1.

PRELIMINARY REQUIREMENTS
1.a. Processes Used Today
From R1 report, we selected aluminum and carbon fiber reinforced polymer
material as metal and non-metal, respectively. Therefore, their production
method and processes to fabricate them will be discussed in this part. First, the
metal production will be investigated. Hot extrusion and cold rolling are the two
routes for the aluminum alloy wheel rim production.

In extrusion, generally, cylindrical continuous bars of aluminum, called billet are

extruded into the desired cross section shape of the rim. Now, let us have a look
at the extrusion process in more detail.

Figure 1: Schematic representation of extrusion process of cylindrical

aluminum [1]

The cylindrical aluminum is heated up to 400 – 500°C so that it can be malleable

enough, but not molten, for shaping in extrusion process [2]. Then, it is carried to
extrusion press in which it is pressed into desire shape where a hydraulic ram
applies nearly 15,000 psi pressure as shown in below figure.

Figure 2: The pre-heated billet is presses by hydraulic ram into desired shape
formed by die [3]
The most important factor here is type of the die. There are three types of die
in extrusion process of aluminum, namely solid dies, hollow dies and semi-hollow
dies [1]. The solid dies are used to fabricate solids which has no openings or
voids, like rods and beams. The hollow dies, as name suggest, produce hollow
profiles in which one or more enclosed voids are present, like simple tube. The
semi hollow dies shape the billet into hollow structure but not entirely closed.
The examples of these products manufactured by each die type can be seen
in figure 3.

Figure 3: Pictures showing types of dies used in extrusion of aluminum; solid die, hollow die
and semi-hollow die [1]

As our bicycle wheel rim has a cross sectional view like shown in the figure 4,
the die used in the extrusion process is hollow die because it is profile which has
voids but enclosed.

Figure 4: Examples of bicycle rim profiles [4]

Very long extruded aluminum profiles are obtained after they emerge from the
die openings. They are finally cut into some sections to ship them to the bicycle
rim manufacturer. In this way, the aluminum billets are shaped into desired rim
profiles by extrusion.
The other way for primary shaping process of the rim is cold rolling [5]. It starts
with a sheet of aluminum alloy. The sheet is then processed step by step into
desired cross-sectional shapes of bicycle wheel rim with the help of rolls which
have different orientation and shapes. Some of the processing steps of the cold
rolling of aluminum wheel rim can be seen from figure 5.

(a)

(b)

Figure 5: Production of bicycle wheel rim via cold rolling shaping process. It begins with sheet
metal as shown in a. In b, the sheet metal is shaped step by step until desired cross-sectional
shape is obtained [5].

Now, they are ready for other processes used to fabricate the bike rim. The
long-extruded aluminum profiles or cold rolled rim shape profiles are bend into
circular shape in bending machine as shown in figure 6. At each time, 4
connected rims which are on top of each other are produced. Then, they are
sent into cutting machine so that only one circular shape is left to obtain rim,
shown in figure 7.

Figure 6: The bending of long-extruded aluminum profiles [6]

 Figure 7: The 4-connected rims are separated by cutting machine [6]

Before surface treatments and joining processes, the aluminum is heat treated
which is called age hardening [7] in a furnace. It is a heat treatment process
whose steps are solution treatment, quenching and ageing. According to
temperature and time chosen in these steps, the results can be different for
each process. The figure showing the processes of age hardening is shown in
figure 8. For example, in reference [4], the aluminum alloy is chosen according
to designation T6 in which ageing is done in range of 300 – 400°C. In our R1
report we chose aluminum alloy whose designation T8 showing that it is cold
rolled before artificially aged in the same temperature range with T6 alloy. The
cold worked provides extra dislocations in order to have more initiation sites for
precipitations. Thus, its strength is more increased compared to heat treated
aluminum alloys which has not been cold rolled.

Figure 8: The designations for different ageing processing [7]

After cutting and age hardening, the anodizing of aluminum must be taking
place to create a protective aluminum oxide layer. Also, with anodizing, its
stability at corrosive environment and abrasion is increased [8]. There are usually
five steps of making anodizing [9]. The aluminum alloy product is dipped into
five batches positioned in series way. Representative picture of these batches
is shown in the figure 9. First step is taking place in cleaning batch fills with the
diluted acid solution. The acid solution etches and removes any dust and oil
accumulation on the rim profiles so that the anti-corrosion coating is adhered
on the surface very well. The real time picture of aluminum rims dipped into first
batch is shown in the figure 10.

Figure 9: Schematic pictures of batches used in anodizing of aluminum alloys

[9]

Figure 10: A batch of acid solution etching and removing contaminants on the surface of rim
profiles [6]

Before the bike rims are going into other batches, their joining process is done. It occurs
in two different ways. One is using flash butt welding. In this welding, end parts of the
rim are positioned in contact. Then, high amount of voltage is applied through the
parts to be joined. Due to very high density of current, two end parts of the aluminum
rim are heated enough to join them [10]. While they are joining by the action of electric
current and heat, the flashes come out from the welded region shown in the figure 11.
One of the advantages of this process is to eliminate a foreign material for welding [11].
The joining process is happened using only one material which is the main or mother
material.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 11: The flash – butt welding. The welding procedure can be observed in a and b. The
closer look of the welded regions is shown in c[6]

The other way to achieve joining process is done via polymer material. A piece
which is made from the same material of the rim and has exact shape but
smaller dimension than cross section of the bike rim is coated with uncured
epoxy [12]. Joining piece of epoxy coated aluminum alloy is shown in the figure
12. This piece is fitted and put into the one of the voids at the end of the rim as
shown in figure 13. This type of joining process of the rim is done at Velocity
Wheels ® company. After inserting this epoxy coated piece of aluminum, the
rim is transferred into furnace where the epoxy is cured at enough
temperatures so that strong adhesion between epoxy and rim take place. The
adhesion is so strong because during curing reaction of epoxy, strong covalent
bonds form both in epoxy and area between two surfaces, surface of joining
piece and inner surface of the rim.

Figure 12: The piece coated with uncured epoxy to join the ends of the rim [12]

Figure 13: Fitting and putting epoxy coated piece having the same material as the rim [12]
 After the joining process of the ends of the rims, the anodizing process
continues. In the second batch, satin, matte or bright appearance to the
surface is given shown as representative in figure 14.

Figure 14: Satin, matte and bright appearance of surface shown from left to right [9]

The third step in anodizing is to create oxide layer on top of the surface of the
aluminum. The oxide layer has crystal structure of hexagonal pattern which will
be shown later. The side view of the layer is shown in the figure 15. In this batch
DC current is applied to electrolytic solution by submerged plates in third
batch, which makes aluminum alloy rim as positive electrode, called as anode
whereas the submerged plates denote negative oxygen ions making it
cathode [13]. As positive ions are escaped from the surface void formation like
shown in the figure 15 is formed so that negative oxygen ions could find place
on the surface. If the aluminum alloy is held longer in the batch, the thickness
of anodized layer also increases. As a result, the oxide layer is formed like shown
in the figure.

Figure 15: The tubular side view of oxide layer formed on the aluminum surface in the
anodizing process [8]
The pores in the structure of oxide layer provides the color pigments to
accumulate. In the fourth batch, the solution containing dyes gives the desired
color on the rim. The accumulation of them is shown in the figure 16. The last
batch is tank in which sealing and rinsing of created and colored oxide layer
happens shown in the figure 17. At the end, the oxide layer which has a
hexagonal crystal structure is obtained. The structure is shown in the figure 18.

Figure 16: The coloring dyes are filling the pores of oxide layer [9]

Figure 17: Sealing and rising of oxide layer [9]

Figure 18: The formed hexagonal crystal structure of anodized layer. Note here that sealing of
layer is not shown here for convenience to understand the structure of layer [8]

After anodizing process, the rim is now ready for other stages of building a bike
wheel. These rims shipped to bicycle wheel manufacturer where they drill the
nipple holes, join the rim with the hub using spokes and integrate the tire on the
surface of the rim. If this is the situation, the drilling of the nipple holes could be
considered as secondary process. However, if the rim manufacturer is also the
wheel manufacturer, the nipple holes are opened in the same factory, which
makes the drilling of nipple holes as the primary process done to rim. Drilling
operation is nowadays are done by computer guided machines which can be
programmed so that the number of spoke or nipple holes can vary for desired
product. The drilling process is shown in the figure 19.

