A Brief History

of Modern India

2021
Revised and Enlarged Edition
 Editor’
Editor’ss Note

Several books have been written by justly famous authors and historians
of India’s struggle for freedom which is the major strand in any consider-
ation of the history of Modern India. But these volumes are extensive
and in-depth studies, and often suffer from an overemphasis on one as-
pect at the cost of another. The present small effort, however, brings
together various aspects of the turbulent period (from the arrival of the
Europeans on Indian soil and the establishment of British rule in India to
the day India won independence and the years after freedom) in a sys-
tematic and succinct manner: major and important details and milestones
are effectively discussed while several relevant but little known details
are also highlighted.
It is not just the mainstream freedom struggle that has been consid-
ered; the disparate efforts—small but significant—of several groups have
also been discussed. The political and socio-economic developments that
have influenced the growth of modern India have been dealt with in inde-
pendent chapters.
The endeavour has been to present complex and truly vast material
in a brief and easy-to-understand manner, and we hope our readers find
the book of use and interest.
The present edition includes chapters on the advent of the Europe-
ans in India and the British consolidation of power in India besides incor-
porating additional information under several chapters. There are also
chapters on the challenges that a newly independent nation faced in the
wake of a brutal partition. The Nehruvian era is also briefly discussed.
The chapter on India after Nehru discusses various developments under
the governments that came after 1964. In the Appendices, a survey of
personalities associated with various movements is given. Also included
for easy ready reference are several charts relating to modern India and
the freedom struggle.

2
 We are grateful for the feedback we have received from our readers. We have
incorporated many of their valuable suggestions in the present edition.
Suggestions for improvement are welcome.

Kalpana Rajaram
August 2021

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 CONTENTS

UNIT 1 Chapters 1–2

SOURCES AND APPROACHES

1. Sources for the History of Modern India 1–11
Archival Materials 2
Central Government Archives 2
Archives of the State Governments 3
Archives of Three Presidencies 4
Archives of Other European Powers 4
Judicial Records 5
Published Archives 5
Private Archives 6
Foreign Repositories 6
Biographies, Memoirs, and Travel Accounts 7
Newspapers and Journals 8
Oral Evidence 9
Creative Literature 9
Painting 10
Summary 11
2. Major Approaches to the History of 12–18
Modern India
Colonial Approach 12
Nationalist Approach 13
Marxist Approach 14
Subaltern Approach 15
Communalist Approach 16
Cambridge School Approach 16
Liberal and Neoliberal Approach 16
Feminist Approach 17
Summary 17

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UNIT 2 Chapters 3–5

ADVENT OF EUROPEANS AND CONSOLIDATION OF BRITISH

POWER OF INDIA
3. Advent of the Europeans in India 19–56
The Portuguese in India 20
The Quest for and Discovery of a Direct
Sea Route to India 20
From Trading to Ruling 21
Portuguese State 26
Portuguese Lose Favour with the Mughals 29
Decline of the Portuguese 30
Significance of the Portuguese 32
The Dutch 34
Dutch Settlements 34
Anglo-Dutch Rivalry 34
Decline of the Dutch in India 35
The English 36
Charter of Queen Elizabeth I 36
Progress of the English Company 36
The French 40
Foundation of French Centres in India 40
The Anglo-French Struggle for Supremacy:
the Carnatic Wars 42
Causes for the English Success and the 49
French Failure
The Danes 51
Why the English Succeeded against Other
European Powers 51
Structure and Nature of the Trading Companies 52
Naval Superiority 52
Industrial Revolution 52
Military Skill and Discipline 53
Stable Government 53

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Lesser Zeal for Religion 53

Use of Debt Market 53
Summary 54
Boxes
Portuguese Rise and Fall 32
Formative Years of the East India Company 39
Rise and Fall of Dupleix in India 45
About the Goods in Trade Initially 50
4. India on the Eve of the British Conquest 57–80
Challenges before the Mughals 57
External Challenges 57
Weak Rulers after Aurangzeb—An 59
Internal Challenge
Causes of the Decline of the Mughal Empire 62
Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars 64
Jagirdari Crisis 64
Rise of Regional Aspirations 64
Economic and Administrative Problems 67
Rise of Regional States 68
Survey of Regional Kingdoms 69
Nature and Limitations of Regional States 72
Socio-Economic Conditions 73
Agriculture 73
Trade and Industry 73
Status of Education 75
Societal Set-up 76
Developments in Art, Architecture, and Culture 78
Summary 78
Boxes
Why Many Empire-shaking Battles at Panipat? 59
Causes of the Mughals’ Downfall in a Nutshell 68
5. Expansion and Consolidation of 81–137
British Power in India
The British Imperial History 81
Was the British Conquest Accidental or Intentional? 82

