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A Review of Recent Research On Bio-Inspired Structures and Materials For Energy Absorption Applications
A Review of Recent Research On Bio-Inspired Structures and Materials For Energy Absorption Applications
Composites Part B
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesb
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: It is widely known that the availability of lightweight structures with excellent energy absorption capacity is
Bio-inspired structures essential for numerous engineering applications. Inspired by many biological structures in nature, bio-inspired
Biomimetics structures have been proved to exhibit a significant improvement over conventional structures in energy ab
Energy absorption
sorption capacity. Therefore, use of the biomimetic approach for designing novel lightweight structures with
Crashworthiness
Multi-cell tubes
excellent energy absorption capacity has been increasing in engineering fields in recent years. This paper pro
Frusta vides a comprehensive overview of recent advances in the development of bio-inspired structures for energy
Sandwich panels absorption applications. In particular, we describe the unique features and remarkable mechanical properties of
Composites biological structures such as plants and animals, which can be mimicked to design efficient energy absorbers.
Honeycombs Next, we review and discuss the structural designs as well as the energy absorption characteristics of current bio-
Foams inspired structures with different configurations and structures, including multi-cell tubes, frusta, sandwich
Lattices panels, composite plates, honeycombs, foams, building structures and lattices. These materials have been used
Building structures
for bio-inspired structures, including but not limited to metals, polymers, fibre-reinforced composites, concrete
Adaptive manufacturing
and glass. We also discussed the manufacturing techniques of bio-inspired structures based on conventional
3D printing
Impact loading methods, and adaptive manufacturing (3D printing). Finally, contemporary challenges and future directions for
bio-inspired structures are presented. This synopsis provides a useful platform for researchers and engineers to
create novel designs of bio-inspired structures for energy absorption applications.
1. Introduction low density, high strength and high energy absorption capacities that
can inspire the design of novel structures with remarkable energy ab
1.1. Background sorption, as shown in Fig. 1. An example is the pomelo fruit (Citrus
maxima) with a unique spongy mesocarp layer that can dissipate energy
Demand is increasing for lightweight structures with high energy of 80 J from free fall tests without leading to visible outer damage of the
absorption capacity for energy absorption application in an array of peel [18]. Nuts also exhibit excellent impact and puncture resistances
engineering fields such as aerospace, transportation, nuclear reactors, such as Cocos nucifera shell [19] and Macadamia integrifolia shell [20].
and civil engineering. As a consequence, a number of energy absorbers Similarly, the durian shells with the special thorns absorbed impact
with different structures such as columns structures [1–4], sandwich energy well when the durian fruits are dropped and impact on the
structures [5–7], plates [8–10], honeycomb [11–13], and foams [14–17] ground [21]. Lessons in high energy absorption can also be learned from
have been proposed in recent years. Although these cited studies have animals. A beetle forewing can withstand a puncture force up to 23 N,
exhibited significant energy absorption capacity, the structures have not which is much higher than the fighting force of the beetle [22]. Thus, the
yet been optimised. To further improve energy absorption capacity, beetle forewing plays a vital role in protecting the beetle’s hindwing and
scientists and engineers have tried to learn from biological structures thorax during its lifetime, a feature that can be applied to the design of
which, through years of evolution, have optimised their structure to protective structures. Another good example is sheep’s horn, used as the
adapt to various extreme environments. weapons for sheep to compete for territory, hunt for food and gain the
In nature, plants and animals offer many excellent structures with opportunity to mate with the females. During head-on collisions, sheep
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: glu@swin.edu.au (G. Lu).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.107496
Received 10 August 2019; Received in revised form 28 September 2019; Accepted 29 September 2019
Available online 1 October 2019
1359-8368/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N.S. Ha and G. Lu Composites Part B 181 (2020) 107496
Fig. 1. Biological materials can provide inspiration for the design of novel bio-inspired structures with excellent energy absorption capacities.
Fig. 2. (a) Number of publications of bio-inspired structures for energy absorption based on the Scopus database (keywords shown in the Appendix); (b) the
percentage of bio-inspired structures in the energy absorber.
horns can withstand the maximum impact force of 3400 N [23]. Another extraordinary energy absorption capacity and provide inspiration for the
lesson can be learned from cattle horns, which show remarkable design of new energy absorbers. Mimicking bio-inspired structures from
load-bearing and energy absorption capacities [24]. The relationship animals and plants for energy absorption application is a promising
between the structural properties and energy absorption mechanisms of avenue for replacing conventional structures in future.
several mammalian structural materials such as bones, teeth, tusks, and The biomimetic approach was first applied in an energy absorption
horns was detailed by McKittrick et al. [25]. McKittrick and colleagues application in 2000. In recent years, use of the biomimetic approach in
also provided bio-inspired design strategies for creating novel energy energy absorption applications is rapidly increasing, as shown in Fig. 2a.
absorbent composite materials. Marine organisms are also good exam The use of bio-inspired structures for energy absorption applications is
ples for inspiration. For instance, the dactyl of the peacock mantis not as widespread as that of conventional structures because the bionic
shrimp consists of a thick bulk with a herringbone pattern. With this approach is quite new in energy absorption application and is also
architecture, the dactyl can withstand an impact force up to 1500 N limited in fabrication, as shown in Fig. 2b.
without catastrophic breakage [26]. Naleway et al. [27] reviewed the Bio-inspired structures have been employed in a wide range of ap
structural and mechanical properties and protective strategies of marine plications, from the front structures of cars and trains [28,29], to
organisms. Overall, biological materials and structures exhibit building structures [30], wings of aircraft [31] and protective armours
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N.S. Ha and G. Lu Composites Part B 181 (2020) 107496
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N.S. Ha and G. Lu Composites Part B 181 (2020) 107496
EAðdÞ
SEAv ¼ (3)
V
where σa is the stress at εa. The stress and strain are determined from the
Fig. 4. Force-displacement relationship of energy absorbers. The shaded area stress-strain curve that is converted from the force-displacement curve.
under the curve represents the energy absorbed.
2. Bio-inspired thin-wall structures
[32]. Materials that have been used for manufacturing the bio-inspired
structures include aluminium alloys and mild steel [33], polymers [34], 2.1. Bio-inspired circular tubes
fibre-reinforced composite [35], concrete [36] and glass [37].
