Article

Modeling and Optimal Shift Control of a Planetary

Two-Speed Transmission
Xinxin Zhao * and Jing Tang
School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, 30 Xueyuan Road,
Haidian District, Beijing 100083, China; tang_jing@yeah.net
* Correspondence: xinxinzhao@ustb.edu.cn




Received: 6 August 2019; Accepted: 6 September 2019; Published: 9 September 2019


Abstract: To improve the efficiency of electric vehicles (EVs), a planetary two-speed transmission
is proposed, which consists of a brushless direct current (BLDC) motor, a turbo-worm reducer,
two multi-disc wet brakes, and a Simpson planetary gearset. Based on the devised electronic actuator
for shifting, the rotation direction of the BLDC shaft determines the gear ratio of the transmission.
For acquiring smooth shift, the state-space equations with control variables of transmission are
derived, and a three-stage algorithm is suggested. During the brake engagement process, the optimal
control strategy has been developed using linear quadratic regulator control, considering the jerk
and friction work of the brake. The simulation results show that the proposed optimal control
strategy could reduce the slipping friction work of the brake and improve the shifting quality of EVs.
The optimal control trajectory of the BLDC motor was conducted on the electronic shifting actuator
bench test.

Keywords: electric vehicle; gear shifting; optimization; two-speed transmission; optimal quadratic control

1. Introduction
Electric vehicles (EVs) are increasingly used due to internal combustion engine-related air pollution
and global warming. Compared with traditional powertrain system, the driving motor of an EV
is able to generate constant torque at low speed and constant power at high speed, which agrees with
the requirements of EVs [1]. The cruising ranges of EVs are extended by increasing the energy-storage
capacity or improving the efficiency of the transmission system. However, most EVs are equipped
with a fixed ratio gearbox. For acquiring high speed and acceleration, the power and torque of driving
motor need to be high enough.
Reported studies have found that the gear ratio and shift schedule optimization strategies are
related to the efficiency of the EVs equipped with transmissions [2–5]. In the paper, it is shown that
the EV with a two-speed transmission has better performance than a fixed ratio gearbox, in terms
of acceleration time, maximum speed, and energy economy [6]. Eberleh et al. found that the efficiency
in common driving cycles could be increased when a motor coupled with a two-speed transmission
is compared to a motor equipped with a fixed ratio gearbox [7]. Sorniotti and Subramanyan compared
a conventional single-speed transmission layout, a two-speed layout, and a continuously variable
transmission (CVT) layout 1. The two-speed transmission system showed significant advantages over
the single-speed layout and CVT layout. Therefore, the EVs, coupled with a two-speed transmission,
will become a development trend for enhanced powertrain efficiency.
The layout and optimal shift control of the adoption of the two-speed transmission system for EVs
have been performed. At present, there are several types of two-speed transmissions including manual
transmissions (MTs) [8], automated manual transmissions (AMTs) [9–11], dual-clutch transmissions
(DCTs) [12–15], and automatic transmissions (ATs) [16]. Sorniotti and Pilone et al. added a one-way

World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 53; doi:10.3390/wevj10030053 www.mdpi.com/journal/wevj

World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 53 2 of 16

sprag clutch to the traditional MT, although it is difficult to shift seamlessly due to the MTs’ layout [17].
Two clutches are used in a DCT for removing the torque interruption during gear-shifting [18,19].
Ruan et al. [20] developed three case layouts of powertrain system for EVs, and they found that
CVT can reduce energy consumption, and manufacturing cost. Actually, the stability of the steel
strip restricts the development of the CVT in high power EVs. Shin et al. [16] presented a two-speed
Simpson type planetary gearbox. The result of the vibration test, noise test, and transmission efficiency
test was obtained, which meet the demand. As we all know, the planetary gear sets system with
torque converter changes gear ratios smoothly [21]. The multiple plates clutch with the hydraulic
system is often selected as a clutch for planetary transmission. However, the hydraulic system is not
available in EVs. Considering the stability and accuracy of the controller, the motor-driven mechanism
for gear-shifting is suitable for drive units for EVs, which permits controlling the pressure of the wet
clutch with high accuracy. Therefore, it is necessary to develop an electronic actuator for planetary
gear sets for a swift and smooth shift.
For acquiring smooth shifting, researches have proposed optimization algorithms for different
types of transmissions [22–25]. Alizadeh et al. [9] designed an observer to estimate the frictional
torque transferred during gear-shifting, and the results demonstrated that the feedback control
configuration is suitable to improve the shifting performance of the closed-loop system. The experimental
study of the transient shift behavior of an EV coupled DCT was undertaken [12]. Using torque
based control techniques, it is possible to achieve high-quality gear-shifting. The authors utilized
the torque of the powertrain as an optimal shifting control target through deriving dynamic equations.
Roozegar and Angeles used polynomial transition functions as the strategy of the angular velocities based
on the calculus of variance [26]. The torques of the driving motor and the clutches during gear-shifting
were calculated applying the polynomial transition functions based on the motor specifications
considering acceleration and jerk. The optimal torque of the motor was proposed by a linear feed-forward
control for inverse AMTs, and a mathematical model was developed for multispeed transmissions
in EVs [27,28]. The results showed that the dynamic model of the planetary system could be utilized
for optimal shifting control with the response of the transmission. Rahimi et al. designed an observer
based on the back-stepping control following the optimal trajectory for minimizing shifting time [29,30].
The shifting controller was designed with the separate discrete-time PID, which improves shifting
quality even in the condition of disturbances utilizing a genetic algorithm and trial-and-error [31].
This paper shows that the high fidelity mathematical model and adapted algorithm of a gear-shifting
actuator could guarantee the performances of shifting. This paper presents the dynamic model of a
two-speed transmission, which includes two brakes and an electronic shifting actuator and develops
a three-stage (two sliding friction stages and gap stage) gear-shifting control algorithm. The linear-quadratic
optimal control is applied to determine the optimal torque for shifting the motor during sliding friction
stages. The speed trajectory of the BLDC motor for shifting was found during the shifting process.
The remainder of this paper is arranged as follows. Section 2 describes the topology and dynamic model
of the proposed shifting actuator. Section 3 presents the deducing process of the optimal controller
for gear-shifting using the LQR (linear quadratic regulator) method. The simulation results in AMESim
and discussions are presented in Section 4. A conclusion is shown in Section 5.

