Chen, Ke. How Global Is US Major League Baseball

How global is U.S. Major League Baseball?
A historical and geographic perspective

Author(s): Ke Chen, Charles Gunter and Chunhua Zhang
Source: GeoJournal, Vol. 77, No. 3 (2012), pp. 429-444
Published by: Springer
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GeoJournal (2012) 77:429-444
DOI 10.1007/sl 0708-011-9406-x
How global is U.S. Major League Baseball? A historical

and geographic perspective
Ke Chen • Charles Gunter • Chunhua Zhang
Published online: 28 January 2011

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011
Abstract This article explores the globalization Introduction

of
U.S. Major League Baseball (MLB), measured by the
Sports are part of popular culture and reflect the
participation of foreign-born players in the sport from
1876 to 2005. Data show that the number of non social structure of ethnicity, race, and gender of a
native athletes has been increasing since the endnation
of (Klein 1995; Sherlock 1998; Douglas 2002;
World War II, suggesting that MLB is becoming Lawrence
a 2004). Sports are also important compo
more globalized organization. An investigation nents
at of a country's economy, and are well recog
nized as a significant contributor to the Gross
regional and country levels reveals that most foreign
participants in the 1990s and early 21st centuryDomestic
are Product (GDP), consumer expenditures,
from Latin America, especially the Dominican and employment opportunities (Gratton and Taylor
2000; Siegfried and Zimbalist 2000). They not only
Republic. In contrast, most African, European, and
create massive revenues from audiences, broadcast
Asian countries have shown little sign of participa
tion. This implies that the global reach of MLB is
ing rights, and sponsorship, but also foster related
limited. An empirical study of 2005 data suggestsindustry development through expenditures on sports
that prosperous countries, neighboring countries,
equipment
or (Gratton and Taylor 2000).
countries having a close political relationship with
Going beyond national borders, sports serve as a
the U.S. tend to provide more athletes to MLB. In
political instrument and play an important role in
other words, the globalization of MLB is reliantpromoting
on international relationships (Vinokur 1988;
America's economic, cultural, and geographic Keys
prox 2004). For instance, in 1971, a team of U.S.
imity to the rest of the world. table tennis players was invited to China, leading
to the establishment of a formal diplomatic relation
Keywords MLB ■ Baseball • Globalization ship between two countries in 1972 (Basu 1997). In
Spatial distribution addition, as sports are attracting spectators and
participants from all over the world (Magnusson
2001; Miller et al. 2001), they are often linked to
national character and identity (Vinokur 1988; Bair
ner 2001; Miller et al. 2001). Competition at soccer
games in the World Cup or Olympics Games may
K. Chen (El) • C. Gunter • C. Zhang
become overheated as the championship is often
Department of Geosciences, East Tennessee State
University, Johnson City, TN, USA associated with national pride (Bale 2003). As one
e-mail: chenk@etsu.edu part of globalization phenomena, sports are also
Springer
430 GeoJournal (2012) 77:429-444
viewed as a form of cultural and/or economic Secondly, this study contributes to the field of
imperialism of Western countries due to their dom geography through both historical analyses
cultural
and
inance in popular sports (Ley 1985; Klein 1995; quantitative methods. Previous scholars have
Bale
1996; Bale 2003; Chiba 2004; Keys 2004; Klein described the geographic distribution of athletes, or
2006; Kelly 2007). have used humanistic methods to interpret how
In this study, we focus on the global effect of U.S. baseball is linked to various cultural elements and
Major League Baseball (MLB), one powerful organi globalization processes (Ley 1985; Bale 1996; Klein
zation in the world of baseball. Originated in the U.S., 2006). In this study, we draw on examples from
baseball was once viewed as the American pastime. around the world to address some key topics in the
While in the early years most players in the profes cultural diffusion. With case studies from countries
sional leagues were domestic athletes, the game is such as China and India, we explore how the
becoming more globalized. International audiences, expansion of MLB is influenced by place character
sports broadcasting, and sale of MLB merchandise istics, cultural proximity, and historical impact. In
overseas have expanded tremendously since the 1990s addition, we adopt a statistical model to examine the
(Guevara and Fidler 2002; Klein 2006; Kelly 2007). importance of multiple factors, including economic
The global expansion of MLB could also be measured relationship, geography proximity, and political
by the participation of foreign-born players (Chiba connection. Using a deductive approach, our statis
2004; Lee and Lin 2007). Since foreign audiences are tical analysis amends to the qualitative examina
excited to see their own players in MLB and want them tion by providing a general explanation of factor
to win, presence of non-native athletes represents the importance.
popularity of the game in the country (Rosentraub The structure of this study is organized as follows.
2000; Guevara and Fidler 2002; Chiba 2004; Klein We first briefly review the literature of globalization
2006; Lee and Lin 2007). Therefore, participation of and sports, as well as the spread of baseball outside the
foreign players in MLB helps the sport to localize the U.S. In the following section, we analyze historical
game overseas and gain larger audiences. This, in turn, trends and the globalization of U.S. MLB by the
helps MLB to fulfill its economic goals (Guevara and number of foreign-born players. Next, we develop a
Fidler 2002; Klein 2006). statistical model to investigate the importance of
We seek to investigate the global expansion of socioeconomic, political, and geographic factors upon
MLB since baseball was first institutionalized in the globalization of MLB. Finally, we conclude with a
America in the late 19th century. We also intendsummary
to and offer recommendations for future
research.
examine how the global effect of MLB is influenced
by a country's social, economic, geographic, and
political connections with the U.S. There are two
major contributions of this study. First, we add toLiterature
the review
discourse of sports geography and globalization from