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When did the British Period Begin in India? 84

Causes of British Success in India 85
Superior Arms, Military, and Strategy 85
Better Military Discipline and Regular Salary 85
Civil Discipline and Fair Selection System 86
Brilliant Leadership and Support of 86
Second-Line Leaders
Strong Financial Backup 86
British Nationalist Pride 87
British Conquest of Bengal 87
Bengal on the Eve of British Conquest 87
Alivardi Khan and the English 88
Challenges before Siraj-ud-Daulah 88
The Battle of Plassey 89
Mir Kasim and the Treaty of 1760 90
The Battle of Buxar 91
The Treaty of Allahabad 94
Dual Government in Bengal (1765–72) 94
Mysore’s Resistance to the Company 95
The Wodeyar/Mysore Dynasty 95
Rise of Haidar Ali 96
First Anglo-Mysore War (1767–69) 97
Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–84) 97
Third Anglo-Mysore War 98
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War 99
Mysore after Tipu 102
Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Supremacy 102
Rise of the Marathas 102
Entry of the English into Maratha Politics 103
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82) 103
Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05) 105
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–19) 107
Why the Marathas Lost 109
Conquest of Sindh 110
Rise of Talpuras Amirs 111
Gradual Ascendancy over Sindh 111

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Criticism of the Conquest of Sindh 115

Conquest of Punjab 115
Consolidation of Punjab under the Sikhs 115
Ranjit Singh and the English 117
Punjab after Ranjit Singh 118
First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46) 118
Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49) 120
Significance of the Anglo-Sikh Wars 121
Extension of British Paramountcy through 121
Administrative Policy
The Policy of Ring-Fence 122
Subsidiary Alliance 122
Doctrine of Lapse 125
Relations of British India with 127
Neighbouring Countries
Anglo-Bhutanese Relations 127
Anglo-Nepalese Relations 127
Anglo-Burmese Relations 128
Anglo-Tibetan Relations 130
Anglo-Afghan Relations 131
John Lawrence and the Policy of 132
Masterly Inactivity
Lytton and the Policy of Proud Reserve 133
British India and the North-West Frontier 134
Summary 135
Boxes
Robert Clive 93
Estimate of Tipu Sultan 100
Annexation of Awadh 126

UNIT 3 Chapters 6–7

RISING RESENTMENT AGAINST COMPANY RULE

6. People’s Resistance against the 138–175
British before 1857
People’s Resistance: Meaning 138

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Genesis of People’s Resistance 139

Causative Factors for People’s Uprisings 140
Civil Uprisings 140
Major Causes of Civil Uprisings 140
General Characteristics of Civil Uprisings 141
Important Civil Uprisings 141
Peasant Movements with Religious Overtones 154
Tribal Revolts 156
Different Causes for Mainland and 156
North-Eastern Tribal Revolts
Characteristics of Tribal Revolts 157
Important Tribal Movements of the Mainland 158
The Revolt Led by Tilka Manjhi 159
Jungle Mahal Revolt or the Chuar Uprising 160
Tribal Movements of the North-East 168
Sepoy Mutinies 170
Causes 170
Important Mutinies 170
Weaknesses of People’s Uprisings 171
Summary 172
Boxes
Some Tribal Movements after 1857 163
Tribal Movements: Period, Region and 167
Causes at a Glance
North-East Frontier Tribal Movements: 169
Year, Region, and Major Causes
7. The Revolt of 1857 176–197
Simmering Discontent 176
The 1857 Revolt: Major Causes 177
Economic Causes 177
Political Causes 178
Administrative Causes 179
Socio-Religious Causes 179
Influence of Outside Events 179
Discontent among Sepoys 179

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Beginning and Spread of the Revolt 180

The Spark 180
Starts at Meerut 181
Choice of Bahadur Shah as Symbolic Head 181
Civilians Join 182
Storm Centres and Leaders of the Revolt 183
Suppression of the Revolt 185
Why the Revolt Failed 186
All India participation was absent 186
All classes did not join 186
Poor Arms and Equipment 187
Uncoordinated and Poorly Organised 187
No Unified Ideology 187
Hindu-Muslim Unity Factor 188
Nature of the Revolt 188
Consequences 192
Significance of the Revolt 195
Summary 196
Box
White Mutiny 194