2. Statement of Planetary Two-Speed Transmission

The two-speed planetary gear system with electronic actuators was established, as shown
in Figure 1. This transmission has a Simpson planetary gearset and two brakes which connect with
the ring gears, and the detailed parameters are shown in the Table 1. Based on this structure, the speed
ratio was around 2, which achieved a smooth shift easily. When brake 1(B1) engaged, the ring gear
of the left planetary system became static, and the planetary system became a differential gear train.
When brake 2(B2) engaged, the ring gear of the right planetary system became static, and the gear ratio
was the larger one.
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 53 3 of 16
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 53 3 of 17

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the planetary two-speed transmission. 1-driving motor; 2-sun gear
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the planetary two-speed transmission. 1-driving motor; 2-sun gear in
in planetary system 1(S1); 3-carrier in planetary system 1 (C1); 4-brake 1(B1); 5-ring gear in planetary
planetary system 1(S1); 3-carrier in planetary system 1 (C1); 4-brake 1(B1); 5-ring gear in planetary
system 1 (R1); 6-worm shaft; 7-worm gear; 8-ring gear in planetary system 2 (R2); 9-carrier in planetary
system 1 (R1); 6-worm shaft; 7-worm gear; 8-ring gear in planetary system 2 (R2); 9-carrier in
system 2 (C2); 10-sun gear in planetary system 2(S2); 11-brake 2(B2).
planetary system 2 (C2); 10-sun gear in planetary system 2(S2); 11-brake 2(B2).
Table 1. Parameters of the planetary system.
Table 1. Parameters of the planetary system.
Component Name Module Number of Teeth Pitch Diameter/mm Mass/kg Inertia/kg.m2
Component Name Module Number of Teeth Pitch Diameter/mm Mass/kg Inertia/kg.m 2
P1 Sun gear s1 2 32 64 / 3.03 × 10−4
P1P1Sun gear
Planet s1 p1
gear 22 32
22 4464 /
0.118 4.033.03
× 10×−410
−4

P1P1Planet gearr1p1
Ring gear 22 22
76 44
152 / 0.118 4.03 × 10−4
0.01827
P1P1Ring gear
Carrier c1 r1 2 /76 / 152 / / × 10−6
0.01827
5.538
P1P2Carrier
Sun gearc1s2 22 22
/ 44/ / / × 10−4× 10−6
1.2 5.538
P2 planet gear
P2 Sun gear s2 p2 2
2 27
22 5444 0.28
/ × 10×−410−4
1.5 1.2
P2 Ring gear r2 2 76 158 / 0.01515
P2P2planet gear p2 2 /
27 /
54 /
0.28 1.5 × 10−4
Carrier c2 2 7.207 × 10−6
P2 Ring gear r2 2 76 158 / 0.01515
P2 Carrier c2 2 / / / 7.207 × 10−6
2.1. Planetary Gear Sets Modeling
Planetary Gear Sets
According Modeling
to the Lagrange method, the dynamic model of planetary gear sets is built based
on the structure of the two-speed transmission, which includes two sets of planetary gears shown
According to the Lagrange method, the dynamic model of planetary gear sets is built based on
in Figure 2. Considering the generalized meshing equations, there are four constraint equations
the structure of the two-speed transmission, which includes two sets of planetary gears shown in
for the planetary systems, where α1 represents the angle of the S1 and S2, β1 represents the angle
Figure 2. Considering the generalized meshing equations, there are four constraint equations for the
of C1 and R2, γ1 represents the angle of pinions in the left planetary, θ1 represents the angle of R1,
planetary systems, where α represents the angle of the S1 and S2, β represents the angle of C1
β2 represents the angle of C2 1and γ2 represents the angle of pinions in the1 right planetary. We assume
that R2, γis
and there represents
1 no the anglethe
sliding between of pinions
sun gears in and
the left planetary,
pinions θ1 represents
and pinions and ringthe angle
gears β2
of R1,two
in these
the angle of C2 and γ2 represents the angle of pinions in the right planetary. We assume
representssystem.
planetary  . . .
that there is no sliding between β1 R
the sun γ1 Rs1and
s1 −gears = αpinions
1 Rs1 and pinions and ring gears in these two
 β. (R + 2R ) + γ. R = θ. R , (1)

planetary system. 
s1 p1 1 p1 1 r1

1
 .  .
β1 Rs1 − γ1 Rs1 = α . R
 β. 2 R s2 − γ2 Rp2 = α1 Rs2
1 s1


 . (1)
(2)
= θ1 RR
.
 β ( β1 ( R+s1 2R ) +γγ 1RRp2
+ 2p2R)p1+ .
2 Rs2 2 p1 = β

1 r1 r2

,
The system has two degrees of freedom (DOF) and (β2 , α1 ) is chosen as the set of independent
coordinates. Using the constraint equations, β2 Rs 2 − γit
2 R = α1to
isp 2easy Rs 2find the relationship between the remaining
coordinates and the independent coordinates.   
(2)
β 2 ( Rs 2 + 2 Rp 2 ) + γ2 Rp 2 = β1 Rr 2 .
 .  
 γ. 1 degrees

1 ( 1 + A4 )
  ofAfreedom −A1 (1 + A4 )
The system has two (DOF) and (β , α ) is chosen
 . asthe set of independent
 θ1   (1 + A2 )(1 + A4 ) −A4 (1 + A2 ) − A2  β2 
   
coordinates. Using the  constraint
 =  equations, it is easy to find the relationship  . between the remaining
 α1 , (3)
.
 β   1 + A4 −A4
coordinates and the independent
 . 1   coordinates.

  
1


− A13

γ2

A3
  A1 (1 + A4 ) − A1 (1 + A4 ) 
 γ1   
 θ   (1 + A2 )(1 + A4 ) − A4 (1 + A2 ) − A2    
 1= β
1 + A4 − A4  2 (3)
 β1    α1 
   1 1 
γ2   −
 A3 A3 
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 53 , 4 of 16

Rs1 R R Rs 2
where A1 =Rs1 A2 =Rs1 s1 A3 R=p2 p 2 A4R= .
RpA
where A1 = Rp1 1 2 = R A
Rr1 r1 3 = Rs2Rs 24
A = s2
.R
Rr2 r 2

Figure The
2. 2.
Figure Simpson
The planetary
Simpson gearset.
planetary gearset.

Based
Basedonon
thethe
kinetic energies
kinetic equations
energies in terms
equations of each
in terms gear, gear,
of each the virtual work of
the virtual the system
work with
of the system
the virtual displacements of the independent coordinates is derived as
with the virtual displacements of the independent coordinates is derived as

δW = δTW =T 1s 2δ+α 1T+c1r2

s1s2 δsα1
δ β+
Tc1δr 2β1 1 +T r1δ
Tr1 1 ++
δθθ1 TcT2δc2βδ2 β2 ,
, (4)
(4)

where
where thethe applied
applied torque
torque on on
the the gears
gears due due to friction
to friction elements
elements is =Ts1Ts 2in=, T
is Ts1s2 Tinc1r2
, T=c1r 2T= T 2 r1
b2 , bT
=b1Tb,1 ,
, T=r1 T
2 =−T
Tc2Tc= −Tf f. .The
Theequation
equationofof dynamics
dynamics andand constraint
constraint for two-speed
for two-speed transmission
transmission are written
are written in matrix in matrix
form.
form.  
Tin 
# .. 
D11 D12  α1  1 b1 −A4 0  Tin Tb1 
"   " # 
 ..  =    . (5)
D21 D22 D11 D β12  α1  01 bb21 b−3A4 −1
0  Tb1 Tb2 
    = 
2
D   (5)
 21 D22   β 2   0 b2 b3 −1 Tb 2 T f
 

 
It can be seen that the D11 , D12 , D21 , and D22 are constants from  T f  .Equation (5) and are almost
always non-singular. Therefore, the input and output angular accelerations have a linear relation with
It can be seen that the D11 , D12 , D21 , and D22 are constants from Equation (5) and are almost
the friction torque of brakes and input torque.
always non-singular. Therefore, the input and output angular accelerations have a linear relation
3. with the friction
Shifting Actuatortorque of brakes and input torque.

