Mysticism and Ritualism

A study of the mystical aspects of Hindu rituals

Urmi Chanda-Vaz
Advanced Diploma in Mysticism 2015-16
Department of Sanskrit, University of Mumbai
urmi.chanda@gmail.com

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Abstract

As mysticism is connected to religion, so is religion to ritualism. Although scholars have often

differentiated between these aspects, the relation between all three is undeniable and inextricable.
Theistic mysticism, in particular, often starts within the framework of religion and/or ritual. From
simple rituals like chanting to complex rituals like śrauta yajñas, rituals have always been considered
an important way of communing with God. This paper explores the idea of ritualism in Hinduism and
how they are comparable to mystical experiences.

(Dissertation submitted as requirement towards the Advanced Diploma course in Mysticism, 2015-16)

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 Acknowledgments

I would like firstly like to express my gratitude to the Department of Sanskrit, University of Mumbai
for running this fabulous course on Mysticism, which is unlike any other. Both the basic and the
advanced courses have an amazing syllabus and scope for students wanting to get more than just
curriculum-based education.

I would like to thank Dr. Madhavi Narsalay, the HOD of Sanskrit for always being an inspiration.
Special thanks are due to the course co-ordinator and my dear friend, Vrushali Potnis-Damle for
arranging an amazing line-up of guest lecturers and being forever ready to help with my dissertation
topic.

And finally, thanks to my family without whose unwavering support, my academic journey would have
been impossible.

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 INDEX

TOPIC Page no.

Introduction 4

(i) Vedic rituals 8

• Yajñas
• Mantras

(ii) Tāntric and Āgamic 13

rituals
• Tāntric – Sexo
Yogic practices,
Sacrifices, Chakra
Meditation
• Āgamic – Pujā

(iii) Upaniṣadic and 20

Yogic 'rituals'
• Meditation
• Yogic processes

Conclusion 24

Bibliography 26

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Introduction

Anyone who has seen whirling dervishes

Illustration 1: Sufi dervishers practice the Sama or whirling ritual
dance
'perform' will agree that these ritual
dances have a definitive peaceful quality.
As the Sufi faithfuls whirl around
hypnotically, their faces betray a calm
that comes only when one is close to the
divine. What is it about a simple ritual of
whirling that may put a person close to
God? In fact, what is it about any
repetitive act that centres the mind,
making way for the sublime?

There are many theories surrounding the purpose and efficacy of rituals (or lack thereof).
Anthropologists have taken special interest in ritual behaviours, both in the context of primitive and
contemporary societies. James Frazer is one of the most famous scholars in this domain, whose seminal
work – The Golden Bough (1890) – explored the relationships between magic and rituals. Sociologists
like Emile Durkheim offered theories on ritual observance and social conformation while scholars of
mythology and religion like Mircea Eliade and Joseph Campbell have juxtaposed mythology and
rituals. However, very little work has been done to understand ritualism in the context of mysticism.
This paper hopes to understand the spiritual aspects of ritualism that go beyond just the normative.

Definitions

Before we assess the mystical dimensions of ritualism, it would be fitting to define it from the more
conservative points of view. The word ritual comes from the Latin root, ritualis, which meant relating
to rite. Rite, in turn, was derived from the Latin ritus which meant 'religious observance or ceremony,
custom, usage'. The Oxford Dictionary defines ritual primarily as 'A religious or solemn ceremony
consisting of a series of actions performed according to a prescribed order'. The common understanding
of ritual is usually in a religious context. However, the dictionary also recognises the fact that there can

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be non-religious rituals too by way of another definition: 'A series of actions or type of behaviour
regularly and invariably followed by someone.' The Merriam-Webster Dictionary adds a dimension by
defining a ritual as something 'done in accordance with social custom or normal protocol'.

From these general definitions it can be surmised that rituals are essentially actions that are often
religious, regular, repetitive, and prescribing to social codes. Also, it would be helpful to remember that
there are different kinds of rituals such as worship rituals, rites of passage, festive rituals and
sacraments; and that most rituals seem to have some religious frameworks. We shall now explore the
meaning of rituals from the point of view of certain academic frameworks.

In her textbook on cultural anthropology, Barbara Miller 1 defines a (sacred) ritual as 'a patterned
repetitive behaviour focused on the supernatural realm.' She says how anthropologists classify sacred
rituals as periodic and non-periodic. From a sociological perspective, a ritual is 'an oft-repeated pattern
of behaviour which is performed at appropriate times, and which may involve the use of symbols2.'

Religious studies define ritual as '(a) sacred custom or any form of repetitive behaviour which is fixed
by tradition OR traditional religious behaviour or actions3.' In mythology, the reference to rituals is
almost always religious and it may be defined as 'A formalized series of symbolic activities such as
singing, dancing recitation of texts, sacrifice, eating certain foods, or consuming special, usually
intoxicating drinks, that are regularly performed as demonstration of worship or as a way of preparing
oneself to achieve consciousness of a deity4.'

