rotates at a speed dependent on generator frequency and thus engine speed | SyNcHRonous woe ‘THREE PHASE a.c. POINTERS ‘TACHO GENERATOR Fig. 10 TACHO GENERATOR SYSTEMAs the field rotates it cuts the rotor of the indicator motor and causes it to rotate. The speed of the motor will be proportional to the output frequency of the tacho generator and therefore engine speed. The motor drives a magnet which rotates inside a copper drag cup. The magnetic field cuts the copper cup inducing eddy currents into it and producing a magnetic field. The field from the copper cup interacts with the magnet field, causing the cup to rotate in the same direction as the magnet. ‘The effect is to drag the drag cup around using magnetic drag, similar in a way to aerodynamic drag. ‘The cup turns against the tension of the hairspring until the two forces balance. The movement of the cup drives the pointers, through gearing, to indicate the engine percentage rpm. ‘The faster the generator runs the higher its frequency output and the faster the synchronous motor turns, so the greater the magnetic force on the drag cup which will turn further against the hairspring, Tai YaGHOMETER GENERATOR TENE a Ta TacHOMETER cenenaron au vestQUESTION: What would happen to the system in the event of aircraft electrical power failure? (2 mins) ANSWER: Nothing. Yes, in a word - nothing. It is self-powered. Maintenance Checks (1) Visually check generator, for damage, security of attachment, corrosion, signs of burning and that the drive shaft rotates freely. (2) Visually check cables and connectors for signs of damage, corrosion, moisture ingress and signs of burning. (3) Carry out resistance and insulation checks between phases A, B and C. (4) Change any item found to be unserviceable. (5) Engine run to check full accuracy of system. SERVO OPERATED TACHOMETER INDICATING SYSTEM The tachogenerator output is fed to an amplifier in the indicator. Also fed into the amplifier is a signal from a potentiometer which is connected to the pointer in the instrument. Thus the two inputs to the amplifier are (1) engine speed and (2) main pointer position (feed-back signal). If the instrument is indicating the speed correctly then these two signals will be the same, (the input to the amplifier being the difference between the two signals). There is no difference, therefore no signal input to the amplifier. If however, engine speed changes, then the input signal from the tacho is not the same as the feed-back potentiometer signal from the main pointer pos‘tion, this error signal (difference signal) is fed into the servo-amplitier where the increased output is fed to a motor. The motor drives the indicator and also the digital readout. Y As the indicator is driven the potentiometer output will change and when it equals the input signal from the tacho generator there will be no error signal - the amplifier output ceases, motor stops and the indicator shows the new engine speed. On the indicator is an overspeed pointer. This normally sits at the required position-on-the indicator._Should_an overspeed occur then-the main pointer. moves to the position of the overspeed pointer, then, as it exceeds the overspeed position it carries the overspeed pointer with it. If the speed is reduced the main pointer moves downscale but the overspeed pointer remains at the overspeed position. Reset of the overspeed pointer is achieved by operating a reset button which energises a reset solenoid within the indicator.Maintenance This is similar to the non servo tachogenerator system, except that as a servo- indicator is used some additional checks might include: (1) Checking operation of failure flag. (2) Applying signal generator to produce a frequency to move main pointer to overspeed. Overspeed pointer stays, and resets when reset switch is operated. TACHO PROBE SYSTEM This system is used in several types of large public transport aircraft, and has the advantage of providing separate electrical outputs additional to those n required for speed indication, eg flight data recording and engine control. Furthermore, there is the advantage that a probe has no moving parts. ‘There are various types of these probes, but all work on the same basic principle, ie a variable reluctance circuit causing a varying magnetic field to induce an emf in a coil, the frequency of the induced emf being proportional to engine speed ‘The sealed probe comprises a permanent magnet, a pole piece, and a number of nickel/chromium coils around a ferromagnetic core. Separate windings provide outputs to the rpm indicator and other equipment requiring engine speed data. The probe is mounted on the engine at any position where rpm is to be monitored, eg N1, N2, propeller speed ete. corn MAGNET PROBE UNIT = PHONIC WHEEL Fig. 12 TACHO