The gear-shifting
3. Shifting Actuator actuator proposed in this paper consists of a BLDC motor, enveloping worm,
worm gear with a screw surface, guide mechanism, and two brakes. Compared with hydraulic
Thefor
actuators gear-shifting
shifting, theactuator proposed
electronic shiftinginsystem
this paper consists
has the of a BLDC
following motor, simple
advantages: enveloping worm,
structure,
worm geardeployment,
comfortable with a screw andsurface, guide This
fast response. mechanism,
electronicand two brakes.
actuator Compared
with a worm with hydraulic
gear, which enables
actuators for shifting, the electronic shifting system has the following advantages:
large reduction ratios to be achieved, presses the plates of the brake for changing the gear simple structure,
ratio
bycomfortable deployment,
the BLDC motor. Due to the and fast response.
self-locking This electronic
characteristics of the worm actuator
system, with
theaBLDC
worm gear,avoids
motor which
enables
turning onlarge
after reduction
the brake isratios to beThe
engaged. achieved, pressesdrives
BLDC motor the plates of the
the worm brake
shafts for changing
which the gear
rotate following
the desired direction, and the range of the worm gear is around 120 degree. The worm gearing BLDC
ratio by the BLDC motor. Due to the self-locking characteristics of the worm system, the and
motor avoids turning on after the brake is engaged. The BLDC motor drives the
guide mechanisms with helicoid implement translational motion instead of rotation, and it pushes worm shafts which
rotate
the following
plates the desired
of the brakes direction,
for shifting. and the range
The structure of the of the worm
electronic gear
shift is around
system is shown120indegree.
FigureThe3,
worm gearing and guide mechanisms with helicoid implement translational
but the pistons of the brakes are replaced by the guide mechanism with a screw surface. motion instead of
rotation, and it pushes the plates of the brakes for shifting. The structure of the electronic shift system
is shown in Figure 3, but the pistons of the brakes are replaced by the guide mechanism with a screw
surface.
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 53 5 of 16
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 53 5 of 17

Figure 3. Structure diagram of an electronic actuator.

Figure 3. Structure diagram of an electronic actuator.
3.1. The BLDC Motor Used for Shifting
3.1. The BLDC Motor Used for Shifting
The BLDC motor drives the worm pairs through a coupler, which overcomes the moment of inertia
The BLDC
and the moment motor drives
of friction. the worm
The dynamic pairs through
equation a coupler,
of the BLDC motorwhich overcomes
displays the moment of
as follows:
inertia and the moment of friction. The dynamic equation of the BLDC motor displays as follows:
.
Jm ωm = T m − Tm0 − Cm ωm , (6)
J mωm = Tm − Tm 0 − Cmωm , (6)
where
whereJm isJthe inertia of the rotor, ωm is the
m is the inertia of the rotor, ωm angular Tm is theToutput
velocity,velocity,
is the angular torque of the BLDC
m is the output torque of the
motor, T is the torque of the load, and C is the damping coefficient.
BLDC motor, T is the torque of the load, and C is the damping coefficient.
m0 m
m0 m

3.2. Coupling Model

3.2. Coupling Model
An elastic coupler connects the output shaft of the BLDC motor and worm shaft, and the torque
An elastic coupler connects the output shaft of the BLDC motor and worm shaft, and the torque
of the motor transfers to the shaft of the worm by overcoming the inertia moment of the coupler.
of the motor transfers to the shaft of the worm by overcoming the inertia moment of the coupler. The
The torque can be calculated as
torque can be calculated as dωc
Twsi = Tm0 − Jc , (7)
dt d ωc
Twsi = Tm 0 − J c (7)
where Tωsi is the input torque of the worm shaft, dt , of the coupler, and ωc is the angular
Jc is the inertia
speed of the coupler.
where Tω si is the input torque of the worm shaft, J c is the inertia of the coupler, and ωc is the
3.3. angular
Worm Gearing with
speed of theScrew Surface Model
coupler.
The worm gear with screw surface not only converts the rotation to translation, but the translational
motion Worm
3.3. movesGearing
along with Screw Surface
the screw surfaceModel
to change the displacement accurately. Thus, the guide
mechanism plays the role as a piston to change
The worm gear with screw surface not the working conditions
only converts the of the brakes.
rotation The equivalent
to translation, but the
dynamic equation of worm gearing system can be presented as follows:
translational motion moves along the screw surface to change the displacement accurately. Thus, the
guide mechanism plays the role as a piston to change the working conditions of the brakes. The
Tωso
equivalent dynamic equation of worm gearing − Jωs ωωs
= Twsisystem can, be presented as follows: (8)

Tω so==iT
Tωgi ωso−η,J ω s ωω s ,
Twsi (9)(8)

where Tωso is the output torque of the worm shaft, Jωs is the inertia of the worm shaft, ωωs is the angular
Tω gi = iTω soη (9)
speed of the worm shaft, Tωgi is the input torque of the ,worm gear, i is the ratio of the worm
gearing, i = ωωωgωs
, ωωg is the angular speed of the worm gear, and η is the transmission efficiency
where T so is the output torque of the worm shaft,
of the worm ωsystem.
J ω s is the inertia of the worm shaft, ωω s is the
angular speed of the worm shaft, Tω gi is the input torque of the worm gear, i is the ratio of the
ωωs
worm gearing, i = , ωω g is the angular speed of the worm gear, and η is the transmission
ωω g
efficiency of the worm system.
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 53 6 of 16

Analyzing the dynamical performances of the worm gear, the equation of translation along the axis
is presented as follows:
.. .
Mwg Swg = Fws cos γ − Fn + Fsr cos α − Cs−wg Swg , (10)

where Mwg is the mass of the worm gear, Swg is the axial displacement of the worm gear, Fws is
the support force by the worm, γ is the lead angle of the worm system, Fn is the normal force on plates
of the brake, Fsr is the support force by the guide mechanism, α is the spiral angle between the worm
gear and guide mechanism, and Cs−wg is the axial damping coefficient.
The rotate motion of the worm gear is represented by following dynamical equation.
.. .
Jwg θwg = Twg + T f − Fsr Rcp sin α − Cwg θwg , (11)
..
where Jωg is the inertia of the worm gear, θωg is the angular acceleration of the worm gear, Tωg is
the driving torque of the worm gear, T f is the friction torque between the worm gear and friction plates,
Rcp is the equivalent radius of the friction plates, and Cωg is the damping coefficient of the rotation motion.
Since the worm gear contacts with guide mechanism invariably, the geometric constraint between
the rotation motion and translation motion is stated by the following equation, which is related
to the screw pitch and lift range. The dynamical equation of worm gear could deduce by the mentioned
Equations (10)–(12).
θwg 8
Swg = 16 = θwg . (12)
2π π