Figure 19: The drilling of the nipple holes by computer guided machine [6]
For the carbon fiber cycle rim different kinds of production technique are
used in today. Moreover, there is no certain recipe or method for production.
Generally, its consists of the combining different production stages. There is
some methods which are using production stages of carbon fiber rim.
1-) Hand Lay-up Technique[1,2]
Hand lay-up technique is the oldest method of woven composite
manufacturing. In other words, open molding method for the fabricating
composites. Generally, for the shaping of composites these methods are
useful. Basically, mold of the desired material is prepared and by using some
antiadhesive agent, composite material does not stack on the mold. After
that thin sheet composite is placed top and bottom part of the mold to get
smooth surface. Composite materials are added by layer to layer with this
procedure. Then, according to desired shape composite is cut and some
resins are brushed on the composite uniformly to get reinforcement.
Moreover, hand rollers are used to roll the wet composite to ensure an
enhanced interaction between the reinforcement and the matrix. Also, to
obtain the required thickness and remove the bubbles. In the last steps,
prepared material on the mold which is consists of the layers is exposed
pressure to get one single mat and curing at room temperature. Moreover,
composite is removed from the mold and Hand Lay-up process is finished.
Figure 1 is represented sketch for the hand lay-up method. This technique is
used for every producer. It is vital method.

Figure 20 Representative sketch of the hand lay -up technique [1]

2- Vacuum Bagging [3]

Vacuum bagging is a squeezing method by vacuum that uses atmospheric
pressure to hold the adhesive or resin-coated components of a lamination in
place until the adhesive cures. The main aim of this method is getting
reinforcement and rigid shape of the composites. Vacuum bagging uses
atmospheric pressure as a cover(plastic bag etc) to hold laminate plies
together. The laminate is sealed within an airtight cover. Atmospheric pressure
forces the sides of the envelope and everything within the cover together,
putting equal and even pressure over the surface of the envelope. Figure 2
shows the analogy of the vacuum bagging. This method generally is not
appropriate for the mass production.

Figure 201 Representative sketch of the vacuum bagging[3]

3-) Auto Clave molding [3,4]

Autoclave molding is one of the open molding processes. In this process
material is cured by the vacuum heat and pressure of gas. Material is
wrapped with the bag and this bag is vacuumed. Thus, elimination of air
inclusions and volatile part are done. After that heat and pressure is applied
into mold so, densification and curing of the composite material is made. With
this method, high quality surface and homogeneous materials are obtained.
4-) Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) [5,6]
Resin transfer molding (RTM) is a closed-mold process. For some applications
of the composites this method can be applied with vacuum. Also, production
of the carbon fiber rim many times vacuum is used. Thus, same analogy of
auto clave molding is valid. However, in this method resin is pumped into
cavity and with the heat this. Pumped resin is cured so, high surface quality
and homogeneous material is obtained.

Figure 22 Schematic sketch of the RTM[6]

Generally, hand lay-up process is the fundamental step for the carbon fiber
rim production. Vacuum bag gives reinforcement and certain shape for the
less material or single material production. Auto-clave method and resin
transfer molding two different kinds of methods but their aim is kindly same.
Also, covering the vacuum bagging so, its are appropriate for mass
production. At the carbon fiber bicycle rim production part these steps
shown in real life examples and Resin Transfer Molding stage is
shown.[8,9,10,11,12]

Carbon Fiber Bicycle Rim Production [8,9,10,11,12]

Firstly, the carbon laminate coming in rolls this is something where it's already
a prepreg carbon composite so it's already going to have the resin system
mixed with the carbon itself it's going to come in on sheets of unidirectional
fiber or a weave and then fibers transfer to cutting table. Carbon fibers are
putted upside down and straight on the cutting table. On the cutting table
figure 4, composite materials are cut and getting ready for stacking up on the
mold by the using computers and many producers create their own cutting
technique to get maximum efficiency and different number of fibers are used
to build up cycle rim.

Figure 23 Cutting table [5]

After the cutting stage, various shapes are transferred to lay up stage. In this
stage, dependence of the manufacturer rims can be produced in one piece
or two pieces. Figure 5 shows the two pieces production. In figure 5 half of the
cycle rim is layed up by the workers. In this stage, layers are stacked up by
hand and it is the one of the important stages of the producing cycle rim
since cross section thickness, mass and other physical properties of the rim is
utilized in this stage. In figure 5 mold is elliptical material so cross section of the
rim is eliptical
Figure 24 Lay-up stage of fibers[8]

With the ending of lay-up two halves of rim is prepared and are combined
with the put bladders into rim and air is given to bladder to keep shape
desired. Figure 6 shows the combined two halves of the rim.

Figure 25 Combining stages of two halves[8]

Combined rim is transferred to Resin Transfer Molding stage shown in figure 7.

Figure 26 Resin Transfer Molding machine[8]

By the ending of the RTM void free and certain shape carbon fiber rim is
obtained. Next stage is machining drilling of the spoke holes Figure 8.

Figure 27 Drilling stage to get spoke holes on the rim.[8]

Spokes are assembled into the spokes holes and rim goes to test center. In the
test center, some measurements are done and its are in reference range. Rim
is ready for the service to customer.
1.b. Engineering Drawing
There are three parameters are used to deciding the rim qualifications.
• Rim Size
• Rim Width
• Rim Depth
1) Rim Size[1]
Generally, rim size for the MTB bikes is 27.5 ‘’ (inch). Thus, in this report 27.5
inch is selected.
2) Rim Width[2,4]
Rim width is changing by size of tires. Relations between tyres size and rim
width is shown in table
Table 1: Tire section width vs Inner rim width table

According to this table 35 mm inner rim width is chosen since these

parameters are user dependent but wide inner rim widths are commonly prefer
by the riders. [ Referanslar]
3) Rim Depth[5]
The last rim measurement aside from wheel size is rim depth. This is the height
of the rim measured from the spoke hole to the top of the rim wall. Rim depth
isn’t quite as important in mountain biking as it is in road riding, but there are
slight differences. A shorter rim depth means that the rim will be stiffer, but a
little less aerodynamic. Also, The majority of wheelset manufactures will
typically top out at 30-35mm in depth. In this report, one of the desired property
is stiffness so, rim depth is chosen as 30 mm.

According to these information’s Engineering Drawing which is generated

by using SOLIDWORKS Software is shown in below.
Table 2: Cycle rim properties

Measurements MM
Rim Size 698.5
Outer width 41
Inner width 35
Depth 30
Corner of rim 3

Figure 28: Engineering drawing of cycle rim

1.c. Volume of the Component (m3)

According to table 2 and cross section view of the cycle rim (figure 20)
volume of the material is equal to 0.0012508418 𝑚3 . Calculation is made by
using SOLIDWORKS software.
 Figure 219: Cross section view of the cycle rim

2. DETERMINATION OF THE MOST CRITICAL PROCESS INDICES

2.a. Process Indices for Class Attributes
P1 = Material Class
• Metals: Aluminum 2024 T861
• Polymers- PMC: Epoxy/HS Carbon Fiber, UD laminate, 0°
P2 = Process Characteristics
• Continuous for Aluminum 2024 T861

As one can see from the processes used today part of this report, extrusion
which is a continuous process applicable for aluminum bicycle wheel rim
production since extrusion for aluminum is both cheap and easy. Moreover,
aluminums malleability allows it to be easily machined. Therefore, discrete
processes are not chosen as a process index. It is also decided that prototyping
is not appropriate since bicycle wheel rim is a consumer good.