PROBE The probe is mounted close to a rotating ferromagnetic wheel. This wheel has castellations and is sometimes called a phonic wheel. As each castellation passes the magnet it concentrates the magnetic field causing the field to move across the coilAs each “gap” passes the magnet the field moves back across the coil. This back and forth movement of the field over the coil induces an alternating current in the coil. The frequency of this current change is proportional to the speed the castellations pass the probe which is proportional to the rpm of the wheel ‘This frequency signal is sent to a signal processing module. It is then sent as a de signal to a torquer motor in the flight deck instrument. A feed back system in the instrument cancels the signal when the pointer has reached the correct position. In the event of power failure the scale pointer is pulled off-scale by a lightly loaded spring. — . Los ai . ao Poste oe ae & ucee vive fonTao. wwtT Fig. 13 PULSE PROBE ENGINE SPEED INDICATION SYSTEM Figure 13 shows a system as fitted to a Boeing aircraft and the output frequency is received by the EICAS computer and then displayed in percentage ___rpm_on a CRT display._Figure 14 shows the location of the probe on the = RB211 NOTE, EICAS is fitted to Boeing aircraft and stands for Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System. ‘The engine speed signal may also be required for other systems such as engine vibration eteFig. 14 TACHO PROBE LOCATION - RB211 Figure 15 shows how the frequency signal is dealt with in an electro- mechanical type indicator. The signal is processed and sent to a torquer motor to move the pointer. As the pointer moves so it operates a variable resister to supply negative feedback to the summation device to cancel the original input signal. Figure 16 shows the system in a little more detail. —_ ours BUFFER AMP call VARIABLE .ESISTOR SUMMATION UNIT wecunrent sigan. ‘DRIVES ron—[ rowan Fig. 15 TACHO PROBE SYSTEM INDICATORFigure 17 shows the system as fitted to the Turbomecca engine. You should study both figures 16 & 17 and be able to understand how these systems work, though there is no need to commit the details to memory. Secondary pointer fixed at indicator fark and is pushed by normal point AE ty goes over SUPERCRITICAL certain © INTARE LIGHT POWER SUPPLY Ny REOUCE FAIL RESET MODULE i cuutce I Te A, 1ISVAC no \ ot i, G Poe SQUARING AMP. - open MODULE needle = sa : reading PAIL FLAG ~ OVERLIMIT RESET JL. Np RESET CONVERTOR FAULT INTEGRATOR monitor L pier press RESET MODULE Ny TRANSMITTER (LP INTERMEDIATE GEARBOX) Fig. 16 N1 INDICATION SYSTEM - CONCORDE Maintenance Checks 1. Security of attachment of probe. Inspection of probe for damage, limits will be given in Chapter 77 of the AMM 3. Inspection of cable for contamination, signs of burning and correct and secure connection. Pins for damage and corrosion, e systems may have a test generator where you disconnect at the probe, and inject signals at set frequencies to test accuracy of indicator, ~~ also to test any overspeed warning systems.PEED INDICASION (Ng) The detector consists in a 20-rooth wheel driven by pinion of the accessory drive train and set in front of « double ponte electromagnetic sensor. ‘he passage of the teeth modifies the magnetic fie 1é and induces an alernacang current in the sensor coil. The frequency of the current is proportional ro the rotation speed : Phonic wheel | frequency signal Start Pe tee, aeeicates oe sorter eatueatton of 14 weefaaction of Starter cut-our Bleed valve con Incorporates a main direct current supply anc an emergency supply (auxiliary bus > BAS SESTAATOE SCTATEON seep Tp rcAsON The indication is ensured by eans of a system giving the instantaneous measure of the rotation speed. Tt includes « speed detector (phonic wbeel) electrically connected to a receiver on the panel. = Ng indicator fae oy Phonic wheel The double sensor generates 2 equal frequencies F and Voutage on each rs KV 7EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE MEASURING SYSTEMS ‘The ideal location for temperature measurement of a jet engine is at the turbine blades themselves as they are the critical components when it comes to high temperatures. However, this is not practical and therefore thermocouple probes are fitted to measure exhaust gas temperature, which when known can be related to actual turbine blade temperature. Principle If two dissimilar metals are joined together and the two metals are connected into a circuit, and if the metals are heated (hot junction), an emf is generated in the circuit proportional to the difference in temperature between the two ends of the circuit. If the circuit is opened at one end, termed the cold junction end and a millivoltmeter is inserted then the value of the emf can be