International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011, 46, 899–920 899

Invited review
The development of fruit-based functional foods targeting the
health and wellness market: a review

Dongxiao Sun-Waterhouse*
The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, Mt Albert Research Centre, Private Bag 92169, Auckland 1020, New Zealand
(Received 17 July 2010; Accepted in revised form 14 October 2010)

Summary Functional foods and their health benefits beyond individual nutrients present challenges to the traditional
‘nutrition’ approach to foods. Epidemiological studies suggest that regular or increased consumption of
fruits may promote general health and well-being as well as reduce the risk of chronic diseases. Therefore, a
broad range of research amongst academic, industry and government institutes has been stimulated in
attempts to add the goodness of fruits into popular consumer foods. This article provides a brief overview of
the research opportunities in the emerging functional foods area, with an emphasis on fruit-derived products.
Based on recent research in the fruit-based functional food area, a structured approach for designing and
developing functional finished products is presented. Included are the technical challenges and their
associated solutions during food design, formulation, processing and storage. A consumer-oriented food
product development process is highlighted. Controlling the interactions among the targeted bioactives and
other food components during food processing, handling and storage is the key to ensure that a stable
and appealing functional food is produced. Manipulating the beneficial synergies among food ingredients,
and among food formulation and processing methods, has the potential to lead to substantial food
innovations.
Keywords Consumer perception, food innovation, fruit bioactive enhanced extracts, fruit materials, health-promoting, sensory issues,
stability.

of public health concerns from ‘nutrient deficiencies’ or

Introduction
The dietary concerns of both today’s ageing population
and people with fast paced lifestyles have moved from
foods that prevent nutritional deficiency and associated
diseases to foods that offer longer-term prevention of
chronic diseases. Countries are currently faced with
health challenges arising from changing population
demographics (e.g. an ageing population) and increases
in lifestyle-related diseases. Consumers are becoming
more aware of the relationships between diet and
disease. Changing views and perceptions about the
effects of dietary compounds can profoundly influence
the consumption of foods.
Foods with therapeutic benefits for human health
have had a long history in different cultures for over
2500 years (Shi et al., 2005a,b). Since the White House
Conference in 1969 on Food, Nutrition and Health
(http://www.nns.nih.gov/1969/conference.htm), the
‘Functional Food’ concept has evolved with the shift
*Correspondent: Fax: +64 9 9258627;
e-mail: dongxiao.sun-waterhouse@plantandfood.co.nz
‘undernutrition’ to ‘overnutrition’ (Grummer-Strawn
et al., 2000; Kennedy, 2003). The term ‘Functional
Foods’ was first introduced in Japan in the mid-1980s as
‘processed foods containing components that provide
specific body functions’, when the Japanese Ministry of
Health & Welfare was hoping to improve the health of
the Japanese ageing population and reduce escalating
health-care costs (Arai, 1996). Globally, ‘Functional
Food’ is not a legal term and there are various ways to
define it. In Japan, the ‘Functional Foods’ are known as
Foods for Specified Health Use (FOSHU), and are
regarded as influencing human body structure and ⁄ or
function by regulating particular human health condi-
tions (Ohama et al., 2006). Health Canada defines a
‘Functional Food’ as ‘similar in appearance to a
conventional food, consumed as part of the usual diet,
with demonstrated physiological benefits, and ⁄ or reduce
the risk of chronic disease beyond basic nutritional
functions’ (Health Canada website: http://hc-sc.gc.ca).
In Korea, ‘Functional Foods’ are referred to supple-
ments to the normal diet with measurable doses (Kim
et al., 2006). In the United States, ‘Functional Foods’

doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2010.02499.x
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900 Fruit-based functional foods D. Sun-Waterhouse
have no such regulatory identity, although in 1999, the
American Dietetic Association termed ‘Functional
Foods’ as ‘foods that are in the forms of whole,
fortified, enriched or enhanced foods that provide
functional advantage and ⁄ or health benefits beyond
basic nutrition, when consumed at an effective level on a
regular basis’ (American Dietetic Association, 1999).
China defined a functional food as ‘a food that is
suitable for consumption by special groups of people,
and has special health functions of regulating human
body functions but is not used for therapeutic purposes’
(Ministry of Heath, 1996). In Europe, there has been no
legal definition for functional foods, and a working
definition of functional food is proposed as ‘a food that
beneficially affects one or more target functions in the
body beyond adequate nutritional effects in a way that is
relevant to either an improved state of health and well-
being and ⁄ or reduction of risk of disease, and it is
consumed as part of a normal food pattern (not a pill, a
capsule or any form of dietary supplement)’ (European
Commission, 2010). Moreover, there are differences
between the Western perspective and the Eastern per-
spective on functional foods (Shi et al., 2005a), although
both cultures have believed in the maxim ‘let food be
your medicine’ for thousands of years, e.g. Chinese
foods with medicinal effects have been documented back
to at least 1000 BC. The distinction between food and
medicine has traditionally been sharper in the western
countries than in the estern world, and the western
people tend to consume more meat products, while the
estern people consume more plant-based foods (Hasler,
1996; Hilliam, 1996; Kojima, 1996; Lee, 2001).
When functional foods are promoted in the market-
place for their promise of public health, claims linking
the consumption of these foods with health outcomes
should be strictly regulated. The approval of functional
foods is a complex process and varies among nations
including FOSHU Japan, US FDA, European Com-
munity and Health Canada, in terms of criteria and
practices. Attempts are being made within the frame-
work of the Codex Alimentarius to establish interna-
tional guidelines for health claims. Issues concerning the
substantiation of health claims include (i) the impor-
tance of human- and product-based studies; (ii) the
concept of scientific consensus; (iii) the authorisation of
claim wording; (iv) the availability of the scientific
evidence to the public (confidentiality) (Kwak & Jukes,
2001).
Products in the functional food sector range from
prepared meals to fortified foods and beverages. Foods
and beverages with added healthy ingredients such as
fibre, Omega-3, antioxidants and probiotics have
entered the traditional dairy and non-dairy food seg-
ments including oil products, baked products, confec-
tionery and drinks. The world market for functional
foods and beverages is highly dynamic. In 2000, the US
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011
International Journal of Food Science and Technology  2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology
functional foods market generated about $17.2 billion
(Anonymous, 2001). The global market size has been
estimated between US$30 and US$60 billion in 2006,
with Japan, the United States and Europe identified as
the biggest markets (Williams et al., 2006). In 2007,
these top three functional food markets were valued at
nearly US$30 billion (Japan US$11.7 billion, US
US$10.5 billion, and Europe US$7.5 billion) (Bech-
Larsen & Scholderer, 2007). It was estimated that China
has generated functional foods with a value of US$4–5
billion each year, which had significantly influenced the
society’s health and economics (Yang, 2008). In 2009,
the market for functional foods continued to grow at a
rate ranging between 8.5% and 20% annually
(PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2009). Although the reported
size of the functional food market depends somewhat on
the definition of functional foods, this market has a net
growth rate between 8% and 14%.
Generally speaking, food innovations are pushed
either directly by consumer demand or by advances in
science and technology. A large body of research has
been conducted which aimed at the identification of the
physiologically active components in foods from all the
edible sources that are believed to reduce the risks of a
variety of health problems (Hasler, 1998). Most recently,
consumer demand for foods with health benefits beyond
simple nutrition is increasing (Marriott, 2000). Further-
more, to be commercially successful, these new foods
ultimately still must meet consumer needs (van Kleef
et al., 2002; Wilkinson et al., 2004).
Physiologically active components with positive
health outcomes in foods may come from plant, animal
or microbial sources. A significant proportion of these
components are derived from plants. Epidemiological
studies suggest that regular or increased consumption of
fruits may reduce the risk of chronic and infectious
diseases (Block et al., 1992; Rimm et al., 1996; Joshi-
pura et al., 2001; Vattem et al., 2005), and these health
benefits are thought to be mainly attributable to the
fruits’ intrinsic antioxidants and dietary fibre content
(Bravo et al., 1994; Middleton et al., 2000; Williamson
et al., 2000; Lee et al., 2003; Pelucchi et al., 2004; Arts &
Hollman, 2005; Seeram et al., 2005; Scott et al., 2008).
Health benefits can be obtained through a balanced diet
(e.g. 5+ fruit and vegetable servings per day) or through
foods containing fruit- and vegetable-derived ingredi-
ents. Growing consumer demand exists for plant-based
functional foods that improve general health and well-
being, and fruits are one of the most popular functional
platforms because of their perceived ‘naturalness’ and
their diverse nutrient composition (Starling, 2005).
Opportunities in health and wellness market
The market for functional foods is steadily growing
because of consumer self-care awareness, ageing
 2011 The Author