The objective of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview Circular tubes are considered the most common shape utilised in
of recent advances in the development of bio-inspired structures for energy absorption due to their high strength, high stiffness, inexpen
energy absorption applications. In particular, the structural design and siveness, versatility, ease of manufacture, as well as high energy ab
energy absorption characteristics of current bio-inspired structures with sorption capacity [38–41]. Mimicking the natural structures could lead
different configurations such as multi-cell tubes, frusta, sandwich to design efficient circular structures with improved energy absorption
panels, composite plates, honeycombs, foams, building structures, and capacity. Xin et al. [42] mimicked the discontinuous and interdigitated
the other specific structures are reviewed and discussed. The catego design strategy of nacre structure to improve the SEA of a carbon/epoxy
risation of bio-inspired structures for energy absorption is summarized composite tube, as shown in Fig. 5A. The experimental results showed
in Fig. 3. Furthermore, we detail materials that have been used for bio- that tubes with helical and nacre-mimicking ply cut structures exhibited
inspired structures, including but not limited to metals, polymers, fibre- a smoother load-crushed displacement curve compared to unidirectional
reinforced composites, and concrete. We also discuss the manufacturing continuous tubes. This work demonstrated that in the crushing process,
techniques of bio-inspired structures including machine and adaptive unidirectional composites with a well-designed discontinuity at the ply
manufacturing (3D printing). Finally, the contemporary challenges and level could improve the SEA by over 51% as compared to that of the
future directions of the bio-inspired structures are considered. unidirectional continuous tubes. Inspired by wood structure, Zorzetto
and Ruffoni [43] proposed a novel wood-inspired helix-reinforced cyl
inder. The proposed structures consisted of a main layer containing
1.2. Crashworthiness criteria helicoidal fibres, bordered by inner and outer plies having thinner fi
brils, as shown in Fig. 5B. The experimental and numerical results
In this review, crashworthiness criteria used to evaluate the perfor demonstrated that failure resistance and energy absorption can be
mance of bio-inspired structures are defined based on the force- enhanced by enclosing the main helicoidal layer with a minimum
displacement curve of an energy absorber under crushing force. A amount of thin fibrils oriented perpendicular to the applied load, as
typical force-displacement curve is presented in Fig. 4. observed in wood.
Initial peak crushing force (IPCF): Defined as the peak force at an early It is clear that two bio-inspired circular tubes presented in Fig. 5A
stage in the crushing process of a structure. and B focused on the design of wall structures of the tubes. Therefore,
Energy absorption (EA): Energy absorption is mainly used to evaluate the modifications of the inner structures of the tube are also promising
an energy absorber’s ability to dissipate crushing energy through plastic ways to improve the energy absorption capacity of the circular tubes.
deformation. It can be calculated as follows: The wings of birds, especially bones, were specialised in bending and
Z dmax torsion [44–46], which are good candidates for designing energy ab
EAðdÞ ¼ FðxÞdx (1) sorbers. The experimental and theoretical results revealed that the
presence of reinforcing structures (struts and ridges) found within bird
0
where F(x) is the crushing force as a function of displacement x during wing bones increased the energy absorption capacity of the tube with a
the crushing process, dmax is the effective deformation distance. minimum weight penalty for both bending and torsional loads [47].
Specific energy absorption (SEA): The absorbed energy by a structure
per unit mass given by: 2.2. Bio-inspired multi-cell tubes
SEAðdÞ ¼
EAðdÞ
(2) To improve the energy absorption capacity of circular tubes, multi-
m cell sections have been introduced to the circular tubes [48–50]. To
further improve the energy absorption of multi-cell tubes, many
where m is the mass of the energy absorber. The SEA is often used to
bio-inspired multi-cell structures mimicking different biological struc
compare the energy-absorbing ability of different materials and
tures have been proposed in recent years.
structures.
Specific energy absorption per unit volume (SEAv): The energy absorbed
by a structure per unit volume given by:
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N.S. Ha and G. Lu Composites Part B 181 (2020) 107496
Fig. 5. (A) (a) Hierarchy of abalone structure showing that the nacre is composed of highly discontinuous and interdigitated aragonite platelets (b) Schematic of the
nacre-inspired composite tube. The ply cut regions and fibre orientations are denoted in red and blue. (c) Progressive failure of the bio-inspired tube. (1) pre-
experiment, (2) immediately after the first collapse, (3–4) crushed state during the sustained collapse, (5) post-test view of the crushed end of the specimen
[42]; (B) wood-inspired fibre-reinforced composites consisting of a three-layer cylindrical structure. Reference cylinders feature a main middle layer (S2) with
helicoidal fibres having a winding angle (defined as the direction of the fibres with respect to the cylinder main axis) ranging from 0� to 45� . 3D Polyjet printing
technique was used to fabricate the tubes. The post-failure configurations [43]. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the Web version of this article.)
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Fig. 6. Bamboo-inspired structures. (A) with the bionic element close to the vascular structures [52]; (B) with different bionic elements [54]; (C) with modified
bionic element [55]; (D) with simplified bionic element [33]; (E) novel bionic elements [56].
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N.S. Ha and G. Lu Composites Part B 181 (2020) 107496
Fig. 7. (A) Horsetail [57]; (B) Horsetail-inspired structures under lateral loading [58], (C) Horsetail bio-inspired structures with foam [59]; (D) Horsetail bio-inspired
structures under axial loading [57].
2.2.1. Bamboo on energy absorption capabilities. Three bionic element types were
Bamboo is a lightweight biological composite material with higher designed. From numerical simulations, the authors realised that the
stiffness–mass ratio than some metallic materials such as steel and bio-inspired tube with the bionic element close to the vascular structures
aluminium [51]. In nature, bamboo can withstand extreme loads such as had the best energy absorption performance. However, the shape of that
the bending loading from the wind and axial loading from its weight. bionic element was complex; thus, it would be difficult to analyse its
Consequently, bamboo has a unique design consisting of a tubular col structural characteristics as well as to fabricate its prototype. Therefore,
umn with periodic nodes. These nodes are characterised by an internal the authors suggested that a triangular bionic element was suitable for
diaphragm and an external ridge [51]. The bamboo nodes enhance both use in the bamboo-inspired tube. Most recently, the tube with “X” sha
the bending and compressive strength as well as preventing bamboo ped bionic elements exhibited better energy absorption than that with
from cracking under lateral and compressive loading. The microstruc triangular bionic elements [54] (Fig. 6B).