UNIT 4 Chapters 8–9

REFORM MOVEMENTS
8. Socio-Religious Reform 198–219
Movements: General Features
Factors Giving Rise to Desire for Reform 198
Impact of British Rule 199
Social Conditions Ripe for Reform 199
Opposition to Western Culture 200
New Awareness among Enlightened Indians 200
Social and Ideological Bases of Reform 201
Middle-Class Base 201
The Intellectual Criteria 202
Two Streams 204
Direction of Social Reform 204

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Fight for Betterment of Position of Women 205

Struggle against Caste-Based Exploitation 212
Summary 218
9. A General Survey of the Reform 220–256
Movements and Their Leaders
Socio-Cultural Reform Movements and 220
Their Leaders
Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj 220
Prarthana Samaj 226
Young Bengal Movement and Henry 226
Vivian Derozio
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar 227
Balshastri Jambhekar 228
Paramahamsa Mandali 228
Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai Phule 229
Gopal Baba Walangkar 231
Kisan Faguji Bansod 232
Vitthal Ramji Shinde 232
Gopal Hari Deshmukh ‘Lokahitawadi’ 233
Gopal Ganesh Agarkar 233
The Servants of India Society 234
Social Service League 234
The Ramakrishna Movement and 234
Swami Vivekananda
Dayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj 238
Seva Sadan 242
Dev Samaj 242
Dharma Sabha 242
Bharat Dharma Mahamandala 242
Radhaswami Movement 243
Sree Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana 243
(SNDP) Movement
Vokkaliga Sangha 244
Justice Movement 244
Self-Respect Movement 244

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Temple Entry Movement 245

Indian Social Conference 245
Wahabi/Waliullah Movement 245
Titu Mir’s Movement 246
Faraizi Movement 246
Ahmadiyya Movement 247
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the 247
Aligarh Movement
The Deoband School (Darul Uloom) 249
Parsi Reform Movement 250
Sikh Reform Movements 250
The Theosophical Movement 251
Significance of Reform Movements 252
Positive Aspects 252
Negative Aspects 254
Summary 255

UNIT 5 Chapters 10–11

THE STRUGGLE BEGINS

10.Beginning of Modern Nationalism in India 257–267
Factors Responsible for the Growth of Modern 258
Nationalism in India
Understanding the Conflict of Indian and 258
Colonial Interests
Political, Administrative, and Economic 258
Unification of the Country
Western Thought and Education 259
Role of Press and Literature 260
Rediscovery of India’s Past 260
Progressive Character of Socio-Religious 261
Reform Movements
Rise of Middle-Class Intelligentsia 261
Impact of Contemporary Movements 261
in the World

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Reactionary Policies and Racial 261

Arrogance of Rulers
Early Manifestation of Nationalism: 262
Political Associations
Political Associations in Bengal 263
Political Associations in Bombay 264
Political Associations in Madras 265
Pioneering National Associations 265
Pre-Congress Campaigns 266
Summary 267
11.Indian National Congress: Foundation and 268–278
the Moderate Phase
Foundation of the Indian National Congress 268
Was It a Safety Valve? 269
Aims and Objectives of the Congress 270
Era of Moderates (1885–1905) 270
Important Leaders 270
Moderate Approach 270
Contributions of Moderate Nationalists 271
Economic Critique of British Imperialism 271
Constitutional Reforms and Propaganda 272
in Legislature
Campaign for General Administrative Reforms 274
Protection of Civil Rights 274
An Evaluation of the Early Nationalists 275
Role of Masses 276
Attitude of the Government 277
Summary 278
Box
Indian Councils Act, 1892 273

UNIT 6 Chapters 12–14

NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1905–1918)

12.Era of Militant Nationalism (1905–1909) 279–307
Why Militant Nationalism Grew 280

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Recognition of the True Nature of British Rule 280

Growth of Confidence and Self-Respect 281
Growth of Education 281
International Influences 282
Reaction to Increasing Westernisation 282
Dissatisfaction with Achievements of Moderates 282
Reactionary Policies of Curzon 283
Existence of a Militant School of Thought 283
Emergence of a Trained Leadership 284
The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement 284
Partition of Bengal to Divide People 284
Anti-Partition Campaign under 285
Moderates (1903–05)
The Congress Position 286
The Movement under the Leadership of 287
Extremist Nationalists
The Extremist Programme 287
New Forms of Struggle and Impact 288
Extent of Mass Participation 292
All India Aspect 293
Annulment of Partition 294
Evaluation of the Swadeshi Movement 294
The Movement Fizzles out 294
Movement, a Turning Point 295
The Surat Split 297
Run-up to Surat 297
Split Takes Place 299
Government Repression 299
The Government Strategy 301
Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 301
The Reforms 302
Evaluation 304
Summary 305
Box
Differences between Moderates and Extremists 296