demographics and escalating health-care costs (Dycht-
wald, 1999; Katz, 2000; Food Marketing Institute &
Prevention Magazine, 2001; Holub, 2002; Landstrom
et al., 2007). Governments and consumers perceive the
economic potential of functional food products as part
of public health prevention strategies, and it is estimated
that an annual reduction of 20% in health-care expen-
diture is possible through widespread consumption of
functional foods (Holub, 2002). The growing consumer
understanding of the relationship between diet and
disease ⁄ health further stimulates manufacturing oppor-
tunities.
New products possessing health and wellness attri-
butes are being brought to the market faster than ever.
While the opportunity for developing functional foods
exists in all food categories, the development in each
segment is not spread evenly because of consumer
resistance, legislative barriers, ethical variations, cost
effectiveness and technological hurdles. At present,
fortified foods and natural healthy products are the
two major categories. The price differential of functional
foods over comparable conventional foods (30–500%
rise) (Williams et al., 2006) encourages the development
of these value-added and high margin products.
Research around such product development has been
actively pursued, directed towards increasing knowledge
of associations between diet ⁄ dietary constituents and
health benefits, regulatory assurance of functional food
safety and efficacy, and ultimately formulation feasibil-
ity and delivery technologies for the bioactive compo-
nents in finished foods.
Consumer perception
Consumers have a positive image of healthy food,
agreeing that food and nutrition have an impact on
long-term and current health (Landstrom et al., 2007).
Consumers actively seek foodstuffs featured in the
‘naturalness’ and ‘well-being’ categories. Consumers
are increasingly more interested in ‘natural’ rather than
‘synthetic’ medications, preferring the delivery of func-
tional benefits through a food product rather than a pill
(Williams et al., 2004). Good taste is also an important
requirement for a functional food (Williams et al.,
2004). Focus group interviews indicated a perceived
need for foods possessing antidepressant, anti-fatigue
and calming properties. A general willingness exists
amongst consumers to try mood-altering foods,
although safety and efficacy are essential for a continued
use (Williams et al., 2004).
While consumer interests lie in natural, healthy and
nutritious food products, there are challenges to the
translation of consumer interests into real products.
Food formats, ingredient choices, product attributes
and type of claims, as well as consumer experience and
preference, all contribute to the ultimate food choices
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Fruit-based functional foods D. Sun-Waterhouse 901
made. Unfamiliarity, health claim credibility and market
access requirements are the main barriers to the success
of a functional food product (Sabbe et al., 2009). The
most popular functional foods are those that are similar
in appearance to a conventional food and possess
validated physiological benefits beyond basic nutritional
functions (Marriott, 2000; Sabbe et al., 2009). Func-
tional foods in a format that is familiar to the consumer
will more easily gain high consumer acceptance. Con-
sumers’ preferences for functional foods depend on their
perception on the believability and authenticity of the
claim, the credibility of the product, the attractiveness of
the product, its familiarity, attitudes towards functional
foods, and cost (Verbeke et al., 2009). Positive attitudes
towards functional foods and familiarity with the
product category boost the claim type and product
ratings (Verbeke et al., 2009). For example, parents in
Greece seemed to perceive a functional snack alternative
as offering greater utility than its conventional (i.e., non-
functional) counterpart (Krystallis et al., 2010). Regard-
ing consumer perceptions of new and familiar fruits,
individuals vary in trait food neophobia (Jaeger et al.,
2005). Another important anchor point is the product
taste. Low consumer acceptability of a functional
product is possible, such as found for drinks with high
polyphenol content and ⁄ or high insoluble fibre content
(Jaeger et al., 2009; Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2010a).
These sensory issues intrinsically derived from the
bioactive components in the functional or wellness
foods could be tackled through tailored formulation
and delivery technologies (Zhou et al., 2009) (this topic
will be addressed in a later section).
Changing consumer perceptions and food choices will
ultimately present challenges for food manufacturers
who want to maintain their innovative edge. Innovation
has become an imperative for food companies to create
new products with high consumer acceptance or popu-
larity. Understanding consumer needs should be a high
priority strategic objective in new product development.
The future of functional foods
Top ten functional food trends have been identified,
although variations are found among countries and
calendar years. The top new food development trends
for 2010 included simplicity, sustainability, traditional
nutritious foods, functional foods, products that boost
immunity, energy foods, ‘free-from’ foods, cooking at
home, extreme flavours and authenticity (Food Mar-
keting & Technology, 2010). Health, indulgence and
convenience continued to be the major new product
development and innovation targets globally, with
digestive health, child and adolescent nutrition, elderly
nutrition, weight management, obesity, and beauty-
enhancing products still on the top list (Serrano &
Gonzalez, 2008; Sloan, 2010). Consumers rank the top
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902 Fruit-based functional foods D. Sun-Waterhouse
categories of ‘functional foods’ as fruits and vegetables;
fish ⁄ fish oil ⁄ seafood; dairy (including milk and yogurt);
meat and poultry; herbs ⁄ spices; fibre; tea and green tea;
nuts; whole grains and other grains; water; cereal,
oats ⁄ oat bran ⁄ oatmeal; and vitamins ⁄ supplements
(Rahavi & Kapsak, 2010). With the rise of superfruits
in the health and wellness market (Starling, 2007), fruit-
based functional foods are expected to possess a
significant market share in the food sector.
Health will continue to be at the forefront of new
product-development strategies. Food and beverage
manufacturers are looking to incorporate natural bio-
active ingredients into all types of food products.
Convenience, together with ‘on-the-go’, ‘freshly pre-
pared’, ‘portion control’ and ‘customisation’, are the on-
going new product development characteristics, with
drinkable products being more dominant than other
food formats (Hardy, 2009). While dairy products still
hold their consumer popularity in the market because of
the natural goodness of milk, non-dairy foods contain-
ing probiotic bacteria strains can be an important
stream of functional foods. Increased vegetarianism
and issues related to dairy products, such as milk
cholesterol content and lactose intolerance (Granato
et al., 2010), also drive consumers to look for other
natural sources that are intrinsically rich in a broad
spectrum of nutrients. Fruits contain a wide range of
health-promoting components, including dietary fibre,
vitamins and antioxidants. We have made attempts to
add the goodness of fruits into popular consumer foods,
such as a fruit smoothie with high concentrations of
added fruit polyphenols and fibre (Sun-Waterhouse
et al., 2010a), snack bars enhanced with fruit fibre and
polyphenols (Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2010b), a drinking
yoghurt with added fruit polyphenols (Sun-Waterhouse
et al., 2010c), functional breads with added fruit po-
lyphenols and fibre (Ravi et al., 2009; Sivam et al.,
2010), kiwifruit extract-enhanced gluten-free bread
(Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2009b), a natural kiwifruit-
banana smoothie (Sun-Waterhouse & Zhou, 2010), a
natural kiwifruit ice cream (Sun-Waterhouse et al.,
2010d) and kiwifruit powdered beverages (Sun-Water-
house & Wadhwa, 2010). Table 1 lists patents around
fruit-related functional products filed in the past 5 years.
Table 2 lists published research on the development of
fruit-related functional foods in the past 10 years.
Foods targeting individual needs are also gaining
market leverage. Nutrigenomics emerged as a discipline
to investigate the interactions between diet and human
genetic susceptibility to the development of disease,
proposing personalised diets or foods (Fogg-Johnson &
Meroli, 2000), through which consumers gain systematic
in-depth knowledge of the connection between foods ⁄ -
diets and health. Since the 1960s, new product develop-
ment has been increasingly tailored towards
‘personalised’ needs. Personalised nutrigenomic foods
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011
International Journal of Food Science and Technology  2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology
enter the world’s food markets. Biotechnology is also
attempting to enhance nutrients during crop production,
although consumer acceptance could be an issue when
genetically engineered modifications are applied (Gura,
1999; Falk et al., 2002).
The use of materials or ingredients of fruit origin in
functional foods
The roles of active plant-derived ingredients or plant-
based foods in disease prevention and health enhance-
ment have widely been examined (Zhang et al., 1992;
Avorn et al., 1994; Seddon et al., 1994; Clinton et al.,
1996; Howell et al., 1998; Brown et al., 1999; Chasan-
Taber et al., 1999; Keevil et al., 2000; Meister et al.,
2000; Chen et al., 2001; Leahy et al., 2001; Mares-
Perlman et al., 2002). Fruits such as cranberries (Avorn
et al., 1994; Howell et al., 1998; Leahy et al., 2001;
Starling, 2004), grapes (Keevil et al., 2000; Meister
et al., 2000) and tomato (Seddon et al., 1994; Clinton
et al., 1996; Brown et al., 1999; Chasan-Taber et al.,
1999; Chen et al., 2001; Mares-Perlman et al., 2002)
have demonstrated moderately strong evidence of clin-
ical efficacy presumably because of their beneficial
constituents. Not surprisingly, these results have fos-
tered a substantial demand for an increased variety of
functional food ingredients with health-promoting prop-
erties made entirely from fruits.
Given the fresh and healthy image of fruits to
consumers, functional fruit juices or drinks have been
developed in many countries, such as in the US
(Starling, 2007), Poland (Krugla et al., 2001) and New
Zealand (Ravi et al., 2009; Sun-Waterhouse et al.,
2010a). Fruits used include cranberry, blueberry, pome-
granate, apple, blackcurrant, acai, acerola, guarana,
mango, bilberries, grapes, cherries, kiwifruits, strawber-
ries, feijoa, peach, plums cranberry, blueberry and
pomegranate (Starling, 2005, 2007; Vattem et al., 2005;
Cevallos-Casals et al., 2006; Masibo & Qian, 2009; Ohr,
2009; Hoffelner, 2010; Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2010a;
Weston, 2010). These fruits contain various nutrients
and health-promoting bioactive components such as
polyphenols, vitamin A, vitamin C, minerals and dietary
fibre (Kriventsov & Karakhanova, 1972; Salvo et al.,
1987; Ferrara & Montesano, 2001; Ruberto & Tringali,
2004; Masibo & Qian, 2009; Ohr, 2009; Adyanthaya
et al., 2010).
The efficacy of cranberries in treating urinary tract
infections has been known since the 1920s (Avorn et al.,
1994). The condensed tannins (proanthocyanidins) in
cranberry were reported to prevent Escherichia coli from
adhering to the epithelial cells lining the urinary tract
(Howell et al., 1998). The anti-adhesion properties of
cranberry also protect the oral cavity from bacterial
adhesion (Leahy et al., 2001). Grapes have been asso-
ciated with reduced risk of heart disease and decreased
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 Fruit-based functional foods D. Sun-Waterhouse 903