3.4. Modeling of Multi-Disc Wet Brakes

The guide mechanism driven by the worm gear presses the friction plates to shift gears. The force
of friction plates is analyzed in the following:
.. .
Mcp Scp = Fcp − Ccp Scp , (13)

where Mcp is the mass of the friction plates, Scp is the displacement of the plates, and Ccp is the damping
coefficient. When the guide mechanism is not in contact with friction plates, the support force is zero.
While the guide mechanism presses the plates, the static friction torque Tc f is shown as:

2 (R0 3 − R1 3 )
Tc f = µc NFcp , (14)
3 (R0 2 − R1 2 )

where µc is the coefficient of the kinetic friction coefficient of static friction, N is the number of plates,
and R0 and R1 are the radius of external diameter and inner diameter, respectively. The friction plates
are copper-based, and the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.06–0.08, and the maximum coefficient
of static friction is 0.1–0.13.
The model of the brake considers the change in the coefficient of friction in off-going states and
on-coming states, but the heat loss during sliding mode and the friction resistance by oil stickiness are
neglected. Since the normal pressure of plates is difficult to measure during shifting, the displacement
of the guide mechanism could be used to judge the state of the brake.

4. Optimal Trajectories in the Gear-Shifting Process

The proposed optimal controller for gear-shifting is elaborated in this section. Assuming fixed
drag torque during shifting, the driving torque is decided by the angle of acceleration pedal.
According to the indexes of shifting quality, the jerk and sliding friction work, the performance index
function is designed by the state equations described in Section 2.1. The optimal quadratic control is
applied to obtain the shifting controller.
 ndex function is designed by the state equations described in Section 2.1. The optimal quadratic
control is applied to obtain the shifting controller.

4.1. Problem Statement of Gear-Shifting

Based on theWorld
structure
Electric of an Journal
Vehicle electronic shifting
2019, 10, 53 actuator, the shifting process includes brake 7 of 16
off-going stage, gap stage, and brake on-coming stage. Since there is no pressure applied on the
plates, the friction torques of B1 and B2 remain zero during the gap mode, Tb1 = 0 , Tb 2 = 0 .
4.1. Problem Statement of Gear-Shifting
However, friction heat is produced by the plates during the brake off-going stage and on-coming
tage. The friction works Basedof onbrakes are Tb1 ≠ of
the structure 0 an Tb 2 = 0 when
andelectronic shifting
B1actuator,
remains the shiftingmode.
in sliding process includes brake
During B2 working in the off-going stage and on-coming stage, the torques of friction of B1 and applied
off-going stage, gap stage, and brake on-coming stage. Since there is no pressure B2 on the plates,
are Tb1 =0 and Tbthe friction torques of B1 and B2 remain zero during the gap mode, Tb1 = 0, Tb2 = 0. However,
2 ≠ 0 , respectively. Therefore, the brake off-going stage and on-coming stage take
friction heat isand
a long time for smooth shifting, produced
the gapbystage
the plates
should during
take the brake
a short off-going
time stage and
for avoiding on-coming stage. The friction
interruption.
works of brakes
The friction torque of the brakes during b1are T , 0 and T = 0 when B1 remains in
the off-goingb2stage and on-coming stage are calculated sliding mode. by During B2 working
in the
Equation (14), which off-going stage
corresponds to theand on-coming
torque of the BLDC stage, motor,
the torques
givenofthe friction of B1 and
parameters B2 are Tb1 = 0 and
of the
brake and supportb2force of the guide mechanism. To improve the shifting quality and reduce take a long time
T , 0, respectively. Therefore, the brake off-going stage and on-coming stage
hifting time, the for smooth shifting,
performance indexesandinclude
the gapthe stage should
friction take of
work a short time forand
the brakes avoiding
jerk ofinterruption.
EVs. The friction
torque of the brakes during the off-going stage and on-coming stage are calculated by Equation (14),
Building the quadratic optimal controller, the optimal trajectory of torque for brakes, Tb1 and Tb 2 ,
which corresponds to the torque of the BLDC motor, given the parameters of the brake and support force
are obtained duringof shifting.
the guide mechanism. To improve the shifting quality and reduce shifting time, the performance
To improve the shift quality,
indexes include the theoptimal
friction quadratic
work of the control
brakes would
and bejerkapplied
of EVs. forBuilding
the off-going
the quadratic optimal
tage and on-coming stage. During shifting, the torque of the driving motor
controller, the optimal trajectory of torque for brakes, Tb1 and Tb2 , are obtained changes in different
during shifting.
tages. Then the driving motor works following the speed closed-loop and the two-speed
To improve the shift quality, the optimal quadratic control would be applied for the off-going
ransmission begins a down
stage shift whenstage.
and on-coming the speed
Duringincreases
shifting, tothethe objective
torque drivingn2motor
of thevalue . The changes
driving in different stages.
motor operates byThen
directthetorque
drivingclose-loop control
motor works after shifting.
following the speedTheclosed-loop
control strategy
and theoftwo-speed
the driving transmission begins
motor is shown ina Figure 4a, and Figure 4b shows the speed control strategy of the BLDC
down shift when the speed increases to the objective value n2 . The driving motor operates by direct motor
during shifting. torque close-loop control after shifting. The control strategy of the driving motor is shown in Figure 4a,
and Figure 4b shows the speed control strategy of the BLDC motor during shifting.
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 53 8 of 17

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 4. Ideal curve. 4. Ideal
(a) States curve.
of the (a) States
driving motor;of(b)
theStates
driving motor;
of the (b) States
brushless DC of the brushless
(BLDC) motor. DC (BLDC) motor.

Generally,indexes
Generally, the performance the performance indexesofofjerk
of brake consist brake
andconsist
frictionofwork,
jerk and friction
which work, which influence
influence
the shifting qualitythe
andshifting quality
the work-life and
of the the work-life
brakes. The value of thejerk
of the brakes.
wouldThemake value of the jerk would make i
it uncomfortable
for passengers, and uncomfortable
it also has an for passengers,
adverse and
effect on theitpowertrain
also has ansystem.
adverseTherefore,
effect on the
thepowertrain
jerk duringsystem. Therefore
shifting should be the
in ajerk during
certain shifting
range, whichshould be as
is given in a certain range, which is given as

dTda rw dT
dTO dT dTb 2 dTb1 ,
da rw dTO b2 = a1 dTmb1+ a2
= aj1 = dt =+iaJ2 dt + a3 dt , dt + a3 dt
m (15)
j= = (15)
dt i0 JV dt dt 0 V dt dt

where where
rw D D  11 
D11 r D21D D21
D21 
  h i
rw
rw D11
a1 = i0 D22 D11 −D = Dw12 h− D11 11a2 = i0 −D22 D2111−D21 D12 2A 4 (1 + A 3 ) + D11 A
a1 21 4 a2 =  2A4 ( 1+ A3 ) + A4 
D21i0 D22 D11 - D21 DA A D11 
122  4 + i0 D22 D11 - D21 D12 D11 
D11

i
rw 1
a3 = i0 D22 D11 −D21 D12 D11 · 2A A
2 4 + 2 A1 A 2 + 4A A
2 4 1 + A1 ( 1 + A 3 ) .
rw D11 D21  AA  1  
a3 = ⋅  2A2 A4 + 2 2 4 + A2 + 4A2 A4  1+  ( 1+ A3 )  .
i0 D22 D11 - D21 D12 D11  A1  A1  
g
To evaluate the jerk during shifting, 1 is the performance index, which is represented by
t
g1 =  j 2 dt , where t is the time of shifting. In addition, the friction work has a relationship with the
0

work-life of the brakes, which is expressed as

t1 t2
W = ∣T w ∣dt + ∣T w ∣dt , (16)
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 53 8 of 16