• Discrete for Epoxy/HS Carbon Fiber, UD laminate, 0°

Continuous production process is not applicable to carbon fiber reinforced

polymers since sheets must be laid up into the mold. Thus, the process is
discrete. It is also decided that prototyping is not appropriate as it is discussed
for aluminum.

P3 = Shape Class
• Prismatic and non-circular for Aluminum 2024 T861
Bicycle wheel rim is symmetric cross-sectionally as one can see from the figure
22. Therefore, it is prismatic. Additionally, it is non-circular.

Figure 30: Cross sectional view of an aluminum bicycle wheel rim [13]

• 3D (Hollow) for Epoxy/HS Carbon Fiber, UD laminate, 0°

Bicycle wheel rim is considered to have a prismatic and non-circular

shape for Aluminum but it can be also considered as a 3D Hollow product since
it has the geometry as one can see from the figure below. However, the
process index P3 is chosen as 3D Hollow because composites can be
fabricated with discrete processes such as molding. Therefore, prismatic and
non-circular shape index which is more suitable for continuous processes such
as extrusion is not applicable for carbon fiber reinforced composite.

Figure 31: Cross sectional view of a carbon fiber bicycle wheel rim [14]

2.b. Process Indices for Physical Attributes

P4 =MASS RANGE

The mass range is calculated by using Equation 1. Volume of the rim is

calculated by using technical drawing, and density ranges of the materials are
taken as ;

For Metals-MMC :  =2.103 - 10.103 kg/m3

Polymers-PMC :  =1.103 – 2.103 kg/m3

m= ρ x V ( Equation 1 )

• Mass range for Al, 2024, T861

m = (2.103 - 10.103 kg/m3 )* 0.0012508418 m3

m= 2.502 – 12.508 kg

• Mass range for Epoxy/HS carbon fiber, UD laminate, 0°

m=( 1.103 – 2.103 kg/m3 ) * 0.0012508418 m3

m= 1.251- 2.501 kg

P5 =TOLERANCE

According to the ISO 5775-2:2015 (E), the tolerance levels differ from
width to height for the general production of bicycle rims.

Tolerance level of the width: ± 1mm.

Tolerance level of the height: ± 0.5 mm.

Tolerance level of bead seat circumference: ± 1.5 mm

For metal: According to the given chart below, (Ashby, 1998) tolerance level
of the part produced by casting is between 0.01 mm to 10 mm in logarithmic
scale. Therefore, the tolerance level dictated in the ISO 5775-2:2015 (E) can be
used for our process. In order to increase the quality of the metal bicycle rim,
the tolerance limit was selected as: ± 0,8 mm

For non-metal: According to the given chart below, tolerance level of the
part produced by polymer moulding is between 0.1 mm to 10 mm in
logarithmic scale. Therefore, the tolerance level dictated in the ISO 5775-2:2015
(E) can be used for our process. In order to increase the quality of the non-
metal bicycle rim, the tolerance limit was selected as: ± 0,8 mm

P6 = RANGE of THICKNESS

Its cross-section through the frame of the bicycle rim is constant but the
thickness of the cross-section varies on the shell. The main reason for this
change in thickness is designed to divert stress and strengthen stress points. This
change in thickness is examined in cross-section. The thickness range for the
mountain bike rim is set at 4.2 to 5.8.

P7=ROUGHNESS

According to a preferred aspect of the present invention, the brake track

has an average Surface roughness of between about 0.5 µm and about 1.5
µm, preferably equal to about 1.0 µm[15]. Also, Throughout the present
description and in the subsequent claims, the phrase "average Surface

Figure 32: A schematic chart for Tolerance vs Surface Roughness

roughness" is used to refer to radial roughness (Ra) as defined in the ISO 4287
standard.
Table 3: Process indices decided for the metal and non-metal materials for the process
selection of a snowboard.

METAL NON-METAL

P1 Aluminum 2024 T861 Epoxy/HS Carbon Fiber,

UD laminate, 0°
P2 Continuous Discrete

P3 Prismatic and non- 3D ( Hallow )

circular
P4 2.502 – 12.508 kg 1.251- 2.501 kg

P5 0.01 -0.8 mm 0.01 -0.8 mm

P6 4.2 - 5.8 mm 4.2 - 5.8 mm

P7 0.5 - 1.5 µm 0.5 - 1.5 µm

3) PROCESS SELECTION CHARTS
The selection charts obtained from CES selector are shown in this part.
Process selection stages and charts for Epoxy/HS carbon fiber, UD laminate, 0°

Stage 1:

Figure33: P1 vs P4 chart for Epoxy/HS carbon fiber, UD laminate, 0°

Stage 2:

Figure 34: P2 vs P5 chart for Epoxy/HS carbon fiber, UD laminate, 0°

Stage 3:

Figure 225: P3 vs P6 chart for Epoxy/HS carbon fiber, UD laminate, 0°

Process selection stages and charts for Aluminum 2024 T861:

Stage 1:

Figure 36: P1 vs P4 chart for Aluminum 2024 T861

Stage 2:

Figure 37: P2 vs P5 chart for Aluminum 2024 T861

Stage 3:

Figure 38: P3 vs P6 chart for Aluminum 2024 T861

The detailed lists of the passing processes from each stage are shown
separately for both metal and non-metal materials in the conceptual and
embodiment design stage.
 a. Conceptual Embodiment Design Stage
In each stage, there were appropriate processes for our selected materials
and constraints. the passing processes from each stage separately are shown
in Table 1 for non-metal material and in Table 3 for metal material. The
processes passing from all stages are shown in Table 2 for non-metal material
and in Table 4 for metal material. The suitability of the processes passing from
all stage is explained in the tables.
For Epoxy/HS carbon fiber, UD laminate, 0°:

Table 1: The shaping processes passing from each stage separately for
non-metal
Stage 1 rim production
Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 2
1 Autoclave molding 3D ceramic-mold prototyping 3D ceramic-mold prototyping 60 Investment casting, automated
2 Automatic tape placement 3D printing 3D printing 61 Investment casting, manual
3 Band saw Abrasive jet machining (AJM) Abrasive jet machining (AJM) 62 Laminated object manufacture
4 BMC molding Abrasive water jet cutting Autoclave molding 63 Laser cutting
5 Broaching Autoclave molding Ballistic particle (obsolete) 64 Laser machining
6 Centrifugal molding Automatic tape placement Centrifugally-aided casting 65 Low pressure die casting
7 Circular saw Ballistic particle (obsolete) Ceramic mold casting 66 Micro-blanking
8 Cold closed die forging Band saw CLA/CLV casting 67 Micromachining
9 Cold heading and upsetting BMC molding CO2/silicate casting 68 Milling
10 Cold isostatic pressing Broaching Cosworth casting 69 Planing/shaping/slotting
11 Cold press molding Centerless grinding Die pressing and sintering 70 Plasma arc cutting (PAC)
12 Compression molding Centrifugal casting Drilling 71 Plaster mold casting
13 Continuous laminating Centrifugal molding Electro-chemical machining (ECM) 72 Polymer casting
14 Die pressing and sintering Centrifugally-aided casting Electro-discharge machining (EDM) 73 Polymer forging
15 Drilling Ceramic mold casting Electroforming (large-scale) 74 Powder injection molding
16 Electrical discharge wire cutting (EDWC) Chemical machining (CM) Electroforming (small-scale) 75 Powder metal forging
17 Filament winding Circular saw Electron beam machining (EBM) 76 Precision glass molding
18 Grinding CLA/CLV casting Evaporative pattern casting, automated 77 Press forming
19 Hand lay-up Cold closed die forging Evaporative pattern casting, manual 78 Punching, perforating, blanking, nibbling
20 Hiping, large-scale Cold heading and upsetting Extrusion blow molding 79 Rammed graphite casting
21 Hiping, tertiary, large-scale Cold isostatic pressing Ferro die casting 80 Reaction injection molding
22 Hot closed die forging Cold press molding Filament winding 81 Reaming
23 Hot open die forging Compression molding Fused deposition 82 Replicast casting
24 Hot pressing Cosworth casting Glass blow molding 83 Repressing
25 Impact extrusion Cropping/guillotine Gravity die casting 84 Resin film infusion
26 Injection molding (thermoplastics) CVD Green sand casting, automated 85 Resin transfer molding
27 Laminated object manufacture Deep drawing Green sand casting, manual 86 Rheocasting
28 Laser cutting Die pressing and sintering Grinding 87 Rotational molding
29 Laser machining Drilling Hand lay-up 88 Selective laser sintering, metals and ceramics
30 Laser powder forming Electrical discharge wire cutting (EDWC) High pressure die casting 89 Selective laser sintering, polymers
31 Milling Electro-chemical machining (ECM) Hiping, tertiary, large-scale 90 Semi-centrifugal casting
32 Polymer casting Electro-discharge machining (EDM) Hiping, tertiary, small-scale 91 Shell casting
33 Powder extrusion Electroforming (large-scale) Injection molding (thermoplastics) 92 Slip casting
34 Powder metal forging Electroforming (micro) Injection molding (thermosets) 93 SMC molding
35 Powder rolling Electroforming (small-scale) Investment casting, automated 94 Solid ground curing (obsolete)
36 Press forming Electromagnetic forming Investment casting, manual 95 Spark sintering
37 Pultrusion Electron beam machining (EBM) Laminated object manufacture 96 Spinning
38 Reaction injection molding Expanded foam molding Laser machining 97 Spray-up
39 Repressing Explosive forming Low pressure die casting 98 Squeeze casting
40 Resin film infusion Extrusion blow molding Plaster mold casting 99 Stamping
41 Resin transfer molding Ferro die casting Powder injection molding 100 Stereolithography
42 Roll forming Fused deposition Rammed graphite casting 101 Superplastic forming
43 Rotational molding Glass blow molding Reaction injection molding 102 Swaging
44 SMC molding Gravity die casting Replicast casting 103 Thermoforming
45 Spark sintering Grinding Resin transfer molding 104 Thermoplastic composite molding
46 Spray deposition Hand lay-up Rheocasting 105 Thixocasting
47 Squeeze casting High pressure die casting Rotational molding 106 Transfer molding
48 Swaging Hiping, large-scale Selective laser sintering, metals and ceramics 107 Turning, boring and parting
49 Thermoforming Hiping, small-scale Selective laser sintering, polymers 108 Ultrasonic machining (USM)
50 Thermoplastic composite molding Hiping, tertiary, large-scale Shell casting 109 Vacuum assisted rtm
51 Transfer molding Hiping, tertiary, small-scale Slip casting 110 Vacuum investment casting
52 Vacuum assisted rtm Hot closed die forging Solid ground curing (obsolete) 111 Vacuum/pressure bag
53 Vacuum/pressure bag Hot open die forging Spray-up 112 Water jet cutting
54 Wire drawing Hot pressing Stereolithography
55 Hot wire cutting Thixocasting
56 Impact extrusion Transfer molding
57 Injection blow molding Turning, boring and parting
58 Injection molding (thermoplastics) Ultrasonic machining (USM)
59 Injection molding (thermosets) Vacuum/pressure bag
Table 2: Shaping processes passing from all stages for non-metal rim production

Primary Processes Comments

1. Autoclave molding It is applicable for carbon fiber rim production
Not suitable because it is applicable for
2. Die pressing and sintering
metals, alloys and ceramic base composites
Not suitable because it is applicable for
3. Drilling metals, alloys ceramics, polymers and polyester
matrix composites
Not suitable because it is applicable for
4. Grinding metals, alloys, polymers, ceramics and polyester
matrix
5. Hand lay-up It is applicable for carbon fiber rim production
Not suitable because it is applicable for
6. Hiping, tertiary, large-scale metals, alloys, ceramics, ceramic base and metal
base composites
Injection molding Not suitable because it is applicable for
7.
(thermoplastics) foams, metals, alloys and polymers
Laminated object Not suitable because it is applicable for
8.
manufacture metals, alloys and polymers
Not suitable because it is applicable for
9. Laser machining
ceramics, metals, alloys and polymers
Not suitable because it is applicable for
10. Reaction injection molding
metals, alloys, polymers and foams
11. Resin transfer molding It is applicable for carbon fiber rim production
Not suitable because it is applicable for
12. Rotational molding polymers, foams and polypropylene matrix
composites
Not suitable because it is applicable for
13. Transfer molding
polymers and polyester matrix composites
14. Vacuum/pressure bag It is applicable for carbon fiber rim production

For Aluminum 2024 T861:

Table 3: Shaping processes passing from each stage for metal rim production
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
1 3D ceramic-mold prototyping Abrasive water jet cutting 3D ceramic-mold prototyping
2 Abrasive jet machining (AJM) Band saw 3D printing
3 Ballistic particle (obsolete) Calendering Abrasive jet machining (AJM)
4 Band saw Ceramic extrusion Ballistic particle (obsolete)
5 Binder printing Circular saw Broaching
6 Broaching Cold shape rolling Centrifugally-aided casting
7 Centerless grinding Continuous laminating Ceramic extrusion
8 Centrifugal casting Hot metal extrusion Ceramic mold casting
9 Centrifugally-aided casting Hot shape rolling Chemical machining (CM)
10 Ceramic mold casting Polymer extrusion CLA/CLV casting
11 Circular saw Powder extrusion CO2/silicate casting
12 CLA/CLV casting Powder rolling Cold closed die forging
13 CO2/silicate casting Pultrusion Cold heading and upsetting
14 Cold closed die forging Roll forming Cold isostatic pressing
15 Cold heading and upsetting Shape drawing Cold shape rolling
16 Cold isostatic pressing Tape casting Continuous laminating
17 Cold shape rolling Water jet cutting Cosworth casting
18 Cosworth casting Wire drawing Die pressing and sintering
19 CVD Drilling
20 Deep drawing Electrical discharge wire cutting (EDWC)
21 Die pressing and sintering Electro-chemical machining (ECM)
22 Drilling Electroforming (large-scale)
23 Electrical discharge wire cutting (EDWC) Electroforming (small-scale)
24 Electro-discharge machining (EDM) Electron beam machining (EBM)
25 Electroforming (large-scale) Evaporative pattern casting, automated
26 Electroforming (micro) Evaporative pattern casting, manual
27 Electroforming (small-scale) Expanded foam molding
28 Electromagnetic forming Ferro die casting
29 Electron beam melting Filament winding
30 Evaporative pattern casting, automated Fused deposition
 48 Impact extrusion 54 Laser cutting
48 Milling 54 Powder rolling
49 Injection molding (thermoplastics) 55 Laser
49 Plaster moldmachining
casting 55 Precision glass molding
50 Injection molding (thermosets) 56 Laser
50 Polymer powder forming
extrusion 56 Pressureless sintering
51 Investment casting, automated 57 Low
51 Powder pressure die casting
extrusion 57 Pultrusion
Stage 1 52 Investment casting, Stage
Stage 1 3
manual 58 Micro-blanking
52 Powder injection molding Stage
Stage 3 1 58 Rammed graphite casting
Stage 3
19 CVD 19 Laminated
53 Drilling
CVD object manufacture 59
19 Micromachining
19 Powder
53 DrillingCVDmetal forging 59
19 Reaction
Drilling injection molding
20 Deep drawing 20 Laser
54 Electrical
Deep cutting
drawingdischarge wire cutting (EDWC) 54 60
20 Milling
20 Powder Deep
Electrical drawingwire cutting (EDWC)
discharge
rolling 60
20 Replicast
Electrical casting
discharge wire cutting (EDWC)
21 Die pressing and sintering 21 Laser
55 Electro-chemical
Die pressing
machining machining (ECM)
and sintering 61
21 Planing/shaping/slotting
Die glass
21 Precision
55 pressing
Electro-chemical and sintering
machining
molding (ECM) 61
21 Repressing
Electro-chemical machining (ECM)
22 Drilling 22 Laser
56 Electroforming
Drilling
powder forming (large-scale) 62
22 Plaster
22 Pressureless
56 Electroforming mold
Drillingsintering casting
(large-scale) 62
22 Resin transfer molding
Electroforming (large-scale)
23 Electrical discharge wire cutting (EDWC) 57
23 Low
Electroforming
Electrical
pressure discharge
die(small-scale)
wire cutting (EDWC) 57
casting 63
23 Powder
Electricalextrusion
23 Pultrusion
Electroforming discharge wire cutting (EDWC) 63
(small-scale) 23 Rheocasting
Electroforming (small-scale)
24 Electro-discharge machining (EDM) 24 Micro-blanking
58 Electron beam machining
Electro-discharge machining(EBM)
(EDM) 64
24 Powder
24 Rammed
58 Electron beam
graphite injection
Electro-discharge
machining
casting molding
machining
(EBM) (EDM) 64
24 Selective laser machining
Electron beam sintering, metals
(EBM) and ceramics
25 Electroforming (large-scale) 25 Micromachining
59 Electroforming
Evaporative (large-scale)
pattern 65
25 Powder
25 Reaction
casting, automated 59 Evaporative metal
Electroforming
pattern
injection forging
(large-scale)
casting,
molding automated 65
25 Selective
Evaporativelaser sintering,
pattern polymers
casting, automated
26 Electroforming (micro) 26 Milling
60 Evaporative
Electroforming pattern
(micro)casting, manual 66
26 Powder
26 Replicast
60 Evaporative rollingcasting,
Electroforming
pattern
casting (micro)manual 66
26 Shape drawing
Evaporative pattern casting, manual
27 Electroforming (small-scale) 27 Planing/shaping/slotting
61 Expanded
Electroforming foam(small-scale)
molding 27 Press
67 Electroforming
27 Repressing
61 Expanded forming
foam molding (small-scale) 27 Shell
67 Expanded foam molding
casting
28 Electromagnetic forming 28 Plaster
62 Electromagnetic
Ferro die
mold casting
castingforming 28 transfer
68
28 Resin
62 Ferro Electromagnetic
Pressureless
die casting molding forming
sintering 28 Solid
68 Ferro ground
die casting
curing (obsolete)
29 Electron beam melting 29 Powder
63 Filament winding
Electronextrusion
beam melting 29 Rammed
69 Electron
29 Rheocasting
63 Filament winding beam
graphite melting
casting 29 Spark
69 Filament winding
sintering
30 Evaporative pattern casting, automated 6430 Powder
Fused deposition
Evaporative pattern
injection casting, automated 64
molding 30 Reaction
70 Evaporative
30 Selective
Fused deposition
laser sintering,patternmolding
injection casting,
metals automated
and 30 Spray
ceramics 70 Fuseddeposition
deposition
31 Evaporative pattern casting, manual 31 Powder
65 Evaporative
Gravity die
metal pattern
forgingcasting, manual
casting 65 31 Replicast
71 Evaporative
31 Selective
Gravity die casting
laser patternpolymers
casting
sintering, casting, manual 31 Stereolithography
71 Gravity die casting
32 Explosive forming 32 Powder
66 Green
Explosivesand
rollingcasting, automated
forming 32 Repressing
72
32 Shape
66 Green Explosive
sand casting,
drawing forming
automated 32 Tape
72 Greencasting
sand casting, automated
33 Ferro die casting 33 Press
67 Green sand
Ferro forming
die casting, manual
casting 33casting
73
33 Shell
67 Green Ferro die casting
Rheocasting
sand casting, manual 33 Thixocasting
73 Green sand casting, manual
34 Gravity die casting 34 Pressureless
68 Gravity die casting
Grinding sintering 68 34ground
34 Solid
Grinding
74 Gravity
Roll die casting
forming
curing (obsolete) 34 Transfer
74 Grinding molding
35 Green sand casting, automated 35 Rammed
69 High
Greenpressure
sand graphite die casting
casting, automated 35pressure
75
35 Spark
69 High Green sand
Selective
sintering die casting,
laser melting
casting automated 35 Ultrasonic
75 High pressure die casting
machining (USM)
36 Green sand casting, manual Green
36 Reaction
70 Hot
Green sand
closed
sand casting,
die
injectionforging
casting, manual
manual
molding 36
70 Hot36
36 Spray
Hot Greendie
closed
closed sand
die
Selective casting,
forging
laser
forging manual
sintering, 36 Hot closed die forging
76 deposition
37 Grinding 37 Replicast
37
71 Grinding
Hot metalcasting
Grinding extrusion 37
71 Hot37
Hot Grinding
37 Stereolithography
metal
metals
metal extrusion
and ceramics
extrusion 37 Hot metal extrusion
38 High pressure die casting 38 Repressing
38
72 Highopen
Hot
High pressure
pressure die casting
die forging
die casting 38
72 Hot38
38 Tape
Hot77 Highdie
open diepressure
forgingdiecasting
Semi-centrifugal
open
casting forging casting 38 Hot open die forging
39 Hiping, large-scale 39 Rheocasting
39
73 Hiping,
Hot large-scale
pressing
Hiping, large-scale 39
73 Hot39 Hiping,drawing
39 Thixocasting
Hot78pressing
Shape
pressing large-scale 39 Hot pressing
40 Hiping, small-scale 40 Roll
40
74 Hiping,
Hot shape
Hiping, small-scale
forming rolling
small-scale 40
74 Hot40
40 Transfer
Hot79 Hiping,
shape
Shell
shape small-scale
rolling
casting
rolling
molding 40 Hot shape rolling
41 Hiping, tertiary, large-scale 41 Selective
41
75 Hiping, extrusion
Impact
Hiping, tertiary,
tertiary, large-scale
large-scale
laser melting 41
75 41 Spark
Impact Hiping,
41 Ultrasonic
Impact
80 extrusion tertiary,(USM)
sintering
extrusion
machining large-scale 41 Impact extrusion
42 Hiping, tertiary, small-scale 42 Selective
42 Hiping, tertiary,
Injection
Hiping, tertiary,
molding small-scale
(thermoplastics)
small-scale
laser sintering, 42 42 Spinning
81 Hiping,
42 Injection
Injection molding
moldingtertiary, small-scale
(thermoplastics)
(thermoplastics) 42 Injection molding (thermoplastics)
76
43 metals
Hot closed
closed die forging 43 Spray
Hotmolding
43 Injection
Injection
82 closed
molding
depositiondie forging
(thermosets) 43 Injection molding (thermosets)
43 Hot closed die forging 43 Injection