Globalization and sports
a temporal-spatial perspective. A survey of literature
reveals that many studies on the globalization of
baseball are undertaken from a historical or socio Globalization refers to the increasing interconnected
logical viewpoint but there is a significant lack ness
of of people and places through converging pro
geographic perspective (Klein 1995; Klein 2001; cesses of economic, political, and cultural change
Bale 2003; Keys 2004; Klein 2006; Kelly 2007). A(Rowntree et al. 2009). On one side, the interconnec
tedness process could be interpreted as the imperial
few attempts have been made to incorporate spatial
expansion of leading Western economies to develop
factors in the migration studies of baseball players,
but they have covered a relatively short period ing
of countries for new markets, raw materials, and
time (Chilba 2004; Lee and Lin 2007). This study,
cheap or skilled labor (Klein 2006; Kelly 2007). On the
through an exploration of foreign-born players' other side, the global interdependence also involves
participation in MLB from 1876 to 2005, provides alocal responses from developing nations. These
more detailed and comprehensive understanding include
of local reactions to economic permeation, resis
MLB's global expansion. tance to ideological infusion, revivals of traditional
Springer
Geo Journal (2012) 77:429-^144 431
customs, its profit (Guevara and Fidler

and initiatives to 2002). Driven by
combat
(Friedman 1999; Maguire
revenues, 1999).
MLB has been ardent to promote the game
on a global
Similar to other forms scale (Klein 2006).
of Meanwhile, the
popular
economic and cultural
sports have become aimpact of MLB on Latin phe
global
Olympic Games American
and countries
World is widespread (Rosentraub
Cup 2000). are
MLB dominates
as global sports, baseball in these countries, espe
characterized by
cially in the
connections (Klein Dominican Republic
2006). and Venezuela.
Though ga
a local arena, athletes
Underprivileged boys come from
in such areas usually view di
MLB as a major way out of on
sports are broadcasted poverty (Rosentraub
a globa
national companies are
2000). In Lee and Lin's involved
(2007) study of international
professional baseball, U.S. MLB and
duction, transportation, is confirmed consu
as the
(Maguire 1999; coreKeyswithin world professional
2004; baseball; its global
Klein 2
Sport diffusion forces have influenced the outcomes
involves not of different
only local the
but also professional baseball
movements of cultures. Furthermore, MLB has
capital, per
gies, and ideologies
shaped flows of globalization
(Maguire in terms of labor 199
Furthermore, as the
migration, technologyglobalization
diffusion, economic interac
tion, media
there is a growing involvement, and ideological
network ofexchange
inter
(Lee audiences,
that tie athletes, and Lin 2007). These studies have sports
addressed o
conglomerates, some
marketing
fundamental problems in sports geography
firms, and a
operations globalization, including
together (Maguireplace, space, power, and
1999)
Though sports identities
are(Bale a1996).
small fraction
economy, they Other studies of
have sports and globalization are
become focused
fundam
of culture in many societies
on athletes' migration (Rosen
between sports organizations
(Maguire 1999; Lee and Lin 2007), where participa
example, the interconnectedness
political relations and
tion of international policies
players is a strong symbol of on
globalization (Klein
health (Rosentraub 2006). In the case of
2000). European
Sports
symbolic value as
soccer, Maguire
well. and Stead (1998)
They examine the migra
remai
people's identity and
tion involving are
the countries of the Europeanoften
Union and a
Europe's soccer
national prestige confederation. They use multiple
(Maguire 1999; R
Emotions thatfactors
are expressed
that encompass political, economic, cultural, loc
constructed in the context
and geographical of
dimensions to explain athlete migraa glo
such as the World
tion. In theCup (Miller
study of baseball, Klein (1995) examines et al
As indicated players' salary disparity
earlier, the between professional leagues
diffusion o
viewed as a form of cultural and/or economic and explains the motivation for migration. In Chiba's
imperialism of Western popular culture (Ley (2004) 1985;
athlete migration study of MLB, he finds
Klein 1995; Bale 1996,2003; Chiba 2004; Keys 2004;
evidence supporting the influence of interdependency
in professional
Klein 2006; Kelly 2007). In particular, because of the baseball. However, he also cautions
dominance of U.S. economy and technology in the
that the increase of foreign players does not equate to
world, the globalization of American sportsthe is process
much of globalization in the sporting world.
related to its cultural and or economic imperialism.
Instead, part of the explanation for athlete migration
This may be motivated by the desire forcan access to
be attributed to variations in the quota system of
particular professional leagues (Chiba 2004).
foreign markets as well as the belief in the superiority
of American cultural icons (Klein 2006; Kelly When
2007).
methodology is concerned, many studies of
sports
Some studies of sports diffusion are focused and globalization use case analyses and
on the
role of multiple intermediaries, especially qualitative
internamethods (Ley 1985; Bale 1996; Klein
tional sports organizations and their global1995;influ
Bale 2003; Chiba 2004; Keys 2004; Klein
ences. In the field of baseball, the U.S. Major 2006;
League
Kelly 2007). A few scholars have attempted to
Baseball (MLB) has acted like a multinational use statistical analysis in the sports literature. For
company, exploiting worldwide talents to maximize instance, Leeds and Leeds (2007) use population,
<£} Springer
432 GeoJournal (2012) 77:429-444
income, American
political, and missionaries early in the 19th century var
historical
gate success in(Seymour
soccer at
1990). In Mexico, the
the game nati
spread when
quantitative U.S. employees were
methods addworking for
a railroads
new in the me
in cultural 1880s (Klein 1995). In Panama, American workers
geography.
played baseball when they worked on the Canal Zone
The early global(Oleksak and Oleksak 1991). Similarly,
diffusion of when the
U.S. b
U.S. gold miners labored on the Crown Mine in South
This Africa, they
study focuses on taughtbaseball,
local people to play baseball
ain spo
humble game in the late the
1800s (ConnorUnited
2006). Stat
Baseball also spread through
(Rielly 2003). Baseball quickly students who incr
ity and became returned from the U.S. This occurred
accessible to when the
large a
such as Chicago, military
Boston,
and economic interactions New betweenYor their
Baltimore, and home
New country Orleans.
and America were increasing. By Fort
was already nationalized
instance, Cuban students returning as from the A
U.S. univer
sities and
(Perez 1994; Kelly colleges brought
2007). At the game back to their
roughly
home island in the 1860s
baseball was introduced to (Seymourother 1990; Perez
par
1994). Likewise, Chinese
well, mainly through students in the
U.S. U.S. in the
militar
presence (Kelly1870s and 1880s also contributed to the introduction
2007).
The spread of of baseball
baseball to their home country to some
(Seymour 1990). c
directly related to the
Furthermore, baseballU.S. military
diffused indirectly through a
soldiers who werethird country.
stationedBaseball was first brought
abroad to the
For example, the Dominican U.S.Republic by Cuban sugar planters who org
military
Singapore in 1868arrived against
in the 1870s seeking refuge
a during
Britishthe battles
the game to theforlocal
independence community
in Cuba (Oleksak and Oleksak (S
the Philippines, 1991). Years later, other Cubans
baseball was fled to Mexico
first i
during Cuba's violent drive toward independence
the 1898 Spanish-American War (Se
some places, baseball was
from Spain in the 1890s and broughttaught
the game there t
colonial control.as well
For (Oleksak instance,
and Oleksak 1991). in 18
signed between the Overall, the overseas diffusion
U.S. and of baseball
Great in the Br
country would second half of the 19th century coincides exploit
unilaterally with the rise
of American imperialism
the British taught cricket and is perceived
to as an the
Americans organized
effective tool to occupy baseball
and control other countries gam
Oleksak 1991). (Klein 1995; Rielly 2003). This process is similarto the
Another and maybe more
spread of other popular sports, such as popular
cricket, which
ball diffused was through
diffused successfully to countries with closeAmeri
cultural
foreign countries. These
ties to England people
(Kaufman and Patterson 2005). in
ies, educators, YMCA instructors, an
instance, Shanghai Baseball Club,
MLB and its globalization
baseball organization inprocess China, wa
by American medical missionary
Baseball was commercialized
Boone (Reaves 2002). This in the U.S. with the
happen
Opium War, whichfounding of the National League
forced in 1876. Eight to
China
franchises were
the West. In Japan, the established in Boston, Chicago,
introductio
through a Cincinnati,
young Hartford, Louisville, New York,
American, Philadel
Horace
teaching phia, and
history andSt. Louis (Ojala and Gadwood 1989).
English at The a
during 1867 andAmerican
1873. League wasIn
founded in 1901. In 1903, after
Korea, mis
Gillett was considered the signing of a national
the agreement,
key the two leagues
pers
baseball to the Korean Peninsula in 1905 (Reaves began to meet in championship series. In 2000, they
2002). In Hawaii, baseball was introduced by were consolidated in the Commissioner's office as
Springer
GeoJoumal (2012) 77:429-444 433
Major League the number of non-native athletes