Table 1 Patents for fruit-related functional products in the last 5 years

Publication date, Publication

Product Fruit ingredient applicant country number

Functional sports drink Lemon juice 10–15% 2006-02-08, China CN1729871A

CN1729872A
Liquid ⁄ solid functional composition for improving Citrus fruits 2007-11-01, Japan JP2007284397A
physical condition, relieving pain or recovering
burns
Powdery, richly flavoured and conveniently Fruit not specific 2009-12-10, Japan JP2009284887A
portable, functional sprinkle for treating, e.g.
hypertension or ageing
Composition for preventing and ⁄ or treating Immature fruit of Rhus succedanea 2010-05-14, Korea WO2010016675A3
inflammation
A functional drink ⁄ oral preparation for quick Fruit or fruit extract (e.g. papaya, olive, 2007-12-19, China CN101449790A
supply of physical ability and ease of tiredness pear, apple, Chinese chestnut, or
strawberry)
Food using flesh and skin of ginseng fruit Ginseng fruit, jujube fruit, Lycium fruit, 2008-04-22, Korea KR823940B1
Cornus fruit.
Functional beverage for reducing hangover Orange, lemon, apple, mango and plum 2007-08-08, Korea KR2007079648A
Natural plant-based functional healthcare drink Natural fruit juice and plant essence 2010-03-17, China CN101669629A
Calcium-fortified functional fruit jam Raw fruit material 2007-09-10, Korea KR757064B1
Functional food and ⁄ or drink supplemented with Persimmon fruit 2007-05-24, US US20070116818A1
beta-cryptoxanthin from persimmon fruit,
especially skin
Fresh fruit konjak functional food Fresh fruits 2008-05-14, China CN101176553A
Formulated nutraceutical composition for oral Raw pericarp and inner pulp from whole 2009-03-05, US US20090062378A1
administration fruit of Garcinia mangostana L. plant
Functional food e.g. noodle for prevention of Guava fruit juice 2008-06-09, Korea KR836458B1
cancer and ageing and amylase suppression
Functional food (heath food ⁄ drink) for improving Morinda citrifolia fruit 2007-06-28, Japan JP2007159509A
hypertension and inflammation
Powder used for processed food, soap, cosmetics Dragon fruits 2009-07-01, Japan JP04290186B2
and health food
A functional chewing and disintegrating tabletting Strawberry, mango, lemon, watermelon 2009-12-23, China CN101606566A
candy for strengthening nutrients of the human flesh and carrot
body, and preventing or co-treating diseases
Functional beverage for improving health function Condensed fruit juice (from apple and 2010-02-24, China CN101653254A
of human orange)
Infant food products e.g. fruit-based product for Fruit not specific 2010-05-26, Switzerland EP2187765A1
preventing ⁄ treating ⁄ delaying onset of
nutritionally related disorder e.g. obesity
Antioxidant-enriched fruit extract, cosmetic Fruit extract (blueberry, cranberry, 2010-04-15, US US20100092583A1
composition, pharmaceutical composition chokecherry, elderberry, blackcurrant,
grape or Saskatoon berry)
Functional foodstuffs e.g. candy, soft candy, Fruit and ⁄ or seed of Ocimum 2005-10-27, Japan JP2005295968A
cookie, chocolate and tablet confectionery
Microtablets containing a dietary supplement e.g. Fruit not specified 2010-05-14, Germany WO2010051792A1
probiotics and prebiotics
Functional food oil composition or anti-diabetic Apple, Japanese apricot, Oriental pear, 2008-05-20, Korea KR830761B1
capsule for various healthful foods persimmon, Schizandra chinensis fruit,
Lycium chinensis, Cornus officinalis,
Cuscuta japonica or cayenne
Healthcare functional food freeze-dried powder Mulberry fruit freeze-dried powder 2009-11-11, China CN101574139A
A functional food for improving sleep quality and Blueberry anthocyanins 2008-08-27, China CN101248877A
enhancing memory
Phloridzin-rich phenolic fraction used as a Polyphenol-rich fraction derived from fruit 2008-09-23, US US7427418B2
cosmetic, dietary or nutraceutical agent of the Rosaceae family (fruit not specified)

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International Journal of Food Science and Technology  2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology
904 Fruit-based functional foods D. Sun-Waterhouse
Table 2 Fruit-related functional foods
Fruit material
Peach
Blueberry
Cranberry extracts
Raspberries, strawberries,
blackberries, blueberries,
blackcurrants, gooseberries
Fruit and vegetable juice
powders
Chokeberry, elderberry,
blackcurrant redcurrant, red
grape, cherry, strawberry,
raspberry plum, juice
Blackcurrant juice
Cranberry
Pure fruit juice
Fruit powder (blueberry,
cranberry, Concord grape,
and raspberry)
Acerola extracts
Orange juice, pineapple juice
and cranberry juice
Citrus fruits, such as lemons
or oranges
Prunes, prune juice and
plum juice
Apple polyphenols (PP)s,
blackcurrant PPs and apple
fibre
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011
Food format
Novel, restructured fruit
alginate mixed gel systems
Blueberry fruit drinks
Cranberry extract powders
enriched with
phytonutrients
Blended berry fruit juices
Enrichment for cereal
products
Antioxidant functional juices
Novel blackcurrant juices
containing probiotic
cultures (Lactobacillus
plantarum 299v)
Cranberry juice cocktail
Novel (pure) fruit juice
products based on pressed
juices with no stabilization
processing are described.
Results of trials on four types
of fresh, non-preserved fruit
juices
Naturally coloured breakfast
cereals (extruded) in
opaque bags
An isotonic soft drink
containing anthocyanin
extracts from acerola (with
high ascorbic acid content),
and from acai (rich in
flavonoids)
Fruit juice supplements with
probiotic cultures
Fruit juice and skim milk
mixtures
Plum juice vs. a
non-fruit source of fibre,
psyllium (Metamucil) and
equicaloric, fibre-free clear
apple juice (placebo
control)
Fruit fibre and polyphenol
smoothie
International Journal of Food Science and Technology  2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Bioactives or mechanism of interest References
Fruit-alginate interactions and their Mancini & McHugh (2000)
effect on gel formation
Anonymous (2001)
Alleviating the symptoms of urinary Anonymous (2002)
tract infection
Flavonoids, vitamins and minerals Buchter-Weisbrodt (2002)
Flavonoids, fibre and vitamins; and use Francis & Phelps (2003)
as processing aids, colorants,
flavourings and water-binding agents
Flavonoids, such as anthocyanins, Bermudez-Soto & Tomas-Barberan
flavonols, hydroxycinnamic acid (2004)
derivatives, stilbenoids, flavan-3-ols,
ellagic acid derivatives and other
phenolic acids
consumers were asked to identify the Luckow & Delahunty (2004)
juice they perceived to be the
healthiest(e.g., containing the special
ingredients)
A novel gut anti-adhesion mechanism Anonymous (2005)
that provides protection to the body
from harmful bacteria
Freshness and naturalness Endrizzi et al. (2006)
Soluble phenolics and anthocyanins Camire et al. (2007)
(survive extrusion and retain some
antioxidant activity)
The highest stability was correlated to de Rosso & Mercadante (2007)
high flavonoid content and absence of
ascorbic acid. The degradation of
anthocyanins occurred in the presence
or absence of light. Addition of sugars
and salts had a negative effect on the
anthocyanin stability
The suitability of Lactobacillus and Sheehan et al. (2007)
Bifidobacterium strains in fruit juice.
Extensive differences exist among
probiotic strains regarding their acid
resistance.
Antioxidant capacity of new fruit juice Zulueta et al. (2007)
and skim milk
Improve bowel regularity and have the Cheskin et al. (2009)
satiety potential as to reduce appetite
and excess body weight
Digestive health Sun-Waterhouse et al. (2010a)
 2011 The Author