ture of bamboo shows that its vascular structure is a multi-cell structure In the aforementioned bamboo-inspired tubes, the bionic elements
with a gradient distribution. Therefore, the internal diaphragm, external were uniform. However, the relevant vascular structures were not uni
ridge and multi-cell vascular structures of bamboo are excellent features form, with their size increasing from the outside to the inside of the
for mimicking to design thin-walled structures with high energy ab bamboo. Therefore, Ma et al. [55] designed a bionic structure that
sorption capacity. mimicked the gradient distribution of vascular bundles of bamboo, as
In an effort to design an efficient energy absorber, Zou et al. [52] shown in Fig. 6C. The numerical results showed that the load-bearing
proposed a bio-inspired multi-cell tube (BMT) mimicking the structural capacity of the bionic shell was increased by 124.8%. It is evident that
characteristics of the bamboo. The BMT consisted of four circular tubes the numerical simulation was heavily used to study bamboo-inspired
connected through a series of bionic elements, as shown in Fig. 6A. The tubes.
design of the cross-section of these bionic elements was based on the Experimental studies of bamboo-inspired tubes have received limited
bamboo vascular structures. The gradient distribution of the vascular attention, due to the difficulty of manufacturing the bionic element.
structures in the bamboo was also mimicked for the BMT with 18, 9 and However, Chen et al. [33] simplified the bionic element to a thin wall
4 bionic elements in each layer from the outside to the inside of the BMT and experimentally studied such elements in on three new BMTs
(Fig. 6A). Numerical results indicated that the bionic design improved mimicking the cross-section and nodes of bamboo: bionic tubes of var
the SEA of the tubes in both lateral and axial impact loading. In another iable thickness, bionic tubes with rib, and bionic tubes with a bamboo
study, Feng et al. [53] investigated the effect of the bionic element shape cross-section, as shown in Fig. 6D. Using different designs of the vascular
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Fig. 8. (A) Cattail structures [60]; (B) Cross-beam and bionic box bumper model [28]; (C) Bionic cross-beam and box bumper model [28].
Fig. 9. (A) Bamboo and palm cross-section structures, (B) Multi-cell structures, (C) bio-inspired multi-cell structures [61].
structures, a bionic honeycomb tubular nested structure inspired by conditions such as wind and rain [57]. Therefore, “optimised” structures
bamboo was manufactured by a wire electrical discharge machining of horsetail have provided good stimuli to develop the bio-inspired
technique, as shown in Fig. 6E [56]. All results demonstrated that bio structures for energy absorption. Horsetail bio-inspired multi-cell
mimetic methods could improve energy absorption performance. tubes (HBMTs) were first investigated by Yin et al. [58]. They evaluated
six kinds of HBMTs with different cross-sectional configurations under
2.2.2. Horsetail lateral loading conditions, using a nonlinear finite element method, as
Similar to bamboo structures, the horsetail plant also contains hol shown in Fig. 7B. Compared to circular and square tubes, the HBMTs had
low multi-cell structures (Fig. 7A) that can withstand lateral loading superior crashworthiness in the lateral loading direction. To further
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Fig. 10. (A) Ladybeetle forewing microstructures, (B) Japanese beetle forewing microstructures [63].
improve the crashworthiness of HBMTs, Yin et al. [59] introduced foam 2.2.5. Beetle forewing
to the HBMTs, as shown in Fig. 7C. It can be seen that the HBMTs The trabeculae structure in the beetle forewing is also an excellent
exhibited excellent performance under lateral loading. However, the structure for inspiration, as shown in Fig. 10. By observing the internal
behaviour of HBMTs under the axial loading was not fully understood. structures of the ladybeetle and Japanese beetle forewings, Xiang and
Consequently, Xiao et al. [57] investigated and optimised six HBMTs Du [63] proposed two new BMTs. The new BMTs consisted of honey
proposed by Yin et al. [58] under axial dynamic loading, as shown in combs and circular tubes where the circular tubes were placed at the
Fig. 7D. The results showed that the more cells present in HBMTs, the centre of the honeycombs or on the walls of the honeycombs, as shown
higher the SEA and IPCF of the HBMTs. in Table 1. Based on the study of Xiang and Du, Hao and Du [64]
investigated the energy absorption characteristics of three BMTs with
2.2.3. Cattail different positions of circular tubes on the honeycomb walls, as shown in
Cattail plants are found in streams, lakes, marshes, rivers, and other Table 1. In another study, Xiang et al. [65] mimicked the internal
shallow water areas, as shown in Fig. 8A. The stems and leaves have a structure of the lady beetle forewing to introduce circular tubes in hol
distinct twisted chiral morphology to adapt to their environment. Zhao low cylindrical structures with various polygonal cross-sections. The
et al. [60] found that cattail leaves had evolved multi-cell structures and concept of BMT inspired by the lady beetle forewing is similar to that of
superior mechanical properties against wind loading, as shown in bi-tubular energy absorbers that have been intensely investigated in the
Fig. 8A. Inspired by cattail structures, Xu et al. [28] proposed a bionic literature [66–72]. Comparisons of bi-tubular BMTs with equal mass
bumper with a cross-beam mimicking the internal rib structure of cattail showed that the thickness of the inner wall and the cross-sectional
(Fig. 8C, (b)) and a crash box imitating bamboo structures (Fig. 8B (c)). configurations significantly influenced the energy absorption of the
Simulation results indicated that the bionic design enhanced the SEA of structure. In order to study the effect of the position of the circular tube
the bumper. Moreover, the bionic cross-beam and bionic box of the bi as well as the shape of the cross-section, Zhang et al. [73] synthetically
onic bumper had a significant effect on the crashworthiness of the studied a series of BMTs with quadrilateral, hexagonal and octagonal
structure. The crush deformation and total weight of the bionic sections. Zhang et al. [33] modified the bionic octagonal multi-cell tubes
cross-beam and box were reduced by 33.33% and 44.44%, respectively. proposed by Zhang et al. [73]. Recently, Yu et al. [74] studied the effect
of corrugation on the crushing behaviour of BMT. In another study,
2.2.4. Palm Zhang et al. [75] considered the hierarchical circular tubes (HCTs) by
The stems of palms are characterised as cone-shaped columns with iteratively adding self-similar sub-circles at the junctions of the primary
many nodes [61]. Similar to bamboo, the nodes of the palm enhance ribs, as shown in Table 1.
both the bending and compressive strength [62]. Besides the nodes, the
shape and distribution of vascular bundles of the palm are also inter 2.2.6. Bone and tendon
esting, as shown in Fig. 9A and B. It is clear that the individual bundle is Bones and tendons of both humans and animals are also potential
similar to a tetragon or pentagon cell and the cells are confined to form a candidates for designing energy absorber. Wang et al. [29] proposed a
multi-cell structure. The distribution of vascular bundles in the palm is a bio-inspired crash box mimicking the human tibia, as shown in Fig. 11A.
