The 15th and 16th centuries are called the ‘Age of Discovery’, when explorers sought out,

discovered, and even conquered formerly unknown territories. The Iberian Peninsula, i.e.
modern day Portugal and Spain, was the pioneer of early explorations. The traditional
explanation for the early explorations by the European sea voyagers mentions three factors –
God, Gold and Glory. However, most historians agree that economic motives – trade, land,
fishing, and timber, gold and silver – were the primary reasons for the explorations. Trade was
of primary importance as the Iberian Peninsula lacked arable land, which along with regular
famines, created shortages of cereal crops and other goods.

They became dependent on imported grain and manufactured goods from the Genoese
and North Europeans who subsequently came to monopolize much of the Mediterranean trade.
The lure of profits from the lucrative trade in exotic goods with the East, prompted the
Europeans to find a better way to directly access these items as regional overland trade was risky
and costly. Further, with the rise of the Ottoman Empire this overland trade was stopped.
Moreover, the trade with Asia and with Africa was monopolized by the Italians. Thus, the
Iberian merchants were sidelined within the shrinking Asia-Europe trade. They began to look
for alternative sources of gold, ivory and slaves in the near Atlantic, towards the West coast.

Ceuta was attacked in 1415 and by the early 1420s, Portuguese explorations had begun.
Another incentive was provided by the demands of the salt-fish trade, which encouraged
Portuguese fishermen to venture further info the Atlantic, which also helped in movement
towards America. In this period of the feudal crisis, once feudal income began to decline the
Iberian knights were the first to lose their lands. They then began to look for alternative sources
of land outside Europe. Activities of the Near Atlantic gave them a new avenue of income and
European knights began to occupy small groups of islands with Spain colonizing the Canary
Islands and Portugal occupied the Azores and Madeiras.

The Spanish kings patronized the sheep grazers as they had worked out a profitable trade
in raw wool. Consequently, cultivation was given less importance. Pushed by competition for
both arable and grazing land, a search began for lands outside. The aristocracy was in search of
new lands and new opportunities to extend their power and to excel in military ventures by first
extending the Reconquista and subsequently to develop agrarian interests in the recently
acquired regions. All economic considerations were strengthened by religious fervour and zeal.
At least for a group of Spanish missionaries and the early explorers, the propagation of the faith
was as compelling an objective as gold to the conquistadores or tribute to the encomenderos.

The 15th century voyages of discovery have been described as a continuation of the
Crusades. With the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453, only the Iberian kingdoms were
in a position to ‘defend’ Christianity. Under Isabella of Castile, the last of the ‘Moorish’ states,
Granada, was conquered. The Inquisition was revived with greater force and Jews and Muslims
were eliminated, forced to leave, or convert. This enthusiasm also spread to the New World and
motivated the monarchs not only to seek out an ally against Islam but also to find vast
populations to convert to the Christian faith. As God’s representative on earth, the Pope
provided the moral authority that legitimized European exploration and its subsequent
exploitation of new territory.
 M. Gilmore says that the search for the kingdom of the legendary Prester John in the east
and Atlantis in the West; and the vision of a mythical ‘utopian’ place that existed somewhere
beyond the horizon of the Christian world; created a spirit of curiosity that prepared the
intellectual background for European expansion. He also suggests that in Western Europe, the
government contributed the authority and private individuals the property for the explorations.
The governments of both Spain and Portugal can be credited, to a large extent, for initiating,
encouraging and facilitating exploration. Portugal benefited from a relatively stable monarchy,
which encouraged maritime trade and shipping ventures.

The Crown also gave incentives by implementing tax privileges, and insurance funds to
protect the investments of ship owners and builders. The practice of recruiting members of the
indigenous population as interpreters, allowed Europeans to communicate with indigenous
populations in a peaceful manner to establish trade and gather information. In Spain, the
marriage of Isabella of Castile with Ferdinand of Aragon laid the foundation of a united kingdom
with greater political stability, which placed greater resources at their disposal, enabling them to
embark on a policy of overseas expansion. They subdued the Spanish nobility, maintained a
large army, limited the authority of the towns, disbanded the military orders, brought the
church under royal control, organized the Inquisition to ensure Christian orthodoxy, and
enormously increased the royal revenues.

However, the state remained essentially feudal. Only the feudal desire for more land was
magnified. In 1492, Isabella sponsored an expedition by Christopher Columbus, who discovered
America and signaled the beginning of a new era for imperial Spanish. Initially, explorations
took the form of small-scale ventures, either raids or trade excursions, which were financed by
independent businessman or members of the nobility. Once the financial benefits of overseas
expansion had been proven by these independent expeditions, the Portuguese and Spanish
monarchies began to take a more active interest in exploration and financed their own
expeditions. These crown-sponsored voyages, apart from profit had an additional goal – to
expand their kingdoms’ influence by establishing their presence in new territories.

Thus, exploration evolved from cautious, small-scale operations to a systematic approach

that incorporated royal patronage, substantial capital and long-range planning and political
motives. The Iberians absorbed the Renaissance attitudes of mind – the cult of the individual
and the passion for personal reputation. The Renaissance man desired material goods. This was
vital in the mental make-up of the conquistadores. Thus, the spirit of adventure, individual
ambition and the prospect of fame were other factors behind the daring voyages of the explorers.
The printing press helped in the spread of the knowledge of sailing directions, navigational
manuals and other aids to literate sailors.

In the mid-15th century, innovations in ship design and construction facilitated

explorations, e.g. the invention of the central rudder, instead of the traditional lateral rudders,
made voyages easier. The Portuguese began to develop a new kind of ship, the caravel. It was
more suited for ocean due to its maneuverability, and the ability to stock large quantities of
provisions. The number of crew members required to handle the ship decreased as a result of
improvements in both the durability and strength of ropes and sailcloth, a result of newer
materials. Later a combination of techniques produced caravela redonda which proved
particularly useful because it could carry naval guns.

New navigational and scientific instruments like the magnetic compass, quadrants,
portolan charts, Mercator’s projection and the astrolabes helped determine one’s position with
reference to the Pole Star. The quadrant assisted in determining latitude. This made voyages
easier. Thus, behind the explorations lay a complex mixture of motives and feelings, which
varied across the course of time, ranging from profit, land, a quest for knowledge, spreading
Christianity and intellectual curiosity.