Q1.

Answer:

People can impart in more than one language. As language is characterized as the mechanism of
correspondence, defined as the medium of communication with the turn of events and
development of the world, individuals have begun to collaborate with each other like never
before. Therefore, individuals began to learn more than one language and accordingly got
bilingual and multilingual. The capacity to utilize more than one language prompts the blending
or hybridization of dialects. Individuals every now and again use expressions of one language
while communicating in another language and, on occasion, individuals utilize total expressions
of one language into another; these both are viewed as the conversational strategies in particular,
Code Mixing and Code Switching. This frequent mixing of the languages results in hybridization
of the language.

Hybridization

The term hybridization alludes to the cycle when a some of the cultural elements merge into
another culture and modifies it. Additionally, language hybridization happens when certain
words, phrases or phonological components of one language inculcate into another language
while replacing the actual words. Mostly, when two languages are continually combined as one
to a degree that it gets regular all through; a new language is formed which is considered as the
hybrid variety. This new verity of language will in general impart some comparative ascribes to
the two languages however has legitimate language and dictionaries of its own.

Hybridization in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is an area of Pakistan where various languages are utilized for
correspondence like Pashto, Urdu, Hindko and English. Urdu, being the national language of
Pakistan, is also the lingua Franca as it is the language in which majority of the ethnic groups
tend to communicate with one another. In the current local area, with the progressions and
training, individuals have begun to procure language and use it all the more frequently. This has
expanded the pattern of code-mixing which thusly is prompting hybridization. Following are the

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basic instances of language hybridization among Urdu and English, Pashto and English and
Hindko and English.

Urdu and English

 Single word Hybridization: machinaina (machines), filmain (films)

 Compound words Hybridization: parlimani leader, contract mulazamin
 Hybridization in Noun Phrase: achi class,, mukhtalif companies

Pashto and English

 Compound words Hybridization: professional kass, jenako education,

 Hybridization in Noun Phrase: new saplay, different lara
 Hybridization in verb phrase: book band ka, college k walk kom

Hindko and English

 Single word Hybridization: shoppingain, pipeaan,

 Hybridization in Noun Phrase: latest shaywaan
 Hybridization in verb phrase: sady kaar stay karson

As from the above instances, it very well may be noticed that a large number of the words are
being combined as one to given idea of new terms. Individuals deliberately and unwittingly
combine the words and expressions as one to appropriately convey their thoughts and positions.
There are a few explanations behind this hybridization in KPk which are as per the following:

Colonial background

As Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa is the region which was once overwhelmed by the colonizers,

individuals are pulled in towards English more than their native and national languages. Despite
the fact that, by far most individuals communicate in Pashto as their first language yet English is
blended in with it as a large portion of the terms were acquired from English during the
colonization time frame.

Social influence

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The linguistic change is a constant process which is highly depended upon the social concepts. In
the north spot of Pakistan, individuals like to utilize English words more in their language to
accomplish social importance in the general public. It has additionally been noticed that the
privileged families will in general show their children more expressions, colloquialisms and
jargon of English than their own language as English is considered as the language of status.

Education

Education has been assuming an essential part in this hybridization. It is because of the way that
the greater part of the instructive books in Pakistan is in English and teaching is done in Urdu as
it is a language that can be perceived by every one of the kids having a place with any ethnic
gathering.

Hybridization and Extinction of Words

In the current society of KPK, almost every person is now a bilingual or multilingual. As
training and current advancements have permitted individuals to associate all the more
effectively, individuals have begun to work on languages. As indicated by an examination
directed upon the Language Hybridization in Advertisements of Banks of Pakistan, it was
reasoned that the notices comprises of hybridize words. For example, bharosa Plan, mayanaz
plan and cash lay jaeye etc.

The same ads were displayed in KPK too. Thus it can be seen that words like Plan, Cash and
Gold have replaced the actual words. This allows the advertisers to influence people with their
language skills. Similarly, another studies showed that Pashto Speakers tend to use more English
phrases such as I can speak, kho za na nawayam and Sta marriage nady kol pakar etc.

Conclusion

In a nutshell, hybridization of language is a normally interaction which happens throughout the

time span because of different reasons as previously mentioned. In areas like KPK, individuals of
different nationality utilize different dialects. In any case, the mixing of language is more normal
in the general public and individuals are supplanting English words with that of Pashto, Urdu and
Hindko. At last, a period will come that the vast majority of the words utilized by the local
speakers will totally be replaced by that of English as it is a more ruling language than the public

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language, Urdu. In like manner, numerous etymologists see these marvels of language change as
evitable as code mixing is an outgrowth of bilingualism. Besides, English is considered as a
language of upper class and prestige, so majority of the people are compelled to use it in order to
attain a social respect. In conclusion, English identical words are more mainstream in the general
public because of the media and commercials, consequently, individuals will in general utilize
them in language as it permits them to cause the other individual to comprehend which is
likewise hybridization of language.