Baseball declined as well.
(MLB). For
use MLB or Major
By 1945, there
League
were 26 non-native
to players,
refer
account
baseballleagues ing for 2.4 percent 1876
from among all participants.
to After the
World War II,
Today, though there are many both the numbers of domestic and non ba
various countries, U.S.
native players started to MLB is
grow. In 1960, the the
percent
leading age of foreign-born
organizer in the athletesbaseball
increased to 4.4. The w
2000). games MLB
1960s and 1970sare broadcast
saw major expansion in the number
of both domestic
tries, foreign-born and non-native players
athletes in MLB
contrib
talent pool, and overseas
when more teams were added to therevenu
Major League.
ingly important sources
The number of foreign-born of profit
athletes experienced a
the globalization
period of of
doldrums MLB is
in the late 1970s, conc
but resumed
national dividesrapid
allgrowth in the mid 1980s. In the following
countries into
2006). Tier one decades,
countriesthe percentage of non-native
are players those
mature and well known.
increased at a phenomenal rate.In
By 2005,places
there were
Republic, Japan, or
376 foreign Mexico,
players baseba
in the Major League, accounting
and the numberforof
19.8 percent
theiramong all athletes.
players in
and consistent. Tier two countries are those where the There is a non-linear relationship between the
game is less developed and the leagues are amateur or number of domestic and non-native players (Fig. 3).
semiprofessional. These countries produce an insig The growth in the number foreign-born players
nificant number of players to MLB. Italy, Australia, occurred at a much faster rate than that of domestic
and the Netherlands are examples. Tier three com athletes in recent years.
prises those countries in which baseball has only At least two reasons explain the small number of
recently been introduced or has not taken root in the foreign-born players in MLB until the mid 1940s.
local sporting tradition. South Africa, England, and First, two World Wars hampered the participation of
Germany are such countries. There are very few non-U.S. players. Although American military inva
players from tier three countries in MLB (Klein 2006). sion helped the spread of baseball into different parts
Therefore, MLB's global expansion could be of the world, it was very difficult for foreign talents to
measured by the participation of foreign-born players seek a professional career in baseball in the U.S.
(Klein 2006). The number of non-native athletes during times of war. The other reason is racial
reflects the popularity of baseball in the player's segregation. Though Blacks played in professional
home country. It reflects the potential revenue from baseball games in the 1870s and 1880s, none was
broadcasting rights and the sale of MLB related allowed to participate in MLB when the "Gentle
merchandise as well (Klein 2006). man's Agreement" excluded African Americans in
In the following sections, we examine the partic the late 1880s (Hannon 2009). It was not until 1946
ipation of non-native players in MLB and the when Jackie Robinson, an African American, joined
historical change of the organization's global reach. MLB and broke the racial barrier. After racial
All data come from the Baseball Almanac website.1 integration, the Major League opened its doors to
dark-skinned baseball talents from Latin America,
An overview of athletes' participation especially from Cuba (Hannon 2009).
in MLB, 1876-2005 MLB also adopted strategies to spread the game
abroad after the end of World War II. For instance,
In the early years from 1876 to 1915, the number of attempts were made in the 1960s to place baseball
domestic players in MLB increased rapidly, while the teams in Latin America and Japan to localize the
number of foreign-born sportsmen grew much slower sport (Rielly 2003). Furthermore, the spread of radio
(Figs. 1, 2). Between the Two World Wars, the and television, global flow of labor, and cultural
number of domestic players dropped significantly and exchange after the war helped further the popularity
and globalization of baseball (Rielly 2003; Foer
2004; Lee and Lin 2007). As a result, the number of
non-native athletes in MLB grew rapidly from the
1 Website: www.baseball-almanac.com/players/birthplace.php.
^ Springer
434 GeoJournal (2012) 77:429-444
Fig. 1 Number of U.S.

