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Those organisms which are not seen in naked eyes because they
have size of 0.1 mm.

Besides macroscopic plants and animals, microbes are the major

components of biological system on this earth. They are present
everywhere-in soil, water, air, inside our bodies and that of other
animals and plants. They are present even at sites where no other life
form could possibly exist-sites such as deep inside the geysers (thermal
vents) where temperatures may be as high as 100 degree Celsius, deep in
soil, under the layers of snow several meters thicks, and the highly
acidic environments. Microbes are diverse ± protozoa, bacteria, fungi
and microscopic plants virus, viriods and also prions that are
proteinceous infections agents.

Microbes like bacteria and many fungi can be grown on nutritive

media to form colonies that can be seen with naked eyes.
While microbes are casual agents of most of the infectious diseases, but
they have also been used by humans in many important processes in
homes, industries agriculture and sewage treatment.
?

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×?

  cndian curd is prepared by inoculating cream and
skimmed milk with Lactobacillus acidophilus at 40 degrees. Curd
is more nutritious milk as it contains vitaimin-B12 and organic
acids. LAB present in curd checks growth of microbes.

×? D  Doghurt produced by curdling milk flavor of lactic

acid and acetaldehyde. Doghurt is often sweetened and flavoured
with fruit.

×?
  Consist of milk curd that has been separated from

whey or liquid part. Depending upon water content still present in
milk curd cheese is of three types : Soft (50%-80%), Semi hard
(45%), Hard (less than 40%)

i)? Swiss cheese ± Swiss cheese are due to production of a large

amount of carbon dioxide by a bacterium Propionibacterium
sharmnii.
ii)? Roquefort cheese ± Roquefort cheese is ripened by growing
specific fungi on them which give them a particular flavor.
×? 
 Small quantity of yeast Sacharomyces crevasse is
added to the wheat flour and kneaded. The kneaded flour is
leavened. The leavened dough is baked, carbon dioxide and
ethyl alcohol escape which makes bread porous and soft.

×?
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  The fermented preparation of rice
and black gram with Streptococcus species.

×? 

D Toddy is a traditional drink of some parts of southern

cndian and is made by fermenting sap from palms.

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Microbes especially yeasts have been used for the production of
beverages like wine, beer, whisky, brandy or rum.
i)? Alcoholic fermentation: Deasts are used for fermenting malted
cereals and fruit juices to produce ethanol.
Deast species used are:
a)?Saccharomyces cerevisae ± Brewer¶s yeast
b)?Saccharomyces ellipodens ± Wine yeast
c)?Saccharomyces sake ± Sake yeast
d)?Saccharomyces pireformis ± ginger beer yeast.

  

Antibiotics are chemical substances which are produced by some
microbes and can kill or retard the growth of other disease causing
microbes.
The first antibiotic discovered was Penicillin by Alexander Fleming in
1928. ct has been named after the mould penicillium notatum.
This antibiotic was use to treat wounded American soldiers in World
war ± cc.
Fleming, Chain and Florey were awarded noble prize in 1945 for their
discovery.

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Microbes are used for production of certain chemicals like organic acids,
alcohols and enzymes.
i)? Acid producers
a)?Aspergillus niger ± citric acid
b)?Acetobacter aceti ± acetic acid
c)?Clostridium butylicum ± butyric acid
d)?Lactobaccius ± lactic acid

ii)? Microbes used for production of enzymes ± Common enzymes :

a)?Lipases ± detergent formulations and removes oily stains from the
laundry.
b)?Pectinases and Proteases ± Bottled juices are clarified by the use of
pectinases and proteases.

iii)? Microbes as bioactive molecules :

a)?Streptokinse Produced by Streptococcus and modified by genetic
engeneering is used as clot buster for removing clots from the
blood vessels of patients who have undergone myocardial
infraction leading to heart attack.
b)?Cyclosporin A ± used as an immunosuppressive patients is
produced by the fungs Trichoderma polysporum.
c)?Statins ± Produced by yeast Monascus purpureus have been
commercialized as blood cholesterol lowering agents.

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The use fertilizers and pesticides to meet the ever-increasing demand of

agricultural produce have contributed significantly to pollution. So ther
is a large pressure to switch to organic farming to use of biofertiliers.
Main source of biofertiliser-bacteria, fungi and cyanobacteria.