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13.First Phase of Revolutionary 308–320

Activities (1907–1917)
Why the Surge of Revolutionary Activities 308
The Revolutionary Programme 309
A Survey of Revolutionary Activities 309
Bengal 309
Maharashtra 312
Punjab 313
Revolutionary Activities Abroad 314
Decline 318
Summary 318
14.First World War and Nationalist Response 321–331
Home Rule League Movement 322
Factors Leading to the Movement 322
The Leagues 323
The Home Rule League Programme 324
Government Attitude 325
Why the Agitation Faded out by 1919 325
Positive Gains 326
Lucknow Session of the Indian 327
National Congress (1916)
Readmission of Extremists to Congress 327
Lucknow Pact between Congress and 327
Muslim League
Montagu’s Statement of August 1917 330
Indian Objections 330
Summary 331

UNIT 7 Chapters 15–21

ERA OF MASS NATIONALISM BEGINS (1919–1939)

15.Emergence of Gandhi 332–355
Why Nationalist Resurgence Now 332
Post-War Economic Hardships 333
Expectations of Political Gains for 333
Cooperation in the War

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Nationalist Disillusionment with 333

Imperialism Worldwide
Impact of Russian Revolution 334
(November 7, 1917)
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and 334
Government of India Act, 1919
Main Features 335
Drawbacks 337
Congress Reaction 338
Making of Gandhi 339
Early Career and Experiments with 339
Truth in South Africa
Gandhi’s Experience in South Africa 342
Gandhi’s Technique of Satyagraha 342
Gandhi in India 343
Champaran Satyagraha (1917)—First Civil 343
Disobedience
Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)—First 344
Hunger Strike
Kheda Satyagraha (1918)—First 345
Non-Cooperation
Gains from Champaran, Ahmedabad, 346
and Kheda
Rowlatt Act, Satyagraha, and Jallianwala 346
Bagh Massacre
The Rowlatt Act 347
Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act— 348
First Mass Strike
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919) 349
The Hunter Committee of Inquiry 351
Congress View 353
Summary 354
Box
Tolstoy Farm 341

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16.Non-Cooperation Movement and 356–367

Khilafat Aandolan
Background 356
The Khilafat Issue 357
Development of the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation 358
Programme
Congress Stand on Khilafat Question 358
Muslim League Support to Congress 359
The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement 359
Spread of the Movement 361
People’s Response 362
Response of the Government 364
The Last Phase of the Movement 364
Why Gandhi Withdrew the Movement 366
Evaluation of Khilafat Non-Cooperation Movement 367
Summary 367
17.Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, 368–386
Revolutionary Activities, and
Other New Forces
Swarajists and No-Changers 368
Genesis of Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party 368
Swarajists’ Arguments 369
No-Changers’ Arguments 369
Agree to Disagree 370
The Swarajist Manifesto for Elections 370
Gandhi’s Attitude 370
Swarajist Activity in Councils 371
Constructive Work by No-Changers 373
Emergence of New Forces: Socialistic Ideas, 374
Youth Power, Trade Unionism
Spread of Marxist and Socialist Ideas 374
Activism of Indian Youth 375
Peasants’ Agitations 375
Growth of Trade Unionism 376
Caste Movements 376

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Revolutionary Activity with a Turn 376

towards Socialism
Revolutionary Activity during the 1920s 377
Why Attraction for Revolutionary Activity 377
after Non-Cooperation Movement
Major Influences 377
In Punjab-United Provinces-Bihar 378
In Bengal 380
Official Reaction and Decline 382
Ideological Rethinking 383
Summary 385
18.Simon Commission and the Nehru Report 387–397
Appointment of the Indian Statutory Commission 388
Indian Response 388
Police Repression 390
Impact of Appointment of Simon 391
Commission on the National Movement
The Simon Commission Recommendations 391
Nehru Report 392
Main Recommendations 393
The Muslim and Hindu Communal Responses 394
Amendments Proposed by Jinnah 395
Nehru Report Found Unsatisfactory 396
Summary 397
Box
Dr Ambedkar and the Simon Commission 390
19.Civil Disobedience Movement and 398–434
Round Table Conferences
The Run-up to Civil Disobedience Movement 398
Calcutta Session of Congress 398
Political Activity during 1929 399
Irwin’s Declaration (October 31, 1929) 399
Delhi Manifesto 400
Lahore Congress and Purna Swaraj 400

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January 26, 1930: the Independence Pledge 402