Q2.

Answer:

Language assumes a pivotal part in human interactions with one another. A lot of researchers
characterize language as a method for correspondence among individuals that is portrayed by the
use of arbitrary spoken or written symbols with agreed upon meaning. All the more
comprehensively, language might be characterized as correspondence all in all. Cook (1991) sees
the language at the focal point of human existence since we use language to communicate;
through language others could see us; language is the vehicle that culture, information and
science can be sent. Cook (Ibid) states: ''It is one of the most important ways of expressing our
love or our hatred for people; it is vital to achieving many of our goals and our careers; it is a
source of artistic satisfaction or simple pleasure’’ (p.2).

Culture is one of the essential elements of human life. No human society can exist without
culture; hence, the major difference between human and animal societies is that of culture only
as they lack the system of learning and transmission of social experiences. According to Taylor,
culture is complex whole which encapsulates knowledge, belief, art, morals, and other
capabilities and habits learned by men as members of the society. On the other hand, Herskovits’
opinion on culture is that man-made part of environment is culture. John Beattee speaks on it and
says that it is the way of life which is transmitted from one generation to the other.

Culture is a term that refers to a large and diverse set of mostly intangible aspects of social life.
According to sociologists, culture consists of the values, beliefs, systems of language,

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communication, and practices that people share in common and that can be used to define them
as a collective. Culture also includes the material objects that are common to that group or
society. Culture is distinct from social structure and economic aspects of society, but it is
connected to them both continuously informing them and being informed by them.

Culture is one of the most important concepts within sociology because sociologists recognize
that it plays a crucial role in our social lives. It is important for shaping social relationships,
maintaining and challenging social order, determining how we make sense of the world and our
place in it, and in shaping our everyday actions and experiences in society. It is composed of
both non-material and material things. Linton opines on culture and states that it is culture that is
social heredity which is transmitted from one generation to the other with the accumulation of
individual experiences. In summing up the very illustration on the term culture, it can be deduced
that culture is the design, pattern, way and procedures of different activities which members of a
society follow and transmitted from parents to their off spring.

According to C.H. Cooley, the process by the help of which a person learns his or her own self is
called socialization. On the other side, Maciver says that it is the process by help of which social
beings develop relationships with each other.

The process of socialization refers to when a person comes to this world and starts living in the
very society of humans. They have no know how of eating, drinking and wearing etc. In this
troublesome time of childhood socialization takes place. It is usually in primary group when
members have to come across interaction. As a result of the very face to face interaction, the
infants imitate whatever is done in front of them.

The phrase “language is culture and culture is language” clearly portrays the homogenous
connection between them. Language is unpredictably entwined with culture for example they
have developed together, affecting each other simultaneously, and eventually molding humans.

On the off chance that culture is a result of human interaction, social indications are
demonstrations of correspondence that are expected by specific discourse networks. All children
learn their language from their societies, and during the process of learning a language also learn
their culture and develop their cognitive abilities.

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Language conveys through culture constantly additionally imparts through language: Michael
Silverstein recommended that the open power of culture works in speaking to parts of the real
world, yet in addition in associating one setting with another. That is, correspondence isn't just
the utilization of images that "represent" convictions, sentiments, characters, or occasions; it is
additionally a method of bringing convictions, emotions, and personalities into the current
setting.

It is a language which shapes or limits the ways in which a speaker forms conceptions of the
world stated by Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. The theory is named after the American anthropological
linguist Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Whorf It is also known as the theory of linguistic
relativity or linguistic determinism. As indicated by the semantic relativity standard, the manner
by which we consider the world is straightforwardly impacted by the language we use to discuss
it. This present reality is, to a huge degree, unknowingly developed on the language propensities
for the gathering. No two dialects are comparable that they speak to a similar social reality. The
universes in which various social orders live are particular, not just the equivalent with an
alternate name joined" Therefore, to talk is to expect a culture, and to realize a culture resembles
knowing a language. Language and culture are homologous mental real factors. Social items are
portrayals and understandings of the world that should be imparted to be lived.

Language can mark the cultural identity, but it is also used to refer to other phenomena and refer
beyond itself, especially when a particular speaker uses it to explain intentions. A particular
language points to the culture of a particular social group. We can, therefore, conclude that
language learning is cultural learning and vice versa.

Q3.