measured. The millivoltmeter will be calibrated in degrees of temperature. vw METAL A > MILLIVOLTMETER METAL B HOT JUNCTION COLD JUNCTION Fig. 18 THERMOCOUPLE PRINCIPLE Thermocouple Probes ‘The thermocouple is mounted in a ceramic irsulator and encased in a metal protection sheath, the whole assembly forming a probe which is projected into the gas stream. The thermocouple is made from Chromel (a nickel-chromium alloy) and Alumel (a nickel-aluminium alloy). © The hot junction of the system protrudes into a space inside the end of the sheath which has transfer holes in it to allow the exhaust gas to flow across the hot junction. The relative positions of the transfer holes depend on whether the thermocouple is of the ‘stagnation’ type or the ‘rapid response’ type. —. inthe stagnation type whieh is applied to turbojet engines, the exhaust gas-———__— enters the probe through a forward facing inlet, and after circulating round the hot junction it passes through a smaller exit hole higher up and on the opposite side to the inlet hole. This arrangement allows the gas to slow down, thus minimising the effects of the high velocities.HOUSING INSULATOR THERMOCOUPLE NL Fig. 19 STAGNATION TYPE THERMOCOUPLE, ~ The ‘rapid response’ type of thermocouple is designed for use in low exhaust gas velocities as in turbopropeller engines, and has equal size transfer holes arranged directly opposite each other so that gas can pass over the hot junction with minimum stagnation. A Fig. 20 RAPID RESPONSE TYPE In order to obtain a good average indication of gas temperature conditions and also to ensure functioning of the indicating system in the event an element _—__—-peeoming defective, a number of probes are radially disposed in the gas stream and the electrical outputs are connected to form.a parallel circuit. ‘The cables from the thermocouple probes are formed as a harness around the engine and terminate at a junction box which also provides the connecting point for the cables leading to the indicator.INTERMEDIAT JUNCTION 80X ‘THERMOCOUPLE ASSEMBLY THERMOCOUPLE TAKE-OFF BOX, ASSEMBLY ¥ END BOX THERMOCOUPLE Fig. 21 THERMOCOUPLE HARNESS - 5 LOCATIONS The types of thermocouple vary so check the aircraft you are currently working on. It should also be realised that the probe may contain one, two or three elements to feed EGT (Exhaust Gas Temperature) to other systems, eg top temperature control etc. Y TEMPERATURE INDICATOR eee ‘THERMOCOUPLES INTERMEDIATE f TRIMMING RESISTOR Fig. 22 SIMPLIFIED EGT SYSTEM‘The thermocouples and their leads are in a harness assembly fitted around the engine; the number of probes depends on the engine, The leads going from the junction box to the indicator wil! be Alumel and Chromel (although this may not always be the case). The indicator is a moving coil millivoltmeter calibrated in degrees centigrade. Some systems may include a trimmer resistor which allows adjustment of the overall circuit resistance. In addition, on some aircraft a ballast resistor is fitted, as shown in Figure 22, across the thermocouple output. This is required because on certain types of engine, due to temperature scatter at the exhaust, hot spots will tend to increase the output of some thermocouples, giving an incorrect reading. ‘The resistor is across the thermocouple output to ‘oad’ the output and divert the excessive current, to enable the indicator to read accurately. The value of the resistor will vary from engine to engine and is usually recorded on the engine data plate and also in the engine logbook. The resistor, if fitted, must be removed with the engine If the leads from the engine to the indicator are made of the same material as the thermocouples these are known as extension leads. On some aircraft the leads from the engine to the indicator are not made of the same material as the thermocouples, eg Chromel/Alumel thermocouples might have Copper/Constantan leads to the indicator, these leads are known as compensating leads. You might think that the compensating leads might not work as effectively as another thermocouple is created at the connections, however the two combinations are compatible and it works. Cold Junction Temperature Compensation ‘The various combinations of thermocouple materials specified for use in aircraft conform to standard temperature/emf relationships and the indicators are calibrated accordingly. These emf’s correspond to standard cold junction temperatures. But any change of temperature at the cold junction will cause a small emf to be produced and the indicator will read incorrectly __4- method therefore-needs to_be found to compensate for changes of cold: junction temperature and keep the indicator reading the correct egt. One method employed is to use a bimetallic strip within the moving coil indicator. This