Civil Disobedience Movement—the Salt 402

Satyagraha and Other Upsurges
Gandhi’s Eleven Demands 402
Why Salt was Chosen as the Important Theme 403
Dandi March (March 12–April 6, 1930) 404
Spread of Salt Law Disobedience 405
Impact of Agitation 409
Extent of Mass Participation 409
Government Response—Efforts for Truce 410
Gandhi-Irwin Pact 411
Evaluation of Civil Disobedience Movement 412
Karachi Congress Session—1931 414
Congress Resolutions at Karachi 414
The Round Table Conferences 415
First Round Table Conference 415
Second Round Table Conference 417
Third Round Table Conference 420
Civil Disobedience Resumed 421
During Truce Period (March–December 1931) 421
Changed Government Attitude after Second RTC 421
Government Action 422
Popular Response 422
Communal Award and Poona Pact 422
Main Provisions of the Communal Award 424
Congress Stand 424
Gandhi’s Response 424
Poona Pact 425
Impact of Poona Pact on Dalits 425
Gandhi’s Harijan Campaign and Thoughts on Caste 426
Ideological Differences and Similarities 429
between Gandhi and Ambedkar
Summary 433
20.Debates on the Future Strategy after Civil 435–445

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Disobedience Movement
The First Stage Debate 435
Nehru’s Vision 436
Nehru’s Opposition to Struggle-Truce-Struggle 436
Strategy
Finally, Yes to Council Entry 437
Government of India Act, 1935 438
Main Features 438
Evaluation of the Act 440
Nationalists’ Response 442
The Second Stage Debate 442
Divided Opinion 442
Gandhi’s Position 443
Congress Manifesto for Elections 444
Congress’ Performance 444
Summary 444
21.Congress Rule in the Provinces 446–451
Gandhi’s Advice 446
Work under Congress Ministries 446
Civil Liberties 446
Agrarian Reforms 447
Attitude towards Labour 448
Social Welfare Reforms 449
Evaluation 449
Summary 451

UNIT 8 Chapters 22–25

TOWARDS FREEDOM AND PARTITION (1939–1947)

22.Nationalist Response in the Wake of 452–483
World War II
Congress Crisis on Method of Struggle 453
Haripura and Tripuri Sessions: Subhas 453
Bose’s Views
Gandhi and Bose: Ideological Differences 457
Non-Violence versus Militant Approach 458

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Means and Ends 458

Form of Government 459
Militarism 462
Ideas on Economy 462
Religion 464
Caste and Untouchability 466
Women 467
Education 469
Second World War and Nationalistic Response 470
Congress Offer to Viceroy 470
CWC Meeting at Wardha 471
Government Attitude and Congress 472
Ministries’ Resignation
Government’s Hidden Agenda 472
August Offer 475
Responses 476
Evaluation 476
Individual Satyagraha 476
Gandhi Designates Nehru as His Successor 477
Cripps Mission 478
Main Proposals 479
Departures from the Past and Implications 479
Why Cripps Mission Failed 480
Summary 482
23.Quit India Movement, Demand for 484–499
Pakistan, and the INA
Quit India Movement 484
Why Start a Struggle Now 484
The ‘Quit India’ Resolution 485
Gandhi’s General Instructions to 485
Different Sections
Spread of the Movement 486
Extent of Mass Participation 488
Government Repression 489
Estimate 489

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Gandhi Fasts 490

Famine of 1943 490
Rajagopalachari Formula 491
The Formula 491
Objections 491
Desai-Liaqat Pact 491
Wavell Plan 492
Why the Government was Keen on a 492
Solution Now
The Plan 492
Muslim League’s Stand 493
Congress Stand 493
Wavell’s Mistake 493
The Indian National Army and Subhas Bose 494
Origin and First Phase of the Indian 495
National Army
Summary 498
24.Post-War National Scenario 500–530
Two Strands of National Upsurge 500
Change in Government’s Attitude 500
Congress Election Campaign and INA Trials 502
Election Campaign for Nationalistic Aims 502
Congress Support for INA Prisoners 503
The INA Agitation—A Landmark on 503
Many Counts
Three Upsurges—Winter of 1945–46 504
Three-Stage Pattern 504
Evaluation of Potential and Impact of the 506
Three Upsurges
Congress Strategy 507
Election Results 508
Performance of the Congress 508
Muslim League’s Performance 508
Significant Features of Elections 508
The Cabinet Mission 508

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Why British Withdrawal Seemed Imminent Now 509