Answer:

Bilingualism is to be able to convey and understand messages in two different languages

satisfying all basic needs of communication. This means, interacting successfully with others in
everyday life situations. It is an umbrella term that encompasses multilingualism too. It is also
called pluralism. On the surface level, it seems pretty conspicuous to define, but it is not the case

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to do so. However, there are still some contradictions among the linguists in the rationales and
opinions. For instance, there is no clear cut definition for the term bilingualism.

Factors Contributing in Development of Bilingualism

1. Marrying outside the ethnic group

With increase movement of population such as migrants and refugees and inter-ethnic adoration
along with subsequent marriages are on the boom. Marrying outside own group is termed as
exogamy. In such situations, kids might learn language of either mom or dad or sometimes both
but which language receives the status of domination depends on the prestige where they reside.

2. Having a parent outside the ethnic group

When inter-ethnic differences in L1’S of important people of family are found, language of the
odd person will be learnt which is dependent on a couple of factors such as if a child is raised by
grandmother more than the other members of the family so definitely the child would go with
hers more than other members of the family.

3. Occupation matters

Those speakers whose jobs have contacts outside of their ethnic group might have some solid
reasons to learn a second language for instance, the job of a vendor whose work involves selling
items. It is trade that has always helped in promoting bilingualism in every corner of the world.
Furthermore, a lot of people work for multi-national corporations and find second language
learning exactly an immense necessity. English has become a useful tool in businesses where
people do not share the same language in form of lingua franca.

4. Border areas

When there are demarcations among nations or ethnic group, at least some bilingualism is shown
by the people. This bilingualism is not reciprocal in nature. Speakers who are less dominant start
learning the dominant group language. Individuals who reside on borders side often learn
language spoken across the borders.

5. Minority group

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Minority groups refer to people whose language is not the official language in the provided
environment. These groups mostly lack political power or socio-economic prestige due to which
they are compelled to on learning the official language of the state by the help of which they can
participate freely in their state in different walks or activities of the state.

6. Living in a multilingual nation

Multilingual is referred to nations with more than one language. According to this scale, every
nation is multilingual in the world then. It is indeed pretty hard to find a monolingual nation in
the world. For instance, Asia is the best continent when it comes to bilingualism where almost
every speaker speaks two to three languages at least. On the other hand, displacement to another
area or nation also compels the individuals on learning the other language.

Every language in the world is made up of four fundamental skills that include listening, reading,
writing and speaking. All of the above four mentioned skills have a reciprocal relationship with
one another, that’s to say, each of the skills affects the other skill. Attentive listening skill leads
to a proper speaking skill and focused reading skill leads to an effective writing skill. Hence, it
can be deduced that a good reader is a good writer and a good listener is a good speaker. Each of
the skills has got its own distinction and importance along with some difficulties and
technicalities attached to it. It is very often true that one skill cannot be performed without
another.

English has four basic skills or abilities on the basis of which an individual’s language ability is
weighed or measured. They are divided into two classes’ namely receptive and productive skills.
Receptive refers to those skills through which we receive information such listening or reading.
On the other hand, productive skills are those by the help of which we produce information such
as speaking or writing.

Affecting Capabilities

Bilingualism creates when an infant is constrained to learn two dialects in the youth. At the point
when a youngster communicates in local language at home and one more than one language at
school or in any event, when he hears two dialects at home when the dad and mother

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communicate in various dialects, his language advancement is impeded for the straightforward
explanation that it makes disarray in the little child and his reasoning force is influenced.

Thus, language advancement is deferred and unfriendly impact is seen on the vocabulary,
communicated in language and so on of the kid. Because of move of preparing standards, single
word of one language is utilized in the subsequent language prompting flawed sentence
narrowing.

It is along these lines not alluring to give two more than one language to the kid before he enters
school (5-6 years age). By learning two languages before school going age, it gets hard for the
kid to adjust. Deformities in sentence development and appreciation are additionally noticed.

At the point when two languages contend with every other, in light of rivalry of reactions there is
negative impact. The kid's enthusiastic and social change is likewise influenced because of
bilingualism. Understanding the unfriendly impacts of bilingualism, Thompson (1962) has
remarked “There can be no doubt that the child reared in a bilingual environment is handicapped
in his language growth.”

At the point when father and mother communicate in various languages at home, it further
influences the kid's language improvement than when guardians communicate in one language in
particular. Offspring of worker guardians are generally exposed to bilingualism.

to sum up, the cognitive and neurological advantages of bilingualism stretch out from youth to
mature age as the mind all the more effectively measures data and fights off psychological
decrease. The consideration and maturing benefits talked about above aren't selective to
individuals who were raised bilingual; they are additionally found in individuals who become
familiar with a second language sometime down the road. Bilingual individuals appreciate
benefits: they have enhanced psychological control, all things considered; they have improved
metalinguistic mindfulness, just as better memory, visual-spatial abilities and even
innovativeness. There are additionally friendly advantages from being bilingual. For instance,
being able to investigate a culture through its local tongue or conversing with somebody with
whom you may some way or another always is unable to convey.

