Basle Concepts for Design of Brakes and Clutches 705 friction, the ability to withstand high temperatures, good thermal conductivity (to dissipate friction-induced heat, the ability to remain stable under variations in environment (such as the presence of moisture, dirt, or oi), high thermal fatigue resistance, good resistance to warpage (i.e. high thermal conductivity, low thermal coefiicient of expansion, and high yield strength), and high resilience (to promote favorable distribution of interfacial pres- sure), and should be cost effective ‘Under most circumstances, a brake/clutch package consists of a metallic element on one side, which when actuated is pressed against a mating clement with an attached lining of solid, molded, woven, or sintered material having a high coellicient of friction, good temperature resistance, and good resilience. The metallic element (disk, rim, or drum) is commonly made of gray cast iron oF steel. The friction linings are usually made of composite materials in which particles or fibers are embedded in a matrix of thermosetting or elastomeric binder material, or of sintered ‘metal (sometimes containing ceramic particles). Molded linings are most common and least costly. For many years the reinforcing fibers in brake and clutch linings were made of as- bestos, but recognition that asbestos fibers are potentially carcinogenic has promoted the use of other materials, such as fiberglass or coated asbestos fibers. Metallic particles of brass or zine are sometimes added to the matrix to improve thermal conductivity and wear resistance. Sintered metal linings may be used (at a higher cost) in applications where higher strength and higher temperature resistance arc required. In some cases ceramic particles are added before sintering (o form a cermet with higher temperature resistance. ‘Table 16.1 gives brake/clutch ining properties for several commonly used materials 16.5 Basic Concepts for Design of Brakes and Clutches The procedure for analysis or design of a brake/clutch package is fundamentally the same for all types of brakes and clutches. The suggested steps include: 1. Select a proposed type of brake or clutch that scems best suited to the application, ° and sketch a proposed configuration, including any dimensional or geometric con- straints imposed by design specifications. 2. Based on probable governing failure modes, specified operating conditions, and re- quired response times for executing the braking or clutching action, select an appro- priate material pair."" 3. Estimate the torque required to accelerate or decelerate the proposed device to the de. sired common speed within the specified response time, This usually involves a dy- namics analysis of the proposed machine, including inertial effects of all significant rotating and translating masses, reflected to the rotational speed of the brake/clutch package.” 4, Estimate the energy to be dissipated as frictional heat in the brake or clutch contact zone. This may be accomplished by summing changes in the kinetic energy of trans- lation, changes in the kinetic energy of rotation, and any changes in potential energy duc to elevation changes during the response period, 5. Estimate the pressure distribution over the contacting friction surfaces, by either cal- culation or assumption. ce Figure 162, for example "See 163, 164, and Example 16. 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Ry r Brake shoe } with integral Arm fit foving — Lrody “aN Nate: x = actuating force, 1N = normal contact force. RL Ry = hinge reaction frees. jeton coeficent 6. Determine the pressure at any point in the friction interface as a function of the max- imum local pressure produced when the brake/clutch package is actuated. 7. Apply the principles of static equilibrium to determine the actuating force, friction torque, and support reactions, Determine suitable materials and dimensions that will provide design-specified values (or ranges) for friction torque and actuating force, in- cluding any specified factors of safety. 8. Iterate the proposed design configuration until it meets the functional specifications and operates reliably for the specified design lifetime. Estimate potentially damaging temperature rise induced when the friction-generated heating rate exceeds the cooling rate, This is an important factor in the iteration process, Several basic concepts may be illustrated by considering a simple, short, rigid, fixed- hinge brake shoe with integral lining ating against the surface a planar translating body, ay illustrated in Figure 16.3. As shown, the wanslating body has a velocity V, tothe right (edirection), and the brake shoe is constrained by the hinged connection to remain sta- tionary in the s-y plane. Since the brake shoe is shor and rigid, iis reasonable to assume 2 uniform pressure distribution over the entire contacting frition surface. Hence, P= Ps (16-1) Where p= pressure at any specified point Pax ~ maximum pressure in the contact zone Since the pressure distribution is uniform, the normal force W may be expressed as N= Prac (16-2) Where A = contact area offition surface If the brake-shoc-and-arm unit is taken as a fee body, and moments are summed about the hinge pin, as depicted in Figure 16.3, Fab — Nb + wNa = 0 (16-3) From (16-3), the required actuating foree Fis Nb - A wa p= NO = Ha) _ Paar A(O = 7 T (16-4)708 chapter 16 / Brakes and Clutches Also, a hinge reaction force, Rj, in the x (horizontal) direction, may be found from a hor: izontal force summation on the free body, as Ri + bpm A = 0 (16-5) giving Ry = —bPmacA (ie directed tothe left) (16-6) ‘The hinge reaction force, R,, in the y (vertical) direction may be found from a vertical force summation as -1 (16-7) ‘Thus, for the simple case illustrated in Figure 16.3, the design procedure would in volve the selection of an appropriate friction lining material,!° and iterative determination of dimensions a, 6, and contact area A to meet the functional specifications of the appli- cation. At the same time, it is necessary to stay within pressure, temperature, and strength. limitations of the lining material, as dictated by the governing failure mode. ‘Two additional concepts, seiflocking and self-energizing, may also be understood by considering the simple device shown in Figure 16.3. Examining (16-4), it may be observed that if the coefficient of friction and geometric arrangement are such that = pa o ° (16-8) no external actuation force is needed to actuate the brake; initial contact between the mov- ing friction surfaces causes the brake to be actuated immediately and fully by the friction: generated moment. This condition, called seff-locking, is usually not desirable'* because the braking action is sudden and uncontrollable when the brake “grabs.” On the other hand, itis often advantageous to capitalize upon the friction-generated moment (o assist in ap- plying the brake, reducing the magnitude of the required actuating force F., to a smaller (but not zero) value. Such an arrangement is often called a self-energizing configuration. One way of determining a configuration that will provide self-energization without self: locking is to utilize a pseudo-friction coefficient, 4’, in (16-4) when relating the hinge lo- cation to the required actuating force. The value of wis often taken as 1.25.10 1.5) (16-9) where jis the maximum value of friction coefficient specified by the lining material manufacturer, 16.6 Rim (Drum) Brakes with Short Shoes A more detailed sketch of the rim (drum) type extemal shoe (block) brake depicted in Figure 16.2(a) is shown in Figure 16.4, Such brakes may be categorized as external or in- ternal, with short shoes (angle fi subtending contact arc is 45° or less) or long shoes Figure 16.4 shows a simple one-shoe, external, short block brake. As a practical matter, sec, for example, Table 16.1. Except when a ratcheting device is desired n whic relative mation in ome direction i prevented by self-locking while motion in the opposite direction is uniter,