To evaluate the jerk during shifting, g1 is the performance index, which is represented
Rt
by g1 = 0 j2 dt, where t is the time of shifting. In addition, the friction work has a relationship
with the work-life of the brakes, which is expressed as
Z t1 Z t2
W= | Tb1 wr1 | dt + | Tb2 wr2 | dt, (16)
0 0

where t1 is the time of B1 for off-going, t2 is the time of B2 for on-coming, and wr is the angular speed
of the plates. Since there is a trade-off between the friction work and jerk during shifting, the expression
of the comprehensive evaluation index can be represented as
Z t !
1 2
J = W+α j dt , (17)
2 0

where α is a weighting coefficient, (0 < a < 1). When α is a large value, it is shown that the jerk takes
a greater proportion during shifting, and it is easy to balance the proportion of friction work and jerk
by tuning the coefficient. With regard to the weighting coefficient, α, we tune the coefficient to make
the maximum values of the integral of the jerk during shifting close to the value of the friction work.

4.2. Optimal Trajectory Control for Brakes

h i
We set the state variables as X = x1 x2 x3 and control variable as U = [u], where the state


 x1 = wr1
 dT
variables are presented by  x2 = wm and control variable is given as u = dtb1 . Therefore, the state



 x =T
3 b1
.
equation could be expressed by X = AX + BU + V, where A is the coefficient matrix of the state
variables, B is the coefficient matrix of control variables and V is interference matrix which depends
on the torque of the driving motor and the resistance torque of the vehicle. Because the matrix
[ B AB A2 B ] is a non-singular matrix, the system is completely controllable.

4.2.1. The B1 Off-Going Stage

When B1 works in the off-going stage, the coefficient matrix of the state equation could be deduced
by Equation (5), where
13 (1+A2 +A4 )D22 +b2 D21 A2 A4 (1+A2 +A4 )(b1 D22 −b2 D12 )+b2 A2 (b1 D21 −b2 D11 ) 

 0 − 500 D21 D12 −D22 D11

 A2 A4 (D21 D12 −D22 D11 ) 
A =  0
 13D 22 b 1 D22 −b 2 D 11 ,

 500(D21 D12 −D22 D11 ) D11 D22 −D12 D21 
0 0 0
 

 187.8 (1+A2 +A4 )D22 +b2 D21 − (1+A2 +A4 )D12 +b2 D11 T f 
 
h iT  A2 A4 (D21 D12 −D22 D11 ) A2 A4 (D12 D21 −D11 D22 ) 
B = 0 0 1 , V = 
 −258D22 D12 .

 D12 D21 −D11 D22 − D12 D21 −D11 D22 f T 
0
 
Because the matrix [ B AB A2 B ] is a non-singular matrix, the system is completely
controllable. The cost function is selected as
Z t ! Z t 2
1 2 1
J= W+ α j dt = x1 x3 + α(a3 u) dt. (18)
2 0 2 0

(X(t)T QX(t) + U (t)T RU (t))dt,

R
The linear-quadratic function can be expressed by J =
 
 0 0 0.5  h i
where the coefficient is Q =  0 0 0  and R = αa3 2 , and the designed Hamilton’s function is
 
 
0.5 0 0
H = (X(t)T QX(t) + U (t)T RU (t) + λT (AX(t) + BU (t) + V ))dt where λ(t) is the Lagrange multiplier.
R
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 53 9 of 16

When the shifting ends, the torque of the brakes should be 0, which means the terminal constraint
is x3 (tn ) = 0. Applying the principle of the minimum, the undetermined matrix is represented
 
 0 0 0 
by P(tn ) =  0 0 0  based on the state of the final value and terminal constraints.
 
 
0 0 0
The objective for optimal control is to find the trajectory of friction torque for the brakes while
minimizing the cost function. Since there is an interference matrix, the related matrix should be
substituted into the equation U (t) = −R−1 BT λ(t). The solved control variables matrix is the optimal
trajectory of friction torque for B1 during the off-going stage, and the process of the solving process is
developed by a quadratic problem with disturbance.
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 53 10 of 17
4.2.2. The Gap Stage
The initial state and terminal state of the angular displacement of the BLDC motor output shaft,
The initialfollow
state and terminal state s (t0of
) =the
0 , angular
s (t f ) = s.displacement of
 the BLDC motor output shaft,
f , s (t 0 ) =. 0 , s (t f ) = 0 .
s (t ) should the equations 
s(t) should follow the equations s(t0 ) = 0, s(t f ) = s f , s(t0 ) = 0, s(t f ) = 0.
The angular velocity of the motor tracks the optimal trajectory, which falls in the field of the
The angular velocity of the motor tracks the optimal trajectory, which falls in the field of the calculus
calculus of variations. Researchers found that a quintic polynomial has good performances during
of variations. Researchers found that a quintic polynomial has good performances during shifting.
shifting. Therefore, the quintic polynomial, s =ax 5 + bx 4 + cx3 + dx 2 + ex1 + f , could be used as the
Therefore, the quintic polynomial, s = ax5 + bx4 + cx3 + dx2 + ex1 + f , could be used as the optimal
optimal trajectory during the gap mode for the angular velocity of the BLDC motor. According to the
trajectory during the gap mode for the angular velocity of the BLDC motor. According to the constraints
s ( t ) = 6t 5 -15t 4 +10t 3
ofconstraints of initial
initial and terminal and the
states, terminal
trajectory states,
can be the trajectory
calculated by scan(t) =be6tcalculated
5 − 15t4 + 10tby3 shown in Figure 5,
τ τ
t−t0 t t− t.0
shown in Figure 5, where 0 ≤ s (τ ) ≤T1 , 0 ≤ τ ≤ 1 , τf = 0 , and T = t f − t0 .
where 0 ≤ s ( ) ≤ 1, 0 ≤ ≤ 1, τ = , and T = t −
T
1

0.5

s
-0.5 ds/dτ
d2s/dτ2
d3s/dτ3
-1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
τ

Figure 5. Angular velocity in gap stage.