On the Eve of Cabinet Mission Plan 510
Cabinet Mission Arrives 511
Cabinet Mission Plan—Main Points 511
Different Interpretations of the Grouping Clause 513
Main Objections 513
Acceptance and Rejection 513
Communal Holocaust and the Interim Government 514
Changed Government Priorities 514
Interim Government 515
Obstructionist Approach and Ulterior 516
Motives of the League
Birth and Spread of Communalism in India 517
Characteristic Features of Indian Communalism 517
Reasons for Growth of Communalism 518
Evolution of the Two-Nation Theory 524
Summary 528
Box
Wavell’s ‘Breakdown Plan’ 514
25.Independence with Partition 531–541
Attlee’s Statement of February 20, 1947 531
Main Points of Attlee’s Statement 531
Why a Date Fixed by Government 532
for Withdrawal
Congress Stand 532
Independence and Partition 532
Mountbatten as the Viceroy 533
Mountbatten Plan, June 3, 1947 533
Indian Independence Act 536
Problems of Early withdrawal 537
Integration of States 537
Inevitability of Partition 538
Why Congress Accepted Partition 538
Gandhi’s Helplessness 541
Summary 541
Box

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Plan Balkan 536

UNIT 9 Chapters 26–32

INDIA UNDER BRITISH RULE: GOVERNANCE AND OTHER AS-

PECTS
26.Constitutional, Administrative, and Judicial 542–575
Developments
Constitutional Developments between 542
1773 and 1858
The Regulating Act of 1773 543
Pitt’s India Act of 1784 544
The Act of 1786 545
The Charter Act of 1793 545
The Charter Act of 1813 545
The Charter Act of 1833 546
The Charter Act of 1853 547
The Act for Better Government of India 1858 548
Developments after 1858 till Independence 548
Indian Councils Act 1861 548
Indian Councils Act 1892 549
Indian Councils Act 1909 549
Government of India Act 1919 550
Simon Commission 552
Government of India Act 1935 552
Evolution of Civil Services in India 554
Cornwallis’ Role 555
Wellesley’s Role 555
Charter Act of 1853 555
Indian Civil Service Act of 1861 556
Statutory Civil Service 556
Congress Demand and Aitchison Committee 556
Montford Reforms 1919 557
Lee Commission (1924) 557
Evaluation of Civil Services under British Rule 558

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Evolution of Police System in Modern India 558

Military under the British 560
Development of Judiciary in British India 562
Reforms under Warren Hastings (1772–85) 563
Reforms under Cornwallis (1786–93) — 563
Separation of Powers
Reforms under William Bentinck (1828–33) 564
Later Developments 565
Evaluation 565
Positive Aspects of Judiciary under the British 565
The Negative Aspects 565
Major Changes in Administrative Structure 566
after 1857
Genesis of Administrative Changes: 566
New Stage of Colonialism
Administration: Central, Provincial, and Local 567
Central Government 567
Provincial Government 568
Local Bodies 569
Summary 574
27.Survey of British Policies in India 576–594
Administrative Policies 576
Divide and Rule 576
Hostility towards Educated Indians 576
Attitude towards the Zamindars 577
Attitude towards Social Reforms 577
Underdeveloped Social Services 577
Labour Legislations 578
Restrictions on Freedom of the Press 579
White Racism 580
Revenue Policies 580
Hastings’ System 580
Permanent Settlement 581
Ryotwari System 583
Mahalwari System 585

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Overall Impact of the British 588

Land Revenue Systems
British Social and Cultural Policy in India 589
Characteristics of New Thought 589
Schools of Thought 590
Indian Renaissance 591
Dilemma before the Government 591
Role of Christian Missionaries 591
British Retreat 591
British Policy towards Princely States 592
British Foreign Policy in India 593
Summary 594
28.Economic Impact of British Rule in India 595–611
Deindustrialisation—Ruin of 595
Artisans and Handicraftsmen
One-Way Free Trade 595
No Steps towards Modern Industrialisation 596
Ruralisation 596
Impoverishment of Peasantry 596
Emergence of Intermediaries, Absentee 597
Landlordism, Ruin of Old Zamindars
Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture 598
Famine and Poverty 598
Commercialisation of Indian Agriculture 598
Destruction of Industry and Late Development 599
of Modern Industry
Nationalist Critique of Colonial Economy 602
British Policies Making India Poor 603
Growth of Trade and Railways to Help Britain 603
One-Way Free Trade and Tariff Policy 605
Effect of Economic Drain 605
Economic Issues—a Stimulant to National Unrest 606
Stages of Colonialism in India 607
First Stage 607