will change shape as the cold junction temperature changes and put a correction into the instrument:Compensation for Moving Coil Resistance Changes As the temperature changes at the indictor it will also effect the resistance of the moving coil itself, if the temperature goes up, its resistance goes up and the current through it falls and therefore the indication will fall. One method of overcoming this problem is to connect a thermistor in series with the indicator coil. A thermistor has a negative temperature coefficient, ic its resistance decreases with an increase in temperature. If the temperature of the indicator increases then the coil increases its resistance, the thermistor resistance decreases, so the overall resistance of the coil circuit remains the same. Therefore current and indication will remain the same. In the simplest thermocouple system no external power is required but on most aircraft an ac power supply is used to amplify the signal to power motors within the flight deck gauge. Figure 23 shows the flight deck gauge of Concorde. ‘There is no need to 2S commit the details to memory but you should be able understand how it works in relation to the input signal and the negative feedback signal to the cold junction unit. Lote of £.6.7. POWER SUPPLY COLD JUNCTION shotdown’ MODULE oNT Egret ero RESISTANCE ‘THERMOME TE v REFERENCE, FAULT ‘THERMOCOUPLE MODULE MoniToR WARNES Fig. 23 EGT GAUGE SYSTEM - CONCORDE __________ With reference to figure 23 the thermocouple output is fed toameasuring system where cold junction compensation is effected and then onto.an amplifier ‘The input to the amplifier is the thermocouple signal and an indicator position feedback signal, any difference between these two signals creates an error signal which is amplified and fed to a servomotor which drives the indicator pointer and counter via the gear train.GAS TESPERASURE INDICATION The Charge impedance 2000 A ain Analogic th indication Receives It indicates the té temperature by a voltage repr of the e.m.f, of the thermocouples, corrected in function of the temperature of the cold Junction and aligned in Function of the characteristics specific to the engine. cable stem consists in temperature probes (thermo- couples) electrically connected to a receiver located on the panel. It measures the gas Cemperature at the outlet of che gas generator turbin Bosy Electronic eontrel unit Junction box Restscors RL © line resistor (12 per vire) Rhl and Rh2 * homogeneization resistors. They are connected co the indicater in order co the same ti for a given res 13 value : rh = ka, th = 680" Cf (adjusted in the "true" td, Temperature probe Securing aut IChrome) ‘Alume} The & probes are located around the intermediate diffuser and are subjected to the gas flow at the outlet of the generator. Each of then s3* 960° ¢ | crasists ana factory) Rsh (in the junction box) is used to knov, if necessary, (not) welding of 4 chrovel vire and ap alune) Taermocouple prove Fig. 24 TURBOMECCA THERMOCOUPLE SYSTEM‘The gear train also drives the balance potentiometer to provide a feedback signal to the amplifier and servomotor until the input signals are equal and motor stops to indicate new egt. Figure 24 shows the system as fitted to the Turbomecca engine. Again the details need not be remembered but you should study the drawing and understand how the system works. lee 62 ond - 1000) TE TEP] | rac omesccee ‘oo = 100 Fig. 25 RB211 SYSTEM SCHEMATIC Figure ‘25 shows the general circuitry for the RB211!-as fitted to the Boeing 757. Notice how the thermocouple outputs are sent to the EICAS computer for signal processing to be used on the flight deck CRTs. Notice also the isory and limits ‘computer. Figure 26 shows the schematic wiring diagram from the thermocouples to the junction box, and figure 27 shows the engine component location, Study these drawings carefully and understand the detail, but there is no need to commit these details to memoryMaintenance Procedures It is important that you study your own manuals for the aircraft you are currently working on. Use the following notes as guidelines only Visual Checks 1. Check thermocouple probes for damage, security of attachment, and blockage. 2. Check engine harness for moisture, carbon deposits, general condition of cables, terminal connections for correct torque loading and cleanliness — ——_———, i G | ae Fig. 26 WIRING FROM THERMOCOUPLES TO TERMINAL BLOCK - RB211 System Tests 1. Insulation tests - may include disconnecting leads at engine junction box and using a low voltage meggar checking between each lead and _ ground, between each terminal stud and ground and between each cable outer covering and inner conductor. 2. Short circuit and open circuit tests. 