A dictionary5 of esoteric terms gives a similar definition, saying that a ritual is 'a prescribed form of
religious or magical ceremony often designed to invoke or placate a deity. Rituals are characterized by
symbolic attire and formalized behaviour, and may involve imitating the deity in a ceremonial context
in order to obtain supernatural power, spiritual illumination, or other specific blessings from the god
who is worshipped.' Finally, in mysticism, a ritual's definition is 'a prescribed series or set of

1 Miller B. (2011), Cultural Anthropology (pp 288-289), Pearson Education Inc., US

2 Scott, J., & Marshall, G. (2005). A Dictionary of Sociology, (p 653) Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3 Chopra R (edited by) (2005), Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Religion, Volume 3, (p 659), Gyan Publishing House, India
4 Abel, E. L. (2006), Intoxication in Mythology: A Worldwide Dictionary of Gods, Rites, Intoxicants and Places, (p 142)
Jefferson, NC: McFarland.
5 Drury N. (2004), The Dictionary of the Esoteric: 3000 Entries on the Mystical and Occult Traditions (p 269), Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers, New Delhi

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ceremonies, rites, acts, words, gestures, etc. determined by considerations of tradition and symbolism6'.

It is the definitions of ritual in mythology, religion and naturally mysticism that bring in the element of
god and hence most relevant to the subject under discussion here. A ritual in these contexts serves as an
invocation to a certain god or deity that the spiritual aspirant hopes to commune with. They are not
mere repetitive traditional actions, sometimes even alleged to be devoid of any meaning 7. It is these
meanings that this paper seeks to understand.

HINDU RITUALS

The term Hinduism is complex with many connotations, but simply put, it is 'a major religious and
cultural tradition of South Asia, which developed from Vedic religion'. A vast variety of philosophical
ideas, spiritual beliefs and religio-cultural practices from the different regions of India can be fit under
the umbrella of Hinduism. Hence, it is difficult to choose from the many thousand rituals that may be
defined as 'Hindu' rituals. However, keeping the limited scope of this dissertation in mind, we shall
confine ourselves to three broad categories of rituals and try to gauge their mystical significance. These
categories will be:

(i) Vedic rituals

- Yajñas
- Mantras
(ii) Tāntric and Āgamic rituals
- Sexo Yogic practices, Sacrifices, Chakra Meditation
- Puja
(iii) Upaniṣadic and Yogic 'rituals'
- Meditation
- Yogic processes

6 Gaynor F. (2015), Dictionary of Mysticism, Open Road Media

7 In his book Ritual and Mantras: Rules Without Meaning (1996), Frits Staal argues that rituals are mostly meaningless.

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Vedic Rituals

The foremost ritual in Vedic Brahmanism is that of yajñas that can be loosely translated to mean
sacrifices8. In fact, the entire ancient religion was centred around sacrificial rituals, which ranged from
short and basic ones to long and complex types. These sacrifices were based on the Vedas, the sacred
literature of the Hindus. It is common knowledge that the first three Vedas deal with the procedural
aspects of sacrifice. There are hymns in the Ṛg Veda, melodies and tunes in the Sāma Veda, prose
mantras in the Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda consists of magical spells and incantations. We shall
survey Vedic rituals first from the point of view of pure ritual actions and then mantras.

Ritual sacrifices

It is well known that the Ṛg, Sāma and Yajur

Vedas catered to the hieratic side of the Vedic
religion, as they dealt with Soma, Śrauta,
Grahya and other kinds of sacrifices that
involved the higher priestly classes. They
comprised mostly of hymns in praise of primitive
nature deities such as Indra, Varuṇa, Agni, and
Soma. The Vedic Aryans, who depended on cattle Illustration 2: A Vedic yajña with a number of priests and
the 'yajamana' (Image: www.astroguru-india.com)
rearing and agriculture for their livelihood,
needed to propitiate these gods to live comfortably. The Brāhmaṇas were the accompanying ritual
manuals of these Vedas, and they described in great detail the procedures of the sacrifices. What is
interesting about the Vedic religion is that the gods that were not deemed as responsible for the welfare
of man as the correct performance of the rituals. The pleasure or displeasure of the gods could
essentially be controlled by man through the performance of the rituals in the manner prescribed. These
prescriptions and injunctions from the Vedas were considered apaurusheya9 (of non-human/divine
sources) and hence unquestionable. The faith in the ritual, then, was much greater than the gods in
whose names they were being performed.

8 Many scholars disagree with the use of the term 'sacrifice' to denote yajña because the implications of a Western term
and an Indian esoteric concept are different. But for the sake of academic uniformity, we shall use the word sacrifice.
9 Kitagawa Joseph (2013), The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture, (p 14), Routledge

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Wheelock10 underlines the general purpose and plan of Vedic (or Tantric) rituals as “a preliminary
series of transformations aimed at making the concrete elements involved – the site, utensils, offering
substances, the human participants – fit for divine service. This is followed by the worship of god or
gods following a basic pattern of invocation, praise, offering of food and other pleasing substances, and
petition. The closing activities of the ritual mirror its beginning, but in reverse order, as the ritual
situation is in some fashion dissolved, allowing the participants to return to a condition of normalcy.”

The codes of Vedic rituals were known to be extremely strict with no room for alternations and
adaptations. Even the slightest deviation from the Brāhmaṇa instructions could nullify or adversely
affect the desired outcome The story of Tvaṣṭṛ is often cited as an example. The smith-god once
conducted a yajña to beget a son who would kill his rival, Indra. But a slight mispronunciation of the
mantra resulted in a son, who got killed by Indra instead. One ought to question this rigidity of rules.
Was it just a way for its Brāhman preceptors to garner importance and sustained employment, was it
fear of harm from the gods, or could there be reasons more sublime?