Hot and molding
die (thermosets)
forging
ceramics 43 (thermosets)
44 Hot metal extrusion 44 Semi-centrifugal
44
77 Hot metal
metal extrusion
Investment
Hot extrusion
casting, automated
casting 44 44 Squeeze
83 Hot metal
44 Investment
Investment casting,extrusion
casting
casting, automated
automated 44 Investment casting, automated
45 Hot open die forging 45 Shape
45
78 Hot open
open
Investment
Hot diecasting,
die
drawing forgingmanual
forging 45 45 Stamping
84 Hot open
45 Investment
Investment die forging
casting,
casting, manual
manual 45 Investment casting, manual
46 Hot pressing 46 Shell
46
79 Hot pressing
pressing
Laminated
Hot casting object manufacture 46 46 Superplastic
85 Hot pressing
46 Laminated
Laminated object manufacture
object manufacture
forming 46 Laminated object manufacture
47 Hot shape rolling 47 Spark
47
80 Hot shape
Low
Hot shape
pressure
sinteringrolling
die casting
rolling 47 Low
47 Low47pressure
86 Hot shape
pressure
Swaging dierolling
die casting
casting 47 Low pressure die casting
48 Impact extrusion 48 Spinning
48
81 Impact extrusion
Milling
Impact extrusion 48 48 Thixocasting
48 Milling
Milling
87 Impact extrusion 48 Milling
49 Injection molding (thermoplastics) 49 Spray
49
82 Injection
Plaster
Injection mold molding
casting
molding
deposition (thermoplastics)
(thermoplastics) 49 49 Turning,
49 Plaster
Plaster
88 Injection
mold casting
mold molding
casting
boring and(thermoplastics)
parting 49 Plaster mold casting
50 Injection molding (thermosets) 50 Squeeze
50
83 Injectioncasting
Polymer
Injection molding (thermosets)
extrusion
molding (thermosets) 50 50 Ultrasonic
50 Polymer
Polymer
89 Injection
extrusion
extrusion molding (thermosets)
consolidation 50 Polymer extrusion
51 Investment casting, automated 51 Stamping
51
84 Investment
Powder
Investment casting, automated
extrusion
casting, automated 51 51 Vacuum
51 Powder
Powder
90 Investment
extrusion
extrusion casting, automated
investment casting 51 Powder extrusion
52 Investment casting, manual 52 Superplastic
52
85 Investment
Powder
Investment casting,
injection
casting,
forming manual
molding
manual 52 52 Wire
52 Powder
Powder
91 Investment
injection
drawing
injection casting, manual
molding
molding 52 Powder injection molding
53 Laminated object manufacture 53 Swaging
53
86 Laminated
Powder
Laminated metal object manufacture
forging
object manufacture 53 53 Laminated
53 Powder
Powder metal forging
metal object manufacture
forging 53 Powder metal forging
54 Laser cutting 54 Thixocasting
54
87 Laser cutting
Powder
Laser cutting
rolling 54 54 Laser
54 Powder
Powder cutting
rolling
rolling 54 Powder rolling
55 Laser machining 55 Laser machining
55 Turning,
Precision
Laser machiningglass molding 55 55 Laser
Precision machining
glass
55 Precision glass moldingmolding 55 Precision glass molding
88 boring and parting
56 Laser powder forming 56 Ultrasonic
56 Laser powder
powder
Pressureless
Laser forming
sintering
forming 56 56 Laser powder
56 Pressureless
Pressureless sintering
sintering forming 56 Pressureless sintering
89 consolidation
57 Low pressure die casting 57 Vacuum
57 Low pressure
pressure
Pultrusion
Low die casting
die casting 57 Low pressure die casting
57 Pultrusion
57 Pultrusion 57 Pultrusion
90 investment casting
58 Micro-blanking 58 Micro-blanking
58 Wire
Rammed
Micro-blanking graphite casting 58 58
Rammed Micro-blanking
graphite
58 Rammed graphite casting casting 58 Rammed graphite casting
91 drawing
59 Micromachining 59 Reaction
59 Micromachining
Micromachininginjection molding 59 59 Micromachining
59 Reaction
Reaction injection molding
injection molding 59 Reaction injection molding
60 Replicast
Milling casting 60 Milling
60 Replicast
Replicast casting 60 Replicast casting
60 Milling Table 4: Shaping processes 60
61
Milling passing from all stages
Planing/shaping/slotting
60
61 for metal rim production.61 Repressing
Repressing
casting
61 Planing/shaping/slotting
61 Planing/shaping/slotting 61 Repressing
Planing/shaping/slotting 61 Repressing
62 Resin
Plastertransfer
mold casting
casting 62 Plaster
62 Resin
Resin transfermold molding casting 62 Resin transfer molding
62 Plaster mold casting 62 Plaster mold molding 62 transfer molding
63 Powder extrusion PROCESSES
63 Powder
63 Rheocasting extrusion
Powder extrusion
63 Powder extrusion
63 Rheocasting
63 Rheocasting COMMENTS 63 Rheocasting
64 Powder injection molding 64 Powder
64 Selective laserinjection
sintering,molding
metals and ceramics 64 Selective laser sintering, metals and ceramics
64 Powder injection1molding Shape64Drawing
Powder metal forging It is suitable 65 forSelective
production of metal
polymerswheel rim.
Selective laser sintering,
Powder injection moldingmetals and ceramics
64 laser sintering, metals and ceramics
65 65 Powder
Selective lasermetal forging
sintering, 65 Selective laser sintering, polymers
65 Powder metal forging 65 Selective
Powder metal laserforging
sintering, polymers 65 Selective laser sintering, polymers
66 Powder rolling 66 Powder
66 Shape drawingrolling 66 Shape drawing
66 Powder rolling 66 Shape
Powderdrawing
rolling 66 Shape drawing
67 Press forming 67 casting
67 Shell Press forming 67 Shell casting
67 Press forming 2 67 Shell
Press casting
forming 67 Shell casting
68 Pressureless sintering It is not suitable for
68
68 Solid thecuring
Pressureless
ground production
(obsolete) wheel rim68
sintering since obtaining
Solid ground curing (obsolete)
68 Pressureless sintering 68 Solid ground curing
Pressureless sintering (obsolete) 68 Solid ground curing (obsolete)
69 Rammed graphite casting Powder69 Rolling
Rammed
69 Spark
Rammed
graphite
sintering metallic powders
casting
graphite casting 69 Sparkmay
69 69
Spark Rammed
sintering
sintering be hard and take much time. Also, the
graphite casting 69 Spark sintering
70 Reaction injection molding 70 Reaction
70 Spray deposition injection molding 70 Spray deposition
70 Reaction injection molding 70 Spray
Reactiondeposition
injection molding
71 Replicast casting process is not 70 feasible
Spray deposition
71 Replicast
71 Stereolithography economically.
casting 71 Stereolithography
71 Replicast casting 71 Stereolithography
Replicast casting 71 Stereolithography
72 Repressing 3 72 Repressing
72 Tape casting
Repressing It is not suitable
72 Tape
72 Tapefor
72 the production wheel rim72since
Repressing
casting
casting obtaining
Tape casting
73 Rheocasting 73 Rheocasting
73 Thixocasting 73 Thixocasting
73 Rheocasting Powder73 Extrusion
Thixocasting
Rheocasting
74 Roll forming
metallic powders may
73 Thixocasting
74 Rollmolding
74 Transfer
be
forming hard and take much 74 TransferAlso,
time. moldingthe
74 Roll forming 74 Transfer
Roll forming molding 74 Transfer molding
75 Selective laser melting process is not 75 feasible
75 Selective
Ultrasonic economically.
machininglaser melting
(USM) 75 Ultrasonic machining (USM)
75 Selective laser melting 75 Ultrasonic
Selective laser machining
melting (USM) 75 Ultrasonic machining (USM)
Selective laser sintering, Selective laser sintering,
76
4
Selective laser sintering, 76 Selective laser sintering,
76 metals and ceramics
It is suitable for bicycle
76
metals and wheel ceramics rim production since complex
metals and ceramics metals and ceramics
77 Semi-centrifugal casting
Hot metal
77 extrusion
Semi-centrifugal castingshapes can be produced
77 Semi-centrifugal casting
77 Semi-centrifugal with the
casting help of heat. Also, the process
78 Shape drawing 78 Shape drawing
78 Shape drawing 78 Shape drawing
79 Shell casting
can be fast and non-stop.
79 Shell casting
79 Shell casting 79 Shell casting
80 Spark sintering
5 Cold shape rolling
80 Spark sintering
80 Spark sintering
It is suitable for production
80 Spark sinteringof bicycle wheel rim
81 Spinning 81 Spinning
81 Spinning 81 Spinning
82 Spray deposition 82 Spray deposition
82 Spray deposition 82 Spray deposition
83 Squeeze casting 83 Squeeze casting
83 Squeeze casting 83 Squeeze casting
84 Stamping 84 Stamping
84 Stamping 84 Stamping
As can be seen from table 4, only three processes passed thanks to their
85 Superplastic forming 85 Superplastic forming
85 Superplastic forming 85 Superplastic forming
86 Swaging 86 Swaging
86 Swaging 86 Swaging
87 Thixocasting feasibility in economical way and suitability of shapes of cross-sections of rim.
87 Thixocasting
87 Thixocasting
88 Turning, boring and parting
87 Thixocasting
88 Turning, boring and parting
88 Turning, boring and parting 88 Turning, boring and parting
Although powder rolling and powder extrusion are stated as not suitable for
89 Ultrasonic consolidation
89 Ultrasonic consolidation
89 Ultrasonic consolidation
89 Ultrasonic consolidation
90 Vacuum investment casting
90 Vacuum investment casting