unique feature that could inspire the design of a bio-inspired energy The crash box consisted of a concave structure shell and an inner core
absorber with remarkable energy absorption capacity. Liu et al. [61] filled with negative Poisson’s ratio structure material. The inner core
investigated the energy absorption of a bio-inspired multi-cell carbon was designed based on the gradient characteristics of the cancellous
fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) and aluminium (Al) square tubes under bone structure of the tibia. Simulation results showed that the proposed
quasi-static axial crushing (Fig. 9C). Stable progressive folding with new crash box had superior energy absorption ability and
inextensional mode was found in Al tubes and progressive end crushing stable collision process to those of the original crash box. In another
in CFRP tubes. The cell number significantly affected the crashworthi study, Tsang and Raza [76] proposed hierarchical tubular tubes inspired
ness characteristics in both CFRP and Al tubes. The SEA of double-cell by the micro-to nano-architecture of tendon and muscle, as shown in
and triple-cell CFRP tubes improved by approximately 17.0% and Fig. 11B. The tubes were constructed by packing smaller tubes into a
2.4%, respectively, compared to that of single-cell tubes. tube of a higher hierarchical level. They revealed that the impact energy
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Table 1
Summary of bio-inspired columns mimicking beetle forewing structures.
Authors Configuration Summary of findings Refs
Xiang and Impact with velocity of 10 m/s and mass of 500 kg [63]
Du The length of the BMTs was 50 mm
The SEA of the BMTs (b) and (c) increased by 9.79%, 35.97% respectively compared with the conventional
structure (a)
Hao and Du Impact with velocity of 10 m/s and mass of 500 kg [64]
Length of the BMTs was 50 mm
The SEA of the BMTs (b), (c) and (d) increased by 90.56%, 68.33% and107.68% respectively compared with
the conventional structure (a)
Xiang et al. Impact with velocity of 10 m/s and mass of 500 kg [65]
Length and circumcircle diameter of columns were 200 mm and of 377 mm, respectively
Absorption characteristics of circular and octangular bio-inspired structures improved
Zhang et al. Length and circumcircle diameter of columns were 240 mm and of 100 mm, respectively. [73]
Impact with the velocity of 10 m/s and mass of 500 kg
The sixth type of bionic multi-cell tube with octagonal section (O-BMT-6) had the best crashing performance
Yu et al. Length and largest width were 20 mm and 30 mm, respectively [74]
Material was EOS stainless steel PH1
Velocity was 10 mm/min
The SEA of the bio-inspired hexagonal structure was 5 times greater than that of corrugated square box
Zhang et al. Impact with velocity of 10 m/s and mass of 600 kg. [75]
The hierarchy improved the crashworthiness of HCT, especially; the 2nd-order HCT exhibited significant
advantages for energy absorption efficiency
absorption capability could be significantly improved when the hierar deformation mode from an expansion-contraction mode to a progressive
chy was introduced, especially for higher orders of hierarchy. mode, while the bulkheads themselves absorbed little energy. It was
For evaluation of the performance and efficiency of the bio-inspired found that the smallest number of bulkheads in a column, while still
structures, the SEA and the increase of SEA of bio-inspired structures maintaining the progressive deformation mode, was the best design for
with respect to conventional structures (CS) are summarized in Fig. 12. achieving the highest SEA. The SEA and the increase in the SEA of the
It is clear that the bamboo-inspired structures (structure-1) and the BNCMC with respect to a square tube are shown in Fig. 13E.
beetle forewing-inspired structure (structure-13) show a significant
increment in SEA compared with the other structures. Therefore these
two structures show promise for designing efficient energy absorbers. 2.4. Bio-inspired corrugated tubes
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Fig. 11. (A) Bone-mimetic crash box [29]; (B) bio-inspired tubular tube mimicking tendon structures [76].
bio-inspired crash pads performed better than or equal to their technical They found that the horizontal groove structures had a smooth defor
counterpart. mation (Fig. 15D) and suggested that the forewing trabeculae possessed
excellent absorptive capacity and provided a direction for designing a
bio-inspired energy absorber for applications such as automobiles (see
2.5. Bio-inspired tapered tube Fig. 15).
In another study, Meng et al. [85] proposed a bio-inspired multi-cell
Frusta and tapered tubes with different cross-sectional shapes such as conical tube mimicking the ox-horn structures, as shown in Fig. 15E.
circular, rectangular and square have been keenly investigated as energy They performed a series of numerical simulations and demonstrated that
absorbers because they have many excellent features compared with the deformation of the bio-inspired tube was asymptotic telescoping
circular tubes. Recently, researchers have shown an interest in bio- deformation. Moreover, the SEA of the bio-inspired tube was around
inspired frusta structures for energy absorption. Li et al. [84] designed 46.2 kJ/kg, which was about 1.3 times and 1.8 times greater than that of
three types of BMT based on the structural characteristics of the the 4-cell conical tube and conical tube, respectively. Most recently,
trabecular tube of the beetle forewing. The proposed bio-inspired inspired by the structure of a from balanus (a genus of barnacle),
energy-absorbing structures used a similar concept of double-section Akbulut [86,87] proposed a bio-inspired conical structure that consisted
bi-tubular tubes that had been comprehensively studied in the litera of an inner conical core structure and an outer shell frusta structure, as
ture [66,67]. However, the bio-inspired structures consisted of a hex shown in Fig. 15F. They reported that the load carried by the
agonal tapered tube and a circular tapered tube as shown in Fig. 15A. balanus-inspired frusta was greater than the arithmetical total of the
The plastic deformation under impact loading of the bio-inspired load carried by the inner core and the outer shell due to the interaction
structure was compared to that of the double circular tube and double effect. Moreover, the energy-absorbing performance of the
frusta tube, as shown in Fig. 15B. It is evident that deformation of the balanus-inspired frusta improved under dynamic loading.
bio-inspired structure was the most stable of the three tube types In a different study, Li et al. [88] imitated the lotus root shape to
(Fig. 15B, b3) and could thus be used as an ideal energy-absorbing design an efficient lotus root-like core for a crash box, as shown in
bumper device [84]. Subsequently, Li and Guo [84] modified the Fig. 15G. The unit cell of the core was composed of two hexagonal frusta.
tapered tubes using horizontal or vertical grooves, as shown in Fig. 15C.