One of the most important rules of ritual is purity, which is either to be achieved physically, mentally,
or both. The Brāhmaṇas were equally insistent on cleansed acts and intents. Purity was attained
through acts of special consecration like dīkṣā. This made the sacrificer god-like and made his offerings
to the gods acceptable11. In his book 'Homo Ritualis: Hindu Ritual and Its Significance for Ritual
Theory', Alex Michaels asserts that “...the sacrifice became the meeting place and center, and it worked
only when one knew about identifications and equivalents and had been initiated into them.”

But a simple symbolic identification did not suffice. There were rites of the mind that needed to be
conducted too. The Jaiminiya Brāhmaṇa declared killing another human, covetousness, and even
indecent speech as sins12 for a sacrificer, which disqualified him from performing the yajñas or getting
their merits. The acts of tapas (penance) and dāna (charity) also required to be done by the yajamāna
as part of the Vedic rituals, enhanced virtues like self-control and generosity. Further, there are
exhortations in the Brāhmaṇas on the need to cultivate gratitude, humility, truthfulness, and most

10 Wheelock, W T. (2012) 'The Mantra in Vedic and Tantric Ritual' In H. P. Alper (Ed.), Understanding Mantras (Indian
ed., Reprint Delhi, p. 48). Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
11 Michaels A (2016), Homo Ritualis: Hindu Ritual and Its Significance for Ritual Theory (p 233), Oxford University Press
12 Dange S. (2005), Vedic Beliefs and Practices through Arthavada (pp 340-360), Aryan Books International, New Delhi

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importantly, faith, during the performance of these rituals 13. It is known that treading the moral path is a
prerequisite for the mystical journey. This mental and moral elevation to a god-like state put the person
on a higher plane that made his motivations more than just material. Dr. S S Dange confirms this idea
when she says, “It was more than this (material gains) for the ritual thinkers, who wanted the sacrificer
to emerge as a 'better' man after performing the sacrifice, relating himself to the divine level 14.” Could
this not be deemed as the beginning of 'god-consciousness' in ritual?

Even when Vedic ritualism is interpreted from the point of view of Mīmāṃsā philosophy (a later
development), this subtlety persists. The common perception is that the Mīmāṃsika way is just about
the performance of rituals. However, the adherence to rituals is considered the highest dharma in this
case and dharma is defined as something that does not obstruct the way of others. In fact, Mīmāṃsā
philosophy treats the whole life like one grand ritual. When treated as such, every action performed in
daily life, whether bathing or going to the market, acquires a spiritual significance. It is no longer a
mundane task. This philosophy also espouses the spirit of detachment while performing these actions15.

Thus, one may say that purity of morals, intent and action, virtues of faith, gratitude and humility, a
spirit of service and detachment were seen as necessary for 'success' for the ritualist. These are exactly
the same weapons in a mystic's arsenal and it may therefore be safe to compare the two.

Mantras or Vedic Hymnology

The other important aspect of Vedic rituals are mantras.

Although they are inseparable from the Vedic sacrificial
process, they are being considered separately, because
sometimes they were/are used outside the sacrificial
context too. In fact, mantraśāstra or the science of
mantras is a body of knowledge in itself. It grew to have
vast applications outside the Vedic religion, like in Illustration 3: A guru teaches his students Vedic
chants (Image source: Youtube.com)
Yoga, Tantra, Āyurveda and other allied fields.

13 Dange S., Op. Cit. (pp 340-360)

14 Ibid.
15 Burde J. (2004), Rituals, Mantras, and Science: An Integral Perspective, (p 27), Motilal Banarsidass Publications

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However, in this section, we shall explore the mystique of mantras with reference to Vedic rituals.

The Vedas are based on the premise that creation emerged from sound. The concepts of Śabda
Brahman, Vāc and the Praṇava (Om) are central and sacred to Vedic literature. Ritual mantras are
especially important in the Śrauta context. Mantras have been variously defined, based on their
functions. But Jan Gonda's exhaustive definition16 covers most bases, especially in the Vedic context.
According to him, “Mantras are (provisionally and for practical purposes) a general name for the
formulas, verses or sequences of words in prose which contain praise..., are believed to have magical,
religious, or spiritual efficiency, are recited, muttered or sung in the Vedic ritual and which are
collected in the methodically arranged corpora of Vedic texts.” The other definition by Gonda deems
mantras to be of the nature of “consultation, resolution, advice, counsel, design, plan, secret.”

There are different kinds of Vedic mantras, such as richas, sāman, yajus and nigāda17 that perform the
functions of invocation, praise, protection, etc. But whatever the function or type, all mantras are held
sacred. Their sanctity lies in the sanctity of the Vedic word. The term 'mantra' itself means an
instrument to think. By this token, the mantras must have regular language. But even the most
'nonsensical' of mantras are believed to be invested with magical powers, given their divine origins.
One of the unique features of Vedic mantras is that they personify not just the elements of nature but
also ritual objects. Many mantras address things such as ladles, water, and the sacrificial pit in second
person, and respectfully seek their co-operation in the performance of the sacrifice 18. Thus, there is an
identification of the ritual object with the deity. Wheelock even cites an example with this translated
Vedic injunction: To you, ritual object, who are an aspect of the Supreme, let there be reverence.19”

This personification of ritual objects in mantras and the variety of components deemed necessary in the
ritual can surely be taken to be the beginning of the belief of divinity in all things – an idea that was
fully developed in the Upanishads. But in the Vedic period, the beliefs were simpler. There was an
almost blind submission to the authority of the 'word'. In his famous book 'Hindu Mysticism', S N

16 Definition cited by Harvey P. Alper in Understanding Mantras (p 4) [reprint edition 2012], Motilal Banarsidass
Publishers
17 Staal, F. (2012) 'Vedic Mantras' In H. P. Alper (Ed.), Understanding Mantras (Indian ed., Reprint Delhi, p. 48). Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers
18 Wheelock W. T. Op. Cit. (pp 108-110)
19 Ibid.

