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within a day. Yet implementing this policy was hardly simple; the
Sharing data can save lives. The “Bermuda Principles” for public challenges that the HGP faced inform data sharing today (3).
data disclosure are a fundamental legacy of producing the first hu- The Bermuda Principles required advocacy. This came from
man reference DNA sequence during the Human Genome Project John Sulston and Robert Waterston, whose experiences with data
(HGP) (1). Since the 1990s, these principles have become a touch- sharing in Caenorhabditis elegans biology were the practical prec-
stone for open science. edent for a radical idea. Context also mattered, and data release
In February 1996, the leaders of the HGP gathered in Bermuda within 24 hours remained an aspirational ethos rather than a
to discuss how to scale up production for a human reference DNA strict requirement. Flexibility allowed smaller centers to partici-
sequence. With some caveats, the consortium agreed that all se- pate while also allowing the project to accommodate then-incom-
quencing centers would release their data online within 24 hours. patible policies in Germany, France, Japan, and the United States.
Over a few frenzied weeks in the middle of 2000, icing his wrists
Lack of diversity hinders the between coding sessions, Jim Kent, a graduate student at the
University of California, Santa Cruz, created the first genome
promise of genome science assembler software. GigAssembler pieced together the millions of
fragments of DNA sequence generated at labs around the globe,
By Charles N. Rotimi4, Shawneequa L. Callier4,5, Amy R. Bentley4 literally making the human genome. At almost the same time,
Celera Genomics acquired Paracel, a company that primarily
The long-term global impact of human genomics will be com- designed software for intelligence gathering. Paracel owned spe-
promised, and our understanding of human history and biology cially designed text-matching hardware and software (the TRW
hindered, if we continue to focus predominantly on individuals of Fast Data Finder) that was rapidly adapted for sniffing out genes
European ancestry (7). Although we all share a recent common ori- within the vast spaces of the genome.
gin in Africa, and the genetic difference between any two individu- Untangling the jumble of genomic letters required rapidly and
als is small (0.1%), this translates to about 3 million points where accurately searching for a specified sequence within a very large
individual genomes can vary, and the distribution of these human space. This demanded new forms of training and disciplinary
genetic variants (HGVs) is not random. It has long been under- expertise. Physicists, mathematicians, and computer scientists
stood that genomes (and exposures to key nongenetic factors) brought methods such as linear programming, hashing, and hid-
differ across ancestral and geographical backgrounds; nonethe- den Markov models into biology. Since 2005, the Moore’s Law–
less, genomics has largely focused on European-ancestry genomes. like growth of next-generation sequencing has generated ever-
Presumably this is attributable to the availability of large, well- increasing troves of data and required even faster algorithms
characterized datasets of European-ancestry individuals, academic for indexing and searching. Biology has borrowed “big data”
and research networks that exclude and disadvantage underrepre- methods from industry (e.g., Hadoop) but has also contributed
sented scholars (8), and the absence of publishing or funding moti- to pushing the frontiers of computer science research (e.g., the
vation for large-scale genomics of diverse individuals. But diversity Burrows-Wheeler transform) (12).
and representation are now being elevated from the purview of The coalescence of bioinformatics and computational biology
specialized research to a broad awareness across genomics. around algorithms has also given rise to new institutional forms
As this awareness develops, the field must grapple with under- and new markets for biomedicine. Statistically powered “data-
standing and communicating the implications: (i) Any two sub- driven biology” has configured an emerging medical-industrial
Saharan Africans are more likely to be genetically different from complex that promises personalized and “precision” forms of di-
each other than from an individual of European or Asian ancestry; agnosis and treatment. Algorithmic pipelines that compare an in-
(ii) a subset of HGVs can only be found in Africans because the dividual’s genotype to reference data generate a range of predic-
small number of humans that left Africa about 100,000 years ago tions about future health and risk. Direct-to-consumer genomics
to populate the rest of the world carried a fraction of the variation companies such as 23andMe now promise us healthier, happier,
that existed then; (iii) the African ecological environment has left and longer ways of living via algorithms.
its mark on human genomes (e.g., gene variants found to increase This presents substantial challenges for privacy, data owner-
vulnerability to kidney failure) that are seen worldwide only in ship, and algorithmic bias (13–15) that must be addressed if
persons with ancestry from specific regions of Africa (9). genomics is to avoid becoming a handmaiden of “surveillance
Similarly, there are HGVs of health and historical importance capitalism” (16). Many tech companies have begun to look toward
b
Emerging ethics
in Indigenous genomics
By Nanibaa’ A. Garrison14,15,16 and Stephanie Russo Carroll17,18
Indigenous Data Alliance’s CARE Principles for Indigenous genomic datasets, racial/ethnic minorities tend to have a greater
Data Governance (Collective Benefit, Authority to Control, portion of recent ancestry from places other than Europe.