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N.S. Ha and G. Lu Composites Part B 181 (2020) 107496
Fig. 13. Bio-inspired multi-corner tube. (A) non-compact expansion-contraction deformation mode; (B) Bamboo structures; (C) Bamboo-inspired structure; (D)
Progressive deformation mode of bamboo-inspired structure; (E) SEA characteristics [77].
structures. The performance of the proposed titanium core in both the largest increment in the SEA compared with the other structures
compression and shear was superior in strength and equal in stiffness to (Fig. 18B).
honeycomb cores for aerospace applications.
Besides structures from animals, plant structures have also attracted 3.2. Bio-inspired plates
extensive interest in recent years. Haldar et al. [108] designed a
bio-inspired sandwich composite structure composed of CFRP sheets 3.2.1. Bio-inspired helicoidal composite plates
and polymeric foam core mimicking the structure of Palmetto wood, as The helicoidal structure or Bouligand structure was firstly proposed
shown in Fig. 17G. The foam core of the sandwich composites was by Bouligand [112] and found in the cuticle in most crustacean species.
reinforced by pultruded carbon rods mimicking the macrofibre rein The helicoidal structure enhances the stiffness, strength and hardness
forcement of Palmetto wood. Meanwhile, Shi et al. [109] and Sun et al. required to protect the animal and allow movement and predation.
[110] imitated leaf structures to design a sandwich panel with a Therefore, a composite structure with helicoidal lay-up structures might
bio-inspired core, as shown in Fig. 17H. The core was designed by filling improve damage tolerance and mitigate impact forces.
honeycomb into a proper orthogrid. The results revealed that the One of the first studies to shed light on bio-inspired helicoidal lay-up
honeycomb-filled orthogrid core sandwich improved the specific structures was performed by Archipatbut et al. [113]. Based on the
strength and energy absorption ability. Bur et al. [115] mimicked the helical structure of bone, they fabricated a carbon/epoxy composite
hierarchical structures of tree leaves to improve the load-bearing ca plate comprising 40 layers of helicoidal lay-up architecture. In a series of
pacity of a sandwich plate. The optimisation of the sandwich core based experimental setups using tensile, punch and impact testing methods,
on tree leaf structures was reported by Sun et al. [111]. they revealed that the specimen with a helicoidal stacking sequence had
Fig. 18 shows the SEA and percentage increment in the SEA of BSP better penetration resistance and improved energy absorption. Ravi
with respect to CS. It is clear that, among the BSPs, the beetle-inspired et al. [114] investigated the effect of strain rate on the behaviour of
sandwich exhibits the highest volumetric energy absorbed (Fig. 18A). helicoidal composite plates, considering low and high-speed impact
Meanwhile, the BSPs mimicking the structure of Palmetto wood show velocities. As in the preceding results, they found that helicoidal
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Fig. 14. (A) Bio-inspired conical corrugation tube [82]; (B) Crash-pad inspired by the structure of a diatom [83].
Fig. 15. Bio-inspired conical tubes; (A), (B), (C), and (D) [84], (E) Horn-inspired conical tube [85], (F) Balanus-inspired conical structure [87]; (G) Lotus root-like
core and lotus root-filled tube [88].
laminates were significantly superior to standard lay-ups under multi-layered laminated composite, as shown in Fig. 19A. Quasi-static
quasi-static loading conditions. For high-velocity impact, the helicoidal measurements indicated that the bio-inspired laminate exhibited sig
laminate showed a 25% improvement over a standard lay-up when the nificant improvements in mechanical performance compared to com
velocity was in the range 150–200 m/s. Beyond this range, however, the posite structures with a general quasi-isotropic configuration. In later
performance of the helicoidal lay-up was very similar to that of the years, Grunenfelder et al. [35] applied the helicoidal design strategy
standard lay-up. In another study, Chen et al. [115] proposed helicoidal observed in the stomatopod club to design high-performance carbon
structures mimicking the microstructures of beetle and crab with the fibre/epoxy composites, as shown in Fig. 19B. Experimental and
stacking sequence involving a gradual rotation of each lamina in the computational results showed that the bio-inspired helicoidal
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Table 2
Summary of bio-inspired sandwich structures mimicking beetle forewing structures.
Authors Geometry Highlight results Ref.
Chen et al. Circular tubes were placed at the middle of each wall of the BSPs. [99]
(continued on next page)
16
The compressive strength and SEA of the BSPs exceeded those of the honeycomb plate by factors of 2.2 and 3.3
N.S. Ha and G. Lu respectively Composites Part B 181 (2020) 107496
Table 2 (continued )
Authors Geometry Highlight results Ref.
Hao and Poles could absorb impact energy by its deformation. [100]
Du The deformation of the BSP could reduce by 14% when the poles were used
Cai et al. Aluminium honeycomb was used as the core of the BSP. The top and bottom plates of the BSP were formed by [97]
single CFRPs
BSP was superior to single CFRP, with lower peak force, higher energy absorption, and deformation.
provide protection against penetration while preserving flexibility. The scales or osteoderms, which can be described as hard plates of finite size
indentation and bending tests on bio-inspired 3D-printed samples embedded in softer tissues. The hard segments play the protection role
showed that penetration resistance could be amplified by a factor of 40, while the relative motion of these segments provides the flexibility
while flexibility decreased in less than 5 times. Martini and Barthelat required for their locomotion. Chintapalli et al. [152] implemented this
[149] combined laser engraving and a stretch-and-release method to concept in a bio-inspired segmented armour that was fabricated using
fabricate a fish scale-like flexible armour. Compared to a continuous laser engraving. The proposed bio-inspired segmented glass exhibited an
layer of uniform ceramic, the proposed fish-scale like armour is not only increase in puncture resistance of up to 70% compared to a continuous
more flexible, but it is also more resistant to puncture and more damage plate of glass of the same thickness. Miranda et al. [153] developed a
tolerant. The proposed armour was about 10 times more puncture finite element model to analyse the effect of scale geometry and other
resistant than soft elastomers, making it a very attractive alternative to impact parameters on the ballistic protection performance of bio
traditional protective equipment. inspired segmented ceramic armours. It is found that segmentation
Crocodiles have evolved flexible armoured skins in the form of hard drastically reduces the size of the damaged area without significantly
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Fig. 17. (A) Turtle-inspired sandwich structure [101]; (B) bio-inspired double-sine corrugated (DSC) sandwich structure mimicking the peacock mantis shrimp
[102]; (C) structures similar to that proposed in (B) [103]; (D) bio-inspired sandwich structure mimicking woodpecker’s head structure [104]; (E) corrugated
honeycomb mimicking the microstructures of woodpecker’s beak [106]; (F) balanus-inspired sandwich [107]; (G) bio-inspired sandwich structure mimicking
Palmetto wood [108]; (H) leaf-inspired sandwich [109].