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Second Stage 608

Third Stage 610
Summary 611
Box
Economic Drain 602
29.Development of Indian Press 612–619
Early Regulations 612
Struggle by Early Nationalists to Secure 613
Freedom of Press
Vernacular Press Act 1878 615
Repression against Nationalist Journalists Continues 616
During and after the First World War 618
During the Second World War 618
Summary 619
30.Development of Education 620–636
Under Company Rule 620
A Humble Beginning by Charter Act of 1813 621
Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy 621
Lord Macaulay’s Minute (1835) 622
Efforts of Thomson 623
Wood’s Despatch (1854) 623
After the Crown Took over 624
Hunter Education Commission (1882–83) 624
Indian Universities Act 1904 625
Government Resolution on Education 626
Policy—1913
Sadler University Commission (1917–19) 627
Education under Dyarchy 628
Hartog Committee (1929) 629
Sargent Plan of Education 630
Development of Vernacular Education 632
Development of Technical Education 634
Evaluation of British Policy on Education 635
Summary 636

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Box
Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937) 633
31.Peasant Movements 1857–1947 637–648
A Survey of Early Peasant Movements 638
Indigo Revolt (1859–60) 638
Pabna Agrarian Leagues 639
Deccan Riots 639
Changed Nature of Peasant 640
Movements after 1857
Weaknesses 641
Later Movements 641
The Kisan Sabha Movement 641
Eka Movement 642
Mappila Revolt 643
Bardoli Satyagraha 643
The All India Kisan Congress/Sabha 644
Under Congress Ministries 645
Peasant Activity in Provinces 645
During the War 646
Post-War Phase 646
Balance-Sheet of Peasant Movements 648
Summary 648
32.The Movement of the Working Class 649–654
Early Efforts 649
During Swadeshi Upsurge 650
During the First World War and After 651
All India Trade Union Congerss (AITUC) 651
The Trade Union Act 1926 652
Late 1920s 652
Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929) 653
Under Congress Ministries 653
During and after the Second World War 653
After Independence 654
Summary 654

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UNIT 10 Chapters 33–39

INDEPENDENCE AND AFTER

33.Challenges before the Newborn Nation 655–668
Setting out as Independent Nation 655
First Government after Independence 656
Challenges 657
Radcliffe’s Boundary Award and the 657
Communal Riots
Challenges before the Boundary Commission 658
Regions Most Affected by Riots 659
Challenges Associated with Division of Resources 661
Division of Civil Government 661
Division of Finances 662
Division of Defence Personnel and Equipment 662
Assassination of Gandhi 662
Rehabilitation and Resettlement of Refugees 664
East Punjab 664
Bengal 664
Delhi Pact on Minorities 665
Centres of Refugee Settlements in India 666
Communists and Independence 666
Why Communists were Sceptical about 667
Independence
Shift from Antagonistic Strategy 667
to Constitutional Democracy
34.The Indian States 669–675
I. The Company’s Struggle for Equality 669
from a Position of Subordination (1740–1765)
II. Policy of Ring Fence (1765–1813) 669
III. Policy of Subordinate Isolation (1813–1857) 670
IV. Policy of Subordinate Union (1857–1935) 670
Curzon’s Approach 671
Post-1905 671

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V. Policy of Equal Federation (1935–1947):

A Non-Starter 672
VI. Integration and Merger 673
Plebiscite and Army Action 673
Gradual Integration 674
35.Making of the Constitution for India 676–685
Background 676
Constituent Assembly 679
Formation 679
Two Constituent Assemblies: India and Pakistan 680
Evaluation of the Assembly for India 681
After Independence 682
Work: Committees and Consensus 682
Box
Drafting Committee 683
36.The Evolution of Nationalist Foreign Policy 686–694
From 1880 to First World War: 687
Anti-Imperialism and Pan-Asian Feeling
World War I 688
1920s and 1930s—Identifying with Socialists 688
After 1936—Anti-Fascism 688
After Independence 689
Panchsheel and Non-Alignment 690
Boxes
Historical Perspective on Panchsheel 691
Five Criteria of Non-Alignment 693
37.First General Elections 695–702
Groundwork for the Elections 695
The Election Commission 695
Legislation for Polls 696
Independent India Goes to the Polls 696
for the First Time
Challenges 697
Parties in the Fray for the Lok Sabha 699
Conduct of Elections 700

