Chapter Synopsis

This chapter will expose the students to

BMM3643
the fundamentals of machining process
Manufacturing Processes
which involve the mechanism by which
Topic 4 :
Material Removal Processes materials are cut.
(Fundamentals of Machining)
LECTURER:
Nur Azhani Abd Razak
Department of Mechanical Engineering
azhani@ump.edu.my

Chapter Information Introduction

Lesson Objective:
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
describe the production of chips during machining.
explain the factors involved in temperature rise
during machining process and its effects.
describe the wear and failure mechanism of cutting
tools.
explain the surface finish and integrity of machined
parts.
Machining is a general term describing a group
of processes that consist of the removal of
material and modification of the workpiece
surfaces after it has been produced by various
methods.
Therefore, machining involves secondary and
finishing operations.
Advantages of machining:
Variety of work materials.
Variety of part shapes and geometric features.
Dimensional accuracy.
Good surface finishes.
Introduction Example of Cutting Process
Disadvantages of machining:
Wasteful of material.
Time consuming.
Generally require more energy.
Cutting processes remove material from the
surface of a workpiece by producing chips.
Turning - workpiece is rotated and a cutting tool
removes a layer of material as it moves to the left.
Cutting-off - cutting tool moves radially inward and
separates the right piece from the bulk of the blank.
Slab-milling - a rotating cutting tool removes a layer of
material from the surface of the workpiece.
End-milling - a rotating cutter travels along a certain Some examples of common machining operations.
depth in the workpiece and produces a cavity. Source: Kalpakjian, 2016.

Fundamentals of Cutting Fundamentals of Cutting

Schematic illustration of a two-dimensional cutting process, also called

Schematic illustration of the turning operation, showing various features.
Source: Kalpakjian, 2016.
orthogonal cutting: (a) Orthogonal cutting with a well-defined shear plane,
also known as the M.E. Merchant model. Note that the tool shape, the depth
of cut, to, and the cutting speed, V , are all independent variables.
(b) Orthogonal cutting without a well-defined shear plane.
Source: Kalpakjian, 2016.
 Factors Influencing Machining Mechanics of Chip Formation
Operations

Factors Influencing Machining Operations.

(a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation by shearing.
Source: Kalpakjian, 2016. (b) Velocity diagram showing angular relationships among the three speeds in
the cutting zone.
Source: Kalpakjian, 2016.

Types of Chips Continuous Chips

Can be classified into 4 Deformation takes place along primary shear
types: zone/narrow shear zone.
Continuous Continuous chips are usually formed at high rake
Built up edge angles and/or high cutting speeds.
Serrated or segmented
A good surface finish is generally produced.
Discontinuous
Deformation also occur along wide primary shear
Basic types of chips produced zone with curved boundaries.
in orthogonal metal cutting,
their schematic representation, Occurs in machining soft metals at low speeds and
and photomicrographs of the
cutting zone: (a) continuous
low rake angles.
chip, with narrow, straight, and
primary shear zone;
Continuous chips are not always desirable,
(b) continuous chip, with particularly in automated machine tools, where tend
secondary shear zone at the
chip–tool interface; (c) built-up to get tangled around the tool.
edge; (d) segmented or non-
homogeneous chip; and Operation must be stopped to clear away the chips or
(e) discontinuous chip.
using chip breakers.
Source: Kalpakjian, 2016.
Built-up Edges Chips
BUE consists of layers of material
from the workpiece that are
gradually deposited on the tool.
BUE then becomes unstable and
eventually breaks up.
BUE material is carried away on
the tool side of the chip.
The rest is deposited randomly
on the workpiece surface.
BUE results in poor surface finish
Reduced by; (a) Hardness distribution in a built-up edge in 3115
decreasing the depth of cut
increasing the rake angle
using sharp tool
using an effective cutting fluid
Serrated Chips
Semi continuous chips with zones low and high
shear strain.
Feature likes saw-tooth.
Mostly on metals with low thermal conductivity &
strength exhibit this behavior.
steel. Note that some regions within the built-up
edge are as much as three times harder than the
bulk metal being machined. (b) Surface finish
produced in turning 5130 steel with a built-up edge.
(c) Surface finish on 1018 steel in face milling.
Magnifications: 15×.

Chip Breakers Chip Breakers

Long continuous chip are undesirable. (c) Schematic illustration
Chip breaker is a piece of metal clamped to the rake of the action of a chip
breaker; note that the
surface of the tool which bends the chip and breaks it.
chip breaker decreases
In turning process, chips can also be broken by the radius of curvature of
changing the tool geometry, thereby controlling the the chip and eventually
chip flow. breaks it. (d) Chip
breaker clamped on the
(a) Machining aluminium rake face of a cutting
using an insert without a
chip breaker; note the
tool. (e) Grooves in
long chips that can cutting tools acting as
interfere with the tool chip breakers; the
and present a safety
hazard. (b) Machining
majority of cutting tools
aluminum with a chip are now inserts with
breaker. built-in chip-breaker
Source: Courtesy of features.
Kennametal, Inc.
Source: Kalpakjian, 2016.
Example of Chips Produced in Oblique Cutting
Turning
Chips produced in turning:
(a) tightly curled chip;
(b) chip hits workpiece and
breaks; (c) continuous chip
moving radially away from
workpiece; and (d) chip hits
tool shank and breaks off.
Source: Kalpakjian, 2016.