Table 2 Continued
Fruit material Food format
Apple PPs and apple fibre, or Snack bar
inulin
Apple polyphenol extracts UHT milk drink
Green kiwifruit extracts Kiwifruit-extract enhanced
gluten-free bread
Apple PPs, kiwifruit PPs, Functional bread with fruit
blackcurrant PPs, apple PPs
pectins
platelet aggregation in selected populations (Keevil
et al., 2000; Meister et al., 2000). Epidemiologic data
also demonstrated the health benefits of tomatoes,
including the tomato lycopene’s ability to accumulate
selectively in the prostate gland, exerting antioxidant
function (Clinton et al., 1996) and reducing prostate
DNA oxidative damage (Chen et al., 2001). Cooked
and ⁄ or processed tomato products as well as the
carotenoid lutein components were found to reduce
the development of age-related macular degeneration
(Seddon et al., 1994; Mares-Perlman et al., 2002), cat-
aracts (Brown et al., 1999; Chasan-Taber et al., 1999)
and eye disease (NEI Statement, 2009). Unlike these
fruits, which have been examined clinically or epidemi-
ologically, citrus fruits’ limonoid cancer-preventive
benefits have been deduced only from in vitro and
in vivo (animal) studies (Crowell, 1997). Feijoa fruit has
higher antioxidant activity than kiwifruit, but lower
than that of berryfruits (McGhie et al., 2004). Berries
such as blackcurrants have demonstrated positive health
properties related to oxidative stress, inflammatory
responses and anti-neurodegenerative effects (Ghosh
et al., 2007; Lyall et al., 2009).
The use of whole fruits, minimally processed fruit
preparations and wastes
The food applications for whole fruits, minimally
processed fruit preparations including juice, and wastes
(e.g. pomace) are mainly naturally healthy products
including smoothies, yoghurts, drinks and ice-creams.
For example, different physical forms of fruits or fruit
materials have been used to monitor satiety. Dried fruit
was used as a snack before meals to reduce the overall
energy intake and the consumption of dessert (Farajian
et al., 2010). Fruit juice, which is relatively low in fibre,
has been reported to have a lower satiety effect than
whole fruits, regardless of its caloric content (Bolton
et al., 1981). Whole fruits increased satiety more than
fruit sauces or juices, even when fibre was added to the
fruit juices to match the fibre content of the whole
fruits (Flood-Obbagy & Rolls, 2009). Fruits become
more energy dense in a dried form (Farajian et al.,
2010).
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International Journal of Food Science and Technology  2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Fruit-based functional foods D. Sun-Waterhouse 905
Bioactives or mechanism of interest References
Energy control and digestive health Sun-Waterhouse et al. (2010b)
Protection from oxidative stress Wegrzyn et al. (2008)
Potential for Crohn’s disease population Sun-Waterhouse et al. (2009b)
Functional breads for wellness Ravi et al. (2009)
There are increasing uses of natural fruit-based
ingredients, natural fruit-derived colorants like antho-
cyanins, fruit fillings, natural fruit sweeteners with low
glycaemic index and high soluble solid content, as well
as fruit-derived inulin and fructooligosaccharide prod-
ucts (Watson, 2005). Also, fruit pieces with preserved
natural flavour and colour, and controlled water activity
(by partial dehydration alone or osmosis and partial
dehydration), can be used as basic materials or as
additional components in foods such as pastry and other
baked products, confectionery products, ice-creams,
frozen desserts and sweets, fruit salads, cheeses and
yoghurts (Maltini et al., 1993). Vuotto et al. (2000)
pointed out that an aqueous extract of feijoa fruit might
be used as a new multifaceted drug. Feijoa extracts were
reported to have anti-cancer activity, anti-inflammatory
activity and immunity-stimulating activity (Cassady
et al., 1993; Ielpo et al., 2000; Bontempo et al., 2007).
The antioxidant activity of an 80% ethanolic extract of
feijoa was higher than that of other fruits tested (Isobe
et al., 2003).
Fruit-derived oils possess beneficial health properties
that are derived from the active components, such as
c-linolenic acid, stearidonic acid and a-linolenic acid,
which can be sourced from blackcurrant seeds (Ruiz del
Castillo et al., 2002) and grape seeds (Pardo et al.,
2009). A feijoa essential oil showed wide spectrum anti-
microbial activity, because of the major components
limonene (29%), b-caryophyllene (27%), a-pinene (9%),
b-pinene (3%) and estragole (1.5%) (Saj et al., 2008).
Thus, fruit-derived oils also play an important role in
natural health products and functional foods.
Functional ingredients can be recovered from by-
products of fruit industries (Fernandez-Gines et al.,
2008). The by-products and pomace of apple, citrus
fruits, grape skin and seed, guava, mango and pineapple
have a wide range of potential applications and phys-
iological activities (Gourgue et al., 1992; Valiente et al.,
1995; Larrauri et al., 1996, 1997; Baker, 1997; Igartub-
uru et al., 1998; Jiménez-Escrig et al., 2001; Leontowicz
et al., 2001). Pomace, a major part of the wastes from
fresh fruit processing for wine, juice and soft beverage
production, accounts for 25% of the volume of the raw
fruit processed (Fronc & Nawirska, 1994). Pomace may
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011
906 Fruit-based functional foods D. Sun-Waterhouse
also become a cheap raw material for food production
(Fronc & Nawirska, 1994). Dietary fibre from pomace
of different fruits contains varied concentrations of
pectins, hemicelluloses, celluloses, lignins (Nawirska &
Kwaśniewska, 2005), providing health-promoting prop-
erties (Borycka et al., 1996; Larrauri, 1999). The
potential use of other by-products from fruit processing
has also been examined. Feijoa fruit skin has demon-
strated strong in vitro anti-microbial activity (Motohashi
et al., 2000). Lyophilised extracts from the pulp and skin
of feijoa fruit were anti-bacterial and antioxidant
products (Basile et al., 2001). Even the de-fatted fibre-
rich fractions of passion fruit seed still contained
cellulose, pectic substances and hemicellulose, with good
water- and oil-holding capacities, so passion fruit seed
can be used as a good source of food fibre or low calorie
bulk ingredients in food applications (Chau & Huang,
2004).
Whole fruits (especially the rejected grade fruits),
minimally processed fruit preparations including juice,
and wastes have great potential in the naturally healthy
product sector.
The use of phytochemical ingredients extracted from fruits
or fruit materials
Polyphenols are secondary metabolites synthesised by
plants, ranging from simple molecules such as phenolic
acids (with a single phenolic ring) to biphenyls and
flavonoids (with two or three phenolic rings), and
polyphenols (with many phenolic groups) (Harborne,
1980; Rice-Evans et al., 1996; Haslam, 1998). Proanth-
ocyanidins, tannins and their derivatives are often
referred to as polyphenols (Harborne, 1980; Haslam,
1998). In parenchyma cell walls (the major portion of
fruit fibre), phenolic phytochemicals are closely associ-
ated with hemicellulosic polysaccharides (O’Neill &
Selvendran, 1985) and contribute to cell wall cross-
linking, appearing as glycosides attached to one or more
sugar molecules (Strack, 1997; Faulds & Williamson,
1999; Williamson et al., 2000). Fruit polyphenols,
including those from apples, kiwifruits and berries have
shown their antioxidant capacity, anti-neurodegenera-
tive effect, anti-ulcer activity, anti-carcinogenic effect,
anti-mutagenic activity, anti-inflammatory activity, anti-
microbial effects, brain wellness, eye health and vision
effects, muscle performance and immune responses
(Bravo, 1998; Santos-Buelga & Scalbert, 2000; Boyer
& Liu, 2004; Arts & Hollman, 2005; Matsumoto et al.,
2005; Ghosh et al., 2007; Heinonen, 2007; Skinner et al.,
2007; Zhang et al., 2007; Lauren et al., 2009).
There are various ways to obtain the polyphenols
from plant materials, for example, by extraction using
methods such as Accelerated Solvent Extraction or
Supercritical Fluid Extraction, followed by concentra-
tion using methods like ultrafiltration, RapidVap
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011
International Journal of Food Science and Technology  2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology
concentration, CentriVap concentration and ⁄ or freeze
drying (Shi et al., 2005a,b; Sun-Waterhouse et al.,
2009a; Wibisono et al., 2009b). It is worth noting that
different extraction processes will generate different
components in the extracts obtained (Sun-Waterhouse
et al., 2009a; Wibisono et al., 2009a). Moreover, the
existing form of the bioactive compound may alter after
a specific extraction process. For example, an alkali pre-
treatment of fruit tissues or materials included in an
extraction process was found to alter significantly the
profile of the extracted polyphenols (Sun-Waterhouse
et al., 2009a).
The applications for polyphenols or fibre ingredients
extracted from fruits or fruit materials are mainly
fortified or enhanced foods or beverages. The positive
roles of polyphenols and dietary fibres in health and
prevention of disease have been demonstrated (Chen &
Ho, 1997; Kampa et al., 2004; Arts & Hollman, 2005;
Elia & Cummings, 2007; Scott et al., 2008). Various
polyphenolic extracts and fibre preparations have been
generated in both research and commercial settings.
Commercial suppliers include Berryfruit New Zealand,
Just the Berries New Zealand, GNT International The
Netherlands, Penglai Marine BioTech China, Herbs-
treith & Fox Germany. Furthermore, polyphenol
extracts or fibre fractions from different locations or
parts of the fruit or fruit waste, or produced using
different extraction media, such as water, ethanol, or
ethanol and water mixtures, will lead to different types
of ingredients with varied bioactive composition and
food functionality (Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2008c,
2009a).
A global dietary fibre definition was generated in
November 2008 for the Codex Alimentarius (ALIN-
ORM 09 ⁄ 32 ⁄ 26, 2009), defining dietary fibre as carbo-
hydrate polymers with ten or more monomeric units,
which are not hydrolysed by the endogenous enzymes in
the small intestine of humans. Dietary fibre enters into
the food market mostly in the form of a natural
component of an ingredient e.g. fibres in fruit, vegetable
and cereal products, an individual ingredient added to
food formulation e.g. the Herbacel Classic apple fibre
ingredient from Herbstreith & Fox KG of Switzerland,
or a polysaccharide food additive (also referred to as a
hydrocolloid or gum), e.g. the CM203 citrus pectin from
Herbstreith & Fox KG of Switzerland. Food legislation
enables dietary fibres to be valuable ingredients in
functional foods. The food laws of most countries
require a list of specific ingredients, and dietary fibre
content can be claimed on the label under the Nutrition
Facts panel and ⁄ or as a health claim. In practice, the
commercially available dietary fibres contain non-starch
polysaccharides and lignin (Cummings, 1991; Asp, 1987,
1996; Englyst & Hudson, 1996), non-structural compo-
nents such as gums and mucilages, industrial additives
such as modified cellulose and commercial gums, as well
 2011 The Author