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Dasgupta (1927) encapsulated this idea: “The assumption of the mysterious omnipotence of sacrifices,
performed by following the authoritative injunctions of the Vedas independently of reason or logical or
discursive thought, forms the chief trait of the mysticism of the Vedic type.20”

Faith in the means and faith in the end had to be the keys to way of Vedic life. This blind submission
may be likened to a mystic's ultimate surrender to god. The final aim of the Vedic ritualist, like that of
the mystic, was to overcome the separation between man and god. His worldview, again like a mystic's,
presupposed the existence of a multitude of powers in the universe and the necessity to acknowledge,
represent, and treat everyone with equal regard and respect.

20 Dasgupta S N (2009 reprint), Hindu Mysticism, (p 18), Motilal Banarsidass Publishers

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Tāntric and Āgamic Rituals

Among Hindu religious practices, Āgamic and Tāntric rituals are as important as Vedic rituals, if not
more. These correspond to the Śaiva and Śākta systems. Brahmin supremacy and Vedic literature
upheld the idea of the superiority of Vedic rituals for a long time, but that may not have been the truth.
The elaborate and often exorbitant arrangements that needed to be made for Vedic sacrifices were only
viable for the aristocracy, powered by the priestly class. But for the common man belonging to the
lower social classes, these would neither have been accessible nor affordable.

So close at the heels of Vedic ritualism, arose Āgamic and Tāntric rituals that were simpler and
definitely cheaper. 'Tantra' is usually taken to mean a form of indigenous religion that resorts to
mantras, yantras and rituals to access the divine. It is often called 'Veda Bāhya' or 'Avedic' tradition.
Similarly, the word āgama means 'that which has come' connotes influence from outside the Vedic pale.
However, some scholars even contend that these subaltern practices may have arisen at the same time
as their Vedic counterparts or even have existed among the indigenous peoples before the advent of the
Aryans21. These rituals have always been the prominent features of popular religion and continue to be
so even today in the most common form of pūjā. In this section, we shall explore the mystical aspects
of such rituals.

Tantric rituals

The term 'Tantra' is often used as an umbrella term for all non-Vedic practices, but there are three major
classifications that need to be mentioned before we proceed. There are 'non-classical' paths in each of
the three main sects of Hinduism. They are called Śaiva āgamas/tantra for Śaivism, Śākta Tantra for
Śāktism and Pancarātra for Vaiṣṇavism. The parallel paths are called Vāmacāāra or the 'Left-hand
path' because they sometimes resort to non-conventional practices. These practices take the form of
rituals – something that is deeply associated with Tāntrism. Whatever the form of Tantra, some rituals
such as sexo-yogic practices, meditation and sacrifices are common to all. Some seem abhorrent, some
seem acceptable, but most often, there are deep symbolic and mystical motives behind them.

21 Varma, R., LA. (2007), 'Rituals of Worship' in H. Bhattacharya (Ed.), The Cultural Heritage of India (2nd ed., Vol. IV, p.
445). Kolkata, West Bengal: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.

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 Sexo-Yogic practices

There are two fundamental philosophical tenets of Tantra. The first

refers to Prakṛtī (Śakti or the female principle) and Puruṣa (the male
principle, often conceived as Shiva), who are immutable and
inseparable. From their union the cosmos evolves22. This idea is
common to all Tantras. The second is the conception of the body as
the universe. The human body is a microcosm that is identical with
the macrocosm and what happens on the physical level, happens on
the universal level too23.
Illustration 4: A bronze sculpture of
a Tantric Buddha figure with his
consort Sexo-yogic practices, commonly associated with Tantra, are a
derivation of the body-universe identification. The basic underlying implication is that when the female
body is worshipped in conjunction with the male body, its fertility is replicated in the earth. But besides
fertility, the other desired outcome of such rituals is God-unity.

The famous Tāntric concept of Panca Makara best encapsulates the fundamental rituals. They include
the ritual consumption/ practice of five things viz. Mādya (wine), Māṃsa (meat), Matsya (fish), Mudrā
(parched grain) and Maithuna (sexual intercourse). These can be taken either literally or
metaphorically, but the idea is to offer the tattva or essence of these elements to the goddess within.

Of these, the Maithuna or Āsana ritual is most infamous for its 'morally degenerative' implications. But
the point is to use the gross sexual energies to transcend to the subtler planes. Tāntriks understand that
the immense energy generated during the act could be harnessed to achieve higher purposes. They
explore sexual acts practically, as a measure to unify the energy polarities, outside the ambit of morality
and social judgments. No emotion or sentiments are attached to an act that is spiritually driven. The
body is to be considered no more than an instrument, a yantra, of achieving unity with the goddess and
ultimately, liberation.

22 Bose, D., & Haldar, H. (2004). Authority and Antiquity. In Tantras: Their Philosophy and Occult Secrets (Enl., 3rd ed.,
p. 16). Calcutta: Munshiram Manoharlal Pvt.
23 Mookerjee, A., & Khanna, M. (1977). Introduction. In The Tantric way: Art, Science, Ritual (2003 reprint ed., p. 10).
Boston, Massachusetts: New York Graphic Society.