3. Resistance checks - this is normally done by taking a resistance reading _ with leads of test meter connected one way, then a reading is taken with the leads reversed and the two noted resistance readings added together and divided by two4. Accuracy Test - involves injecting millivolts into the system to check indicator is within limits as laid down in the AMM. Also to check over- temperature indications by injecting millivolts to over-temperature level and checking that indication comes on and goes off within required values. NB. It is important that you know whether the test set you are using has automatic ambient temperature compensation or not, if not then allowance must be made for ambient temperature 5. Failure Flag - Tripping and resetting circuit breaker to ensure flag appears and disappears correctly. 6. Resistance of Ballast Resistance. Now look up your manual and make a list of the checks including an engine run check to ensure serviceability of the system. Fig. 27 ENGINE COMPONENT LOCATION - RB211OTHER TEMPERATURE MEASURING SYSTEMS Remote temperature indicating systems on aircraft for oil temperature and fluid temperature for example, involves the use of resistance bulbs as the sensor and a ratiometer type indicator in the flight deck. ‘The resistance bulb has resistance wire of nickel or platinum wound on an insulated former and sealed in a brass or stainless steel tube, which may be filled with an inert gas to assist heat transfer to the element. Whether nickel or platinum is used depends on the temperatures to be measured. Nickel can be used up to 300°C and platinum up to 600°C. UNONNUT FORMER. 2pm / contacting RESISTANCE Socker STRIPS. ELEMENT ‘CALIBRATING OR BALANCING CON, Fig. 28 TEMPERATURE BULB ‘The ratiometer indicator gives a good degree of accuracy. One of its coils is connected directly across the supply and the other is connected in series with the temperature bulb. The principle of operation is the same as that described under “de ratiometer” page 4. Remember the torque on each coil is proportional to current and flux and as the two torque’s oppose each other and become equal the pointer of the instrument becomes stationary. ‘The flight deck indicator and temperature bulb have small inherent resistances and their resistance will change with temperature change. This means that the system would indicate when there was an ambient temperature change. This has to be corrected. Therefore the system is wired in such a way that when there is an ambient temperature change both sides of the system are affected the same, and as the coils are wound in opposition the resistance hange-cancels each other-out- _ An open circuited coil will move the indicator to the full-scale position. Figure 29 shows a schematic of an oil temperature measuring system for a helicopter engine. Study and understand it, but there is no need to commit it to memory.‘The temperature probe measures the temperature of the oi] at the ouclet of the oi1/fuel heat exchanger, i.e, after cooling. — Lubrication The resistante of che probe varies vith the temperature Re ee) Aircraft /engine = Double receiver IN Obl Pr - of1 ct fa. ! Era ¢ GtD ar+ loo" c ‘The variation of resistance of peer eee sels ee the probe induces « variation of meyers ete current detected by the receiver Fiadected Fe the of which fs a galvanomecer connected B asa Wheacstone bridge in relation to the probe. ‘The receiver needle displaces proportionally to the variation a of temperature on « dial graduated in degrees C Envelope Fig. 29 EXAMPLE OF OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATION SYSTEM - HELICOPTER ENGINEMaintenance Checks Check the AMM of your aircraft. In general: 1. Inspect bulb for damage and corrosion. Electrical connections for resistance and insulation checks. 2. Indicator for - _ electrical connections, broken glass, damaged case. Power failure check - indication moves below scale. 3. Systemchecks - __ these will vary from aircraft to aircraft. - Some just measure temperature of oil with a thermometer and compare with the - gauge. - Others disconnect the bulb and substitute a set value of resistance and indicator should read a certain value. - Others have a test box, which can simulate temperature bulb resistance’s to check and calibrate the indicator.ENGINE PRESSURE RATIO INDICATING SYSTEM (EPR) The thrust produced by an axial compressor jet engine does not vary in direct proportion to rpm, the thrust ratings being calculated in such a way that they must be corrected for variations in temperature and pressure prevailing at the compressor intake. Since compressor intake pressure is related to the outlet pressure at the turbine, then the thrust is more accurately determined by measuring the ratio between these two pressures. The engine pressure ratio system is therefore a thrust indication