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Instruction Cycle
A program consisting of the memory unit of the computer includes a series of
instructions. The program is implemented on the computer by going through a cycle for
each instruction.

In the basic computer, each instruction cycle includes the following procedures −

• It can fetch instruction from memory.

• It is used to decode the instruction.
• It can read the effective address from memory if the instruction has an indirect
address.
• It can execute the instruction.

After the following four procedures are done, the control switches back to the first step
and repeats the similar process for the next instruction. Therefore, the cycle continues
until a Halt condition is met. The figure shows the phases contained in the instruction
cycle.

As display in the figure, the halt condition appears when the device receive turned off,
on the circumstance of unrecoverable errors, etc.

Fetch Cycle

The address instruction to be implemented is held at the program counter. The

processor fetches the instruction from the memory that is pointed by the PC.

Next, the PC is incremented to display the address of the next instruction. This
instruction is loaded onto the instruction register. The processor reads the instruction
and executes the important procedures.
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Execute Cycle

The data transfer for implementation takes place in two methods are as follows −

• Processor-memory − The data sent from the processor to memory or from

memory to processor.
• Processor-Input/Output − The data can be transferred to or from a peripheral
device by the transfer between a processor and an I/O device.

In the execute cycle, the processor implements the important operations on the
information, and consistently the control calls for the modification in the sequence of
data implementation. These two methods associate and complete the execute cycle.

State Diagram for Instruction Cycle

The figure provides a large aspect of the instruction cycle of a basic computer, which is
in the design of a state diagram. For an instruction cycle, various states can be null, while
others can be visited more than once.

• Instruction Address Calculation − The address of the next instruction is computed.

A permanent number is inserted to the address of the earlier instruction.
• Instruction Fetch − The instruction is read from its specific memory location to
the processor.
• Instruction Operation Decoding − The instruction is interpreted and the type of
operation to be implemented and the operand(s) to be used are decided.
• Operand Address Calculation − The address of the operand is evaluated if it has a
reference to an operand in memory or is applicable through the Input/Output.
• Operand Fetch − The operand is read from the memory or the I/O.
• Data Operation − The actual operation that the instruction contains is executed.
• Store Operands − It can store the result acquired in the memory or transfer it to
the I/O.
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Representation of Data/Information
Computer does not understand human language. Any data, viz., letters, symbols,
pictures, audio, videos, etc., fed to computer should be converted to machine language
first. Computers represent data in the following three forms −

Number System

We are introduced to concept of numbers from a very early age. To a computer,

everything is a number, i.e., alphabets, pictures, sounds, etc., are numbers. Number
system is categorized into four types −

• Binary number system consists of only two values, either 0 or 1

• Octal number system represents values in 8 digits.
• Decimal number system represents values in 10 digits.
• Hexadecimal number system represents values in 16 digits.

Number System
System Base Digits

Binary 2 01
Octal 8 01234567

Decimal 10 0123456789
Hexadecimal 16 0123456789ABCDEF

Bits and Bytes

Bits − A bit is a smallest possible unit of data that a computer can recognize or use.
Computer usually uses bits in groups.

Bytes − group of eight bits is called a byte. Half a byte is called a nibble.
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The following table shows conversion of Bits and Bytes −

Byte Value Bit Value

1 Byte 8 Bits
1024 Bytes 1 Kilobyte

1024 Kilobytes 1 Megabyte

1024 Megabytes 1 Gigabyte

1024 Gigabytes 1 Terabyte

1024 Terabytes 1 Petabyte

1024 Petabytes 1 Exabyte
1024 Exabytes 1 Zettabyte

1024 Zettabytes 1 Yottabyte

1024 Yottabytes 1 Brontobyte

1024 Brontobytes 1 Geopbytes

Text Code

Text code is format used commonly to represent alphabets, punctuation marks and
other symbols. Four most popular text code systems are −

• EBCDIC
• ASCII
• Extended ASCII
• Unicode

EBCDIC

Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code is an 8-bit code that defines 256
symbols. Given below is the EBCDIC Tabular column
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ASCII

American Standard Code for Information Interchange is an 8-bit code that specifies
character values from 0 to 127.

ASCII Tabular column

ASCII Code Decimal Value Character

0000 0000 0 Null prompt

0000 0001 1 Start of heading

0000 0010 2 Start of text

0000 0011 3 End of text

0000 0100 4 End of transmit

0000 0101 5 Enquiry

0000 0110 6 Acknowledge

0000 0111 7 Audible bell

0000 1000 8 Backspace

0000 1001 9 Horizontal tab

0000 1010 10 Line Feed

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Extended ASCII

Extended American Standard Code for Information Interchange is an 8-bit code that
specifies character values from 128 to 255.

Extended ASCII Tabular column

Unicode

Unicode Worldwide Character Standard uses 4 to 32 bits to represent letters, numbers

and symbol.

Unicode Tabular Column