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There are three chief aspects24 to performing this ritual viz.
(i) Control of mind or autonomy of thought
(ii) Control of breath through Praṇāyama
(iii) Control of semen/ova

This three-fold control over one's mind, body, and sexual ejaculations is achieved with sustained
practice. It helps the aspirant keep a single-pointed focus over the spiritual objective of the ritual. These
rituals may be performed by a 'spiritual' couple or in groups, called Cakra Pūjā.

Menstrual blood25, female ejaculate26 and wine27 are also prescribed for consumption in some of these
sexual rituals and it is these things that make them largely unacceptable to common public. But the use
of all these elements have symbolic worth and a deep belief in their efficacy.

Sacrifices

'Sacrifices' in their traditional sense in Tantra usually

involve the killing of big and small animals, though human
sacrifices too were practiced at one point in time. Since
pleasing the goddess (for sustained fertility) and the
gaining of siddhīs or powers are the primary motives, they
Illustration 5: A Tāntric animal sacrifice
cannot be said to have very many mystical underpinnings. underway

However, a fire sacrifices or homa in Tantra can be a deeply spiritual exercise. Originally derived from
Vedic traditions28, Tāntric fire rituals (both Hindu and Buddhist) have developed their own manner and
philosophy. In Buddhist Tantra, for example, there are five kinds of homa rituals29, classified on their

24 Ibid. p 165
25 Bhattacharyya, N. (1982). Introduction in History of the Tantric Religion: A Historical, Ritualistic, and Philosophical
Study (pp. 133-136). New Delhi: Manohar Publications.
26 Camphausen, R. (1996). Introduction in The Yoni: Sacred Symbol of Female Creative Power (p. 41). Rochester, Vt.:
Inner Traditions.
27 Bhattacharya, Op. Cit. (p 144)
28 D. G. White (Ed.), (2000). Introduction . Tantra in Practice (p. 18). Princeton University Press.
29 Payne, R. K. (2000). Ritual Manual for the Protective Fire Offering devoted to Manjushri, Chuin Lineage. In D. G.
White (Ed.), Tantra in Practice (p. 489). Princeton University Press.

15
purpose. They are Śāntika (for protection), Pauśṭika (for increase), Abhicārika (for subjugation),
Vaśikaraṇa (for subordination) and Ankuṣa (for acquisition). A similar classification is found in Hindu
homas.

On the manifest level, they are meant for material gains, but on the esoteric level, they can be used for
deeper awakenings. Payne says, “For example, the homa of subjugation both enables the practitioner to
overcome enemies, either human or demonic, and to overcome the mental and emotional errors that
obscure the naturally enlightened mind...The efficacy of this ritual is understood to result from the
three-way identification between the practitioner, the deity evoked, and the hearth. This identification is
effected by the practitioner's visualization. Thus, the mouth of the hearth, into which offerings are
made, is visualized as identical with both the mouth of the deity and the mouth of the practitioner. The
physical offerings are identified with the practitioner's own self-frustrating emotional habits and
intellectual misconceptions. Just as the fire burning on the hearth is understood as purifying the
offerings, making them appropriate for the deity's consumption, the fire is also the fire of wisdom,
purifying the emotional habits and intellectual misconceptions. The fire is both the deity's awakened
mind and that of the practitioner. Thus, one is offering one's own emotional habits and intellectual
misconceptions to oneself for purification in the fire of one's own awakened mind.30”

If such complete identification with the deity/God is not mystical, what is?

Cakra Meditation

Meditation also plays an important part in Tantra, especially Cakra and Kuṇḍalinī meditation. Cakras
are seven primary energy centres in the body that are located along the spinal area and at its base lies
the dormant, coiled up energy 'snake' – the Kuṇḍalinī. This latent, static energy can be activated
through various practices such as postures or āsanas, gestures or mudrās, meditation, chanting,
visualisation techniques, etc. In Tantra, the process of awakening the Kuṇḍalinī is called Purścharṇa
Kriyā. When awakened, the Kuṇḍalinī becomes kinetic and in defiance to the law of gravity, moves
upwards. As it passes through each cakra opening it, it unlocks more energy in the aspirant until it
finally reaches the Sahasrāra cakra, which is the seat of consciousness. “The force generated by such

30 Payne, R. K. Op. Cit. p 489

16
fusion creates a great illumination that destroys the ignorance of the mind, the primary cause of duality.
One who experiences this state attains non-dual consciousness and becomes enlightened.31”

Again, one may say that the investiture of faith in these rituals, the losing of one's identity in a higher
truth and the resultant ecstasy are all characteristically mystical.

Āgamic rituals

While Āgamas have elements of Vedic culture, they are largely and often exclusively connected to
Tantra. Of the two parts of Tantra śāstra viz. Āgama and Nigama, the former is the theoretical aspect,
while the latter is practical. It is believed that Nigamas were Pārvati's questions to Śiva about the
secrets of Tantra sādhanā, and āgamas were Śiva's own utterances. Āgamas are, therefore, commonly
associated with Śaivism and Śāktism. Śaiva āgamas are classified according to Pāshupata, Śaiva
Siddhānta and Pratyabhijña (Kashmir) schools. But there are Vaiṣṇava Āgama texts too, the types
being Pancarātra and Vaikhāṇasa.