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Fig. 19. Bio-inspired composite laminate. (A) Helicoidal structures mimicking beetle elytron and crab [115], (B) Bio-inspired composite laminate [35].
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Table 3
Summary of helicoidal structures.
Authors Layup structures Result highlight Refs
energy (Fig. 22C), but had a relatively long response time and low deformation constitutive relation of the horseshoe microstructure and
stiffness. analyses of equilibrium and deformation compatibility in the periodical
lattices. Hu et al. [169] numerically and experimentally investigated a
4. Bio-inspired cellular structures 2D honeycomb hexagon model and a 2D cuttlefish model. The
bio-inspired graded honeycomb structures mimicking the structural
4.1. Honeycombs characteristics of the hoof [170].
Some researchers have been interested in hierarchical honeycomb
The conventional honeycomb has been widely used in energy ab mimicking grass stems [171–173]. Qiao and Chen [174] analytically
sorption applications [165,166]. In this review, we focus on honey investigated the crushing behaviour of a second-order hierarchical
combs with special geometries that mimic from nature, such as honeycomb where the cell walls consisted of an equilateral triangle
horseshoe honeycomb, hierarchical honeycomb, pomelo and spider honeycomb. Their results showed that the collapsed stress of the hier
honeycomb. Yang et al. [167] introduced a series of novel bio-inspired archical honeycomb was superior to that of hexagonal and triangle
aluminium honeycombs consisting of horseshoe mesostructure to honeycombs. Two years later, Chen et al. [175] experimentally studied
improve energy absorption capacity, as shown in Fig. 23A. The con the hierarchical honeycomb proposed by Qiao and Chen [174] with the
struction of the proposed honeycomb was based on triangular honey fourth-level of the hierarchy. In the different study, Sun et al. [173]
comb, square honeycomb, hexagonal honeycomb and kagome constructed hierarchical structures at the intersection of the honeycomb
honeycomb. The numerical results demonstrated that adding the walls and found that the SEAs of the first and the second-order hierar
horseshoe mesostructure to the regular honeycombs could increase the chies were improved by 81.3% and 185.7%, respectively, when the
plateau force and SEA considerably compared with the traditional honeycombs were subjected to an axial load. Taking further the research
honeycomb structure. Meanwhile, Ma et al. [168] investigated of Sun et al. [173], Fang et al. [176] experimentally and analytically
bio-inspired honeycombs constructed with a horseshoe mesostructure investigated hierarchical honeycombs to understand their energy ab
under lateral loading. They also proposed a theoretical model to predict sorption characteristics, as shown in Fig. 23B. Yin et al. [177] presented
the behaviour of the bio-inspired honeycomb based on a finite a system of bio-inspired hierarchical honeycomb structures based on
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Fig. 20. Bio-inspired composite plate; (A) nacre-inspired plate [124]; (B) nacre-inspired plate [125]; (C) nacre-inspired plate [128]; (D) nacre-inspired plate [130];
(E) nacre-inspired plate [131]; (F) nacre-inspired plate [134]; (G) conch shell-inspired plate [135]; (H) staggered composite plates [138].
hexagonal, Kagome, and triangular tessellations. Their numerical of pomelo was proposed with improved energy absorption for both axial
simulation results showed that the performance of the triangular hier and lateral loading, as shown in Fig. 23D [181].
archical honeycomb was superior to that of the other two hierarchical The energy absorption of bio-inspired honeycombs was compared
honeycombs, and featuring more than twice the energy absorbed by the with that of cellular materials (aluminium light foam, aluminium Poros
regular honeycomb under similar loading conditions. Chen et al. [178, foam and Cymat foam) and the theoretical upper bound of tubes as
179] analytically studied the in-plane elastic buckling of bio-inspired shown in Fig. 24. It can be seen that the SEAs of the bio-inspired hon
honeycomb materials with hierarchical architecture. Their results indi eycombs are higher than most of the metallic foams, especially when
cated the possibility of tailoring the elastic buckling properties at each compared with Cymat foams at similar plateau stress or Al-Poras foams
hierarchical level, and could thus have interesting applications, such as at similar plateau stress. Moreover, the SEAs are even superior to the
the design multi-scale energy-absorptive honeycomb materials. Besides predicted upper bound of the tube which represents the upper bound of
the hierarchical structures of grass, the hierarchical structures of the SEA of the tubal structures under axial crushing.
spider-webs have also received much interest [180] (Fig. 23C). Most
recently, bio-inspired honeycomb mimicking the hierarchical structures
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Fig. 21. (A) Bio-inspired ceramic-composite panel [142]; (B) Overlapped structure mimicking fish skin [144]; (C) 3D-printed fish scale composite [150]; (D)
3D-printed model of overlapping scales [145]; (E) Multi-material 3D-printed model of hard scales embedded in a soft substrate [143]; (F) 3D-printed models of two
segmented bony plates [151]; (G) Bio-inspired additive manufactured stab-resistant armour [146] (H) Topologically interlocked materials [155]; Bio-inspired glass
structure with the cross-ply architectures [157].
4.2. Foams Fig. 25B and C [183–188]. Fig. 26 shows the comparison of the energy
absorption capacity of tube-reinforced foams with different structures
An and Fan [182] investigated the behaviour of luffa-sponge-like from tests of a wide range of core systems, including corrugated-cores,
hierarchical foam cylindrical structures, as shown in Fig. 25A. They aluminium foam, honeycombs, foldcore designs, as well as truss and
demonstrated that the SEA of the bio-inspired foam was greatly lattices structures. It is evident from Fig. 26 that the reinforced foams
improved compared with that of pure aluminium foam cylinder due to exhibit the highest SEA compared with these other structures.
the interaction between the CFRP tube and the aluminium foam. The Besides tube-reinforced foams, bio-inspired metal foams have also
concept of this bio-inspired foam was similar to the foam reinforced by been studied. Bührig-Polaczek et al. [20] and Seidel et al. [189]
cylindrical tubes that were heavily studied in the literature, as shown in mimicked the structural hierarchies that were important for the
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Fig. 22. Comparison of recent bio-inspired structures. (A) Bio-inspired plates with layer, brick-and-mortar, concentric hexagonal, cross-lamellar, and rotating
plywood microstructures; (B) Deformations of the bio-inspired plates under impact loading; (C) Absorbed energy (Eab) of the bio-inspired plates [164].