born and foreign-born
players in MLB, 1876-2005
Fig. 2 Share of foreign

born players in MLB, 1876
2005
late 1940s to the early 1970s. Regarding the relatively where players were competitive (Guevara and Fidler
slow growth in foreign-born players in the Major 2002). From an economic viewpoint, it was specu
League in the following two decades, Guevara and lated that the U.S. baseball market would become
Fidler (2002) propose that baseball stagnated in the saturated, which propelled MLB to expand globally
1970s and 1980s, both in terms of number of to increase its revenues from playing games, broad
franchises and overall popularity at home and over casting the sport, and selling MLB franchised prod
seas. In addition, when the political relationship ucts overseas (Riper 2005). To do so, one important
between the U.S. and Cuba deteriorated, a sharpstrategy adopted by the Major League was to recruit
decline of Cuban-born players was highly detrimental non-native players to foster the passion of the local
to the pool of foreign talents in MLB. audience in foreign countries (Klein 2006). For
In the 1990s, there was a lost passion for baseballinstance, Japanese fans in 1995 were so excited
inside the U.S. Both the quality and quantity of when the Los Angeles Dodgers signed a contract with
American baseball talent declined (Guevara and a Japanese pitcher Hideo Nomo that the club started
Fidler 2002). Consequently, MLB teams madeits a own Japanese TV network and attracted a
significant effort to hunt rigorously in Latin Americasignificant audience (Riper 2005).
^ Spring er
GeoJournal (2012) 77:429-444 435
Fig. 3 Scatter plot between the numb
Table 1 Number of foreign-born play

N. America
Europe Central America Asia
(excluding South America
U.S.)
Num. Share% Num. Share% Num. Share% Num. Share% Num. Share%
1876 0 0 11 100 0 0 0 0 0 0
1900 0 0 5 100 0 0 0 0 0 0
1915 7 28.0 13 52.0 5 20.0 0 0 0 0
1930 2 50.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 0 0 0 0
1945 11 42.3 3 11.5 12 46.2 0 0 0 0
1960 6 9.7 6 9.7 47 75.8 0 0 3 4.8
1975 15 16.9 3 3.4 65 73.0 0 0 6 6.7
1990 15 10.1 3 2.0 109 73.2 1 0.7 21 14.1
2005 44 11.7 1 0.3 224 59.6 38 10.1 69 18.4
Central American countries include Bahamas, Belize, Costa Rica, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti,
Honduras, Jamaica, Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico and Caribbean islands
No players come from Africa
In summary, MLB has become a more globalized Participation of foreign-born MLB players
organization with more participation of foreign-born at regional and national levels
players since the 1960s. This could be attributed to
racial integration and American cultural expansion An analysis of foreign-born players in MLB at
(Klein 2006). This could also result from MLB's regional level shows that the organization has not
global reach effort, as MLB has acted like a multi expanded to all world regions (Table 1). Though
national company, exploiting worldwide resources to European players accounted for the largest share
maximize its profit. Therefore, the growth in the among all foreign athletes before WWII ended, there
foreign-born players in recent years is different from have been few athletes from these countries since
early days when the spread of baseball was viewed as then. Instead, players from Central America have
a process of American cultural imperialism (Guevara become the majority among non-U.S. players. In
and Fidler 2002). 2005, 60 percent of foreign players came from
•£) Springer
436 GeoJournal (2012) 77:429-444
Fig. 4 Foreign-born
players in MLB in 2005
Central America,
208 members
18 and sponsors
percent
the World Cup, which has
from
percent from provided
North the most importantAmerica
arena for countries to (C
and 10 percent
competefrom
in for excellence. Today,
Asia.
soccer is not Ver
Europe, and merely a pastime
none was but often of
is an expression of social,
African
Before Worldeconomic, War political, and I, most
racial identity for both teams fore
from Europe. and enthusiastic fanscoincides
This (Foer 2004). It is not uncommon wi
wave from the old world to the new land. Take for the game to be closely associated with national
Ireland for example, the country provided 39 pride. From a sociological perspective, as European
players
to MLB in our study period, the highest among countriesall
keep losing jobs to their previous colonies,
European countries. Among these players,they 38 were
view competition on the sports field as a way
born between 1844 and 1891. This happened to reassert
when masculinity. On the other side, soccer
there was a massive Irish migration to North Amera means for previous colonies to defeat their
provides
ica, after the Great Irish Famine during 1845 and(Foer 2004). All the intertwining between
colonizers
1850. Similarly for England, the second largest
soccer and colonial history and politics has fostered
source place, 22 of 31 MLB players were born zest in Europe and its former colonies. Thus, baseball
before the 20th century. When the European migra could not replace soccer as a popular game in Europe
tion wave ended around the turn of the century, very without a tie to national pride and identity.
few Europeans played in MLB. In North America, the first Canadian appeared in
Lack of participation from Europe in postwar MLB in 1879, 3 years after its inauguration, while the
years might be explained by the fact that soccer first Mexican did not appear until 1934. Since 1971,
became the most popular sport in the continent. there have been more Mexican players than Canadian
According to the International Federation of Associ athletes in the Major League. In 2005, there were 25
ation Football (FIFA), modern rules of soccer were Mexican players and 19 Canadian players, account
established in England in the mid 19th century. After ing for six and five percent respectively among all
that, soccer spread to Europe and European colonies foreign athletes.
overseas, such as Brazil and Argentina. When FIFA Central America became an important source of
was established in 1904, it was already a multi MLB participants between the two world wars. The
national association, including Britain, France, number of players from this region kept increasing
Belgium, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, since the mid 1970s, making Central American
Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland. Now, FIFA has countries the most important supplier of baseball
<£) Springer
GeoJournal (2012) 77:429^*44 437
also have a long history of playing baseball due to the