Responsibility, and Ethics) complement the FAIR principles In response to the differential predictive power of PRSs, re-
(Findability, Accessibility, Interoperability, and Reusability) that searchers have developed some PRSs specifically for people
make data machine-readable and usable in multiple contexts (37, of predominantly African ancestry, and genome scientists are
38). When operationalized together, CARE and FAIR enhance considering whether “ancestry-specific PRS are needed for every
Indigenous leadership and innovation, leading to participatory ethnic group…” (42). These developments occur as scholars of
governance and enabling opportunities for trust-building and ac- race call for an end to many uses of “race correction” in medicine
countability by incorporating Indigenous values and rights. For (43). Appropriate attention to genetic ancestry’s effects on PRSs
example, the creation of data standards and the use of Indigenous can easily collapse into an ill-informed focus on race, without
community-defined metadata can protect data while allowing considering how social inequalities shape health and how race is
them to be useful. The metadata become durable and persistent an imperfect proxy for ancestry. Society needs a multidisciplinary
components of genomic information that provide guidance on approach for developing and implementing PRSs for diverse
future use, such as who has the authority to sanction that use, for communities. Otherwise, ancestry-specific PRSs could reinvigo-
what purposes, and to benefit whom (34, 37). rate people’s misconceptions about human races as genetically
An increased focus on rights and interests combined with en- distinct groups and encourage mistaken views that trait distribu-
hanced engagement and capacity has the potential to reduce bias tion between racial/ethnic groups is primarily caused by genetics
and produce more relevant and beneficial research for all. (39). Such beliefs are central to white supremacy and racist medi-
cal practices. Injustice in science can occur because some groups
N.A.G. is Diné, a citizen of the Navajo Nation. S.R.C. is Ahtna, a citizen of people are not included (44), but injustice can also result from
of the Native Village of Kluti-Kaah. inappropriate inclusion.
1
School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA. 2Center for Medical Ethics and Health Policy, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; kmaxson@alumni.princeton.edu.
3
School for the Future of Innovation in Society and Consortium for Science, Policy and Outcomes, Arizona State University, Washington, DC, USA. 4Center for Research on Genomics and Global
Health, National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA; rotimic@mail.nih.gov. 5Department of Clinical Research and Leadership, George Washington University School of
Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA. 6School of Humanities, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore; hstevens@ntu.edu.sg. 7Center for Translational and Policy Research
on Personalized Medicine (TRANSPERS), Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA. 8Philip R. Lee Institute for Health Policy Studies, University of
California, San Francisco, CA, USA. 9Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA; kathryn.phillips@ucsf.edu. 10Department of Africana
Studies, Department of Sociology, and Law School, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA; dorothyroberts@law.upenn.edu. 11Université de Paris, INSERM 970, Paris Translational
Research Centre for Organ Transplantation, Paris, France. 12Doctoral School 515, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France. 13Efi Arazi School of Computer Science, IDC Herzliya, Herzliya, Israel;
erlichya@gmail.com. 14Institute for Society & Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA. 15Institute for Precision Health, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of
California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA. 16Division of General Internal Medicine & Health Services Research, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095,
USA; nanibaa@socgen.ucla.edu. 17Native Nations Institute, Udall Center for Studies in Public Policy, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA. 18Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public
Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA. 19Morgridge Institute for Research and University of Wisconsin Law School, Madison, WI, USA; pnossorio@wisc.edu. 20University of Leuven
(KU Leuven), Leuven, Belgium; yves.moreau@kuleuven.be. 21Human Rights Watch, New York, NY, USA; wangm@hrw.org.
They should ban such activities when they do not meet international files/2019-07/GMXII_Executive_Summary.pdf.
43. D. E. Roberts, Lancet 397, 17 (2021).
human rights standards of lawfulness, proportionality, and necessity. 44. A. R. Martin et al., Nat. Genet. 51, 584 (2019).
They should develop a coordinated global regime of export control 45. UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Letter to the Permanent
legislation, as well as sanctions akin to the U.S. Magnitsky Act, Representative of Thailand to the United Nations Office (15 May 2015);
https://bit.ly/39VxGJe.
to hold businesses accountable that recklessly supply or market this 46. Forensic Genetics Policy Initiative, Establishing Best Practices for Forensic DNA Databases
technology for genomic surveillance. (2017); https://bit.ly/3iasJzL.
47. D. Zhang et al., Int. J. Legal Med. 10.1007/s00414-019-02049-6 [retracted] (2019).
Journal editors and publishers should reassess hundreds of ethi- 48. X. Pan et al., Int. J. Legal Med. 134, 2079 [retracted] (2020).
cally suspect DNA-profiling publications—for example, publications
co-authored by police forces involved in the persecution of the ACKNOWL EDGMENTS
minorities studied (47) or lacking proper consent or ethical approval K.M.J. and R.C.-D. were funded by National Cancer Institute (NCI) grant R01 CA237118. C.N.R.,
S.L.C., and A.R.B. were supported in part by the Intramural Research Program of NIH through the
(48). Although there have been a few retractions (47, 48), such as- Center for Research on Genomics and Global Health (CRGGH) at the National Human Genome
sessments should not be limited to the bureaucratic verification of Research Institute (NHGRI). The CRGGH is also supported by the National Institute of Diabetes
informed consent and ethical approval documents; they also need to and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. K.A.P. is a consultant to Illumina Inc. and was funded by NCI
grant R01 CA221870 and NHGRI grant U01 HG009599. J.P.J. is a part-time salaried employee of the
consider the basic ethical principles of beneficence, nonmaleficence, Precision Medicine Group. D.Z. and Y.E. hold equity in DNA.Land, a third-party genetic service. D.Z.
autonomy, justice, and faithfulness. The scientific community should is an employee of Cibiltech; Y.E. is an employee of Eleven Therapeutics, MyHeritage, and consultant
also refuse to cooperate with law enforcement anywhere in the world to ArcBio. The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not
that is proven to be violating human rights standards, in particular necessarily reflect the official policies or positions of any of their employers.
the Chinese police and military. 10.1126/science.abg5266