mechanical deformation and failure behaviour of the pomelo fruit materials. Li et al. [196] proposed bioinspired foam composites
(Citrus maxima) and macadamia (integrifolia) in the design of mimicking pomelo peel. The foams were prepared by one-step foaming
bio-inspired metal foams, as shown in Fig. 27A. In another study, and a combination of different fabric structures. The results indicated
Nakajima et al. [190] fabricated and measured the mechanical proper that the bio-inspired composites have superior functions due to the
ties of lotus-type porous metals whose the cylindrical pores were aligned reinforcement of nylon fabric as well as high stiffness and energy ab
in one direction, fabricated by unidirectional solidification in a pres sorption of polyurethane-based small-mesh-size spacer fabrics. Inspired
surised gas atmosphere, as shown in Fig. 27B. They indicated that the by bone structures, Yi et al. [197] proposed a density tailoring method
lotus-type porous metals were excellent candidates for use in energy on the foam filler to further improve the energy absorption of the
absorption application. The quasi-static and dynamic behaviour of composite structure, as shown in Fig. 27E. The bio-inspired graded
lotus-type porous metals were studied by Tane et al. [191]. In another foam-filled tubes exhibited up to 24% higher SEA than the equal-weight
study, Li et al. [192,193] investigated the energy absorption of uniform foam-filled tubes in FE simulations.
lotus-type porous coppers in the perpendicular direction at high strain Fig. 28 shows comparisons between bio-inspired metal foams and
rates. The SEA and energy absorption efficiency were calculated to be conventional metal foams (CMFs) in terms of SEA and Ed. It is evident
4–16 kJ/kg and 0.32–0.7, respectively. By mimicking the structure of that the Ed of the pomelo-inspired metal foam is slightly higher than that
the box turtle shell (Terrapene carolina), Rhee et al. [194] fabricated of the CMFs, while the SEA is similar. For the turtle-inspired metal foam,
various aluminium foams for impact resistance application, as shown in the Ed is slightly higher than that of the CMFs under the high strain rate
Fig. 27C. Using another method, Yin et al. [195] proposed nickel-plated condition. The lotus-type porous irons and carbon steels show higher
luffa sponges using electrochemical deposition method, as shown in energy absorption capability compared with that of the CMFs.
Fig. 27D. They indicated that the energy absorption capacity of
nickel-plated luffa sponges was far superior to that in other comparable
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Fig. 23. Bio-inspired honeycomb. (A) Horseshoe honeycomb [167]; (B) Hierarchical honeycomb [176]; (C) Spider-web, (B1) first-order spider-web honeycomb, (B2)
Second-order spider-web honeycomb [180], (D) Pomelo peel-inspired honeycomb [181].
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Fig. 25. (A) Bio-inspired foam mimicking luffa structures [182]; (B) Aluminium tube reinforced foam [184]; (C) Composite tube reinforced foam [185].
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6. Other structures
for the development of bio-inspired materials and structures with high
impact resistance and toughness. Sun et al. [207] studied the impact Besides the aforementioned bio-inspired structures, some special bio-
response of building ceramic composite with a nacre-like structure to inspired structures and materials have been proposed. Mahdi et al. [223]
drop-weight tests, as shown in Fig. 31A. Experimental results indicated introduced the date palm leaf fibre (DPLF) as a possible natural fibre
that this ceramic composite showed significant improvement in impact candidate to fabricate energy absorber for automotive applications, as
resistance compared with the simple layered ceramic composite con shown in Fig. 32A. The experimental results showed that the SEA of the
sisting of nonpartitioned tile layers [207]. The impact resistance of DPLF unidirectional reinforced epoxy composites rectangular tube
multilayer cement-based composites has been studied in recent years under axial loading was 10.3 kJ/kg, demonstrating the proposed tube to
[30,208–212]. It was stated that the multi-layer cement-based com be a good candidate as eco-friendly materials for automotive applica
posites demonstrated better performance against high-velocity impact tion. Arjangpay et al. [224,225] imitated wing veins of a dragonfly to
than that of monoblock cement-based materials. Sun et al. [213] improve the impact resistance of E-glass/epoxy skins, consisting of
reviewed nacre-inspired structures and materials for impact resistance E-glass/epoxy faces bonded to a polyurethane foam core and a cylin
applications in civil engineering and also discussed the possible tough drical shell, as shown in Fig. 32B. The veins of dragonfly and other in
ness designs of cement-based and clay-based composite materials with a sects are specialised for particular types of mechanical loads, such as
layered and staggered structure. The structure proposed in Fig. 31B is bending and torsion [226–235], resulting in a good candidate for
one of the solutions for the resistance of concrete walls to ballistic designing energy absorbers. Using drop impact tests, Arjangpay et al.
impact. [224,225] reported that the E-glass/epoxy skins with bio-inspired veins
Djumas et al. [214] proposed an alternative geometry for hard limited the damage propagation.
building blocks, introducing a topological interlocking mechanism for Presser et al. [236] applied the constructional concepts of sea urchin
osteomorphic brick mimicking nacre microstructure to improve the spines for graded porous alumina ceramic. A high level of porosity
mechanical properties. The bricks had specially engineered geometries (>30 vol%) was identified as the important element for graceful failure
with two curved side surfaces for interlocking purposes. Javan et al. in polycrystalline alumina and graded porosity; thus, layers of higher
[215] conducted drop-weight tests to investigate the mechanical and lower density could significantly improve the impact resistance.
response of new interlocking assembly plates. The brick used in the plate Unlike most fish, the seahorse tail is composed of subdermal bony plates
had a symmetrical geometry with four curved side surfaces that differed arranged in articulating ring-like segments that overlap for controlled
from the brick proposed by Djumas [214], as shown in Fig. 31C. ventral bending and twisting. The bony plates are highly deformable
Experimental results showed that the new interlocking assembly plates materials designed to slide pastone another and buckle when com
with four curved side surfaces of the brick had significantly improved pressed [237]. With this unusual deformation mechanisms, seahorse tail
flexural performance compared with that of monolithic plates in terms played a protective role against predators. Mimicking the seashore tail
of impact energy absorption capacity. Later, Javan et al. [216] proposed structures, Porter et al. [238] fabricated two bio-inspired tail prototypes
a 3D finite element model to validate the experimental results for the to elucidate why the seashore tail is square, as shown in Fig. 33A. Un
impact behaviour of plate-like assemblies made of interlocking concrete derstanding the role of mechanics in these prototypes may help engi
bricks. Djumas et al. [217] applied the idea of the hierarchical structure neers to develop future seahorse-inspired technologies that mimic the
to topologically interlocked assemblies, obtained from measurements armoured functions of the natural appendage for defence applications.
under point loading, undertaken on identical discrete block ensembles Inspired by the chiral nature of double-helical structure of DNA mole
with matching non-planar surfaces. It was demonstrated that imposing a cule, Zheng et al. [239] and Hu et al. [240] designed and fabricated
hierarchical structure added to the load-bearing capacity of topological DNA-inspired double helical metamaterials (DDHMs) for energy ab
interlocking assemblies. A framework for the design process of structural sorption, as shown in Fig. 33B. The quasi-static tests revealed that in
systems based on the notion of topological interlocking and a review of terlinks between two intertwined helices of the DDHMs were decisive to
the concept of topological interlocking can be found in Weizmamn et al. the compression-twisting coupling deformation mode [239] while the
[218], Estrin et al. [219], respectively. low-speed impact tests demonstrated the exellent recoverability and
Besides the interlocking concrete, the functionally graded concrete mitigation capability of the DDHMs [240].
was also received much interests from some researchers. Toader et al.