military, economic, and cultural influence from the
U.S. (Rielly 2003). Another look at the salary of
MLB players might explain why playing in the Major
League is so attractive to athletes in these countries
(Oleksak and Oleksak 1991). According to CBS
news, the average salary of an MLB player was $2.0
million in 2000 and $2.6 million in 2005. In
comparison, per capita GDP at purchasing power
parity for Central American countries was only
around five thousand dollars in 2005. Therefore,
Fig. 5 players from
baseball isCuba,
viewed not only asDominican
entertainment but also R
Rico, 1876-2005
more as a way to advance oneself out of poverty in
Caribbean countries, especially the Dominic Repub
talent. Leading sources are Cuba, the Dominican lic. Interviews with local people reveal how they
Republic, and Puerto Rico (Fig. 5). Other source perceive the importance of baseball in their lives.
countries include Honduras, Jamaica, Nicaragua, "Dominicans talk about two things: politics and
Panama, Virgin Islands, etc. In 2005, players from baseball. If you don't know about baseball, you
Central America accounted for 60 percent of all simply don't exist" (Lakshmanan 2004). Also, "as
foreign athletes. soon as parents know that they're pregnant, imme
Since Cuban players made their way into MLB in diately they assume it's a boy and they imagine he
1911, the number of athletes from the island country will play baseball" (Lakshmanan 2004).
increased significantly during the 1950s and the early There are not many non-native players from
1970s. The number declined in the 1970s and South American countries. The most popular sport
remained stagnant in the 1980s and early 1990s.
there is soccer, not baseball. According to FIFA
While the surge of Cuban-born players can rankings
be in 2008, the top five teams came from
explained by racial integration in MLB, the Argentina,
decline Brazil, Italy, Spain, and Germany. As
was largely due to the U.S. embargo of Cubamentioned
startingbefore, as ex-European colonies, winning
in 1961 (Klein 1995). Fidel Castro bannedonprofes
soccer fields implies defeating former colonizers
(Foersensi
sional sports in the early 1960s and political 2004). The association of soccer and national
pride
tivity led to a declining contribution of Cuban fosters passion for soccer and thus has grass
players
in the Major League (Rielly 2003). While the root number
support.
of athletes from Cuba declined, the Dominican There is no significant contribution from Asia,
Republic became the largest provider of talent tothough some players appeared in sporadic years. For
MLB since the early 1990s. The first Dominican example, Harry Kingman from China played in MLB
player joined MLB in 1956. The number increasedin 1914. However, he only played for that year and no
rapidly, and by 2005 there were 144 Dominican other Chinese player has ever played at that level.
players, accounting for 38 percent among all nonThe lack of Asian players might be explained by the
U.S. players. Puerto Rico, another important propro-European and anti-Asian immigration policies in
vider, has also sent athletes since the end of World the late 19th century, when U.S. Congress began to
War II. In 2005, there were 51 Puerto Rican players restrict immigration to white people. For instance, in
in the Major League, accounting for 17 percent of all1882 Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act to
foreign-born athletes. prohibit Chinese immigration to the country.2 In the
At first glance, players from Central Americanearly 20th century, immigration policies of Theodore
countries are at an advantage playing in MLB as theyRoosevelt's Administration, together with xenopho
are geographically close to the U.S. It has been bia and economic recession, made it very difficult for
reported that when the domestic pool of baseball
athletes is shrinking, clubs go to Caribbean countries
for talent (Gratton and Taylor 2000). These countries2 Source: www.uscis.gov.
■fj Springer
438 GeoJournal (2012) 77:429^144
foreigners, Western influence in the