Broadly speaking, āgamas are centered

around ritualistic/cult/sādhanā aspects of
'Hinduism'. Based on how often they are
performed, they may be classified into
nitya (daily), naimittika (periodic
occurence like during festivals), and
kāmya (meant for the fulfillment of
certain wishes)32. Further, āgamic
knowledge is sometimes divided into
Illustration 6: Priests consecrate a vigraha or idol before establishing four padas or quarters, namely jñāna/
it in the temple

vidyā, yoga, kriyā, and caryā33. The Jñāna and Yoga padas deal with philosophy, while the kriyā and
caryā padas deal with ritual. But the general understanding of āgama texts is that they are ritual
31 Johari, H. (1987). Principles of Tantra in Chakras: Energy Centers of Transformation (p. 14). Inner Traditions
32 Cole O & Kanit VPH (2010), Hinduism: An Introduction, Hachette, UK
33 Brunner, H. (1992). Introduction. In T. Goudriaan (Ed.), Ritual and Speculation in Early Tantrism: Studies in Honor of
Andre Padoux (p. 8). SUNY Press.

17
manuals, which speak of all aspects – right from the construction of temple, the consecration of deities,
the process of worship to the temple festivals. Āgama, combining Vedic, Yogic, and Tāntric ideas,
prescribe many ways of approaching the divine viz. Japa (name chanting), Homa (fire sacrifice),
Dhyāna (meditation) and Archanā (worship). Other rituals such as dīkṣā (initiation), pratiṣṭhā
(consecration), and guru pūjā (worship of the guru/teacher) are also important āgamic rituals.

Japa refers to a continuous repetitive chanting of the name of the chosen deity (or guru). Mantras are
supremely important in this context. Whether the aspirant chants Bijāksaras, the Praṇava or longer
mantras, the belief in sacred sound is common to all. In the end one 'offers' the session of chanting and
the self to the god or guru as a symbol of complete submission.

The Homa ritual is similar to Tāntric homas described above. Dhyāna refers to meditation or
concentration – a technique common to the Upaniṣads and Yoga – which will be discussed broadly at a
later stage.

It is the Archanā that is most common and is therefore of most interest to us. This last rituals goes by
many names such as Arcanā, Vandanā, Saparyya, Arhana, Namasya, Arca, and Bhajana. It is based on
the Dvaita premise or the idea of the distinction between the worshipper and the worshipped. The
vigraha or image of the deity, embodies the idea of the Supreme and is hence venerable. It is for this
worship-worthy figure that elaborately beautiful temples must be made, consecration must be done and
daily pūjās must be offered.

Most pūjās are directed towards the Iṣṭadeva or a Yantra, depending on the spiritual level of the
worshiper. There are several steps involved in an archanā such as Guru Vandanā (worshiping the
guru), Gaṇapati Vandanā (worshiping Ganapati), Agniprākāra (forming an imaginary fire circle),
Digabandha (removing malefic influences), Praṇāyama (contemplation upon spiritual body),
Bhūtaśuddhi (cleansing), Atmapraṇā Pratiśthā (identifying self with Absolute), Nyāsa (synchronising
different parts of the body with the mantras through mudrā gestures), Udvāsana (transferring back the
spirit of the deity into the idol), Pancopacāra (offerings to the deity), etc34. Among these steps, the
Atmapraṇā Pratiśthā is of special significance from the point of view of mysticism. Here, the sādhaka

34 Varma, R, Op. Cit. (pp 449-451)

18
ritualistically uses the ajāpa or non-vocal mantra – so ham (I am that) – with each breath. With this he
conceives his ātman to be the Paramātman himself. This is comparable to the experience of mystics,
sans the rituals, where the distinction between the person and Godhead is annihilated.

The number and complexity of steps varies, but Avalon35 beautifully underlines their purpose of rituals
in a pūjā: “The ritual... is designed both by its complexity and variety (which prevents the tiring of the
mind) to keep the attention always fixed, to prevent it from straying and to emphasize both attention
and will by continued acts and mental workings.”

There are usually 16 ritual objects of

Upacāras used in the performance of pūjās.
They are (1) Āsana (seating of the image), (2)
Svāgata (welcoming of the Devata), (3) Padya
(water for washing the feet), (4) Arghya
(offerings which may be general or Sāmānya
and special or Viṣeśa) made in the vessel, (5),
(6) Ācamana (water for sipping and cleansing
the lips -- offered twice), (7) Madhuparka
(honey, ghee, milk and curd), (8) Snāna (water Illustration 7: A priest makes preparations to perform a puja

for bathing), (9) Vasana (cloth for garment), (10) Ābharana (jewels), (11) Gandha (Perfume), (12)
Puṣpa (flowers), (13) Dhūpa (incense), (14) Dīpa (lights), (15) Naivedya (food), and (16) Vandana or
Namaskriya (prayer)36.

Each of these objects have deeper symbolic meanings too, but it is mostly the paraphernalia one would
use when welcoming an esteemed guest. It is the identification of the divine in another – a trait of the
mystic as much as the sādhaka. The final aim of all these rituals is uniting with the divine. As an 11 th
century Tāntric text, Piṅgalamata, succinctly puts it: 'Āgama can be described as a śāstra which brings
realisation of the objects around and it stands for expansion and salvation of the soul'37.

35 Avalon A. (1918). Shakti and Shakta (p 236 ), London, Luzac & Co.
36 Avalon, Op . Cit. (p 238)
37 Singh L.P. (2014), Tantra: It's Mystic and Scientific Basis (p 13), New Delhi, Concept Publishing Company

19
Upaniṣadic and Yogic 'rituals'

The term 'ritual' in the context of Upaniṣads and Yoga is something of an anathema because these two
schools developed in opposition to ritualism. However, since most human habits and patterned
behaviours can be called rituals, there is bound to be some manner of ritualism in even the most
philosophical/spiritual schools. But before we move on, it would be useful to define the Upaniṣads,
Yoga, and their goals.