as other components like vitamins and minerals (David-
son & McDonald, 1998; Grigelmo-Miguel et al., 1999).
Dietary fibre’s functionality determines both the
organoleptic and nutritional aspects of a finished food.
The composition and physicochemical properties of
dietary fibres are responsible for their functionalities in
foods (Gordon, 1989). The functionality of dietary fibres
depends on the polysaccharide composition, as well as
the location and orientation of polysaccharides in the
cell-wall networks (Fry, 1988). For example, the poros-
ity and water-holding capacity of primary plant cell
walls vary as the pH and ionic environment vary during
gut transit (Prosky, 2000a,b). The bulking and viscosity
properties of fibre also increase the time that food is
present in the stomach, decrease the rate of gastric
emptying and therefore slow down the nutrient absorp-
tion, leading to lower postprandial glucose values and
decreased insulin secretion (Burton-Freeman, 2000;
Slavin, 2005).
Consumption of dietary fibre could reduce the risk of
health problems related to digestion, cardiovascular
disease, colon cancer and obesity (Flourie, 1992; Marlett,
2001; Slavin, 2001; Ou et al., 2001). Therefore, food
products rich in dietary fibre should be popular. The
demand for increased consumption of dietary fibre drives
the need for scalable fibre production methods in an
industrial setting. The development of a food-grade fibre
preparation method at a laboratory scale that is feasible
for industrial scale-up is a pre-requisite. Fibre prepara-
tion methods that have potential to be scaled up to use in
an industrial setting include aqueous and ethanolic
methods (Fry, 1988; Fleury & Lahaye, 1992; Quach
et al., 2001; Nawirska & Kwaniewska, 2005; Choudhari
& Ananthanarayan, 2006; Sun-Waterhouse et al.,
2008a,b). The structure and composition of dietary fibre
preparations depend largely on their origin and also on
the extraction method used (Bacic et al., 1988; Fry,
1988). Variations in composition were found among the
fibres produced from raw or cooked materials (Sun-
Waterhouse et al., 2008b). For example, apple fibre
prepared using an aqueous preparation method con-
tained different profiles of health-beneficial components
such as pectic polysaccharides and bound polyphenols
(Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2008c). This aqueous method
was found to be advantageous in terms of cost-effective-
ness for industrial scale-up (Sun-Waterhouse et al.,
2008c). The fibres obtained possessed desirable proper-
ties for functional snack bars (Sun-Waterhouse et al.,
2010b) and in gut health in vitro and in vivo (rat trial)
studies (Butts et al., 2009; Parkar et al., 2010).
Other technologies or methodologies have been
introduced to improve the functionality of fruit fibre,
such as micron technology (Chau et al., 2006), and
enzyme and additive treatments (Ren et al., 2007). Such
introduced technologies can monitor the physicochem-
ical properties and the bulk density of fibre, as well as
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International Journal of Food Science and Technology  2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Fruit-based functional foods D. Sun-Waterhouse 907
the balance of insoluble and soluble components (Chau
et al., 2006). The pomaces from apple, blackcurrant,
chokeberry, pear, cherry and carrot pomace contain
very high or comparatively high lignin, but very small
amounts of pectin (Nawirska & Kwaśniewska, 2005).
Research approaches for the development of
functional foods
Functional food development is a process from concept
to an acceptable, marketable prototype. Developing
functional food products requires a structured
approach, which requires an understanding of the target
population, the specific health target, the chemical
structure and properties of the targeted bioactives, and
how these bioactives, as components of a food, would be
delivered to the targeted absorption site in the human
body in the required form. Such food product design
and development should be a market-oriented and a
customer-focused process (Bogue et al., 2006). Current
trends and changing consumer needs indicate a great
opportunity for innovation and development. The
prototypes developed require assessment for their con-
sumer acceptance, and their efficacy and safety through
animal and human proof-of-concept testing for poten-
tial health claims (Jones & Jew, 2007).
Six questions need answers before food design
First of all, the target population: Who will be the major
consumers of the functional food product? The elderly
or babies, teenagers or adults, the ill or healthy people,
female or male? Different populations have different
physiological systems. The answer to this question will
directly influence the food format selection and formu-
lation design. For example, for the elderly, additional
considerations regarding the swallowability and digest-
ibility of foods may be required, whilst for children,
extra attention may need to be placed on the colour and
other appearance attributes of foods.
Second, the health target: Which biological function
needs to be improved? Digestive health, immu-
nity responses, energy and performance, appetite
control, mental performance, brain wellness, cognitive
health, body weight regulation, diabetes risk, Crohn’s
disease, cardiovascular disease prevention, anti-ageing
function defence against oxidative stress, anti-cancer, or
anti-inflammatory effect? The health target will influence
the selection of targeted bioactives and consequently the
ingredient choice and food format matrix design.
Third is the target bioactive: Key food nutrients and
bioactive compounds for health target delivery can be
probiotic bacteria, omega-3 fatty acids, polyphenols,
carotenoids, proteins, oligo- ⁄ poly-saccharides, sterols,
vitamins, minerals. As discussed earlier, the biologi-
cal activity of phenolic phytochemicals, such as
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011
908 Fruit-based functional foods D. Sun-Waterhouse