especially 1960s and 1970s. Baseball
Asians, to com
States. When did notImmigration
the return to China until the Cultural Revolution Act
the was ended inquotas
national-origin the late 1970s (Swiryn
and2008). In 2002,
equal
policies, a large the China Baseball League
influx ofwasnew formed, and immi
China
countries came participated
to the in the 2006 U.S.3 A mo
World Baseball Classic.
gration policy has
However,
made
baseball is a much
it less popular
possible
sport in
to join MLB. China than soccer or basketball. There are a number
Japan has provided most Asian players to MLB. of reasons. When China began to open its doors to the
The first Japanese athlete, Masanori Murakami, a left outside world in the late 1970s, the government
handed pitcher, made his debut in the Major League perceived sports as an important means to re-establish
in 1964 and played for 2 years. Following the 1965 national pride by winning international competitions.
season, in which he posted an earned run average Therefore, China established a state sponsored sports
(ERA) under four and earned eight saves, Murakami system to train athletes and professional sports in
returned to his original Japanese team due to China have more political implications than com
contractual obligations (Mayeda 1999). It was not mercial ones (Marchman 2007). For soccer, China
until in 1995 that a second Japanese-born pitcher needs to defeat many other Asian teams in order to
Hideo Nomo joined MLB. Nomo became the first compete in the World Cup. However, for decades,
Japanese-born major league athlete to permanently China has found it hard to buy its ticket into this
relocate to the United States. He threw two no-bitters international competition and lost games to much
during a career that spanned thirteen seasons before smaller countries in Asia. Driven by the dream of
retiring in 2008. Nomo's success encouraged other"Out of Asia", soccer is a very popular game among
Japanese baseball players to follow and American young Chinese. Basketball also has gained popularity
baseball has experienced a significant influx of in China because Yao Ming, the famous NBA star,
Japanese athletes since then. For instance, in 2000, has acquired worldwide fame. For many young
one of Japan's most famous baseball stars, Ichiro Chinese, to play basketball well and get into the
Suzuki accomplished his dream to play in MLB. InNBA has become a dream that could be realized. But
2006, another top Japanese pitcher, Daisuke Matsu for baseball, such a Chinese icon has not appeared
zaka decided to play in the Major Leagues. He signed yet. Therefore, baseball has neither strong state
a 6-year $52 million contract with the Boston Redsponsorship nor grass root support in China. When
Socks.4 The accomplishments of these successful MLB had tours in Beijing, it was not even televised in
athletes keep inspiring more Japanese baseball play China (Marchman 2007).
ers to join MLB. Unlike its northern neighbor, the most popular
South Korea is the second largest provider of sport in India is cricket. The game was brought by the
Asian players. The first Korean-born athlete appeared British in the 1700s, and has been tightly associated
in MLB in 1994. In 2005 there were ten South with social development such as the caste system and
Korean players. Other Asian countries andreligion.
regions Since the first Indian athlete made his way to
that have sent players to MLB include Taiwan, the
play the game at a high level in the late 1800s, the
Philippines, Afghanistan, Vietnam, and Singapore,
cricket field has provided a place where Indians could
most of which have had an American military
proudly compete with their colonizers, the British. In
presence. addition, the cricket field has offered an opportunity
There is an absence of MLB players from wheretwo people from socially, economically, and reli
large Asian countries, China and India. Agiously
careful disadvantaged classes, such as the untouch
able
investigation of Chinese sports shows that the class,
lack of may play equally with each other
(Kaufman
their players in MLB has deep historical grounds. The and Patterson 2005). With a national
Communist regime outlawed baseball as an evilfor cricket, Indians have not yet displayed
passion
much interest in baseball.
While more and more Asian athletes are com
3 Source: www.uscis.gov. peting in the U.S. baseball arena, no one from

4 Source: www.mlb.com. Africa has appeared in MLB. One explanation is
Springer
GeoJournal (2012) 77:429^44 439
that the U.S. ties with African countries are much A statistical model
looser. Due to geographic proximity, Africa has

To further understand the global expansion of MLB,
been influenced by Europe in many ways, including
economic, cultural, and political development.we establish a statistical model to examine the
Similar to South America, soccer is a popular relationships between foreign players' participation
game in most of Africa. Though African soccer MLB and various social, economic, political, histor
teams are less well known in the world stadium, ical, and geographic factors in other countries. For
soccer does have more grass root support than any convenience, definitions for all variables are pre
other team sport. In many parts of Africa, except sented in Table 2.
South Africa, the position of baseball is marginal The dependent variable is the number of foreign
ized by soccer (Connor 2006). For instance, there is born players in MLB in the year of 2005 for each
little space or facilities for baseball in Ghana. country. This represents the global expansion of
When fields are cleared for baseball, it is occupied MLB (Chiba 2004; Klein 2006; Lee and Lin 2007).
by soccer players immediately (Ellsesser 2007; The first independent variable is a country's popula
Stauffer 2007). tion. Leeds and Leeds (2007) argue that population
However, the Major League has been extending represents the size of the appropriate labor force. We
its reach to Africa. South Africa was its first choice
expect that as population increases, the number of
in the continent. When apartheid ended in 1994, people who are talented in baseball grows as well.
sports began to emerge from the enforced isolation The size of population also reflects a potential market
and children from different racial backgrounds are for MLB games and related merchandise. Since the
now allowed to play together. This provides MLB a driving force of MLB's global expansion is eco
great opportunity to introduce baseball to school nomic, there is reason to expect that the baseball
children in the country. In its initiative to spreadorganization would promote games where there is a
large market. Population data for 2005 came from the
baseball in the country, the Major League has spent
hundreds of thousands of dollars to provide ele World Bank.5
mentary schools with bats, balls and, most impor The second variable is individual country's per
tant, instructions for physical education teachers, capita GDP at purchasing power parity (PPP).
who must typically learn the game from scratch Baseball needs not only well maintained sport fields,
themselves. As a result, tens of thousands of South but also personal equipment. We expect that eco
African children, most of them black, have been nomically developed countries would have a higher
reached and now have begun playing the sport. percentage of sport economy and more athletes in
Furthermore, satellite television and ESPN offerings baseball. As mentioned above, since MLB is a profit
have provided baseball a chance in South Africa to driven organization, it would be interested in expand
attract youngsters into the game (Cauvin 2000). As ing the game where people can afford to watch and/or
a result of these efforts, baseball has begun to gain play the game. Data in 2005 came from the Interna
popularity in South Africa. tional Monetary Fund (IMF).6
The above analysis at regional and national levels The third variable is the overall trade volume with
shows that MLB has successfully recruited players the U.S. A higher volume represents a tighter
from Central America. However, there is still a economic link with America, leading to more cultural
complete absence of players from Africa in MLB. interactions, including sports. Data in 2005 came
Neither has MLB successfully expanded to the most from the TradeStats Express.7 Since the U.S. is the
populated Asian countries, South American nations, core of the world economy, this variable could also
or European countries. This finding is consistent with be regarded as the level of a country's economic
Kelly (2007), who questions whether baseball could integration into the global market. The fourth variable
be considered a global sport when compared to other
worldwide games, such as basketball or even football.
In Klein's (2006) words, "for baseball to become a 5 Website: www.worldbank.org.
real global sport, it will have to find a way to become 6 Website: www.imf.org.
entrenched in Europe and Africa". 7 Website: www.data.gov.
Springer
440 GeoJouraal (2012) 77:429^44
Table 2 definition of
Variables Definition
variables
Dependent variable
MLB Number of foreign-born players in MLB in 2005 per country
Independent variables
Pop Population in 2005, in millions
GDP Per capital GDP (PPP) in 2005, in U.S. dollars
Trade Export and import with the U.S. in 2005, in millions of U.S. dollars
Distance The great circle distance between country center and the U.S. center
U.S. Influence 1 if ever colonized or stationed by the U.S.; 0 otherwise
Europe 1 if a European country.; 0 otherwise
EUInfluence 1 if ever colonized by any European countries; 0 otherwise
Communism 1 if ever or now a communist country; 0 otherwise
presents the geographic proximity between the U.S. (2004) argues that in the post-WWII era when former
and others. It is measured as the great circle distance European colonies gained independence, soccer fields
between each country's geographic center to the U.S.were viewed as a battle field for national pride.
center. Geographic distance is a frequently used For this reason, we expect that baseball would
variable to measure the friction of space on interac have less impact in these countries, leading to fewer
tion. We expect athletes in neighboring countriesMLB players. Any non-European country with a
have a higher possibility to join the Major League.history of European colonization is assigned a value
Likewise, geographic proximity makes it easier for of 1 and other countries a zero value. The last dummy
MLB to recruit talent from adjacent countries. variable, Communism, represents the political sys
Besides these four continuous variables that cap tem. Due to the cold war, there was a blockage in
ture individual country's socio-economic and geoeconomic, political, and cultural interactions between
graphic relationships with the United States, we also the United States and communist countries. Such
include four dummy variables to capture a nativecountries could lack grass root support for baseball, a
country's political link with America. As examined in sport viewed as American culture. Based on these
the previous section, baseball spread through Amer reasons, we expect any country that either was and/or
ican military and economic reach. Thus we expectis under control of a Communist regime to provide
that, if a country was ever colonized by the U.S. or fewer baseball players to MLB.
had U.S. military personnel stationed there, it was Countries with missing values in any independent
more exposed to American culture and thus has a variable are excluded from the statistical analysis,
higher possibility to develop baseball. Such countries leaving a sample of 154 countries. As most of the
are assigned a value of 1. Other countries are countries have a zero value for the dependent variable
assigned a value of 0. The second dummy variable and the data are highly skewed (Tables 3, 4), an
represents a European identity. Since soccer is the ordinary least square (OLS) regression is not appro
most dominant sport in European countries, it is priate. Instead, we apply a Poisson regression to
relatively difficult for baseball to develop into a model the data, which is also used in Leeds and Leeds
popular sport. This impedes the global reach of MLB. (2007). A summary of basic statistics is listed in
All European countries were assigned a value of 1 Table 3.
and others 0. Since the most popular sport now in