The word Upaniṣad roughly translates to 'sitting near (the teacher to gain enlightenment) 38 but it could
be taken to mean a number of things. Müller says the Vedas themselves refer to the Upaniṣads as secret
or esoteric explanations, or knowledge derived from such explanations, or special rules incumbent on
one with such knowledge or the title of books containing such knowledge 39. Because they occur at the
end of the Vedas, they are also referred to as Vedānta. Another name for them is rahasya as they
contain secret esoteric knowledge that may only be passed on from a bonafide teacher to an ordained
student.

Yoga is commonly thought to be derived from the root yuj, which means to join, presumably the mind
and matter or soul and God in one seamless whole

So what is this esoteric knowledge about? The shortest possible answer to this is that the Upaniṣads
contain knowledge about the Brāhman. The Brāhman is the ultimate reality, and the spiritual aspirant
seeks to understand and unite with it. The philosophy of theUpaniṣads is vast and beyond the scope of
this paper, but we shall briefly appraise what an aspirant does to achieve this divine unity.

As opposed to the indulgence of Vedic rituals, the Upaniṣads propound the method of withdrawal.
Understanding the transient nature of things and cultivating a sense of detachment and renunciation
seem to be the fundamental advice for those seeking higher truths 40. Yoga, too, has similar spiritual
aims, with the practitioner living by certain physical, moral and mental codes.

38 Müller F M (1962), The Upanishads (p lxxx), Courier Corporation

39 Ibid.
40 Swami Madhvananda (2015 reprint). A Bird's Eye View of the Upanishads. In The Cultural Heritage of India (2nd ed.,
Vol. I: The Early Phases, p. 363), The Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture

20
Upanishadic Meditation

The most obvious 'ritual' in the context of the Upaniṣads is meditation. As Vedic rituals were
interpreted symbolically, they became more sublime in nature and were conducted in the aspirant's
mind rather than in the material world. There are different kinds and techniques of Upaniṣadic
meditation, some of which have been described below:

The word Upāsanā seems to well encapsulate the 'ritual'

of meditation prescribed to the Upaniṣadic student. In it,
the aspirant was encouraged to delve upon the Vedic
chants that were practiced as a matter of routine. For
example, the Chāndogya Upaniṣad says one must
concentrate on the sāman, the Ṛc, and the seer', the
Taittiriya Upaniṣad asks to concentrate on the
conjunction of letters to understand both, part and
whole41. Another well-known form of meditation is called
the Pancāgni vidyā in which 'The whole world, sentient
and insentient, is... thought of as a group of factors in a
cosmic sacrifice involving five successive fires... they are
all knit together through a spirit of self sacrifice, so that a
new creation may emerge at every stage. Faith is poured Illustration 8: An Indian miniature style painting
of a Yogi
as an oblation...'42

Life is considered as sacrifice itself, where hunger and thirst are dīkṣā; virtues like charity and truth are
dakṣiṇā; and death and disease are tapasyā. The continuous contemplation of these ideas, with the
mind fixed upon the the Ultimate Reality are what constitute the core ideas in Upaniṣadic meditation.
Of course, there are degrees of meditation. One could start with the 'lower' forms such as
angāvabaddha – focused concentration on meaning of sacrifices to improve their efficacy or
meditations that would lead one to heaven or yield other results. Gradually, with sustained practice, the
aspirant would move on to the highest forms of Brahma Upāsanā (meditating upon the Brahmaṇ),

41 Swami Madhvananda, Op. Cit. pp 375-385

42 Ibid.

21
Ahamgraha Upāsanā (self-identification with the Brahmaṇ), or Śāndilya Upāsanā (identifying with
Brahmaṇ with all that is good and noble43.

The Upaniṣadic tradition was deeply rooted in mysticism as the ultimate objective of all these
meditative rituals was realizing the identity of the self with God in all his fullness, transcendence and
immanence.

Yogic Practices

Yoga is another popular Indian school of thought, that is replete with meditative practices. However, the
term 'Yoga' has many connotations. It is associated with Patanjali's Aṣṭāṅga Yoga aka Rāja Yoga, the
Tāntric Haṭha Yoga, Bhagavad Gītā's Jñāna, Karma and Bhakti Yogas, the comparatively modern
Kriyā Yoga, Laya Yoga, etc. The techniques of each of these systems differ, but the ultimate objective is
the transcendence of the mind and union with God.

Among these systems, Patanjali/ Aṣṭāṅga/ Rāja Yoga is most

Illustration 9: Hatha Yoga is
usually associated with difficult
asanas such as this one
popular because it incorporates the ideals of all other Yoga systems.
It was propounded by the great Indian sage Patanjali around the 3 rd
century BCE in his work, the Yoga Sūtra. It has a number of
practices and corresponding philosophy, all aimed toward a pure,
free-from-bondage and Self-realised life, culminating in salvation. A
yogin needed to practiced a life of moral perfection, coupled with
physical and mental discipline. Patanjali gave the very popular
Aṣṭāṅga Yoga (eight limbs) path to achieve this. The eight limbs of
Yoga include Yama (abstentations – 5 in no.), Niyama (observances
– 5 in no.), Āsana (bodily postures – 100s in no.), Praṇāyama
(breath control techniques), Pratyahāra (abstraction), Dhāraṇa
(concentration), Dhyāna (meditation) and Samādhi (liberation).