 
Rhizobium bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen into organic forms
i)? which is used by plants as a nutrient.
ii)? Azospirillium and Azotobacter are free living bacteria that can
fix atmospheric nitrogen thus enriching the nitrogen content of
soil.
Î  
i)? Mycorrhiza ± they are fungi from genus Glomus that form
symbiotic associations with plants. They absorb phosphorus
from soil and pass it to the plant.

Other benefits ± they make the plants resistant to root-borne

pathogens tolerance to salinity and drought and an overall
increase in plant growth and development.
×?
D
 
They are autotrophic microbes widely distributed in aquatic and
terrestrial environments which can fix atmospheric nitrogen/
e.g. Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria
They serve as an important biofertiliser in paddy fields.
They also add organic matter to the soil and increase its fertility.
 

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c have successfully completed the project with the help of teachers of

biology department. Books like

×? "lementary biology
×? NC"RT book
×? Dinesh biology

And sites of CBS", along with the help of my friends.

Signature of the "xternal




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Soft drinks are non-alcoholic beverages cold soft drinks are mostly
used during summer for instant relief from exhaustion. Nowadays its
significance has been increasing on and off as a common household
drinks. cn cndia companies which are the leading manufacturers of the
cold drinks are Thumbs UP, Miranda, 7UP and Slice based on the CO2
content of the soft drinks they are categorized as follows:
×? Category 1 : Still Soft drinks
Non-carbonated (which do not contain any dissolved CO2) soft
drinks are of these types.
×? Category 2 : Carbonated soft drinks

These soft drinks are also called as scale water as they contain
dissolved carbon dioxide. The amount of CO2 dissolved in a soft drink
should not exceed the recommended limit i.e. it should not be more than
amount which can be dissolved in 1 atm. Pressure and a temperature of
600 F. the amount of dissolved CO2 differs from soft drinks to soft
drinks.
ô
 


×? Litmus Paper
×? pH Paper
×? Sodium Metal
×? Benedict¶s Solution
×? Molish¶s Solution
×? Fehling¶s Solution
×? Sodium Bicarbonate
×? Hydrochloric Acid
×? Nitric Acid
×? Sulphuric Acid
×? Ammonium Hydroxide
×? Silver Nitrate
×? Ninhydrins reagent
×? Soft drinks on which the test is to be performed
×? "thyl Alcohol
×? Barium Chloride


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Where the solution is acidic or alkaline can be indicated by dipping a
litmus paper into the solution. Change of blue Litmus to red and red
litmus to blue indicates the acidic or basic nature.

×? ¦ 
pH of solution is defined as the negative logarithm or Hydronium or
Hydrogen ion concentration, present in the respective solution.
pH = - log (H+) or ± log (H3O+)
The pH of a solution can be known by the change of color of pH paper is
the characteristic of the hydrogen ion concentration. pH value 7
indicates that the solution is acidic.

×?  ô ô
£
This metal is highly reactive and hence does not exist in pure state in
nature. cn metallic state it is white and lustrous and to avoid any reaction
it is kept in kerosene.
 ×?  p
 

This reagent is used for qualititative test of carbohydrate present in
compounds. T is usually prepared by dissolving 1.73gm of crystalline
CuSO4 with 100ml water (Solution A) and 1.75 gm of Na2CO3 in 80ml
of water (Solution B). Thereafter mixing both solutions A and B and
diluting with distilled water up to 500ml.

ô£   

This reagent is also used for qualitative test of carbohydrate. ct is
prepared by dissolving 1 gm of Naphthalene in 100ml alcohol.