Figure 5. Angular velocity in gap stage.
4.2.3. The B2 On-Coming Stage
4.2.3. The B2 On-Coming Stage
The state equation of B2 is related to the dynamic function of planetary system P2, which is
the sameTheasstate equation of
the off-going B2 isThe
stage. related
stateto the dynamic
variables include function
wr2 , wmof, and
planetary system
wb2 , and P2, which
the control is the
variable

1 = wr2
xinclude w r 2 wm w
same as the off-going stage. The state variables 
 , , and b 2 , and the control
dTb2  dTb2
is dt , where the state variable is represented by  x2 = wm and  x u= = wr 2 dt . The state
dTb 2equation is

variable is dTb 2 , where the state variable is represented  x = T by  1 u =

and . The state

3 b2  x2 = wm dt
represented bydt  x = T

13 A4 D22 +A4 −b3 D12 +A4 D22 +(b3 D11 +A4 D21 )(1+1/A  43) b 2
 0 − 500 
equation is represented by
 ( D 21 D 12 −D 22 D 11 ) A 4 ( D 21 D 12 −D 22 D 11 )  h iT
A =  0
 13D 22 b 3 D 12 + A 4 D 22

,B= 0 0 1
500(D21 D12 −D22 D11 )−b D + A D + (bDD21 D+12A−D 22 D11

4 D21 )(1 + 1/ A4 ) 

0 − 13 A4 D22 + A4


3 12 4 22 3 11
 0 500 ( D D 0 0 

21 12 - D22 D11 ) A4 ( D21D12 - D22 D11 )
[ 0 0 1]
T
 A4 D22 +A4 D12 +(1+A4 )D11  B =
 187.8 13 + b3 D + A Df T 
(D21 DD

A = 0 122−D
2 22 D11 ) A4 (D12 D21 −D 1112D22 )4 22 


500−( D21D258D
12 - D22 D11 ) −
D12 D D - D D 

V =  22 21 T 12 22 11 


D12 D21 −D11 D22 D12 D21 −D11 D22 f
0 
 
0 0

 0 
 
Because the matrix [ B AB A2 B ] is a non-singular ,matrix, the system is completely
controllable.  According A4 Dto 22 + A4
the state matrix D12 + of
(1 +the A4 gear-shifting
) D11  system, the optimal quadratic algorithm
187.8 ( D D - D D ) + A ( D D - D D ) T f 
 21 12 22 11 4 12 21 11 22

 258D22 D12 
V = − − Tf 
 D12 D21 - D11 D22 D12 D21 - D11D22 
 0 
World
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ElectricVehicle
VehicleJournal 2019,10,
Journal2019, 10,5353 10
11 of
of16
17

World For
Electric Vehicle Journalthe
improving 2019,shift
10, 53 quality, the optimal controller is designed based on quadratic 11 of 17
is applied to solve the trajectory of angular velocity for the BLDC motor. Since there is limited shifting
optimization in this section for the down shifting process. As mentioned, there are three stages of
time andForcomputational
improving thecapabilities, the trajectory
shift quality, the optimalcan be controller
fitted in different conditions, which
on are saved
shifting, and the linear-quadratic optimization is applied for isthe
designed
B1 based
off-going stage quadratic
and B2
into the controller. Thesection
optimization
on-coming stage. The optimal
in this optimalfortrajectory
the down
control can
rate be found
shifting
of rapidly
process.
the brakes isAs for real-time control.
mentioned,
calculated there
by the are threealgorithm,
quadratic stages of
For improving
shifting, and the the shift quality, theoptimization
linear-quadratic optimal controller is designed
is applied for thebasedB1onoff-going
quadraticstage
optimization
and B2
where VP(t ) is the feedback matrix and the gain of the controller.
inon-coming
this section for the down shifting process. As mentioned, there are three
stage. The optimal control rate of the brakes is calculated by the quadratic algorithm, stages of shifting,
and
wherethe VP (t ) is the feedback
linear-quadratic optimization is applied for the B1 off-going , stage and B2 on-coming
matrix and the gain of the p controller.
p p33
stage. The optimal control rateof VPthe = −[v1 v2isv3calculated
(t ) brakes ] = −[ 13 by 23 ]
the quadratic algorithm, where VP(t)
 r r r , (19)
is the feedback matrix and the gain
W  of the controller. p13 p23 p33
VP((tt))==−−[[wv1]v=2 vw3 ] = −[ ]
(  rp13 pr23 p33r (19)
VP(t) = −[v1 v2 v3 ] = −[ r r ] ,
where, pij is the elements of W W (t ) P= and
matrix −[ w] = w r (19)
(t) = −[w] =rw is the parameter of matrix R . Therefore, the control
as u = of−matrix +Pvand −r v3is
where, piju isisthe 1 + parameter
variable given v1wPr1and w . Following the main. steps in Figure 6, the
elements
where, Pij is the elements of matrix 2rwism the
Tbthe
parameter
of matrix
R Therefore,
of matrix R. Therefore,
the control
the control variable
uoptimal
is giventrajectory
variable u = −vof 1state
as isu given as
wr1 +variable
v2 wm −could
v3 Tb1 be
+ w. obtained
u = −v1wr1 + v2 wm − v3Tb1 + w based
Following on main
the Riccati
. Following
the the matrix.
main
steps steps in
in Figure 6, Figure 6, the
the optimal
trajectory of state variable could be obtained based on the Riccati matrix.
optimal trajectory of state variable could be obtained based on the Riccati matrix.

Figure 6. Block diagram of an optimal controller for torque.

According to the Figure Figure6.6.Block

optimal Blockdiagram
controldiagram ofan
of
algorithm,anoptimal
optimal controller
controller
the controller fortorque.
for torque.
diagram of electronic actuators is
shown in Figure 6. Because the shifting process lasts only for a short time, it is impossible to solve
According
According toto
thetheoptimal
optimalcontrol algorithm,
control the controller
algorithm, diagram
the controller of electronic
diagram actuators
of electronic is shownis
actuators
the optimal trajectory by optimal quadratic control for the BLDC motor in that process. We
inshown
Figurein6.Figure
Because 6. the shifting
Because theprocess
shiftinglasts only for
process lastsa short
only time,
for a it is impossible
short time, it istoimpossible
solve the optimal
to solve
calculated the parameters VP(t ) and W (t ) in different shifting conditions, then they were fitted
trajectory
the optimal by optimal quadratic
trajectory control for
by optimal the BLDC
quadratic motor in
control forthat
theprocess.
BLDC We calculated
motor in that theprocess.
parametersWe
VPcalculated the parameters VP(t ) and W (t ) in different shifting conditions, then they were fitted
by (at )polynomial
and W ( t ) in function.
different Those
shifting fit coefficients
conditions, thenare saved
they werein the
fittedcontrol
by a unit, which
polynomial is used
function. to fit
Those the
fit
control policy
coefficients duringinreal-time
are saved the controlcontrol.
unit, which is used to fit the control policy during real-time control.
by a polynomial function. Those fit coefficients are saved in the control unit, which is used to fit the
control
5.5. policyResults
Simulation
Simulation during real-time
Results and control.
andDiscussions
Discussions
The
The dynamic
dynamic model
model ofof EVs
EVs included
included the
the power
power system
system module,
module, two-speed
two-speed transmission,
transmission,
5. Simulation Results and Discussions
vehicle
vehicle system,
system, and
anddriver-environment
driver-environmentmodule,
module,which
whichwere
werebuilt
builtininAMESim.
AMESim. The
Thesimulation
simulation
model The
of dynamic
EVs is model
shown in of
Figure
model of EVs is shown in Figure 7.EVs
7. included the power system module, two-speed transmission,
vehicle system, and driver-environment module, which were built in AMESim. The simulation
model of EVs is shown in Figure 7.