anti-inflammatory activity and protection from oxida-

tive stress–induced damage, can be preliminarily exam-
ined using cell-based assays (Adaim et al., 2005), animal
trials (Butts et al., 2009) and clinical trials (Enomoto
et al., 2006). Different forms of the same bioactive
compound will lead to varied solubility, bioactivity,
functionality and bioavailability. For example, querce-
tin can exist in the forms of aglycon, glycoside or as a
complex with metal ions or enzymes (Spencer et al.,
1988; Hollman & Katan, 1997; Hollman et al., 1997;
Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2009a). The rate of absorption
of quercetin glycosides is dependent on the type of
sugar, substituted position and food source (Williamson
et al., 2000). Onion glycosides (quercetin 4¢-glucoside
and 3,4¢-diglucoside) were found to be absorbed better
than tea flavonol glycosides, apple flavonol glycosides or
quercetin-3-rutinoside (Hollman & Katan, 1997; Holl-
man et al., 1997). There is a considerable difference in
antioxidant capacity between quercetin aglycon and its
glycoside (Rice-Evans et al., 1996; Pinelo et al., 2004).
Fourth is the target dose: Functional foods bridge the
traditional gap between food and drugs, playing a role
in disease prevention and health promotion. The incor- Figure 1 Food in each part of the digestive system (http://
poration of bioactive compounds in foods has raised a www.throppsnutrition.com/index.php?Elite-Zyme).
‘safety dosage’ issue. With respect to clinical evidence,
the approval criteria of health claims may resemble the
approval criteria of drugs. However, there is a clear transportation along the digestive tract after ingestion.
distinction in health claims between functional foods Formulation and encapsulation technologies can create
and drugs (Kwak & Jukes, 2000, 2001). a food matrix that protects bioactives against detrimen-
While the concentration of the targeted bioactive tal environments and controls the delivery and release of
compound has to be sufficient in the final food product the bioactive component to a targeted absorption site.
so that a health ⁄ nutrient claim can be achieved, an Sixth, the target claim: What health-related claims
‘overdose’ may cause side ⁄ adverse effects or toxicity would the new food development aim to make? Such an
issues. For example, safety concerns have recently been aim defines the scope of the literature search needed
raised, particularly with regard to the seemingly indis- before the food design, in terms of scientific substanti-
criminant addition of herbs like St. John’s Wort to ation related to a specific bioactive component, and later
foods (U. S. General Accounting Office, 2000; Greeson directs the clinical trials for validating the bioavailability
et al., 2001). Therefore, safety considerations are para- and efficacy of the bioactive component in a food
mount. Furthermore, from the viewpoint of food format. The existing claims include nutrient content
development, ‘dose ⁄ concentration’ influences the food claims, comparative claims, nutrient function claims,
format selection and food formulation design, e. g. high claims related to dietary guidelines or healthy diets,
concentrations of insoluble fibre or polyphenols could enhanced function claims and reduction of disease risk
impart negative effects on product sensory attributes claims (Kwak & Jukes, 2000). With a clear aim for a
(e.g. bitterness and astringency associated with high specific claim (based on regulations such as the Codex or
polyphenol content, and grittiness associated with high the US ⁄ Health Canada ⁄ European Union ⁄ Japan ⁄ China
insoluble fibre content in a drink) (Sun-Waterhouse regulations), it is possible to design and evaluate unique
et al., 2010a). foods with appropriate combinations of nutrients to
Fifth is the target delivery site: In formulating a optimise health status (Howe, 2000). Care should be
functional food, one should consider the effect of the taken during the course of evaluating the potential
particles in an ingested food on the flow and viscoelas- claims for a new product, because different regulatory
ticity of digesta as well as the physiological function of systems are being used in different countries (Lupien,
the digestive tract (Lentle & Janssen, 2010). As shown in 2002). Identification of the target countries for market-
Fig. 1, the pH, transit times and enzymes of different ing should be carried out at the beginning of this
absorption sites vary. Thus, tailored protection for the evaluation process.
targeted bioactive compound is required not only during The health-related claims that are used in package
food processing, handling and storage, but also during labelling and marketing have direct impacts on the

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011  2011 The Author
International Journal of Food Science and Technology  2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology

quality of dietary choices and consumer knowledge of
diet–disease relationships (Williams, 2005). There are
differences between countries in consumer perception of
health-related claims. It was found that health claims
outperformed nutritional claims, and both of these
claim types outperformed reduction of disease risk
claims (Verbeke et al., 2009). Such indicative informa-
tion would make food manufacturers aim for health
claims. The credibility of the health claims that are used
in package labelling and marketing directly influence
consumers’ confidence in functional foods. Health
claims for foods influence consumer behaviour and
potentially affect public health. Health claims for
functional foods should also meet international agree-
ment on scientific and ethical criteria (Clydesdale, 1997).
Research approaches for functional food design and
development
The following approaches have been established for the
development of fruit-based functional foods.
Literature search and market survey
To create a value-added product, food manufacturers
always conduct a robust literature and market survey
before any new food design and development. This
search helps to identify the knowledge gap, freedom to
operate and define future new product development
direction. Although functional foods stand as a new
category of products in the market, as discussed earlier,
foods with therapeutic benefits for human health have
had a long history (Shi et al., 2005a,b). In addition to
the standard surveys, as carried out for conventional
food development, an additional search for daily use as
well as medicinal application of the targeted bioactive
component should be included. Attention should be
focused on the synergistic interactions between specific
substances and the human body. Extensive search for
knowledge related to the changes in the chemical and
physical properties of this bioactive compound caused
by other food components, processing methods and
storage is also required.
Literature surveys and patent searches can indicate
the global advances in product research and develop-
ment as well as the potential scope for future work. Even
for preliminary development purposes, a systematic
literature survey including a patent search should be in
place at the start of the product development process. A
patent search is especially useful for food developers,
who are driven by innovation. One may find free spaces
to generate new intellectual properties in between the
existing patents, through using different ingredient
sources (e.g. other fruits) that are not covered in the
existing patents; using different formulations and ⁄ or
processing to create a superior product, if the same
ingredient material as those in the patent literature is
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International Journal of Food Science and Technology  2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Fruit-based functional foods D. Sun-Waterhouse 909
required by the client; or creating a unique functionality
based on a different biological mechanism from those
reported in the patents.
Food format selection
Food format is selected based on the target population
and potential market outcomes, with less impact from
the selected health target and associated bioactive
compound(s). Therefore, food format selection is a
consumer- and market-oriented process. Consumer
demand for convenience, combined with a healthy diet
and preference for natural ingredients, has led to a
growth in the functional beverage market. Convenience
may be the most important attribute for today’s fast-
moving lifestyle. A more mobile society, combined with
busier modern lifestyles and a change in family demo-
graphics, has led to consumer demand for ready-
to-eat, easy-to-use products. Portable formulations such
as on-the-run beverages are an increasingly popular
delivery mechanism.
Fruits and vegetables contain a wide range of health-
promoting components including vitamins and antiox-
idants. However, people today do not consume sufficient
fruits, e.g. on average, an American consumer eats only
about three servings of fruits and vegetables a day (the
US National Cancer Institute, http://progressre-
port.cancer.gov/) (2007 trends – fruits and vegetables
consumption). Therefore, introduction of different for-
mats of fruit-derived foods can help to increase the total
consumption of fruits. In addition to whole fresh
fruits ⁄ vegetables or processed finished foods ⁄ beverages,
snack fruits or vegetables such as dried whole fruits ⁄ veg-
etables, fried snacks, functional fresh fruit salad prod-
ucts and fruit ⁄ vegetable powder are other food formats
that can increase the consumption of fruits and vegeta-
bles (Nickerson, 1999; Camire et al., 2007; Da Silva &
Moreira, 2008; Gormley et al., 2009; Farajian et al.,
2010). It was found that dried fruits such as prunes
could be served as a snack before a meal to promote
satiety, besides providing nutrients (Farajian et al.,
2010).
Both meal and snack patterns play a crucial role in
energy intake and weight management (Kerver et al.,
2006). Snack foods have good consumer acceptance
because of their convenience. For decades, consumers
have desired deep-fat fried products because of their
unique flavour and texture combination, ranging from
potato chips, French fries, doughnuts, extruded snacks,
fish sticks, to traditional fried chicken products (Sch-
losser, 2001). While preferring convenient foods, con-
sumers are also concerned about the health hazards
associated with conventional fast foods (Jayarajah &
Sevugan, 2009). With the increased awareness of the
relationship between food and health, consumers are
starting to look for ‘healthier’ snack products with good
taste and appearance.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011
910 Fruit-based functional foods D. Sun-Waterhouse
Functional snacks may gain good consumer accep-
tance (Krystallis et al., 2010). Consumers want func-
tional foods to be ‘everyday foods’ and intrinsically
‘healthy’, with food formats like yoghurts, cereals,
breads, fruit juices identified as good carriers of func-
tional messages (New Nutrition Business, 1999). For
example, vacuum-fried snacks of mango (Tommy At-
kins variety) with retained natural colours and flavours,
as well as lowered oil content, could be used to replace
the traditional fried products using an atmospheric
pressure fryer (Da Silva & Moreira, 2008).
Consumer interest in naturally coloured convenient
foods is growing (Gerdes, 2004). Fruits naturally con-
tain colorants with health benefits such as cyanidin and
other anthocyanins (Rice-Evans et al., 1995; Camire,
2000; Camire et al., 2002). Free-flowing dried fruit
powders can be easily incorporated into foods in dry
mix form. For example, dehydrated fruit powder (blue-
berry, cranberry, Concord grape and raspberry) could
be mixed with cornmeal for making breakfast cereals
(Camire et al., 2007). It is worth noting that different
fruit ⁄ vegetable drying methods may affect polyphenols
like anthocyanins differently, e.g. freeze-dried cranberry
powder contained additional flavonol glycosides com-
pared with fresh cranberries (Vvedenskaya et al., 2004).
Spray-dried wild blueberry powder had similar in vitro
anti-proliferation activity to that of the fresh fruit
(Schmidt et al., 2005).
Scientific and clinical evidence is also mounting to
corroborate consumer perceptions of health from fer-
mented milks, especially the goodness related to probi-
otics, prebiotics, synbiotics and associated ingredients.
The merging of the dairy product and fruit beverage
markets has led to a proliferation of innovation and
development in the fermented milk area. A fruit–
yoghurt beverage is a typical example of a hybrid dairy
product offering health, flavour and convenience. Inno-
vative fermented milks can be produced through forti-
fying milk with active ingredients including fibres,
phytosterols, omega-3-fatty acids, whey and vitamins
that provide specific health benefits beyond basic nutri-
tion (Khurana & Kanawjia, 2007; Sun-Waterhouse
et al., 2010c). New fruit–milk beverages with special
characteristics and health properties have been devel-
oped containing antioxidants such as vitamin C, vitamin
A and phenolic compounds (Zulueta et al., 2007;
Wegrzyn et al., 2008).
Ingredient choice
Functional foods are required to contain specific ingre-
dients with proven physiological effects. Therefore,
fortified foods should be the major food formats such
as cereals, breads, dairy products and beverages (Gidley,
2004). Formulation drives food innovation, and inno-
vative formulation was reported to result in 70% of new
product launches in the global food and drink markets
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011
International Journal of Food Science and Technology  2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology
in 2009 (Hardy, 2009). Ingredient selection for a food
formulation is one of the critical aspects.
In a finished functional food, there are three main
classes of ingredients: functional ingredients containing
targeted bioactive components, protective ingredients
that can improve the stability and bioavailability of
targeted bioactive components and other food ingredi-
ents that are essential for this specific food product. In
order to maximise the beneficial synergies in food-
processing properties, product quality and biological
activity, the following knowledge is required: (i) the
physiological benefits, the chemical and physical prop-
erties of the selected food systems, the food-processing
functionality and the legislative requirements of the
functional ingredients; (ii) the potential interactions of
the functional ingredients and the other classes of
ingredients; (iii) knowledge of marketing trends and
consumer demands.
When selecting ingredients for a functional food, one
needs to consider the interactions between the bioactives
and the other added food components in the formula-
tion, during food processing and storage, and their
effect on the stability of the resulting product (Chaud-
hari, 2009; Ravi et al., 2009; Sun-Waterhouse, 2009;
Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2009c, 2010a,b,c; Sivam et al.,
2010). The benefits of a finished food come from both
the individual bioactive components and the food
matrix (Gidley, 2004). Interactions between bioactive
components and the food matrix can be exclusive,
additive or synergistic. Phytochemical components in
whole foods exhibited greater benefits to human health
than isolated individual phenolic phytochemicals, sug-
gesting synergistic interaction of these phenolic phyto-
chemicals with the whole food matrix (Vattem et al.,
2005). It is possible to increase bioavailability, including
oral bioavailability, by designing the synergistic inter-
actions with plant-based polyphenols to overcome the
blood–brain barrier and digestion ⁄ absorption barriers,
such as enzymatic and chemical modification in the
human body (Scheepens et al., 2010). These synergies
may promote brain wellness e.g. with phytochemical
combinations such as a mixture of blackcurrant and
green kiwifruit extracts (Zhang et al., 2007). Apple or
onion fibres can help to preserve the antioxidant activity
of ascorbic acid (Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2008a,b).
Soluble and insoluble fibres can inhibit the activity of
lipase, which catalyses lipid hydrolysis (O’Connor et al.,
2003a,b). Apple fibre may preserve blackcurrant and
apple polyphenols in a smoothie format (Sun-Water-
house et al., 2010a). The food matrix affects the
extractability and stability of polyphenols during ther-
mal treatment and storage, such as water- or lipid-based
food media and different solvents (Sun-Waterhouse
et al., 2009a; Wibisono et al., 2009a). Polyphenols
improve the stability of different oils to various extents
(Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2009c).
 2011 The Author