×? Î £  £

c.? Fehling solution A: ct is prepared by dissolving CuSO4 in very
dilute H2SO4.
cc.? Fehling solution B: ct is alkaline solution of Sodium Potassium
tartarate. ct is prepared by dissolving 8.33 gm of Sodium
Potassium tartarate and 5.5gm of Sodium Hydroxide in 250 ml
of distilled water.
×?  ô  p

ct is commonly known as baking soda and has importance in bakery
factories. ct is usually prepared by Solvay¶s process.
Sodium bicarbonate is prepared by carbonate till saturation.
Na2CO3 + H2O ± NaHCO3

×?
p £ p p 
ct is an important inorganic acid having lot of application in laboratories
as ell as many industries. ct reacts with metals, metal oxide, metal
hydroxide and carbonates to produce corresponding metal chloride.
i.? NaOH + HCc ± NaCl + H2O
ii.? NaCO3 + 2HCl ± 2Nacl + CO2 + H2O

 !"  "

a)?Conc. HCl ± Where the percentage of water is less than of acid. ct
is an important reducing agent.
b)?Dil. HCl ± Where the percentage of acid is less than of water.

×? 
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ct is an acid having strong oxidizing power. ct reacts with metal oxides,
hydroxide and carbonates to form corresponding metal nitrates. ct is
prepared in laboratory by treating sodium nitrate with concentrated
H2SO4.
NaNO3 + H2SO4 ± NaHSO4 + HNO3
Pure nitric acid is colorless but impure nitric acid is yellow ecuase of
dissolved NO2 gas in it.
 ""  "
a)?Conc. HNO3 ± Where the percentage of water is less than acid.
Mixture of concentrated HNO3 in 3:1 ratio is called aquaregia and
is used as very strong oxidizing agent.
b)?Dil. NHO3 ± Where the percentage of acid is less than water.

£  p p 
Sulphuric acid is actually called ³King of chemicals´. ct is prepared by
³Contact Process´. Concentrated H2SO4 is a syrupy liquid. ct absorbs
SO3 to form fuming sulphuric acid or oleum.
H2SO4 + SO3 ± H2S2O7
(Pyro sulphuric acid or Oleum)
Concentrated H2SO4 is also used as a dehydrating agent because it has
strong affinity to absorb water. Usually acid is added to water (not the
reverse) to avoid accident due to spurting of acid.

×? ôô ô p £ 
ct is a white crystalline substance and is insoluble in water producing a
neutral solution. ct is commercially prepared from ammonium sulphate
and sodium chloride.
 ×?  £ 


When metallic silver is dissolved in dilute nitric acid and the solution is
evaporated called as lunar caustic.
3Ag + 4HNO3 ± 3AgNO3 + 2H2O +NO
Silver Nitrate is light sensitive, when exposed to light it reduces to
metallic silver.

×? ôô ô
 
Ammonium is highly soluble in water because of intra molecular
hydrogen bonding between ammonia is called as ammonium hydroxide.
 # ô 
 ô T"ST R" UcR"D FOR TH" CHARACT"RcSATcON OF
DcFF"R"NT SOFT DRcNKS.
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Carbon Dioxide is a colorless and odorless gas. The bottles of respective
soft drinks were opened and time was noted for completion of
effervescence due to release of compressed CO2.

"%* "+  +!"% 

, % 
Thumps Up 16 min
Mirinda 14 min 4 sec
7 Up 5 min 10 sec
Slice O sec

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The colors of all the soft drinks were noted and were tested to know the
flavor.

 -
  Î 

Thumbs Up Black Cola
Miranda Orange Orange
7 Up Transparent Soda
Slice Dellow Mango
 â ? 
A few ml of each drinks were taken in test tubes and pH of the soft
drinks were taken in test tubes and pH of the soft drinks were taken c test
tubes and pH of each solution was measured by putting a piece of paper
into their respective solutions.

 - 
 Î

Thumps Up 6.5 Slightly Acidic
Mirinda 6.5 Slightly Acidic
7 Up 6.5 Slightly Acidic
Sliece 6.5 Slightly Acidic
. ? !/0
When a little amount of soft drink is taken in a test tube followed by
addition of Fehling¶s solution, red precipitate of Cuprous Oxide is
formed is formed, indicating the presence of aldehyde group. The
presence of aldehyde group cu ion indicates the reducing property of
aldehyde group.