Figure7.7.Simulation
Figure Simulationmodel
modelininAMESim.
AMESim.

Figure 7. Simulation model in AMESim.

World Electric
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2019, 53 53 1112
of of
16 17

With NEDC (new European driving cycle) drive cycle, the input of the model was the desired
With NEDC (new European driving cycle) drive cycle, the input of the model was the desired
velocity of the vehicle, and the difference between the desired value and actual velocity exported the
velocity of the vehicle, and the difference between the desired value and actual velocity exported
signals of acceleration and brake to the drive-environment module. In addition, the vector control
the signals of acceleration and brake to the drive-environment module. In addition, the vector control
method was applied to the driving motor by the PI control for angular velocity and torque. The
method was applied to the driving motor by the PI control for angular velocity and torque. The states
states of the driving motor followed the desired torque and angular velocity by adjusting the current
of the driving motor followed the desired torque and angular velocity by adjusting the current when
when the desired torque and actual torque were compared. The shifting controller of the BLDC
the desired torque and actual torque were compared. The shifting controller of the BLDC motor
motor was similar to the driving motor controller, and the PI control was used to track the objective
was similar to the driving motor controller, and the PI control was used to track the objective curve
curve for gear-shifting. Actual values of the powertrain system parameters are given in the
for gear-shifting. Actual values of the powertrain system parameters are given in the Nomenclature.
Nomenclature. During the NEDC drive cycle, the simulation results showed that the velocity of the
During the NEDC drive cycle, the simulation results showed that the velocity of the vehicle followed
vehicle followed the desired value, which consisted of three times upshifts and downshifts.
the desired value, which consisted of three times upshifts and downshifts.
5.1. Simulation Results Following NEDC Drive Cycle
5.1. Simulation Results Following NEDC Drive Cycle
Based on the simulation result with the NEDC drive cycle, we chose the first downshift, which
Based on the simulation result with the NEDC drive cycle, we chose the first downshift, which is
is shown in Figure 8 by an arrow. Two control policies were applied during downshift, and one is
shown in Figure 8 by an arrow. Two control policies were applied during downshift, and one is named
named the original control, which used the BLDC motor speed fitted by the 3-4-5 polynomial
the original control, which used the BLDC motor speed fitted by the 3-4-5 polynomial mentioned
mentioned in Section 4.2 during shifting. The other is the optimal control, which used the BLDC
in Section 4.2 during shifting. The other is the optimal control, which used the BLDC motor speed
motor speed calculated by the optimal quadratic algorithm during the sliding stages and the shifting
calculated by the optimal quadratic algorithm during the sliding stages and the shifting speed fitted
speed fitted by the 3-4-5 polynomial during the gap stage.
by the 3-4-5 polynomial during the gap stage.

50 desired speed
actual speed
40 current gear
vehicle speed/(km/h)

current gear
30

20

10

0 1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
time/s

Figure 8. Curves of gear number and angular velocity in the new European driving cycle (NEDC)
Figure 8. Curves of gear number and angular velocity in the new European driving cycle (NEDC)
driving cycle.
driving cycle.
The BLDC motor speed follows the curve shown in Figure 4b, which is called the original control.
The BLDC motor speed follows the curve shown in Figure 4b, which is called the original
The angular velocity followed the desired velocity based on the optimal quadratic algorithm when
control. The angular velocity followed the desired velocity based on the optimal quadratic algorithm
the simulation results of the original control and optimal control were compared. The controller
when the simulation results of the original control and optimal control were compared. The
of the BLDC motor had a swift response for tracking drive cycle. During the first down-shifting,
controller of the BLDC motor had a swift response for tracking drive cycle. During the first
the maximum jerk with the optimal controller reduced by 35%. As can be seen from Figure 8, the indexes
down-shifting, the maximum jerk with the optimal controller reduced by 35%. As can be seen from
of shifting quality have degraded gracefully, which led to acquiring a smooth and swift shift by tracking
Figure 8, the indexes of shifting quality have degraded gracefully, which led to acquiring a smooth
the desired trajectory.
and swift shift by tracking the desired trajectory.
5.2. Verification for Optimal Control Trajectory
5.2. Verification for Optimal Control Trajectory
According to the optimal angular velocity of the BLDC motor, the testbed of the actuator
According
for shifting in our to
labthe optimalinangular
is shown Figure 9.velocity of theshaft
The output BLDC motor,
of the BLDCthemotor
testbed of the the
connects actuator
wormfor
shifting
shaft, and in
theour lab is
brakes shownwas
system in Figure 9. The
neglected. In output
the test,shaft of the BLDC
the controller motor
of the BLDCconnects the worm
motor outputs
shaft, and the brakes system was neglected. In the test, the controller of the
optimized angular velocity, which was measured and shown on a computer. To drive the BLDC BLDC motor outputs
optimized
motor, angularwas
the NI-CRIO velocity, which
adopted as thewas measured
main andLabVIEW
controller. shown on a computer.
was applied forTo drive the BLDC
communications
motor, the NI-CRIO was adopted as the main controller. LabVIEW was applied for
between the computer and the NI-CRIO NI9401 boards for data acquisition. The test bench is shown communications
in between
the Figurethe10.
computer and the NI-CRIO NI9401 boards for data acquisition. The test bench is shown
in the Figure 10.
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53 12 of
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(a)

(b)
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Performances
Performances during
Performancesduring down-shifting.
duringdown-shifting. (a) (a)
down-shifting.(a) Optimal
Optimal rotary
rotary
Optimal angle
angle
rotary during
during
angle down-shifting;
down-shifting;
during (b)
(b)
down-shifting;
JerkJerk
Jerk
(b) with
with different
different
with controller
controller
different during
during
controller down-shifting.
down-shifting.
during down-shifting.

Figure 10.
Figure
Figure 10. The
10. The response
The response test of
response test of the
the BLDC
BLDC motor.
motor.