Selection of bioactive ingredients such as polyunsat-
urated fatty acids, trans resveratrol, phytosterols, pre-
biotics, flavonoids, resveratrol, carotenoids and vitamin
E, for use in functional food development, is determined
by the expected nutritional values and health properties
of the final product (Forster & Sassi, 2009; Zubieta
et al., 2009). Consumers demand added-value dairy
products, so milk beverages and drinking yoghurts with
enhanced health benefits could be the alternatives
(Thevis, 2007). This provides opportunities for dairy
products with fortified fruit-derived bioactive ingredi-
ents (Wegrzyn et al., 2008; Sun-Waterhouse et al.,
2010c,d). Living micro-organisms (probiotics), non-
digestible carbohydrates (dietary fibre and prebiotics)
and bioactive plant secondary metabolites (e.g. pheno-
lics) should be included in foods for promoting health
through gut microbial reactions (Puupponen-Pimiä
et al., 2002). Conjugated linoleic acid (Kurstjens, 2009)
and protein (Little, 2009) have been used as functional
food ingredients for weight-loss diets. The obesity
epidemic has led to a consumer need for foods with
weight-controlling properties (Kovacs & Mela, 2006).
Ingredients such as conjugated linoleic acid, diglyce-
rides, medium-chain triglycerides, green tea, protein,
ephedrine, caffeine, capsaicin and calcium may be
suitable for weight control (Kovacs & Mela, 2006;
Kurstjens, 2009; Little, 2009). It has been suggested that
polyphenols, especially flavanols, can be used to develop
new functional foods and beverages to promote brain
health via improvement of vascular health (Ghosh,
2009).
Berry polyphenols have been used in finished func-
tional foods (Ravi et al., 2009; Sun-Waterhouse et al.,
2010a,c). Fruits of blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum spp.) are
known to have high anthocyanin contents, including
cyanidin 3-glucoside, cyanidin 3-rutinoside, delphinidin
3-glucoside and delphinidin rutinoside (da Costa et al.,
1998). Blackcurrants are rich in antioxidants, including
anthocyanins, hydroxybenzoic acids, m-coumaric acid,
quercetin, catechins, procyanidins and vitamin C (da
Costa et al., 1998; Hakkinen et al., 1999; Lyall et al.,
2009). Anthocyanins and betalains can contribute to the
overall appearance of processed fruit products because
of their natural colour, as well as having health-
promoting properties (Stintzing & Carle, 2004). Con-
sumption of cranberries rich in phenolic phytochemicals
such as phenolic acids, flavonoids and ellagic acid may
result in lower risk of urinary tract infections and
cardiovascular diseases (Vattem et al., 2005).
Challenges encountered during food development
While incorporating ‘functional’ ingredients, either
individually or in combinations, into a food may
increase the product’s health-promoting properties,
undesirable food attributes and technical issues may
also occur. Consumers demand proven health benefits,
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International Journal of Food Science and Technology  2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Fruit-based functional foods D. Sun-Waterhouse 911
without compromising flavour, taste and colour (Bhask-
aran & Hardley, 2002; de Graaf, 2007; Tuorila, 2007).
The inclusion of polyphenols in foods contributes to
bitterness and astringency, because of the interaction
between polyphenolics, mainly procyanidins, and the
glycoproteins in saliva (Kallithraka et al., 1998; Ben-
nick, 2002; Charlton et al., 2002; Shi et al., 2005a,b;
Axten et al., 2008; Jaeger et al., 2009). Bitterness and
astringency have been identified as the key sensory
issues during formulation of products with high poly-
phenol content (Peleg et al., 1999; Axten et al., 2008;
Jaeger et al., 2009). Flavour formulation and develop-
ment is one of the key aspects in processing a successful
functional food (Milo Ohr, 1999). There are also
challenges in developing drinks carrying enough fibre
for food label claims. High insoluble fibre content in a
drink causes sensory issues like grittiness, which leads to
lower consumer acceptability (Sun-Waterhouse et al.,
2010a).
Another key issue related to functional foods ⁄ bever-
ages is the stability and bioavailability of the bioactive
components in the selected food systems. The stability of
the added bioactive components is vital, in order to
deliver their beneficial biological properties. Stability of
polyphenols and dietary fibre is influenced by food
format, formulation, processing and storage conditions
(Duhard et al., 1997; Dietrich et al., 2003; Renard, 2005;
Wegrzyn et al., 2008; Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2009b,
2010a). Sometimes the stability of an active component
can also influence the acceptance of a food by consum-
ers, e.g. pigments anthocyanins in foods. Factors such as
addition of sugars or salts, and exposure to light, have a
negative effect on anthocyanin stability in an isotonic
soft drink system (de Rosso & Mercadante, 2007). While
probiotic cultures are widely accepted functional ingre-
dients, extensive differences in acid resistance ⁄ tolerance
exist among probiotic Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium
strains in orange juice, pineapple juice and cranberry
juice after thermal and non-thermal processing, includ-
ing high pressure treatment. Therefore, the addition of
probiotic cultures to fruit juice beverages requires
tailored formulation and processing technologies to
ensure the delivery of probiotic cultures (Sheehan et al.,
2007).
Both the biological activities and sensory attributes of
a beverage result from individual compounds as well as
chemical and physical interactions within the food
matrix during processing, storage, ingestion and diges-
tion (Sun-Waterhouse, 2009). For example, the use of
green kiwifruit aqueous extract for making gluten-free
bread led to a strong fruity flavour, softer and smoother
texture, and additional antioxidants in bread, compared
with traditional gluten-free bread (Sun-Waterhouse
et al., 2009b). The use of self-assembled food ingredients
and complementary antioxidants can protect bioactives
during processing and storage, and control the release of
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011
912 Fruit-based functional foods D. Sun-Waterhouse
bioactives at the desired site of action in the body,
without compromising the sensory properties of the
food, by reducing contact with the environment and
other food components in the product (Ruben &
Larsson, 1985; Robins & Wilson, 1994; Kilcast & Clegg,
2002). A food microstructure and macrostructure can be
created to alter volatility and retention (controlled
release) of aroma compounds, or slow down or reduce
the contact between bitter compounds and taste recep-
tors (Lafarge et al., 2008).
Possible processing approaches and innovations
Possible processing approaches to manipulate tempera-
ture and viscosity of a beverage include mechanical force
(pressure, shear, extension and ultrasound), high-pres-
sure homogenisation, microfluidisation, ultrasound
emulsification, high-pressure processing and ultra high-
pressure processing (Mongenot et al., 2000; Kwon et al.,
2002; Shibata, 2002; Lordache & Jelen, 2003; Rastogi
et al., 2007).
High-pressure processing (HPP) is a fast emerging
technology that is used for non-thermal pasteurisation
of foods as well as quick freezing and thawing of heat-
and chill-sensitive products (Houška et al., 2006). In
Europe, products obtained by this technology are tested
as novel foods following the Novel Foods Legislation.
HPP of fruit and vegetable products offers the mainte-
nance of high quality and increased shelf life (Hayashi,
1992; Gould, 1996; Butz & Tauscher, 1998). HPP
pasteurisation can preserve the nutritional substances
in juices and their beneficial biological properties, such
as sulforaphane in broccoli juice and its anti-mutagenic
activity, which is comparable with that of frozen
untreated juice (Houška et al., 2006). However, when
high pressure is applied e.g. around 600 MPa, the
decomposition of the artificial sweetener aspartame in
a neutral medium, e.g. milk, is possible (Butz et al.,
1997). Ultra high–pressure (UHP) processing generally
does not induce loss of beneficial substances such as
vitamin C and carotenoids in products from oranges,
apples, peaches, carrots, tomatoes, strawberries and
raspberries, except for sucrose in raspberries (Butz et al.,
2003).
Nanoscience is an emerging area of science that
provides knowledge of the interactions and assembly
behaviour of food components at the microstructure
scale, which profoundly influences food structure, rhe-
ology and functional properties at the macroscopic scale
(Sanguansri & Augustin, 2006). A supercritical fluid
extrusion process has been successfully used for pro-
ducing a novel healthy snack with 40–60 wt% of protein
(Cho & Rizvi, 2010).
It is worth noting that there are obstacles for
introducing new food-processing technologies. Food
industries are generally unwilling to replace traditional
processing technologies totally with new technologies,
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011
International Journal of Food Science and Technology  2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology
for reasons of cost of facility purchase ⁄ installation, staff
training and space use. Public acceptance of new
technologies is another important determinant for their
success. Consumers prefer minimally and naturally
processed foods and have concerns about foods pro-
duced using too many high technologies.
Delivery systems and technologies
Minimising the undesirable impact of bioactives is one
of the ‘holy grails’ in the functional food area. While
improving food formulation is an effective approach
(e.g. through increasing sweetness), the use of masking
techniques such as encapsulation may help to improve
the flavour profile (Young et al., 1993; Drewnowski &
Gomez-Carneros, 2000; Yoo et al., 2006; Mozafari
et al., 2008; Given, 2009; Lee et al., 2009).
Encapsulation, such as co-extrusion, liposomes, spray
drying, spray chilling, is a technique of enclosing liquid
droplets or small particles of a sensitive substance within
a continuous thin film or coating material, or embedding
it in a solid polymer matrix (Dziezak, 1988; Zhou et al.,
2009). This technique is used to protect bioactives and
has been applied to both aqueous and lipid-based
systems (Gouin, 2004; Gharsallaoui et al., 2007; Bae &
Lee, 2008; Mozafari et al., 2008; Given, 2009; Heide-
bach et al., 2009; Saenz et al., 2009; Sánchez-González
et al., 2009). Spray drying has been the most commonly
employed technique in food industries (Rosenberg et al.,
1990; Shahidi & Han, 1993; Drusch et al., 2006; Chiou
& Langrish, 2007). Spray-drying technology enables the
transformation of a feed from a liquid form (e.g. juice or
milk) into free-flowing powders with an extended shelf-
life and ease of handling (Shahidi & Han, 1993; Tan
et al., 2005; Saenz et al., 2009; Sun-Waterhouse &
Wadhwa, 2010). Furthermore, dual benefits can be
delivered, if the encapsulant used for protecting the
bioactives is also an active ingredient like fruit fibre.
Characterisation and analysis of fruit-based functional foods
Characterisation of food properties and analysis of
bioactive composition are not only required during food
research and product development, but also used for
quality control (QC) purposes to verify health content
claims. This is the key to building the market image and
reputation of a functional food product. In addition to
the routine analyses for conventional foods, it is
essential to analyse the composition and amounts of
bioactive compounds before adding them to foods, after
processing and during the storage time required for the
selected food format or demanded by the client. The
type of analysis methods used depend on the type of
bioactive compounds that are targeted. One should take
into account extracting artefacts when measuring bio-
active compounds. For example, accelerated solvent
extraction and solid-phase extraction may be required
before the total amounts of extractable polyphenols in a
 2011 The Author