(a) Schematic illustration of cutting with an oblique tool; note the

direction of chip movement. (b) Top view, showing the inclination
angle, i. (c) Types of chips produced with tools at increasing
inclination angles.
Source: Kalpakjian, 2016.

Oblique Cutting Right-hand Cutting Tool

(a) Schematic illustration of cutting with an oblique tool; note the
direction of chip movement. (b) Top view, showing the inclination
angle, i. (c) Types of chips produced with tools at increasing
inclination angles.
Source: Kalpakjian, 2016.
(a) Schematic illustration of a right-hand cutting tool. The various angles on these
tools and their effects on machining are described in Section 23.2. Although these
tools traditionally have been produced from solid-tool steel bars, they have been
replaced largely with. (b) inserts, typically made of carbides and other materials;
they are available in a wide variety of shapes and sizes.
Source: Kalpakjian, 2016.
Cutting Forces and Power Cutting Forces and Power

(a) Forces acting in the cutting zone during two-dimensional cutting.

Note that the resultant force, R, must be co-linear to balance the
forces. (b) Force circle to determine various forces acting in the cutting Approximate Range of Energy Requirements in Cutting Operations at the Drive Motor of
zone. the Machine Tool, Corrected for 80% Efficiency (for dull tools, multiply by 1.25).
Source: Kalpakjian, 2016. Source: Kalpakjian, 2016.

Temperatures in Cutting Temperatures in Cutting

Temperatures developed in turning 52100 steel: (a) flank temperature

Typical temperature distribution in the cutting zone. Note the severe temperature
distribution. Temperatures developed in turning 52100 steel: (b) tool–chip
gradients within the tool and the chip, and that the workpiece is relatively cool.
interface temperature distribution.
Source: Kalpakjian, 2016.
Source: Kalpakjian, 2016.
Heat Generated in Cutting Tool Life: Wear and Failure
Tool Wear in Cutting Operation

(a) Features of tool wear in a turning operation. The VB indicates average

flank wear.
Proportion of the heat generated in cutting transferred to the tool, workpiece, and Source: (a) Terms and definitions reproduced with the permission of the International Organization
for Standardization, ISO, copyright remains with ISO.
chip as a function of the cutting speed. Note that the chip removes most of the
heat.
Source: Kalpakjian, 2016.

Tool Life: Wear and Failure Tool Life: Wear and Failure
Tool Wear in Cutting Operation Tool Life
Effect of workpiece hardness and
microstructure on tool life in
turning ductile cast iron. Note the
rapid decrease in tool life
(approaching zero) as the cutting
speed increases. Tool materials
have been developed that resist
high temperatures, such as
carbides, ceramics, and cubic
boron nitride.

Tool-life curves for a variety of cutting-tool materials. The

negative reciprocal of the slope of these curves is the
exponent n in the Taylor tool-life equation, and C is the
cutting speed at T = 1 min, ranging from about 200 to
10,000 ft/min in this figure.
(b)–(e) Examples of wear in cutting tools: (b) flank wear, (c) crater wear, (d) thermal
cracking, and (e) flank wear and built-up edge. Source: (b)-(e) Kalpakjian, 2016. Source: Kalpakjian, 2016.
Tool Life: Wear and Failure
Tool Wear
Allowable Average Wear Land (see VB in Fig. 21.15a) for Cutting Tools in Various
Machining Operations.
Tool Life: Wear and Failure
Crater Wear
Relationship between crater-wear rate and
average tool–chip interface temperature:
(1) high speed steel, (2) C1 carbide, and
(3) C5 carbide (see Table 22.5). Note how
rapidly crater-wear rate increases with an
incremental increase in temperature.
Source: After B.T. Chao and K.J. Trigger.
Source: Kalpakjian, 2016.
Interface of a cutting tool (right) and chip
(left) in machining plain-carbon steel. The
discoloration of the tool indicates the
presence of high temperatures.
Source: After P.K. Wright.
Tool Life: Wear and Failure
Types of Wear
(a) Schematic illustrations of types of wear observed on various cutting tools.
(b) Schematic illustrations of catastrophic tool failures. A wide range of parameters
influence these wear and failure patterns. Source: Kalpakjian, 2016.
Surface Finish and Integrity
Machined surfaces produced on steel (highly magnified), as observed with a
scanning-electron microscope: (a) turned surface; (b) surface produced by
shaping.
Source: After J T. Black and S. Ramalingam.
Surface Finish and Integrity
Factors influencing surface integrity:
Temperatures generated during processing and
possible metallurgical transformations.
Surface residual stresses.
Severe plastic deformation and strain hardening of
the machined surfaces, tearing, and cracking.
Thank You
Machinability
The machinability of a material is usually
defined in terms of four factors:
Surface finish and surface integrity of the machined
part.
Tool life.
Force and power requirements.
The level of difficulty in chip control after it is
generated.
The machinability of materials depends on their
composition, properties, and microstructure.
Proper selection and control of process
variables are important.