The speed regulation of the BLDC motor motor was

was adjusted
adjusted by by the
the PWM
PWM wavewave through
through LabVIEW.
LabVIEW.
The duty
The duty ratio
ratioofofthe
thePWMPWMwave wave had
had a linear
a linear relationship
relationship withwith the angular
the angular velocity
velocity after after
testingtesting
with
with different
different loads loads
for thefor the worm
worm geara with
gear with screwasurface
screw surface
and theandworm thesystem.
worm system.
TrackingTracking the
the optimal
optimal angular of
angular velocity velocity
the BLDC of the BLDC
motor, themotor, themode
velocity velocity
wasmode wasto
adopted adopted to follow
follow the optimal thetrajectory
optimal
trajectory obtained
obtained with with the quadratic
the quadratic algorithm. algorithm. Figure
Figure 11a,b 11a,b represent
represent the measured
the measured result ofresult of the
the actual
actual
rotary rotary angle
angle and theand thebetween
error error between the angle
the actual actualand angle and desired
desired angle. Dueangle.
toDue to the inhibiting
the inhibiting device
device for the actuator,
for the actuator, the errorthediderror did not
not exist exist
at the endatofthe
theend ofThe
test. the maximum
test. The maximum
value of the value
errorofappeared
the error
appeared
at the endat ofthe
the end
gap of the when
stage gap stage when the polynomial
the polynomial was applied, was applied,
and it beganandto it began to
decrease decrease
along with
along with the
the optimal optimal
torque torque
control. control.
Since Since the
the impact often impact
happenedoften in
happened in thestage
the off-going off-going stage and
and on-coming
on-coming stage, the maximum
stage, the maximum error ofvelocity
error of angular angularfailed
velocity failed to influence
to influence the quality.
the shifting shifting quality. The
The testbed
testbed verified
verified the trackthe track
effect witheffect with quadratic
optimal optimal quadratic
control, and control, and the response
the response of BLDC motorof BLDC motor
achieved
achieved the real demands.
the real demands.
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 53 13 of 16
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 53 14 of 17

60
desired angle
50 actual angle

rotary angle/°
40

30

20

10

0
6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8
time/s

(a)
1

0.5
angle error/°

-0.5

-1

-1.5
6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8
time/s

(b)
Figure11.
Figure 11.Test
Testresults
results
of of
thethe rotary
rotary angle
angle of BLDC
of the the BLDC motor.
motor. (a) Rotary
(a) Rotary angle;angle; (b) of
(b) Error Error of angle.
rotary rotary
angle.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
Due to the complex structure of a clutch compared to brakes, a planetary two-speed transmission
was designed
Due to for theEVs, whichstructure
complex was only coupled with compared
of a clutch brakes instead of clutches.
to brakes, The optimal
a planetary control
two-speed
for the shifting was
transmission process of an electronic
designed for EVs,actuator
which with
was aonly
screw surfacewith
coupled was proposed. By using
brakes instead the Lagrange
of clutches. The
method, the dynamics model of the designed planetary two-speed transmission and
optimal control for the shifting process of an electronic actuator with a screw surface was proposed.electronic actuator
model were developed.
By using the Lagrange Then,method,
a three-stage
the optimal
dynamicscontrol algorithm
model of the wasdesigned
developedplanetary
considering different
two-speed
stages
transmission and electronic actuator model were developed. Then, a three-stage optimal control
for gear-shifting. The controllers of the BLDC motor were designed using quadratic optimal control
theory for off-going
algorithm and on-coming
was developed consideringstages, and variation
different calculus
stages for for the angular
gear-shifting. velocity was
The controllers applied
of the BLDC
in the gap stage. The optimal torque trajectories were proposed by using the quadratic
motor were designed using quadratic optimal control theory for off-going and on-coming stages, method considering
the
andexternal
variationdisturbances
calculus for during sliding velocity
the angular friction stages. When in
was applied jerks
theand
gapfriction workoptimal
stage. The of the brakes
torque
were compared, it was concluded that the optimal quadratic control for torque
trajectories were proposed by using the quadratic method considering the external disturbances improved the shifting
quality
duringfor EVs. Based
sliding onstages.
friction the test When
bench of the and
jerks electronic actuator,
friction work experimental
of the brakesresults
were demonstrated
compared, it thatwas
the optimal trajectory could be achieved by the designed controller of the BLDC motor.
concluded that the optimal quadratic control for torque improved the shifting quality for EVs. Based
on the test bench of the electronic actuator, experimental results demonstrated that the optimal
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.Z. and J.T.; methodology, X.Z.; software, X.Z. and J.T.; validation,
trajectory
X.Z. and J.T.;could
formalbeanalysis,
achieved byWriting—Original
X.Z.; the designed controller of the BLDC
draft preparation, X.Z.; motor.
Writing—Review and editing, X.Z.
and J.T.; funding acquisition, X.Z.
Author Contributions:
Funding: This work wasConceptualization, X.Z.byand
financially supported theJ.T.; methodology,
Fundamental X.Z.; Funds
Research software,
for X.Z. and J.T.;
the Central validation,
Universities
X.Z.
of and(Grant
China J.T.; formal analysis, X.Z.; writing—original
No. FRF-TP-18-036A1), draft preparation,
the National Science X.Z.;
Foundation for Youngwriting—review and editing,
Scientists of China (Grant X.Z.
No.
51905031) and the acquisition,
and J.T.; funding National keyX.Z.
research and development program (Grant No. 2018YFC0604402). The APC was
funded by Grant No. FRF-TP-18-036A1.
Funding: This work was financially supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
of China (Grant No. FRF-TP-18-036A1), the National Science Foundation for Young Scientists of China (Grant
No.51905031) and the National key research and development program (Grant No. 2018YFC0604402). The APC
Nomenclature
was funded by Grant No. FRF-TP-18-036A1.
i0 final ratio
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
i2 1st gear ratio
i2 2nd gear ratio
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2019, 10, 53 14 of 16

η1 efficiency of 1st gear

η2 efficiency of 2nd gear
η0 efficiency of reducer
J1 rotational inertia of input shaft (kg m2 )
J2 rotational inertia of output shaft (kg m2 )
JC inertial of brakes (kg m2 )
Jm inertia of BLDC motor shaft (kg m2 )
TCAX maximum friction torque of brake (Nm)
Cds friction coefficient of driving shaft
Kds stiffness of driving shaft (Nm/◦ )
Cs damp coefficient of driving shaft (Nm/(r/min))
M mass of EV (kg)
ρ air density (Kg/m3 )
A area of windward (m2 )
CD coefficient of air resistance
F coefficient of rolling resistance
R radius of wheel (m)
α slope (◦ )
g acceleration of gravity (m/s2 )
J0 inertia of electronic actuator (kg m2 )
J1 inertial of powertrain system (kg m2 )
J2 inertial of wheel (kg m2 )
ψfl flux of driving motor (Wb)
Rs stator resistance (Ω)
Ls inductance of driving motor (H)
Lsd inductance of d axis (H)
Lsq inductance of q axis (H)
Imax maximum effective current (A)
UDC direct voltage (V)
P pole pairs
R0 the radius of external diameter (m)
R1 the radius of inner diameter (m)
N the number of plates
µs the coefficient of kinetic friction
µd the maximum coefficient of static friction

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