Europe is soccer, we expect the impact of this dummy Results
variable to be significantly negative.

The third dummy variable represents a European Results from Poisson regression are displayed in
cultural influence. In world history, European coun Table 5. The impact of the population variable is not
tries colonized over half of the globe, including significant, suggesting that a country with larger
Africa, Central and South America, and India. Foer population size does not necessarily contribute more
^ Springer
GeoJoumal (2012) 77:429-444 441
Table 3 Basic statistics of continuous variables
Variables N Mean SD Min Max Skewness
MLB 247 1.5 10.9 0 144 10.6
Pop 247 24.8 111.1 0.0 1,306.3 9.9
GDP 168 12963.0 13,545.8 19.0 87,400.0 1.75
Trade 168 13.4 50.5 0.0 499.3 6.9
Distance 247 6,075.9 2,051 1,220.0 12,174.8 0.26
Table 4 Frequency counts of dummy variables statement that there is an increasing influence of
Variables Counts Value = 1 Value = 0 globalization on professional baseball (Chiba 2004).
On the other side, this finding seems contradictory
U.S. Influence 247 18 229
to the fact that a majority of foreign players come
Europe 247 48 199 from poor Caribbean countries. When we look at the
EUInfluence 247 170 77
global expansion strategies by MLB, it becomes
Communism 247 20 227
easier to understand this result. The Major League
developed baseball programs for children in countries
including Australia, England, Germany, and South
Table 5 Poisson Africa,
regression most of which are rich countries, but not in
results
Variables Estimate SE Pr > chi sq poor countries such as the Dominican Republic or
Venezuela (Guevara and Fidler 2002). Early expo
Intercept -0.6519 0.4789 0.1735
sure to baseball helps recruit local players, which in
POP -0.0004 0 0.7378
turn, further promotes the development of the game
GDP 0.0000 0 <.0001
in the country (Guevara and Fidler 2002). It is rich
Trade 0.0058 0 <.0001
countries where MLB wants to popularize the game,
Distance -0.0005 0.0001 <.0001
to recruit future players, and to develop a consumer
U.S. Influence 3.8429 0.1576 <.0001
market to watch games live or via cable broadcasts
Europe -2.6915 1.0448 0.01 and to buy MLB-licensed products (Guevara and
EUInfluence 2.9856 0.265 <.0001 Fidler 2002; Riper 2005).
Communism 1.361 0.3326 <.0001 The last continuous variable, the geographic
Number of observation 154 distance, presents a significantly negative impact.
Log likelihood 700.1 This suggests that countries that are closer to the U.S.
provide more players to MLB. On the other side, this
result confirms the argument that geographic prox
players to MLB. Obviously, in highly populated imity facilitates MLB's efforts to recruit athletes in
countries such as China, India, and Brazil, baseball is neighboring countries. Relating this result to the
not a popular game, and there are few MLB players local-global debate (Maguire 1999), we find that in a
from these countries. gradually more globalized world, distance is still an
Both economic variables, per capita GDP at PPP important impeding factor in the flow of labor force.
and trade volume, exert significantly positive impacts All four dummy variables have presented signifi
upon the dependent variable. A direct interpretation cant impacts. The variable of American influence has a
of this result is that, in general, countries that are positive influence. This signals that for countries with
more affluent have a higher possibility of providing exposure to U.S. military, they have a higher chance to
athletes to MLB. Since one important characteristics participate in MLB. Such countries include Japan and
of globalization is the free flow of capital, our results South Korea, where the U.S. military has been
indicate that as a country is more involved in the stationed since WWII and the game is entrenched.
The influence of Europe variable is negative, as
globalization process, it tends to participate more in
U.S. baseball games. This is consistent with the expected. There has not been a large European market
^ Springei
442 GeoJournal (2012) 77:429^44
for baseball since the