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Results 700
Box
First General Elections: Winners 701
38.Developments under Nehru’s 703–721
Leadership (1947–1964)
Political Developments 703
Debate over National Language 704
Linguistic Reorganisation of the States 705
Growth of Other Political Parties 707
An Undemocratic Deed 712
Concept of Planning for Economic Development 713
Progress of Science and Technology 715
Social Developments 716
Developments in Education 716
Social Change under Nehru 716
Foreign Policy 717
Relations with Neighbours 718
India and Pakistan 718
India and China 719
India and Nepal 720
India and Bhutan 721
India and Sri Lanka 721
39.After Nehru . . . 722–879
The Lal Bahadur Shastri Years 722
(June 1964 – January 1966)
Early Life 723
Political Journey after Independence 723
Economic Ideas 725
Foreign Relations 729
The Indo-Pak War 730
Shastri’s Death 733
Indira Gandhi: the First Phase 733
(January 1966 – March 1977)
Early Life 734
Political Journey after Independence 735

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Developments in the Political System 746

Socio-Economic Policies 755
Tackling Economic Problems 759
The Indo-Pak War of 1971 and the 762
Birth of Bangladesh
Foreign Policy and Relations with 769
Other Countries
The Smiling Buddha 772
The Janata Party Years 773
(March 1977 – January 1980)
Morarji Desai, the First Non-Congress 773
Prime Minister
Fresh State Assembly Elections 774
New President of India 774
Downslide of the Janata and Rise of 774
Congress (I)
Charan Singh, the Prime Minister Who 777
Never Faced Parliament
Fresh Lok Sabha Elections and End of 777
Janata Party Rule
Legacy of the Janata Rule 778
Social Changes and Movements 781
Indira Gandhi: the Second Phase 782
(January 1980 – October 1984)
Economy 783
Foreign Relations 784
Unrest in States 785
Punjab Turmoil and Operation Blue Star 786
Legacy 789
The Rajiv Years 789
(October 1984 – December 1989)
Problems at the Very Outset 789
The 1985 General Elections 792
Tackling the Tensions in States 793
Positive Steps on the Domestic Front 795
The Negative Side 798

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Agrarian Unrest 801

Foreign Relations 802
General Elections of 1989 805
The V.P. Singh Years 806
(December 1989 – November 1990)
Kashmir Situation Worsens 807
Implementation of the Mandal 807
Commission Report
Mandal to Mandir: the Rath Yatra and 809
Fall of the Government
The Chandra Shekhar Government 810
(November 1990–June 1991)
Troubled Economy 810
Elections of 1991 812
The Narasimha Rao Years 812
(June 1991 – May 1996)
Economic Reform 813
Panchayati Raj and Nagarpalika Acts 814
Handling Security Issues and Space Tech 815
Foreign Policy 815
Negative Aspects 816
Kashmir 819
General Elections of 1996 820
Rise of the Dalit Voice 820
Between 1996 and 1999: Three Prime Ministers 821
Vajpayee’s Short-Lived Term as Prime Minister 822
United Front Government: Deve Gowda 822
and I.K. Gujral
General Elections 824
NDA Years 824
(March 1998 – October 1999)
Pokhran II: Operation Shakti 825
The Lahore Summit 826
Kargil War (1999) 826
NDA: Second Stint 827
(October 1999 – May 2004)

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Economic and Social Steps 828

Terrorist Trouble and Relations with Pakistan 829
Relations with the US 829
Kashmir Elections 829
The Downside 830
Significance of NDA 830
2004 General Election 831
The UPA Years 831
(May 2004–May 2009; May 2009–May 2014)
UPA Government: First Term 832
2009 Election and UPA Back in Power 836
The 2014 General Election 847
The NDA Government 848
(May 2014 – May 2019)
Digital India: A Step Forward in e-Governance 849
Socio-Economic Policies and Programmes 850
of Importance
Security 859
Foreign Relations 863
Social Situation 866
General Election and Return of the NDA 869
Factors behind the NDA Victory 871
Some Notable Events of the First Half of 872
NDA Second Term
The Country Reels under a Pandemic 877
Boxes
The Tashkent Declaration 732
Indira Gandhi and JP—Both to be Blamed? 739
Text of the Simla Agreement 767
India’s Man in Space 784
Appendices 880–934
1. Personalities Associated with Specific Movements 880
Swadeshi Movement 880
Non-Cooperation Movement 885
Civil Disobedience Movement 889

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Quit India Movement 892

2. Governors-General and Viceroys of India: 894
Significant Events in Their Rule
3. Women Freedom Fighters 903
4. Indian National Congress Annual Sessions 911
5. Socio-Religious Reform Movements 916
(late 18th to mid-20th Century)
6. Famous Trials of the Nationalist Period 923
7. Caste Movements 925
8. Peasant Movements 927
9. Newspapers and Journals 930
References 935

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