However, in the modern times, only the physical aspects of āsanas (postures) and praṇāyama (breath

43 Ibid.

22
control) have become exceedingly popular and are understood to be 'Yogā'. Physical discipline and
training surely constituted a vital first step of training for the yogin, because a fit and healthy body was
considered necessary to house a controlled mind. The school of Haṭha Yoga, which is physically-
oriented, has especially gained many followers.

The earliest Haṭha Yoga references are said to be found in Buddhist Theravāda texts, followed by
famous proponents like Gorakṣanātha, but the most popular compilation is by Swāmi Svātamārāma in
his 15th century text, Haṭha Yoga Pradipikā. The text describes a number of extant Haṭha Yoga
practices to attain physical purity and perfection. Because they are expected to be performed on a
regular basis, they may be termed ritualistic. Some of these include śuddhi or śaṭa kriyās (cleansing
rituals) such as dhauti, basti, neti, nauli, kapal bhāti, and trātaka44. Along with these, one is to follow a
restricted and moderated diet, under the principles of mitāhāra. Once the body is cleansed and the
doṣas are balanced, one is to move on to āsanas, pranāyama, mudrās and bandhas. Ultimately the
aspirant gets to the more sublime stages, that will harmonize Śiva and Śakti, raise the Kuṇḍalinī and
lead to God realisation.

However, Svātamārāma personally believed in a form of Yoga called Chaturanga Yoga (four-limbed
Yoga) for which the aforementioned purification rituals or shaṭa kriyās were not obligatory. His four-
point system included āsanas, pranāyama, mudrā and nādanusandhāna. The first two, as pointed out
before, deal with bodily exercise and breathing techniques. Mudrās and Bandhas are ways to regulate
the prāṇa, while nādanusandhāna has to do with meditation.

Reams have been written on the internal processes and stages of meditation in Yoga. It is not very
dissimilar to Upaniṣadic meditation in that its ultimate goal is transcendence. Dasgupta 45 again
summarizes it succinctly for us: “The ultimate aim of the Yoga processes is to dissociate ourselves from
our sensations, thoughts, ideas, feelings, etc., to learn that these are extraneous associations, foreign to
the nature of self but adhering to it almost so inseparably that the true self cannot be easily discovered
as a separate and independent entity.” This realisation of the 'real' Self, which is in essence the same as
the Ultimate Reality, is essentially mystical in nature.

44 Rao, N., Dr. (2013). Meditation in Yoga. In K. Acharya, M. Iturbe, & L. Namjoshi (Eds.), Meditation: Oriental and
Occidental (pp. 3-72). Mumbai: Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd.
45 Dasgupta S N, Op. Cit. p. 65

23
Conclusion

More often than not, religious rituals are summarily dismissed as meaningless. They're thought to be
meant for the masses, who are unable to understand the finer points of religion. While that may have
been true of the pre-modern man, one must ask why rituals persist even today when there is ample
access to information and education. By modern society, we not only mean rural but urban areas too. A
simple look around is enough to open our eyes to the many rituals that surround us – especially of the
religious kind. Whether it is attending Sunday sermons or performing the Satyanārayaṇa Pūjā,
ritualism is an essential part of life in most cultures. They help maintain tradition and offer a sense of
connectedness with our past and our community. But as this paper contends, there are higher
motivations behind ritual observances than just custom or a sense of belonging.

Beyond and behind the religious necessities of a ritual lies the fundamental human need of connecting
with the divine, of tracing the roots of one's spirit. In the Hindu tradition, the starting point of
mysticism is found in ritualism. The Vedic tradition advocated a system of sacrifices, which were
primarily performed for material gain. But as has been demonstrated above, the motives were not
always about the welfare of the self. One sought to become a better person and also to make the world
a better place. This easily connects to two essential characteristics of a mystic/ mystical experience viz.
a permanent change in personality (for the better) and altruism. Further, the Vedic ritualist also needed
to acknowledge the divinity of all things, which again concurs with a mystic's worldview.

In the context of Tantra, we saw how fertility rites and sacrifices were aimed at the enrichment of the
whole planet and not just one's own piece of land. Where sexo-yogic practices are concerned, they are
but a way of realising the Śakti – the Ultimate Reality – within. The desire is not for pleasure through
human flesh but for union with the divine. The more acceptable Āgamic rituals in the form of common
pūjās carry this idea forward, albeit in a simpler way. Here, the Ultimate Reality is seen in a deity, to
whom one submits. All rituals surrounding temples are an attempt to get through to God so that one
may see it, recognise it and finally be merged with it. The singing of kīrtans and visiting pilgrimages
are rituals that can be considered corollaries of this temple culture. The aim of them all is to attain
divine grace – a defining feature of Bhakti mysticism.

24
More elements and characteristics of mysticism are to be found embedded in the Upaniṣadic and Yogic
schools of thought too. While some kinds of Yoga pay a lot attention to developing the physical body,
the final aim of all Self-realisation. The mind is sought to be conquered through meditation and various
ritual-like techniques have been prescribed in the Upaniṣadic and Yogic texts. Transcending the mind,
realising the true nature of the Self, and attaining unity with God/salvation best describe their goals. A
mystic's goals are comparable to the yogi's, who lives a life of moral perfection, spiritual contemplation
and unwavering bliss.

The researcher would, therefore, like to submit that ritualism and mysticism are intimately connected
and more studies ought to be undertaken in this realm to better understand them.

25
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