system for these types of engine. The ratio provided by this system is therefore: exhaust pressure = outlet pressure engine air intake pressure inlet pressure System Components ~ The basic components of the system are inlet sensing probe, exhaust pressure sensing probe, EPR transmitter, EPR gauge. These will vary from aircraft to aircraft, particularly the operation of the EPR transmitter. However we shall look at a typical system. Inlet Sensing Probe (P1 or P2) The engine inlet pressure is sensed by a probe similar to a Pitot probe and is located in the intake, or on the intake spinner, or at some other convenient position near the engine. Engine Exhaust Probes (P7 or P8) o The engine exhaust pressure is sensed by a number of probes. In the system described there are six disposed radially in the turbine exhaust case. EPR Transmitter Usually situated near the engine. They vary in operation, but their basic function is to transduce the ratio of outlet/inlet pressure to an electrical signal for transmission to the indicator.EPR Indicator ‘The electro-mechanical indicator provides pointer and digital readout of the ratio and is a servo operated system. The dial is graduated from 0.80 to 1.80 EPR. A failure-flag drops in front of the digital display due to (1) no power (2) low power and (3) sustained mechanical malfunction. The indicator has integral lighting. On later aircraft EPR is indicated on a CRT screen. 0 Fig. 30 EXAMPLE - INLET SENSING PROBEFig. 32 EPR SYSTEM OF THE RB211 Figures 30 and 33 show locations of the inlet-sensing probe (P2) for different =~ engines._Figure 31 and 33 shows typical locations for the P7 probes. = Figure 32 shows the schematic for the RB211 - note the word “rakes” for the probes and that they are located at Pl, PF (fan) and P8. Note also the CRT display. Figure 33 also shows the EPR transducer and the general system layout for a twin spool engine.Figure 34 shows the EPR transmitter as fitted to the RB211. Note in both cases the P1, P7 and Pim air connections and also the electrical power/signal connections. EeMaccrion PRES Encine CHANGE OMSCONNECT - hr me 16 Paces evectrical @ CONNECTOR,Fig. 35 EPR TRANSDUCER SCHEMETIC Fig. 36 EPR TRANSDUCER GENERAL ARRANGEMENTSystem Operation ‘The intake pressure (P12) is fed to two of the bellows in the transmitter and exhaust pressure (P17) is fed to one of the other bellows and the forth bellows is evacuated and sealed (P\) With constant EPR the transducer is in a state of force balance, no movement occurs. When there is a change in EPR, out of balance forces result in movement of the bellows system and the LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) which gives an electrical output to an amplifier whose output signals the servomotor control windings (figure 35). The servomotor drives the bellows system (via a gearing arrangement) to null the output of the bellows operated LVDT (negative feedback). It also drives the control synchro transmitter (CX) rotor. The output from the synchro is transmitted to a motor in the flight deck indicator. ‘The motor drives, through a gear box, the EPR pointer and digital counter and operates a systern to negate the input signal - when the pointer will come to rest and the EPR indicator now shows the new reading. Maintenance Checks ‘The instrument should be reading 1.0 on the ground with no engine running. 1. Probes Inspection for security of attachment, damage, corrosion and blockage. 2. ‘Transmitter Security of attachment, electrical and pressure connections, bonding lead. 3. Indicator Lighting, power failure flag operation. System Checks ‘These usually consist of two checks, a leak check and accuracy test. Leak Test Connect up EPR test set, apply inlet and exhaust pressures as stated in the AMM. Accuracy Test Connect up EPR test set, apply pressure to figures as shown in AMM for inlet (Pra|.and exhaust (Pr) and check indicator reads correctly.Figure 37 shows an EPR system as fitted to Boeing aircraft. It uses a digital transmitter which sends data to the data acquisition unit, the thrust management computer and the EICAS computer (for onward transmission to the flight-deck CRT displays). The engine air pressures P1 (air inlet) and PF (fan exhaust pressure) are sensed by two vibrating cylinder pressure transducers which produce frequencies proportional to the air pressures. These signals are fed to a microprocessor that converts them into the ratio PF/P1 and digitises them for transmission to the EICAS computers and then to the CRT display. NB. It is not necessary for you to remember this system; it is only included to give you an insight into a more modern system. ‘ranrac flow AT8 heISTTION Care| leruns lra A) tisv ac ensnirn l} My, ramaTing (WioeaTng] fe naea | Lone xoce Fig. 37 BOEING AIRCRAFT EPR SYSTEM