91 Wire drawing
production of bicycle wheel rim, their economic attributes are shown as a proof
90 Vacuum investment casting 90 Vacuum investment casting
91 Wire drawing
91 Wire drawing
91 Wire drawing

why they are not selected later in the part b, economic attributes for primary
processes.
 Economic Attributes for Primary Process:
After the elimination of unsuitable processes, economic attributes for primary
processes were discussed by cost analysis of remaining 4 suitable processes
which are Autoclave molding, Hand lay-up, Resin transfer molding and
Vacuum/pressure bag. In Table 5 the process indices for cost analysis of
Epoxy/HS carbon fiber, UD laminet, 0° is shown
𝐶𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (𝑚𝐶𝑚 ) + (𝐶𝐶 /𝑛) + (𝐶𝐿 /𝑛∗ )

𝐶𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ∶ Total cost of the Component (€/part)

𝑚𝐶𝑚 ∶ Material Cost (€/kg)

𝐶𝑐 /𝑛 ∶ Capital Cost (€)

𝐶𝐿 /𝑛∗ : Labor Cost (€/hr)

As it is shown in Table 5, all calculation was done separately for each process.
Firstly, mass of the rim was calculated by multiplying the range of density of
materials by volume of the rim, then average mass was calculated, after that
the mass were multiplied with the cost of the material which was taken from
CES. Secondly, other data for our parameters such as capital cost, batch rate
were taken from CES. Since the data of the labor cost for the determined
process were not given in the CES , the labor cost was calculated by the help
of labor intensity in the CES with considering average salaries of the
employees such as engineers, workers, head chief in Turkey and due to
economic currency the labor cost was converted to €/hr.
All these calculations were done to find total cost of each process and to
examine according to batch size of the process. Cost per part according to
batch sizes of Epoxy/HS carbon fiber, UD laminate, 0° is illustrated in Table 6.
As it is seen in Table 6, the range of batch size and four suitable processes
were indicated respectively. One can examine the below where example of
the total cost according to 1000 batch size for Autoclave molding.
𝐶𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (𝑚𝐶𝑚 ) + (𝐶𝐶 /𝑛) + (𝐶𝐿 /𝑛∗ )
239000 2.96
𝐶𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 66.5042 + + = 318.718 (€/𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡)
1000 0.224
Table 5 : Process Indices for Cost Analysis of Epoxy/HS carbon fiber, UD laminate, 0°

Process Material Mass of M*Cm(€/ Capital Labor Batch

Cost (€/kg) Component(kg part) Cost(€) Cost(€/h Rate(parts/
/part) our) hour)
Autoclave 35,45 1,876 66,5042 239000 2,96 0,224
molding
Hand lay-up 35,45 1,876 66,5042 268 2,96 0,245
Resin 35,45 1,876 66,5042 20700 2,96 2,83
transfer
molding
35,45 1,876 66,5042 239000 2,96 0,224
Vacuum/pre
ssure bag

Table 6 : Costs per Part according to Batch Sizes of Epoxy/HS carbon fiber, UD laminate, 0°

Batch Size 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000

Autoclave 23979,7 2469,71 318,718 103,61 82,1084 79,9574 79,7423

molding
Hand lay-up 105,385 81,2658 78,8538 78,6126 78,5885 78,5861 78,5858

Resing transfer 2137,55 274,550 88,2501 69,6201 67,7571 67,5708 67,552

molding
Vacuum/pressure 23979,7 2469,71 318,718 103,618 82,1084 79,9574 79,7423
bag
Total cost versus batch size chart is shown Figure [xx].

Total Cost (€/part) vs Batch Size (parts)

100000

10000
Total Cost (€/part)

1000

100

10

1
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Autoclave molding- Batch Size (parts)
Vacuum/pressure bag
Hand lay-up

Resing transfer molding

Figure [39]: Total Cost (€/part) vs Batch Size (parts) for Epoxy/HS carbon fiber, UD laminate, 0°
As it seen on the Table 6, Autoclave molding and Vacuum/pressure bag
processes act equally. Hence, the blue line represents both of Autoclave
molding and Vacuum/pressure bag processes. Chart was drawn in
logarithmic scale. One can set batch size at the range of 10000-100000. This
range is set based on mountain bicycle sales in Turkey[xx]. Figure[xx] shows
that, in terms of total cost in the range of 1000-10000 batch size. Thus, three
process come up in the order of suitability for our material Epoxy/HS carbon
finer, UD laminate, 0°.
• Hand lay-up
• Resin transfer molding
• Autoclave molding
• Vacuum/pressure bag
Same calculations were done for Aluminum 2024 T861. Same cost analysis method
was used and it was shown in Table 8 and Table 9. In addition to calculations which
were done for Epoxy/HS carbon fiber, UD laminate, 0 °, since batch rate was given in
terms of length/hour in CES database, length/hour was converted into parts/hour
based on a knowledge from Engineering drawing session. Conversion calculation is
shown below.

Rim size = 698.50 mm = 0.6985 m: Diameter

0.6985
𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑚 = 2𝜋𝑟 = 2𝜋 ( 𝑚) = 2.194 𝑚/𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
2
For instance, the batch size of Cold shape rolling was taken from CES as 0.77499
(m/hr). Therefore;
𝑚 1𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
0.77499 ( ) 𝑥 ( ) = 0.353236 ( )
ℎ𝑟 2.194𝑚 ℎ𝑟
Table 7 : Process Indices for Cost Analysis of Aluminum 2024 T861

Process Material Mass of M*Cm(€/p Capital Labor Batch

Cost Component(kg art) Cost(€) Cost(€/h Rate(parts/
(€/kg) /part) our) hour)
Shape
2,315 7,505 17,374075 26800 2,96 0,0866
drawing
Powder
2,315 7,505 17,374075 379000 2,96 0,024977
rolling
Powder
2,315 7,505 17,374075 535000 2,96 0,003947
extrusion
Hot metal
2,315 7,505 17,374075 535000 2,96 0,102097
extrusion
Cold shape
2,315 7,505 17,374075 535000 2,96 0,353236
rolling
Table 8 : Costs per Part according to Batch Sizes of Aluminum 2024 T861

Batch Size 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000

Shape drawing 2731,5 319,55 78,354 54,234 51,822 51,581 51,556
Powder rolling 38035 3925,8 514,88 173,78 139,67 136,26 135,92
Powder 54267 6117,2 1302,2 820,78 772,63 767,82 767,33
extrusion
Hot metal 53546 5396,3 581,36 99,866 51,716 46,90 46,419
extrusion
Cold shape 53525 5375,7 560,75 79,253 31,103 26,288 25,807
rolling

It is clearly seen from Table 8. There are enormous values in total cost at the
range of 10000-100000 batch size for powder extrusion and powder rolling.
Thus, they were eliminated due to economic reasons. Remain processes
which are Cold shape rolling, Hot metal extrusion, Shape drawing are
compared and shown in Table 8. Hence, in the order of suitability they are
given below and shown in Figure [xx]

Total Cost(€/part) vs Batch Size(parts)

100000

10000
Total Cost(€/part)

1000

100

10

1
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000
Shape drawing Batch Size(parts)
Cold shape rolling
Hot metal extrusion

Figure40: Total Cost (€/part) vs Batch Size (parts) for Aluminum 2024 T861

• Cold shape rolling

• Shape drawing
• Hot metal extrusion
b. Detailed Design Stage
According to all the elimination steps done in stage 3.a and economic
attributes analysis, the shaping processes are shown in the below table. Primary
process is the one we have chosen for the shaping whereas secondary
processes are the ones showing other processes to join and surface treat.
Through the rest of the report, why these two primary processes for Aluminum
2024 T861 and Epoxy/HS carbon fiber, UD laminate, 0° are selected will be
explained.
Table 9: Primary and secondary processes selected for bicycle wheel rim production.