polyphenol-enhanced food such as bread or snack bar,
or a beverage such as a smoothie or milk drink, can be
measured by the Folin Ciocalteu assay (Singleton et al.,
1997; Naczk & Shahidi, 2004; Ravi et al., 2009; Sun-
Waterhouse et al., 2009b, 2010a,b,c,d).
For characterising the properties of fruit-based
functional foods, High-Performance Liquid Chroma-
tography (HPLC) and gas chromatography (GC)
methods are the analytical methods of choice, showing
high resolution and excellent accuracy, especially when
they are coupled with mass spectrometry (MS). HPLC
or LC–MS can be used to analyse polyphenols,
carotenoids and vitamins (George et al., 2005; Steven-
son et al., 2006). GC or GC–MS can be used to
analyse flavours, aromas, fatty acids, and neutral
monosaccharides of fibre (Young & Paterson, 2006;
Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2008b, 2009c, 2010b). Spectro-
photometric methods are also used widely for assessing
uronic acid content of pectic polysaccharides, total
extractable phenolic contents (Singleton et al., 1997;
Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2008b), and other nutrients
such as protein (Bradford, 1976). Fourier transform
infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, size-exclu-
sive high-performance liquid chromatography, nuclear
magnetic resonance spectroscopy and rheology can be
used to examine the changes in food components
caused by their interactions in a food matrix (Yang
et al., 2003; Wellner et al., 2005; Maforimbo et al.,
2006; Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2007; Sivam et al., 2010).
Methods for measuring antioxidant activities include
Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP), Oxygen
Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) and cyclic
voltammetry (Perez-Jimenez & Saura-Calixto, 2006;
Pino et al., 2006; Yang et al., 2007; Sun-Waterhouse
et al., 2008a,b).
Conclusions
The current rapid growth of the functional food sector is
stimulated by consumer self-awareness, ageing demo-
graphics and escalating health-care costs. Current trends
and changing consumer needs continue to generate
novel functional foods and food-processing technolo-
gies. Fruit-derived ingredients and bioactives continue
to be cornerstones of the functional food market,
because of their validated health benefits and consumer
perceptions of naturalness. Considerable opportunities
exist in the fruit-origin product category for expansion
and innovation.
Developing functional food products is a consumer-
led process. Potentially rewarding functional food con-
cepts will be those subjected to extensive assessment of
consumer acceptance, as well as efficacy and safety,
through animal and human proof-of-concept testing for
potential health claims. A structured approach for
designing and developing finished functional products
 2011 The Author
International Journal of Food Science and Technology  2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Fruit-based functional foods D. Sun-Waterhouse 913
is essential to ensure market success. Maximising the
synergistic interactions between bioactive ingredients
and other food components in the selected food format
during food processing and storage is the key to food
innovations in this functional food area.
Acknowledgments
The author acknowledges literature search support from
Ms Michele Napier and comments from Dr William
Laing (Plant & Food Research). This work was funded
by The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food
Research Limited (Novel Food Delivery capability
project).
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