R ± CHO + 2Cu2 + 30H ± R-COO + 2H2O + CU2O
DRcNKS OBS"RVATcON cNF"R"NC"
Thumbs Up Red precipitate Aldehyde Present
Miranda Red precipitate Aldehyde Present
7 Up Red precipitate Aldehyde Present
Slice Red precipitate Aldehyde Present
 ‰ ? ! !" /0
When a piece of sodium metal was added to a few ml of a soft drink
strong effervescence indicated the evolution of Hydrogen gas showing
the presence of alcoholic OH group.
2R ± OH + 2Na ± 2R ± ONa + H2O

 -   Î

Thumps Up Red precipitate Alcohol present
Mirinda Red precipitate Alcohol present
7 Up Red precipitate Alcohol present
Slice Red precipitate Alcohol present

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×? Litmus Paper Test: Blue litmus turned red showing the presence of
acidic group (-RCOOH).
DRcNKS OBS"RVATcON cNF"R"NC"
Thumps Up Blue litmus turned red Carboxylic group
present
Miranda Blue litmus turned red Carboxylic group
present
7 Up Blue litmus turned red Carboxylic group
present
Slice Blue litmus turned red Carboxylic group
 ×? 


  A sweet smelling solution is obtained when ethyl
alcohol is added to a few ml of a soft drink followed by a few
drops of concentrated H2SO4 indicating the formation of ester due
to the present of carboxylic group.
R-COOH + CH3CH2OH + H2SO4 ± R-COOHC2H5 + H2O

 -   Î

Thumps Up Sweet Smell "ster is present
Miranda Sweet Smell "ster is present
7 Up Sweet Smell "ster is present
Slice Sweet Smell "ster is present

2 ? 
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Addition of dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) resulted in brief
effervescence due to evolution of CO2. When Barium Chloride (BaCl2)
is added to a few ml of a drink a white precipitate is formed which is
dissolved by adding dilute Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) to it.
CO3 + H2SO4 ± SO4 + H2O + CO2 (g)
BaCO3 + 2HCl ± BaCl2 + H2O + CO2 (g)
 · ? "%
When Silver Nitrate solution was added to a few ml of a soft drink, a dull white
precipitate of silver chloride was formed indicating the presence of chloride ion in
the solution. Addition of aqueous Ammonia to the same solution dissolved the
precipitate forming a soluble Silver Amino complex.
Cl + AgNO3 AgCl (s) + NO3
AgCl + 2NH4OH (Ag(NH3)2) Cl + 2H2O
DRcNKS OBS"RVATcON cNF"R"NC"
Thumps Up No change Protein is Absent
Miranda No change Protein is Absent
7 Up No change Protein is Absent
Slice No change Protein is Absent

 ? "%'.)
Addition of a few drops of nitric acid to a sample of the drink followed
by Ammonium Molybedate solution resulted in yellow precipitate of
Ammonium Phosphate Molybedate indicated the presence of Phosphate
ion.
DRcNKS OBS"RVATcON cNF"R"NC"
Thumps Up Dellow Precipitate PO4
Miranda Dellow Precipitate PO4
7 Up Dellow Precipitate PO4
Slice Dellow Precipitate PO4
 
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×? ô 

 One percent solution of Molish¶s reagent was added

to a few ml of a soft drink followed by addition of 1ml of
concentrated Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) along the side of the test
tube. A purple ring was formed indicating the presence of
carbohydrate in the soft drink.

 -   Î

Thumps Up A purple Ring Was Carbohydrate is
Formed Present
Miranda A purple Ring Was Carbohydrate is
Formed Present
7 Up A purple Ring Was Carbohydrate is
Formed Present
Slice A purple Ring Was Carbohydrate is
Formed Present

×? 


  




 Few drops of Benedict¶s solution was added
to a few ml of soft drink and was heated up. Formation fo red
precipitate indicated the presence of carbohydrate in the soft drink.

 -   Î

Thumps Up Dellow Precipitate Carbohydrate is
Present
Miranda Dellow Precipitate Carbohydrate is
Present
7 Up Dellow Precipitate Carbohydrate is
Present
Slice Dellow Precipitate Carbohydrate is
Present
 

?


×? cnvariably all the soft drinks which were taken for experimental
verification were found to have similar characteristics except of
carbon dioxide and phosphate content.

×? Based on carbon dioxide content it was found that Thumps Up had

much more dissolved carbon dioxide and Slice contained very less
carbon dioxide.
 

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×? NC"RT text book of Chemistry.

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