[36] fabricated functionally graded concrete (FGC) mimicking the
structure of sea urchin spines, using a layer-by-layer technique with
casting and dry spraying procedures, as shown in Fig. 31D. The FGC with
multi-layers of different porosities provided superior deformability
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Fig. 27. Bio-inspired metal foam. (A) Pomelo-inspired metal foam [20], (B) Lotus-inspired metal foam [191], (C) Turtle-inspired aluminium foam [194]; (D)
Nickel-plated luffa sponges [195]; (E) Inspired by the biological mechanism of adaptive remodeling in bone [197].
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Fig. 29. (A) bio-inspired lattice mimicking plant cell structures (a) plant cell structures, (b) tetrahedron structure, (c) pyramid structure, (d) cellulose structure
[198]; (B) Osteoderms of Glyptotherium arizonae and Von Mises stress of bio-inspired structure under impact loading [199]; (C) Nature-mimicking auxetic materials
[200]; (D) Bio-inspired reticulated shell structure mimicking the diving bell of the water spiders [201]; (E) Bio-inspired hierarchical lattices [202].
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Fig. 30. Bio-inspired lattice using coaxially aligned layers concept. A) tilted view of the entire lattice; B) closer view of printed struts; C) cross-sectional view of the
lattice composed of core-interface-shell (C–I–S) struts [scale bar ¼ 1 mm]; D) higher magnification images of struts; E) Optical images of a C–I–S lattice under
different compression tests; F) stress–strain curves for the previously shown C–I–S lattice compared with lattices composed of brittle epoxy, flexible epoxy, and C–S
struts, as shown in (D). G) The interfacial layer stops crack propagation through the strut cores (false-colored blue), causing the shell to fracture into many pieces
[205]. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
are compared to the initial design goals. The Biomimicry Design Spiral nature, the bamboo efficiently undergoes oblique loading. Therefore,
was discussed in Refs. [260,261]. it is recommended that more attention should be directed to inves
As presented above, the Discover step is the most important in the tigating the behaviour of bamboo-inspired tubes under oblique
biomimicry. The biological strategies and mechanisms of biological loading.
structures that support their survival and success should be investigated. In the case of horsetail, it is clear that the multi-cell features of the
Therefore, the demand for a database of biological strategies for horsetail have been mimicked to fabricated the bio-inspired struc
designing bio-inspired structures is imperative. As a result, we devel tures. However, the nodes of horsetail are also unique features that
oped a database for designing bio-inspired structures for energy ab can be imitated for bio-inspired structures. As in bamboo, the nodes
sorption as illustrated in Table 4. This table provides an overview of may contribute to improving energy absorption.
biological structures as well as bio-inspired structures for energy ab Fig. 11B shows tendon and bio-inspired structures with seven packed
sorption. It can be seen that some mechanisms of biological materials circular tubes. Basically, the nested circular tubes that have been
have not yet been investigated for energy absorption. Consequently, proposed in recent years present a simple case of tendon structures
structures designed on the basis of these mechanisms can be considered with two packed circular tubes and the hierarchical level of 1 [41,
as future directions and are presented below: 262–265]. Therefore, investigation of the effect of numbers of cir
cular tubes packed in the tube on the collapse shapes and energy
It was shown in this review that bio-inspired tubes mimicking absorption characteristics could be a very promising topic for future
bamboo structures exhibited excellent energy absorption under axial research.
loading [33]. However, these tubes mimicked only the vascular Another possible research topic concerns the gradient density in the
bundle and node structures of the bamboo. Bulkheads, which is an foam of the lotus stem. Most of the cited lotus-like metal foams in this
effective way to improve the energy absorption of multi-corner tubes review focused on the uniform density of the foam. Recently, the
[77], was not considered. Therefore, the introduction of the bulk gradient graded layer foam has shown significant improvement in
heads into bamboo-inspired tubes may enhance the energy absorp energy absorption. Therefore, inspired derived from the gradient
tion capacity. Moreover, most of the bamboo-inspired tubes in this density of lotus foam may improve the energy absorption of the
review were conducted under axial loading and bending loading. In current foam.
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Fig. 31. Bio-inspired structures for civil engineering; (A) building ceramic composite with a nacre-like structure [207]; (B) bricked-wall structure [213]; (C)
interlocking concrete mimicking nacre structure [215]; (D) FGC mimicking the structure of sea urchin spines [36]; (E) concrete structure with staggered arrangement
of steel wire mesh [221]; (F) Bio-inspired 3D printing concrete [222].
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Fig. 32. (A) DPLF unidirectional reinforced epoxy composites rectangular tube [223]; (B) composite structures mimicking wing veins of dragonfly [224].
McKittrick et al. [25] proposed an interesting bio-inspired structure The graded foam urchin structure was the inspiration for the design
mimicking the structural gradients of antler, tooth, horn, and hoof of graded concrete, as shown in Fig. 31. However, sea urchin struc
for energy absorption applications. The design consisted of a central tures are also a concentrically graded foam tube. Therefore, structure
porous core with an impact-resistant polymer containing tubules mimicking the concentrically graded foam tubes also warrant future
oriented perpendicular to the loading direction. The central core research.
would be made of a material with a higher elastic modulus than the
material chosen for the outer sheath. However, the tubules and It should be noted that more research topics than those recom
matrix materials comprising the outer sheath would have similar mended here could be generated. The authors have proposed directions
properties and excellent adhesion. based mainly on Table 4. Table 4 can provide ideas for creating excellent
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Fig. 33. (A) Seahorse skeletons are composed of highly articulated bony plates and Two tail prototypes of the seahorse [238]; DNA-inspired helical structures and
their deformations during compression tests [239].
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