yet. The1960s. With influence
an increasing pool of interna of
variable, however, is MLB
tional participants, positive.
is becoming more globalized.Thi
explained with However, U.S. MLB is not
caution. Ita full-fledged
might global b
influence in Central American countries. All Central organization yet when data are analyzed at regional
American countries have a long history of Europeanand national levels. While early non-native players
were unanimously from Europe before the mid 20th
colonization. However, after America gained political
power in the early 1900s, these small countries are century, more recent increases mostly come from
more under the realm of U.S. economic and military
Latin American countries. There is almost a complete
influence. This helps explain why this variable is
absence of players from Africa and most populated
positive. Asian and South American countries. MLB baseball
Communism, the last variable, is positive as well. may not be labeled as a global sport before it
This is contradictory to what we have expected. A penetrates into Europe, Asia, and Africa (Riper 2005;
careful examination of the data shows that the
Klein 2006; Kelly 2007). The historical analysis and
case studies
positive significance comes from the influence of show that diffusion of MLB is influenced
by various social, economic, political, historical, and
one country, Cuba. Cuba has a long history of playing
baseball before it fell into the Communist regime.
geographic factors.
Pre-Castro Cuba used to be the main source of In addition to qualitative analyses, we establish a
Poisson regression model to examine factors that
foreign players for MLB, but the U.S. trade embargo
relate
on Cuba led to a great reduction of their players to the global expansion of MLB. Our statistical
in the
Major League (Guevara and Fidler 2002). Some model suggests that the number of non-native athletes
expect Cuba to resurge as a major supplier of quality in MLB is positively related to the nation's economic
baseball talent with the ending of its Communist development and integration into the world market,
regime (Guevara and Fidler 2002). In this sense, geographic proximity to America, and political
Communism has a negative impact on the dependent connections with the U.S. These are the countries
variable. The impact of the Communism variable where it is most likely for MLB to expand its global
becomes negative and insignificant when Cuba is influence, to recruit players, and to increase its
removed from the regression model. economic revenues (Guevara and Fidler 2002; Klein
Overall, results from the statistical model indicate 2006). This finding supports the view that perceives
that the number of foreign-born athletes in MLB is globalization as the dominance of Western economic
positively related to the nation's economic develop and cultural interests over the rest of the world
ment and integration into the world market. There are (Holton 1998).
a greater number of participants where American In summary, the early internationalization of
influence is more prevalent. On the contrary, there are baseball coincides with the rise of American impe
fewer non-native athletes where a country is farther rialism, diffusion of American culture (especially to
away from America, where there is more European neighboring countries), and accomplishment of racial
influence, or where there are weak political connec integration. The contemporary globalization of MLB
tions with the U.S. is motivated by growth in the global economy,
pursuit of global profit, and adoption of a global
talent exportation strategy (Klein 1995; Rielly 2003).
Conclusions In future research, we would further investigate
MLB's strategies to expand its global market.
Diffusion of sports is deeply embedded in wider local
and national cultural processes, which are intercon
nected with broader global changes (Maguire 1999).
Focused on baseball, this study investigates the
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How global is U.S. Major League Baseball?

A historical and geographic perspective

How global is U.S. Major League Baseball? A historical

Ke Chen • Charles Gunter • Chunhua Zhang

Published online: 28 January 2011

Abstract This article explores the globalization Introduction

discourse of sports geography and globalization from

customs, its profit (Guevara and Fidler

Major League the number of non-native athletes

Fig. 1 Number of U.S.

Fig. 2 Share of foreign

Fig. 3 Scatter plot between the numb

Table 1 Number of foreign-born play

1915 7 28.0 13 52.0 5 20.0 0 0 0 0

1930 2 50.0 1 25.0 1 25.0 0 0 0 0

1945 11 42.3 3 11.5 12 46.2 0 0 0 0

1960 6 9.7 6 9.7 47 75.8 0 0 3 4.8

1975 15 16.9 3 3.4 65 73.0 0 0 6 6.7

1990 15 10.1 3 2.0 109 73.2 1 0.7 21 14.1

2005 44 11.7 1 0.3 224 59.6 38 10.1 69 18.4

also have a long history of playing baseball due to the

foreigners, Western influence in the

3 Source: www.uscis.gov. peting in the U.S. baseball arena, no one from

looser. Due to geographic proximity, Africa has

and others 0. Since the most popular sport now in

variable to be significantly negative.

Table 3 Basic statistics of continuous variables

Variables N Mean SD Min Max Skewness

MLB 247 1.5 10.9 0 144 10.6

Pop 247 24.8 111.1 0.0 1,306.3 9.9

GDP 168 12963.0 13,545.8 19.0 87,400.0 1.75

Trade 168 13.4 50.5 0.0 499.3 6.9

Distance 247 6,075.9 2,051 1,220.0 12,174.8 0.26

for baseball since the

Bale, J. (1996). Space, Lakshmanan, I. A. R. (2004). Major

Sherlock, J. (1998). "Lean,

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