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Q4.

Answer:

People around the globe have different languages where some are spoken by a large community
of people while others are used in smaller groups. A language can prevail another language
relying upon its social-political status and utilization in the general public. As in the 21st century,
increasingly more method of correspondences is being presented like social sites, better methods
for transportation and advance correspondence application, the world is currently a worldwide
town. Accordingly, language shift has been noted more than ever which is expected to result in
the extinction of more languages by the next century.

Language Shift

The term language shift, as the name recommends, alludes to the marvels of shifting from one
language to another. As a rule, when a local area at last quits utilizing one language and likes to
utilize another language; it is viewed as Language shift. The move of language is additionally
alluded as language shift, language digestion or, now and again, language substitution.
Additionally, the unique wonder of this move of language is a result of social change which
occurs due to the linguistic diversity and human interaction. Also, as the present reality is using
and more individuals are currently conveying with no obstacles, numerous languages are
presently being supplanted with English or other overwhelming languages. Besides, as the group
of people start using the second language, the first language dies out.

Language Death

As expressed by David Crystal in his book Language Death, 6000 or more language are at the
skirt of death. At the point when a local area begins utilizing a language more than their own
language, language shift happens. It is because of this language shift that one language
dominants the other language and therefore, the primary language steadily loses its speakers and
vanish from the general public as the communicators number lessens to a broaden that no local
client is left. From the beginning of time, language move and vanishing or termination of
languages has been noted and numerous dialects that were once utilized by individuals are
supplanted with different dialects. For example, Latin language ceased to exist with the

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breakdown of the roman realm and was supplanted by English. Moreover, the Indo-European
language, Sanskrit, is presently considered as a dead language as the number of the speakers
diminished as language transfer occurred.

Factors Contributing to Language Shift

As per Hoffmann, (1991) language shift is the point at which a community no longer maintain its
actual language and eventually replaces it with another one For the most part, individuals having
a place with one gathering are impacted or constrained to utilize another language more
successive for purposes like exchange, force and schooling. Larger part of the time this shift is
because of elements impacting the general public are likely financial, social and political
variables including segment factors as well.

The Economic Factor

As a matter of first importance affecting variable is economic factor as people around the world
communicate for economic gains. Along these lines, nations which rule the exchange market, its
language likewise rules over different languages. Moreover, created nations like European
districts which offer better paid positions and openings constrains individuals to embrace their
local language like English. In this way, language shift happens as an ever increasing number of
individuals like to achieve capability in that language instead of their own language.

Social Factor

At the point when a population will in general convey in a language other than their primary
language for social reasons like status in the public arena, instruction and endurance, language
shift happens. Fundamentally, individuals who relocate starting with one country or city then
onto the next secure the language for getting comfortable that specific local area. Bit by bit, their
local language is supplanted by the language of the new country or city. For instance, larger part
of the Pashto talking families, presently dwelling in nations like Canada and Australia at this
point do not utilize Pashto, rather they utilize English.

Political Factor

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To gain political power in the world, numerous individuals like to get language and will in
general supplant with the primary language. This political factor is clearer as the public authority
chooses a specific language as the language of state. For instance, Urdu is the public language of
Pakistan and every one of the ethnic gatherings, when imparting or tending to the overall
population, need to utilize Urdu rather their neighbourhood language like Pashto, Punjabi and so
on and so forth.

Demographic Factor

As individuals go starting with one region then onto the next, language transfer additionally
happens. Individuals having a place with provincial territories when move to urban regions or
when the obstruction between the two happens, language changes happen as well. In addition,
this move of language specialists is more evident in metropolitan regions. In addition, the
segment factor is additionally relied on the size of a gathering of language speakers. Ultimately,
interracial relationships additionally offer space to language shift more often.

Language Maintenance

Unexpectedly, numerous individuals and ethnic gatherings actually select to keep up their
language. The practice of using a language while it is being forced to be replaced with a
language is more dominant. These speakers attempt to secure their language by different ways
like delivering more composed writing and by teaching it. As set up by Herik (2012), language
maintenance is viewed as the investigation of how languages tend to survive in the society
despite the consent threat of a more powerful language.

Conclusion

Basically, as the method of correspondence and collaborations are exhausting with the
progressions of the innovation, weaker languages are being replaced with more dominating
languages and people prefer to use a language that is more convenient for the communication.
Hence, a huge number of languages will in the end wipe out as individuals will adopt the
language which would offer better opportunities to them. Before 21st century's over, languages
which belong to minority group may not survive and would be replaced.

THE END

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