Metal Composite

Cold Shape Rolling Hand Lay Up

Primary Vacuum-Pressure Bag
Autoclave Molding
Secondary ????????? ?????????????????

Primary Shaping Process for Aluminum 2024 T861:

At the end of elimination steps in part 3.a and economic attributes analysis,
there are three processes left to further be eliminated shown below;

• Cold shape rolling

• Shape drawing
• Hot metal extrusion

As our aluminum alloy wheel rim continuously processed, production rate of

each processes is nearly the same in the range of 1000 to 100000 parts per hour.
Therefore, for further elimination, below table showing production rate, tool life,
tooling cost and design guidelines.
Table 30: Comparison of primary shaping processes for Aluminum 2024 T861

Shape Drawing Cold Shape Rolling Hot Metal Extrusion

Production Rate (Units/hr) 100 - 980 32 – 49000 20 – 8200

Tool Life (Units) 450 – 45000 9100 – 456000 100 – 45000

Tooling Cost (EUR) 1700 – 10000 3400 – 16900 847 – 4230

Limited to long shapes Limited to uniform Limited to shapes of

with simple/uniform section and simple constant cross-section.
Design Guidelines
cross-section (square, cross-sectional Cross-section may be
triangular etc.) shapes (square, intricate (depending on
triangular etc.) metal extrudability)

As can be seen in table 10, the production rate of shape drawing is the lowest
one. Thus, it eliminates first. Then, selecting between hot metal extrusion and
cold shape rolling is left. The production rate and tool life of cold shape rolling
is highest among them. Although its tooling cost is the highest, too, this situation
is compensated with its tool life. When it is compared with hot metal extrusion,
its tool life is 10 times larger than that of hot metal extrusion. This means that
tooling cost of the hot metal extrusion should be multiplied by 10 in order to
compare them in the same tool life. In other words, tooling cost it actually is
between 8470 – 42300 EUR. Moreover, as our aluminum heat treatment (aging)
designation is T8, it must be cold rolled before going into aging. Also, heat
treatment procedure takes place just before the anodizing because the rim
profile may so strong that the procedures during rim making may be more
difficult, have higher cost and need more time if the aluminum alloy is put into
furnace for heat treatment before the whole rim making procedure i.e., just
before cold shaping. As it is already stated in the “Process Used Today” part,
the cold rolling gives extra dislocations or increases dislocation density.
Therefore, there are more initiation sites for the precipitations. As their number
is increased, this will give extra strength to our aluminum alloy. Thus, the cold
shape rolling is chosen for the best method to produce bicycle wheel rim made
up of Aluminum 2024 T861. Some companies that use cold shape rolling in
manufacturing of aluminum bicycle wheel rim are listed below,

• Joginder Singh Birdi & Sons (Regd) ®

• Maithel Engineering Works ®
• N. S. Birla Industries (Regd.) ®

Details of this process is explained in the below section using CES program.

Cold Shape Rolling

It is a process which shapes the material by inserting them into series of shaped
(grooved) rolls. The desired material is passed into several rolls to obtain the desired
cross sections for the production. Products that have desired shapes have good
surface finish and tolerance compared to hot rolled shapes. The viability of this
process exists when the used material is ductile at processing temperature. Note that
designation of our aluminum alloy material is T8, which requires cold rolling before
going into heat treatment/aging. Therefore, this process is selected as the best
primary shaping process for Aluminum 2024 T861. The advantages of this process
are summarized as follows. As mentioned, it has the highest production rate and tool
life compared to other candidate processes. It allows the manufacturers to produce
many more bicycle wheel rims in a short time since it can be almost said that this
process is non-stop. As its tool life is very high, tooling price can be compensated.
The schematic representation is shown in the figure below.
 Figure (41): Schematic representation of the cold shape rolling.

Primary Shaping Process for Epoxy/HS carbon fiber, UD laminate,0°

In the economic attributes part, cost analysis and cost per Part according
to batch sizes of the Epoxy/HS carbon fiber, UD laminate, 0° were done for 4
primary shaping processes which are Hand lay-up, Resin transfer molding,
Autoclave molding, Vacuum/pressure bag. The all shaping process of the
material are divided into 3 steps which are hand lay-up, vacuum-pressure
bag and molding. For the molding step, autoclave and resin transfer molding
are appropriate for our material. In order to compare these two molding
processes, the batch sizes can be used. In the table 6, the cost per part
according to batch sizes of resin transfer molding is lower than the autoclave
molding’s. This can be taken as an advantage for producer. However, during
the resin transfer molding process, there can be resin saturation of the fibers
[1]. The saturation undesirably influences the strength of the produced rim.

Carbon fiber rim for mountain bicycles must have higher strength for using
conditions. Also, the resin used in the resin transfer moulding contains styrene
around 48%-68% of its composition [4]. The styrene is hazardous for human
health. There were various symptoms containing headaches, weakness,
depression and a subjective sensation of inebriation [5]. Therefore, autoclave
moulding is the better process for shaping. The decided whole primary
process has three different parts which are firstly hand lay-up, then vacuum-
pressure bag and finally autoclave molding.
In order to start the production, the Epoxy/HS carbon fiber, UD laminate, 0°
materials must be supplied. There are two type of form of material which are
prepreg form and non-prepreg form. The prepreg form is called pre-
impregnated composite fibers. It is both more practical for shaping and
ensures that products come out of a standard quality. For non-prepreg form,
the resin must be used for shaping between the layers. The usage of resin can
be harmful and hazardous for producers. Therefore, It must be supplied as a
form of prepreg fabric. The active manufacturer of the prepregs are listed
below:
• 3Tex
• Cytec Corporation
• Hexcel Composites
• Quantum Composites
• SBHPP
• SGL Carbon Group
• TenCate Advanced Composites USA, Inc.

Part 1: Hand Lay-Up

The process is widely used for carbon composites shaping. The schematic sketch of
the process is shown below:

Figure 42: Schematic figure of the hand lay-up process from CES Selector 2016

Firstly, coating of the mould surface with a gel is applied. Then, the carbon
fiber prepreg is placed layer by layer on the mould. The process can be
supported by a roll. The roll is used to increase the compactness of the
product. Due to using prepreg materials, no need to apply resin with using
brush. Until achieving the proper thickness, this process is being applied. In the
process, some additives can be added to improve the quality of the material
in mechanical and physical property. On the other hand, the mold used in
the hand lay-up process can be made of different materials such as metal,
plaster or GRP. As the understood, the equipment is only roll and mold.
Part 2: Vacuum-pressure Bag
Vacuum-pressure bag is applied after the hand lay-up process. The
schematic sketch of the process is shown below:

Figure 43:Schematic figure of the vacuum-pressure bag process from CES Selector 2016

The process is divided into parts. Firstly, the flexible bag is placed on the
composite material. The outer side of the material is covered with an
adhesive material. Then, the vacuum is applied by a pump, and the flexible
bags reveal the excess amount of the fiber element with applying the
vacuum. The process is to obtain more densified products and higher desired
properties.

Part 3: Autoclave Molding

The autoclave molding is the final applied process for the production. The
schematic sketch of the process is shown below:

Figure 44: Schematic figure of the autoclave molding process

from CES Selector 2016
After the vacuum-pressure bag process, the material is placed into the
autoclave. The pressure of the inside of the autoclave is fixed around 0.55
MPa to again obtain enhancement of densification. The vacuum chamber
gives the advantage to extract the excess solvent which can be harmful if not
removed in this process. In the autoclave, temperature is increased in order
to make the curing faster. The process takes place in a range of 30-60
minutes. In the final stage, the fixed pressure and temperature of the
autoclave is set, and the final product is removed from the autoclave. A
strong and lightweight product emerges.